Chapter 8:

Mechanical Properties

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 ISSUES TO ADDRESS...

• Stress and strain: What are they and why are

they used instead of load and deformation?

• Elastic behavior: When loads are small, how much

deformation occurs? What materials deform least?

• Plastic behavior: At what point does permanent

deformation occur? What materials are most
resistant to permanent deformation?

• Toughness and ductility: What are they and how

do we measure them?

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Introduction - Mechanical Properties of Metals
• Material when in service are subjected to forces or loads.
• Thus it is necessary to know the characteristics of the
material and to design the member so that deformation will
not be excessive and fracture will not occur .
• Mechanical properties of material reflects the relationship
between its responds or deformation to an applied force.
• Key mechanical design properties are:
• Stiffness,
• Strength
• Hardness
• Ductility
• Toughness

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 Types of loading

4
Elastic Deformation
1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload

bonds
stretch

return to
initial
d
F
F Linear-
elastic
Elastic means reversible! Non-Linear-
elastic
d
5
Plastic Deformation (Metals)
1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload
bonds
stretch planes
& planes still
shear sheared

dplastic
delastic + plastic

F
F
Plastic means permanent! linear linear
elastic elastic
d
dplastic
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 Engineering Stress
• (2)Shear stress, t:
• (1) Tensile stress, s:
Ft F
Ft
Area, Ao Fs
Area, Ao

Fs
Ft Fs Ft
t= F
Ft Ao
s= = N
Ao m2
original area
before loading

7 Stress has units: N/m2
Common States of Stress
• Simple tension: cable
F F
A o = cross sectional
area (when unloaded)
F
s= s s
Ao
Ski lift (photo courtesy
• Torsion (a form of shear): drive shaft P.M. Anderson)

M Fs Ao
Ac
Fs
t =
Ao
M
2R Note: t = M/AcR here.
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OTHER COMMON STRESS STATES (i)
• Simple compression:

Ao

Canyon Bridge, Los Alamos, NM

(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)

F
s=
Note: compressive
Balanced Rock, Arches structure member
National Park
(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)
Ao (s < 0 here).

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OTHER COMMON STRESS STATES (ii)
• Bi-axial tension: • Hydrostatic compression:

Pressurized tank Fish under water (photo courtesy

(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)
P.M. Anderson) sq > 0

sz > 0 sh< 0
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Engineering Strain
• Tensile strain: • Lateral strain:
d/2
-dL
e = d eL =
Lo Lo wo
wo

dL /2
• Shear strain: is the tangent of the strain angle q
q
x g = x/y = tan q

y 90º - q
Strain is always
90º dimensionless.
11 Adapted from Fig. 6.1(a) and (c), Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
Stress-Strain Testing • Typical tensile
specimen
• Typical tensile test
machine

After the test

extensometer specimen

gauge
length

Adapted from
Fig. 6.2,
Callister &
Rethwisch 8e.
Adapted from Fig. 6.3, Callister & Rethwisch 8e. (Fig. 6.3 is taken from H.W.
Hayden, W.G. Moffatt, and J. Wulff, The Structure and Properties of Materials,
12III, Mechanical Behavior, p. 2, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1965.)
Vol.
 Before test

13 Polymer sample
 Stress Strain Behaviour -Linear Elastic Properties

• Modulus of Elasticity, E:
(also known as Young's modulus)

• Hooke's Law:
s=Ee s F
E

e
Linear-
elastic F
simple
tension
test

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Poisson's ratio, n
eL
• Poisson's ratio, n:

eL
n=-
e
The ration of lateral and axial e
strain
metals: n ~ 0.25 -0.35 -n
ceramics: n ~ 0.25
polymers: n ~ 0.40

Units: n > 0.50 density increases

E: [GPa] or [psi]
n < 0.50 density decreases
n: dimensionless (voids form)
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Young’s Moduli: Comparison
Graphite
Metals Composites
Ceramics Polymers
Alloys /fibers
Semicond
1200
10 00 Diamond
Based on data in Table B.2,
800 Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
600
400 Tungsten
Si carbide
Carbon fibers only
Composite data based on
Al oxide
Molybdenum Si nitride reinforced epoxy with 60 vol%
E(GPa) 200
Steel, Ni
Tantalum <111>
C FRE(|| fibers)* of aligned
Platinum Si crystal
Cu alloys <100> Aramid fibers only carbon (CFRE),
10 0 Zinc, Ti aramid (AFRE), or
80 Silver, Gold
Glass -soda A FRE(|| fibers)*
60 Aluminum Glass fibers only glass (GFRE)
Magnesium,
40 Tin G FRE(|| fibers)* fibers.
Concrete

109 Pa 20 GFRE*
CFRE *
G raphite G FRE( fibers)*
10
8
High modulus of
C FRE( fibers) *
6
Polyester
AFRE( fibers) * elasticity – relatively
4 PET
PS stiff, do not deflect
PC Epoxy only
2 easily.
PP
1 HDP E
0.8
0.6 Wood( grain)
PTF E
0.4
16 0.2 LDPE
Plastic (Permanent) Deformation
(at lower temperatures, i.e. T < Tmelt/3)

• Simple tension test:

Elastic+Plastic
engineering stress, s at larger stress

Elastic
initially
permanent (plastic)
after load is removed

ep engineering strain, e

plastic strain Adapted from Fig. 6.10(a),

Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

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 Tensile properties - Yield Strength, sy
• Stress at which noticeable plastic deformation has
occurred.
when ep = 0.002
tensile stress, s
sy = yield strength
sy

engineering strain, e
ep = 0.002 Adapted from Fig. 6.10(a),
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
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Yield Strength : Comparison
Graphite/
Metals/ Composites/
Ceramics/ Polymers
Alloys fibers
Semicond
2000
Steel (4140) qt

1000
Yield strength, sy (MPa)

Ti (5Al-2.5Sn) a

in ceramic matrix and epoxy matrix composites, since

700 W (pure)

since in tension, fracture usually occurs before yield.

in tension, fracture usually occurs before yield.

600 Cu (71500) cw
500 Mo (pure)
400 Steel (4140) a
Steel (1020) cd Room temperature
300
values
Hard to measure ,

Hard to measure,
Al (6061) ag
200 Steel (1020) hr
¨
Ti (pure) a
Ta (pure)
Cu (71500) hr Based on data in Table B.4,
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
100
a = annealed
dry
70 PC
hr = hot rolled
60 Nylon 6,6 ag = aged
50 Al (6061) a PET
cd = cold drawn
40 PVC humid
cw = cold worked
PP
30 HDPE qt = quenched & tempered
20

19 LDPE
Tin (pure)
10
 Tensile Strength, TS
• Maximum stress on engineering stress-strain curve.
Adapted from Fig. 6.11,
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
TS
F = fracture or
sy
ultimate
engineering

strength
stress

Typical response of a metal

Neck – acts
as stress
concentrator
strain
engineering strain
• Metals: occurs when noticeable necking starts.
• Polymers: occurs when polymer backbone chains are
20 aligned and about to break.
•Ceramics: occurs when crack propagation start
21
 Tensile Strength: Comparison
Graphite/
Metals/ Composites/
Ceramics/ Polymers
Alloys fibers
Semicond
5000 C fibers
Aramid fib
3000 E-glass fib
Tensile strength, TS (MPa)

2000 Steel (4140) qt

A FRE(|| fiber)
1000 W (pure) Diamond GFRE(|| fiber)
Ti (5Al-2.5Sn)aa CFRE(|| fiber)
Steel (4140)cw
Cu (71500) Si nitride
Cu (71500) hr Al oxide
300
Steel (1020)
Al (6061) ag
Ti (pure) a
Room temperature
200 Ta (pure)
values
Al (6061) a
100 Si crystal wood(|| fiber) Based on data in Table B.4,
<100> Nylon 6,6
Glass-soda PC PET Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
40 PVC GFRE( fiber) a = annealed
Concrete PP
30 CFRE( fiber) hr = hot rolled
A FRE( fiber)
HDPE ag = aged
20 Graphite
LDPE cd = cold drawn
cw = cold worked
10 qt = quenched & tempered
AFRE, GFRE, & CFRE =
aramid, glass, & carbon
fiber-reinforced epoxy
wood ( fiber)
composites, with 60 vol%
22 fibers.
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 Example Problem (6.4 smith)


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 Example Problem (6.1callister)
 Elongation (elastic) Computation
 A piece of copper originally 305mm long is pulled in tension
with a stress of 276MPa. If the deformation is elastic, what
will be the resultant elongation. E for copper is 110Gpa

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 A steel specimen of 12.5 mm diameter and 62.5 mm gauge was tested in a
standard tension test. Following observations were made during the test:

Yield load = 40 kN Maximum load = 71.5 kN

Gauge length of fracture = 79.5 mm

Determine :

(i)Percentage elongation

(ii)Yield point stress

(iii)Ultimate tensile strength

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 Stress-Strain Diagram
ultimate
tensile
s
strength 3 necking
UTS

Strain
s
yield
strength y Hardening Fracture
5
2

Plastic
Region
σ = Eε
σ 1
E=
ε Elastic Strain ( e ) (L/Lo)
Region
 True Stress & Strain

Note: Surface area changes when sample stretched

s T = F / Ai s T = s 1  e 
 True stress
e T = ln li / l0  e T = ln(1  e )
 True strain

27 Adapted from Fig. 6.16,

Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
 Example Problem (6.8 Smith)
 Compare the engineering stress and strain with true
stress and strain for the tensile test of a low-carbon steel
that has the following test value:
 Load applied to specimen = 69,000N
 Initial specimen diameter = 1.27 cm
 Diameter of specimen under 69,000N load = 1.2 cm

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Ductility
Lf - Lo
• Plastic tensile strain at failure: %EL = x 100
Lo
smaller %EL Lf is the fracture length
Lo is commonly 50mm
Engineering
tensile
stress, s larger %EL Ao
Lo Af Lf
Adapted from Fig. 6.13,
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

Engineering tensile strain, e

• Another ductility measure: Ao - Af

%RA = x 100
Ao

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 Toughness
• Material's resistance to fracture when crack.
•Ability of a material to absorb energy and plastically deform before
fracturing.
•Energy to break a unit volume of material.
• Approximate by the area under the stress-strain curve.
•For a metal to be tough it must display both strength and ductility

Engineering small toughness (ceramics)

tensile large toughness (metals)
stress, s
very small toughness
(unreinforced polymers)
Adapted from Fig. 6.13,
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

Engineering tensile strain, e

Brittle fracture: elastic energy
30 Ductile fracture: elastic + plastic energy
 Resilience, Ur
 Is the capacity of a material to absorb energy when deformed
elastically and then upon unloading, to have this energy recovered.
 Modulus of resilience is the strain energy per unit volume required
to stress a metal from an unloaded state up to a point of yielding
ey

Ur =  sde
0
If we assume a linear
stress-strain curve this
simplifies to

1
U r  s ye y
Adapted from Fig. 6.15,
2
31 Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
 Hardening
• An increase in sy due to plastic deformation.
s
large hardening
sy
1
sy small hardening
0

e
• Curve fit to the stress-strain response:
hardening exponent:
sT = K eT  
n n = 0.15 (some steels)
to n = 0.5 (some coppers)
“true” stress (F/A) “true” strain: ln(L/Lo)
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 Hardness
• A measure of material's resistance to localized plastic deformation.
• Resistance to permanently indenting the surface.
• Large hardness means:
-- resistance to plastic deformation or cracking in
compression.
-- better wear properties.
apply known force measure size
e.g., of indent after
10 mm sphere removing load

Smaller indents
D d mean larger
hardness.

most brasses easy to machine cutting nitrided

plastics Al alloys steels file hard tools steels diamond

increasing hardness
Mohs scale
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 Hardness: Measurement
 Rockwell
 Indenters – spherical and hardened steel balls
 No major sample damage
 Each scale runs to 130 but only useful in range 20-100.
 Initial minor load 10 kg
 Followed by major load 60 (A), 100 (B) & 150 (C) kg
 A = diamond, B = 1/16 in. ball, C = diamond

 HB = Brinell Hardness
 Similar to Rockwell but load is maintained constant for a specified time (10-30 sec)

 Correlation between hardness and tensile strength

 TS (MPa) = 3.45 X HB

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 Hardness: Measurement

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37
 Variability in Material Properties
 The measure material properties are not exact quantities.
 Due to test method, fabrication procedure, operator bias,
inhomogeneities within the same lot of materials
 Design engineer needs to realize that that scatter and variability are
inevitable and must be dealt appropriately.
 Use statistics n

 Xn
 Mean X =
n
1

  
n

 Xi - X
2 2


S= 
 n -1 
 Standard Deviation  
 

38 where n is the number of data points

 Design or Safety Factors
• Design approaches must be employed to protect against
unanticipated failure. Often N is
• Factor of safety, N s between
s working = y
1.2 and 4
N
• Example: Calculate a diameter, d, to ensure that yield does
not occur in the 1045 carbon steel rod below. Use a
factor of safety of 5.
sy d
s working = 1045 plain
N carbon steel:
sy = 310 MPa Lo
220,000N TS = 565 MPa
(
p d2 / 4) F = 220,000N
d = 0.067 m = 6.7 cm
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Summary
• Stress and strain: These are size-independent
measures of load and displacement, respectively.
• Elastic behavior: This reversible behavior often
shows a linear relation between stress and strain.
To minimize deformation, select a material with a
large elastic modulus (E or G).
• Plastic behavior: This permanent deformation
behavior occurs when the tensile (or compressive)
uniaxial stress reaches sy.
• Toughness: The energy needed to break a unit
volume of material.
• Ductility: The plastic strain at failure.

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 ANNOUNCEMENTS
Reading:

Core Problems:
Next topic : Mechanical failures
Self-help Problems:

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