Chapter 1. Functions, Limits and Continuity: Vietnam National University - Hochiminh City International University

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY -
HOCHIMINH CITY
INTERNATIONAL UNIVERSITY
CHAPTER 1. FUNCTIONS, LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

CALCULUS I
Lecturer: Nguyen Minh Quan, PhD
Department of Mathematics
E-mail: quannm@hcmiu.edu.vn
Dr. Nguyen Minh Quan (HCMIU) CHAP. 1. FUNCTS., LIMITS AND CONT. Fall 2013 1 / 72
CONTENTS
1 Functions
An introduction to Calculus
Review of set theory
Functions and graphs
2 Limits
Limits. Definitions. One-sided Limits
Evaluating Limits. The Squeeze Theorem
3 Continuity
Continuity: Definitions and properties
The Intermediate Value Theorem
1.1. An introduction to Calculus
What is Calculus and why Calculus is useful?

Calculus give us a way to construct quantitative models in
practice, and to deduce the predictions of such models.
Calculus is the best way to describe most of the ’laws of nature’.
Calculus are used in many fields: Mathematics, Physics,
Engineering, Biology, Chemistry, Economics, Computing science,
and other sciences.
1.1. An introduction to Calculus
The two basic operations of calculus are differentiation and

integration. Both are based on the concept of limits.
In Calculus 1 we study
(a) basic concepts of functions and limits,
(b) techniques of differentiation and integration,
(c) applications to a wide range of practical situations.
1.2. Review of set theory
If X is a set, the relation x ∈ X means x is an element of X , or

belongs to X , the negation of that relation is written x ∈
/ X.

/ X.
For two sets X , Y , the relation X ⊂ Y means every element of

X is an element of Y and we say X is contained in Y , or that X
is a subset of Y . The negation of X ⊂ Y is written X 6⊂ Y .
A special empty set ∅ contains no element.

/ X.
For two sets X , Y , the relation X ⊂ Y means every element of

X is an element of Y and we say X is contained in Y , or that X
is a subset of Y . The negation of X ⊂ Y is written X 6⊂ Y .
A special empty set ∅ contains no element.
The intersection of two sets X and Y , X ∩ Y , is the set of

common elements that belongs to both sets. The union of two
sets X , Y , X ∪ Y , is the set of elements that belongs to at least
one of the sets.
To every A ⊂ X , we define the complement of A to be the set

Ac = {x ∈ X |x ∈
/ A}.
To every A ⊂ X , we define the complement of A to be the set

Ac = {x ∈ X |x ∈
/ A}.
Real numbers are used to measure continuous quantities. A real

number may be either rational or irrational. Denote R by the set
of all real numbers.
Open and closed intervals:
(a, b) =]a, b[= {x ∈ R|a < x < b}
[a, b] = {x ∈ R|a ≤ x ≤ b}
A set of real numbers is bounded if it is contained in a finite

interval.
Triangle inequality: For all real numbers a and b
|a + b| 6 |a| + |b| .
A set of real numbers is bounded if it is contained in a finite

interval.
Triangle inequality: For all real numbers a and b
|a + b| 6 |a| + |b| .
Open and closed intervals may be described by inequalities. For

example, |x| < r ⇔ −r < x < r ⇔ x ∈ (−r , r ) .
Example

Describe the set S = x : 12 x − 3 > 4 in terms of intervals

Solution
Consider the complement: S c = x : 12 x − 3 ≤ 4

1
x − 3 6 4 ⇔ −4 6 1 x − 3 6 4 ⇔ −2 6 x 6 14.

2 2
Thus
S c = [−2, 14] ⇒ S = (−∞, −2) ∪ (14, ∞)
1.2 Functions and graphs: Straight Lines.
Coordinates and Graphs: O is the origin, Ox is the x-axis, Oy is
the y-axis (x, y ) are the x- and y -coordinates.
Consider any two points (x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 ) on a straight line.
On the interval [x1 , x2 ]. We call ∆x = x2 − x1 and ∆y = y2 − y1
the change in x and y , respectively.
Consider any two points (x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 ) on a straight line.
On the interval [x1 , x2 ]. We call ∆x = x2 − x1 and ∆y = y2 − y1
the change in x and y , respectively.
The slope (or gradient) of the line is
∆y y2 − y1
m = tan α = =
∆x x2 − x1
m tell us the rate of change of y with respect to x.
Example
For the graph shown below, state the slope
(a) for 0 < x < 1
(b) for 5 < x < 9
Suppose a straight line crosses the y -axis at y = c. We call c
the y-intercept.
the y-intercept.
For any point (x, y ) on the line, the slope is defined by
y −c
m=
x −0
the y-intercept.
For any point (x, y ) on the line, the slope is defined by
y −c
m=
x −0
This leads to the most common way of writing the equation of a

straight line, which is called the slope-intercept form:
y = mx + c
The slope-intercept form is very convenient for graph-sketching.
Other forms
Point-Slope Form: y = y1 + m(x − x1 ).
Other forms
Point-Slope Form: y = y1 + m(x − x1 ).
Two Point Form: For a line passing through points (x1 , y1 ) and
(x2 , y2 ):
y − y1 y2 − y1
= (= m)
x − x1 x2 − x1
1.2 Functions and graphs: Linear model
Example
Find the equation of the straight line passing through points (1, 0)
and (0, 4).
1.2 Functions and graphs: Linear model
Example
Find the equation of the straight line passing through points (1, 0)
and (0, 4).
Example
At a certain place, the CO2 concentration in the atmosphere was
measured to be 339 ppm in the year 1980 and 373 ppm in 2002.
Assume a linear model. Find an equation for the CO2 concentration
C (in ppm) as a function of time t (in years). Use your equation to
predict the CO2 concentration in 2015.
Example
Table 1 lists the average carbon dioxide level in the atmosphere,
measured in parts per million at Mauna Loa Observatory from 1980
to 1998. Use the data in Table 1 to find a model for the carbon
dioxide level.
Solution
We use the data in Table 1 to make the scatter plot as in the figure
above where t represents time (in years) and C represents the CO2
level. We find the equation of the line that passes through the first
and last data points.
The slope is m = 366.7−338.5
1998−1980
= 1.56667.
Solution
We use the data in Table 1 to make the scatter plot as in the figure
above where t represents time (in years) and C represents the CO2
level. We find the equation of the line that passes through the first
and last data points.
The slope is m = 366.7−338.5
1998−1980
= 1.56667. Thus,
C − 338.5 = 1.56667 (t − 1980) or C = 1.56667t − 2763.51.
1.3. Functions and graphs
Definition
A function of a variable x is a rule f that assigns to each value of x
in a set D a unique number f (x) in a set E , called the value of the
function at x. [We read "f(x)" or "f of x".]
Definition
Definition
The set D is called the domain and the range is the set of all possible
values of of f (x) as x varies throughout the domain.
√
Example The domain of the function y = f (x) = x is the set
D = {x ∈ R : x > 0}, and the range of this function is [0, ∞)
(why?).
√
(why?).
Definition
f is surjective (or onto, or a surjection) if for every y ∈ E , there
is at least an element x ∈ D such that f (x) = y .
√
(why?).
Definition
f is injective (or one-to-one, or an injection) if for every y ∈ E ,
there is at most one x ∈ D such that f (x) = y .
√
(why?).
Definition
f is injective (or one-to-one, or an injection) if for every y ∈ E ,
there is at most one x ∈ D such that f (x) = y .
f is bijective or a bijection iff it is both surjective and injective.
Example The function f (x) = x 2 , x ∈ R is not one-to-one because

both f (−2) = 4 and f (2) = 4. However, we can turn f (x) = x 2 into
a one-to-one function if we restrict ourselves to 0 6 x < ∞.
Definition
Given two functions f and g , the composite function (also called the
composition of f and g ) is f ◦ g defined by (f ◦ g ) (x) = f (g (x)).
Definition
Given two functions f and g , the composite function (also called the
composition of f and g ) is f ◦ g defined by (f ◦ g ) (x) = f (g (x)).
Example
Given f (x) = 3x 2 , g (x) = x − 1 find each of the following:
(a) (f ◦ g ) (x).
(b) (g ◦ f ) (x).
Example
(a) (f ◦ g ) (x).
(b) (g ◦ f ) (x).
Solution
(a) (f ◦ g ) (x) = f (g (x)) = f (x − 1) = 3 (x − 1)2
Example
(a) (f ◦ g ) (x).
(b) (g ◦ f ) (x).
Solution
(a) (f ◦ g ) (x) = f (g (x)) = f (x − 1) = 3 (x − 1)2
(b) (g ◦ f ) (x) = g (f (x)) = g (3x 2 ) = 3x 2 − 1.
Example
(a) (f ◦ g ) (x).
(b) (g ◦ f ) (x).
Solution
(a) (f ◦ g ) (x) = f (g (x)) = f (x − 1) = 3 (x − 1)2
(b) (g ◦ f ) (x) = g (f (x)) = g (3x 2 ) = 3x 2 − 1.
In general, f ◦ g 6= g ◦ f . Note that the notation (f ◦ g ) (x) means

that the function g is applied first and then f is applied second.
Definition
Given two one-to-one functions f (x) and g (x) if
(f ◦ g )(x) = (g ◦ f )(x) = x
then we say that f (x) and g (x) are inverses of each other.
Definition
(f ◦ g )(x) = (g ◦ f )(x) = x
More specifically we will say that g (x) is the inverse of f (x) and
denote it by
g (x) = f −1 (x)
Definition
(f ◦ g )(x) = (g ◦ f )(x) = x
More specifically we will say that g (x) is the inverse of f (x) and
denote it by
g (x) = f −1 (x)
Given f (x), how to find f −1 (x)?
Example
Given f (x) = 3x − 2. Find f −1 (x).
Example
Given f (x) = 3x − 2. Find f −1 (x).
Solution
1 1
y = 3x − 2 ⇒ x = (y + 2) ⇒ f −1 (x) = (x + 2)
3 3
Example
Given f (x) = 3x − 2. Find f −1 (x).
Solution
1 1
y = 3x − 2 ⇒ x = (y + 2) ⇒ f −1 (x) = (x + 2)
3 3
Check:

−1
1 1
f f (x) = f (x + 2) = 3 (x + 2) − 2 = x
3 3
Example
√
Given f (x) = x − 3. Find f −1 (x).
The graph of a function

The graph of a function f (x) consists of the points in the Cartesian
plane whose coordinates are the input-output pairs for f . Namely, it
is the set {(x, f (x)) : x ∈ D}.
The graph of a function

The graph of a function f (x) consists of the points in the Cartesian
plane whose coordinates are the input-output pairs for f . Namely, it
is the set {(x, f (x)) : x ∈ D}.
The graph of a function f is a useful picture of its behavior. If (x, y )
is a point on the graph, then f (x) is the height of the graph above
the point x. The height may be positive or negative, depending on
the sign of f (x).
Example: the graph of a function

Graph the function y = x 2 on [−2, 2].

Solution
Make a table of xy-pairs that satisfy the equation y = x 2 . Plot the
points (x, y ) whose coordinates appear in the table, and draw a
smooth curve through the plotted points.

Solution
Make a table of xy-pairs that satisfy the equation y = x 2 . Plot the
points (x, y ) whose coordinates appear in the table, and draw a
smooth curve through the plotted points.
Some Common Functions
Polynomials: P(x) = an x n + an−1 x n−1 + . . . + a2 x 2 + a1 x + a0 .
Power function: y = x a .
Trigonometric functions:
sine (sin), cosine (cos), tangent (tan), .... And
1 1 1
cosec x = , sec x = , cot x = ...
sin x cos x tan x
Exponential function: y = ax (a is the base). The most common
exponential function (often called the exponential function) is
f (x) = e x . e is an irrational number called the exponential
constant, e = 2.7182818. We will study e in detail later on.
If x = ay then y = loga x. This is a logarithmic function. a is
again called the base.
Note: lnx = loge x.
New Functions from Old Functions
Suppose we know the graph of a certain function. By some simple

transformations, we can quickly obtain the graphs of some related
functions.
y = f (x) + c, shift the graph of y = f (x) up by c units.

y = f (x) − c, shift the graph of y = f (x) down c units.

y = f (x + c), shift the graph of y = f (x) left c units.

y = f (x − c), shift the graph of y = f (x) right c units

y = f (x − c), shift the graph of y = f (x) right c units
Example
Sketch the graphs
(a) y = x 2 ,
(b) y = x 2 − 3,
(c) y = (x − 1)2 − 3.
To obtain the graph of

y = cf (x), stretch y = f (x) vertically by a factor c,

y = f (cx), compress y = f (x) horizontally by a factor c.
y = −f (x) reflect the graph of y = f (x) about the x-axis.

y = f (cx), compress y = f (x) horizontally by a factor c.
y = −f (x) reflect the graph of y = f (x) about the x-axis.
y = f (−x) reflect the graph of y = f (x) about the y -axis.
Example
Sketch the graphs
(a) y = 2sinx,
(b) y = sin(πx),
(c) y = 2e −x .
Symmetry. Even Functions. Odd Functions
Definition
If f satisfies f (−x) = f (x) for every number x in its domain, then f
is called an even function.
For example, the function f (x) = x 2 is even.
The graph of an even function is symmetric with respect to the
y -axis.
Definition
If f satisfies f (−x) = f (x) for every number x in its domain, then f
is called an even function.
For example, the function f (x) = x 2 is even.
The graph of an even function is symmetric with respect to the
y -axis.
Definition
If f satisfies f (−x) = −f (x) for every number x in its domain, then
f is called an odd function.
For example, the function f (x) = x 3 is odd
The graph of an odd function is symmetric about the origin.
An even function (left) and an odd function (right):
The Vertical Line Test for a Function
Not every curve in the coordinate plane can be the graph of a
function! A curve in the xy −plane is the graph of a function iff no
vertical line intersects the curve more than once.
The Vertical Line Test for a Function
Not every curve in the coordinate plane can be the graph of a
function! A curve in the xy −plane is the graph of a function iff no
vertical line intersects the curve more than once.
Figure: (a) The circle is not the graph of √

a function. (b) The upper
semicircle is the graph of a function y = √1 − x 2 (c) The lower
semicircle is the graph of a function y = 1 − x 2
Parametric Curves
Imagine that a particle moves along the curve C . C might not be

described by an equation of the form y = f (x) (why not?).
But the x− and y − coordinates of the particle are both functions of

time: x = f (t) and y = g (t). t is called a parameter. C is called a
parametric curve. x = f (t) and y = g (t) are the parametric
equations of C . We can also write c(t) = (f (t), g (t)).
Parametric Curves
Example
Sketch the curve defined by x = t 2 − 2t , y = t + 1.
We construct a table of values and thus plot the curve:
Parametric Curves
Example
Sketch the curve defined by x = t 2 − 2t, y = t + 1, 0 ≤ t ≤ 4.
Note: The parametric equations not only describe the curve but also
tell us how it is traced.
2.1. Limits. Definitions. One-sided Limits
In this section, we define limits and study them using numerical and
graphical techniques. We begin with the following question: How do
the values of a function f (x) behave when x approaches a number c,
whether or not f (c) is defined?
Example: Numerical and Graphical Approach

Consider the function f (x) = sinx x .
Note that f (0) is not defined (undefined) but f (x) can be computed
for values of x close to 0.
We use the phrases “x approaches 0” or “x tends to 0” to indicate
that x takes on values (both positive and negative) that get closer
and closer to 0. Notation: x → 0.
Example (Cont.)
The following table gives the impression that f (x) gets closer and
closer to 1 as x approaches 0 through positive and negative values
(from both sides: the left or the right).
We say that f (x) approaches or converges to 1 as x → 0 and write:
sin x
lim f (x) = lim = 1.
x→0 x→0 x
Definition: Graphical Approach
Suppose is f (x) defined when x is near the number a. Then we write
lim f (x) = L
x→a
and say “the limit of f (x), as x approaches a, equals L”

if we can make the values of f arbitrarily close to L (as close to L as
we like) by taking x to be sufficiently close to a (on either side of a )
but not equal to a.
Example: Numerical and Graphical Approach

Investigate graphically and numerically
x −9
lim √
x→9 x −3
Solution
The graph of f (x) has a gap at x = 9 since f (9) is NOT defined.
Numerical evidence and the graph indicate that f (x) → 6 as x → 9.
Example: A limit that does not exist
Investigate graphically and numerically
1
lim sin
x→0 x
Solution
The function (x) is NOT defined at x = 0.
Numerical evidence and the graph suggests that the values of f (x)
bounce around and do not tend toward any limit L as x → 0.
Example
Use the definition above to verify the following limits:
a. lim 5 = 5. b. lim (3x + 1) = 13.
x→7 x→4
Solution
a. Let f (x) = 5. We need to show that f (x) arbitrarily close to 5
when x is sufficiently close to 7. Since f (x) = 5, for all x, so what
we are required to show is automatic.
b. Let f (x) = 3x + 1. We want to show that |f (x) − 13| becomes
arbitrarily small when x is sufficiently close (but not equal) to 4. We
have |f (x) − 13| = 3|x − 4|, i.e., |f (x) − 13| is a multiple of |x − 4|,
thus we can make |f (x) − 13| arbitrarily small by taking x sufficiently
close to 4.
Q: How can we make |f (x) − L| arbitrarily small by taking x
sufficiently close to a?
Definition: δ − approach
We say that f (x) converges to L as x → a
lim f (x) = L
x→a
if, for every > 0, there exists δ > 0 such that
|f (x) − L| <
for all x such that 0 < |a − x| < δ.
Example: δ − approach
x 2 −1
Show that lim = 2.
x→1 x−1
x 2 −1
Show that lim = 2.
x→1 x−1
Solution
Choose δ = , for 0 < |1 − x| < δ,
2
x − 1

x −1 − 2 = |1 − x| <

Hence
x2 − 1
lim =2
x→1 x − 1
x 2 −1
Show that lim = 2.
x→1 x−1
Solution
Choose δ = , for 0 < |1 − x| < δ,
2
x − 1

x −1 − 2 = |1 − x| <

Hence
x2 − 1
lim =2
x→1 x − 1
Show that lim (3x + 1) = 13. Hints: Choose δ = /3.
x→4
Properties
lim x = a, lim k = k
x→a x→a
lim (f (x) + g (x)) = lim f (x) + lim g (x)

x→a x→a x→a
lim (f (x) − g (x)) = lim f (x) − lim g (x)

x→a x→a x→a
lim (f (x)g (x)) = ( lim f (x))( lim g (x))

x→a x→a x→a
f (x) limx→a f (x)

lim = , if lim g (x) 6= 0
x→a g (x) limx→a g (x) x→a
Definition: Limit at infinity

We say f (x) converges to L as x → ∞ and write
lim f (x) = L
x→∞
if, for every > 0, there exists a number M such that |f (x) − L| <
for all x > M.
In other words, limx→∞ f (x) = L means the values of f (x) can be
made arbitrarily close to L by taking x sufficiently large ( x tends to
∞).
Example: Limit at infinity

3x−1
Show that lim = 3/2.
x→∞ 2x+5

3x−1
Show that lim = 3/2.
x→∞ 2x+5
Solution
Choose M = 5 , then for x > M

3x − 1
= 8.5 < 8.5 <

− 1.5
2x + 5 2x + 5 2 5 + 5
Hence
3x − 1
lim = 1.5
x→∞ 2x + 5
Definition: Limit at infinity

We say f (x) converges to L as x → −∞ and we write
lim f (x) = L
x→−∞
if, for every > 0, there exists a number M such that |f (x) − L| <
for all x < M.

Show that lim √ x = −1.
x→−∞ x 2 +1
Solution
Choose M = −1
, for x < M

√ x 1 1

+ 1= √ √ < <
x2 + 1 2 2
x + 1( x + 1 − x) |x|
Hence
x
lim √ = −1.
x→−∞ x2 + 1
Definition: Limit at one side

We say f (x) converges to L as x tends to a from the left and write
lim f (x) = L
x→a−
if, for every > 0, there exists a number M < a such that
|f (x) − L| <
for all x such that M < x < a.

This number M is often expressed as a − δ for some δ > 0.
Example: Limit at one side

√
Show that lim− 1 − x 2 = 0.
x→1
Solution
2
Choose δ = 2
, for 1 − δ < x < 1
√ p √
1 − x2 < 1 − (1 − δ)2 < 2δ =
Hence √
lim− 1 − x 2 = 0.
x→1
Definition: Limit at one side
We say f (x) converges to L as x tends to a from the right and write
lim f (x) = L
x→a+
if, for every > 0, there exists δ > 0 such that
|f (x) − L| <
for all x such that a < x < a + δ.
Exercise: Limit at one side

Show that √
lim + 1 − x2 = 0
x→−1
Exercise
For the function h whose graph is given, state the value of each
quantity, if it exists. If it does not exist, explain why?
(a) lim − h (x), (b) lim + h (x), (c) lim h (x), (d)
x→−3 x→−3 x→−3
lim− h (x), (e) lim+ h (x), (f) lim h (x).
x→0 x→0 x→0
Theorem
lim f (x) = L ⇔ lim+ f (x) = L = lim− f (x)
x→a x→a x→a
Exercise
Show that √
lim x2 = 0
x→0
2.2. Evaluating Limits. The Squeeze Theorem
Properties
lim x = a, lim k = k
x→a x→a
lim (f (x) + g (x)) = lim f (x) + lim g (x)

x→a x→a x→a
lim (f (x) − g (x)) = lim f (x) − lim g (x)

x→a x→a x→a
lim (f (x)g (x)) = ( lim f (x))( lim g (x))

x→a x→a x→a
f (x) limx→a f (x)

lim = , if lim g (x) 6= 0
x→a g (x) limx→a g (x) x→a
Note: a can be ∞.
Example
Show that lim (3t − 5) = 1.
t→2
Solution
lim (3t − 5) = lim {(3)(t) + (−5)}

t→2 t→2
= (lim 3)(lim t) + (lim (−5))
t→2 t→2 t→2
= 3 · 2 − 5 = 1.
Example: Multiplying by the Conjugate

√ √ √
x −6−2 ( x − 6 − 2)( x − 6 + 2)
lim = lim √
x→10 x − 10 x→10 (x − 10)( x − 6 + 2)
(x − 6) − 4
= lim √
x→10 (x − 10)( x − 6 + 2)
1
= lim √
x→10 x −6+2
1 1
= √ = .
10 − 6 + 2 4
Exercise
1. Evaluate
−2t − 4
lim
t→2 t +1
2. Assume
lim f (x) = 2, lim g (x) = 3
x→−4 x→−4
Evaluate
lim f (x)g (x), lim (2f (x) + 3g (x),
x→−4 x→−4
g (x) f (x) + 1
lim 2
, lim
x→−4 x x→−4 3g (x) − 2
Sandwich Theorem or Squeeze Theorem
If for 0 < |x − a| < (i.e. for x is near a):
f (x) 6 g (x) 6 h(x)
and
lim f (x) = L = lim h(x).
x→a x→a
Then
lim g (x) = L.
x→a
Example
Show that lim x 2 sin x1 = 0.
x→0
Example
Show that lim x 2 sin x1 = 0.
x→0
Solution
Applying the Sandwich Theorem, note that:
1
−x 2 6 x 2 sin 6 x2
x
and lim x 2 = lim −x 2 = 0. Therefore lim x 2 sin x1 = 0.
x→0 x→0 x→0
3.1. Continuity: Definitions and properties
Definition
Suppose f is defined in an open interval that contains a, then f is
continuous at a if and only if
lim f (x) = f (a).

x→a
In other words, f (a) must be defined and, for any > 0, there exists
δ > 0 such that
|f (x) − f (a)| < .
whenever |x − a| < δ and f (x) is defined.
Example
Show that f (x) = x and g (x) = k (constant) are continuous
everywhere.
Example
Show that f (x) = x and g (x) = k (constant) are continuous
everywhere.
Solution:
Choose δ =
|f (x) − f (a)| = |x − a| < .
whenever |x − a| < δ.
|g (x) − g (a)| = |k − k| = 0 < .
whenever |x − a| < δ.
Example
Another Proof:
At any point a
lim f (x) = lim x = a = f (a)
x→a x→a
Therefore f is continuous everywhere
lim g (x) = lim k = k = g (a)

x→a x→a
Therefore g is continuous everywhere
Example
Show that
1 x >0
f (x) =
0 x ≤0
is discontinuous at 0.
Solution 1:
Note that lim+ f (x) = 1 and lim− f (x) = 0, thus lim f (x) does
x→0 x→0 x→0
NOT exist! Therefore f (x) is discontinuous at 0.
Solution 2
Given = 1 and any δ > 0,
|f (x) − f (0)| = |1 − 0| <

6
for x = n1 and n is chosen such that nδ > 1 which implies

1 − 0 < δ.
n
Exercise
1. Show that
1

x
x 6= 0
f (x) =
0 x =0
is not continuous at 0.
2. Show that
x sin( x1 ) x 6= 0

f (x) =
0 x =0
is continuous at 0.
Hint: Choose δ =

1
|f (x) − f (0)| ≤ x sin ≤ |x| < .
x
whenever |x − 0| < δ.
Theorem
Suppose f , g are continuous at a. Then
f + g , f − g , fg
are continuous at a. So are the functions kf , if k is a constant, and

f /g if g (a) 6= 0.
In particular, every polynomial P(x) is defined and continuous at
P(x)
every point. If Q(x) is another polynomial and Q(a) 6= 0, then Q(x) is
also continuous at a.
Theorem
If f is a continuous bijection from an interval I onto an interval J,
then f −1 is continuous on J.
Example
n
The functions
√ x√ are continuous bijections from [0, ∞) onto itself.
Therefore x, n x √ are defined and continuous at every non-negative
points. If n is odd, n x is continuous at every point.
Theorem
The exponential functions ax and their inverses loga x are continuous
at every point of their domains.
Theorem
Let F (x) = f (g (x)) be a composite function. If g is continuous at a
and f is continuous at g (a), then F (x) is continuous at a.
Example
√ √
x 2 + 1 and 3 x 5 + 4x 2 − 7x + 3 are composite functions of
continuous functions and therefore defined and continuous
everywhere.
Theorem
The following types of functions are continuous at every number in
their domains: polynomials, rational functions, root functions,
trigonometric functions, inverse trigonometric functions, exponential
functions, logarithmic functions.
3.2. The Intermediate Value Theorem
The Intermediate Value Theorem

Suppose f is continuous on an interval that contains two points a, b
and f (a) 6= f (b). Then for every value N between f (a) and f (b),
there exists c between a and b such that f (c) = N.
Note: If f is continuous on [a, b] and f (a)f (b) < 0, equation

f (x) = 0 has a real root c ∈ (a, b).
Example: Using the IVT to show the existence of a root

Show that there is a root of the equation f (x) = 5x − 6x = 0
between 0 and 1.

Show that there is a root of the equation f (x) = 5x − 6x = 0
between 0 and 1.
Solution
f is continuous on [0, 1], f (0) = 1 > 0 and f (1) = −1 < 0. Hence,
by the IVT, there exists a real root c ∈ (0, 1) of the equation
5x − bx = 0.

Show that there is a root of the equation x 4 + x 2 − x − 3 = 0 on
(1, 2).
Exercise
1. Evaluate the limit
√ √
1+x − 1−x
lim
x→0 x
2. Show that the equation
1
x2 − x − 1 =
x +1
has a real root in (1, 2).
3. Prove that √the equation
√ 2x = bx has a real root if b > 2.
4. Show that c + c − 1 = 2 for some number c between 1 and 2.

Chapter 1. Functions, Limits and Continuity: Vietnam National University - Hochiminh City International University

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VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY -

CHAPTER 1. FUNCTIONS, LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

What is Calculus and why Calculus is useful?

The two basic operations of calculus are differentiation and

If X is a set, the relation x ∈ X means x is an element of X , or

If X is a set, the relation x ∈ X means x is an element of X , or

For two sets X , Y , the relation X ⊂ Y means every element of

A special empty set ∅ contains no element.

If X is a set, the relation x ∈ X means x is an element of X , or

For two sets X , Y , the relation X ⊂ Y means every element of

A special empty set ∅ contains no element.

The intersection of two sets X and Y , X ∩ Y , is the set of

To every A ⊂ X , we define the complement of A to be the set

To every A ⊂ X , we define the complement of A to be the set

Real numbers are used to measure continuous quantities. A real

Open and closed intervals:

(a, b) =]a, b[= {x ∈ R|a < x < b}

A set of real numbers is bounded if it is contained in a finite

A set of real numbers is bounded if it is contained in a finite

Open and closed intervals may be described by inequalities. For

This leads to the most common way of writing the equation of a

Example The function f (x) = x 2 , x ∈ R is not one-to-one because

In general, f ◦ g 6= g ◦ f . Note that the notation (f ◦ g ) (x) means

The graph of a function

The graph of a function

Example: the graph of a function

Example: the graph of a function

Example: the graph of a function

Suppose we know the graph of a certain function. By some simple

y = f (x) + c, shift the graph of y = f (x) up by c units.

y = f (x) + c, shift the graph of y = f (x) up by c units.

y = f (x) + c, shift the graph of y = f (x) up by c units.

y = f (x) + c, shift the graph of y = f (x) up by c units.

y = f (x) + c, shift the graph of y = f (x) up by c units.

To obtain the graph of

To obtain the graph of

To obtain the graph of

An even function (left) and an odd function (right):

Figure: (a) The circle is not the graph of √

Imagine that a particle moves along the curve C . C might not be

But the x− and y − coordinates of the particle are both functions of

Example: Numerical and Graphical Approach

We say that f (x) approaches or converges to 1 as x → 0 and write:

and say “the limit of f (x), as x approaches a, equals L”

Example: Numerical and Graphical Approach

Numerical evidence and the graph indicate that f (x) → 6 as x → 9.

if, for every  > 0, there exists δ > 0 such that

for all x such that 0 < |a − x| < δ.

lim (f (x) + g (x)) = lim f (x) + lim g (x)

lim (f (x) − g (x)) = lim f (x) − lim g (x)

lim (f (x)g (x)) = ( lim f (x))( lim g (x))

f (x) limx→a f (x)

Definition: Limit at infinity

Example: Limit at infinity

Example: Limit at infinity

Definition: Limit at infinity

Example: Limit at infinity

Definition: Limit at one side

for all x such that M < x < a.

Example: Limit at one side

if, for every  > 0, there exists δ > 0 such that

for all x such that a < x < a + δ.

Exercise: Limit at one side

if, for every > 0, there exists δ > 0 such that

if, for every > 0, there exists δ > 0 such that

|g (x) − g (a)| = |k − k| = 0 < .