FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OF PETROLEUM RESOURCES

An assignment on

Unit Operations in Petroleum Refining (CHE 417)

by

ABDULSALAM KHALIFA OMEIZA

COT/1219/2015

Department of Chemical Engineering

Submitted to: Prof. Abiola John Kehinde

 NIGERIA’S CRUDE OIL PRODUCTION (2010-2017)

1 Table 1.0: showing the amount of crude oils produced in thousands of barrels per day

Year Refinery
Processing
Production of
Crude Oil
Production of Production of Productions
Crude Oil Natural Gas Other Liquids
of

Gain including NGPL and Plant Liquids

Lease other liquids
Condensate
2010 4.2 2,408 2,458 50 0
2011 4.3 2,474 2,524 50 0
2012 4.5 2,457 2,507 50 0
2013 4.5 2,307 2,357 50 0
2014 4.5 2,347 2,402 50 5
2015 4.5 2,171 2.231 45 15
2016 4.5 1,871 1,934 48 15
2017 4.5 1,946 2,011 50 15

As recently as 2010, Nigeria provided about 10% of overall U.S. oil imports and
ranked as the fifth –largest source for oil imports in the U.S. However, Nigeria
ceased exports to the US in July 2014 because of the impact of shale production in
America; India is now the largest consumer of Nigeria oil.

Nigeria is the largest oil and gas producer in Africa. Crude oil from the delta basin
comes in two types:

 Light
 Comparatively heavy (lighter); with around 36-degree API while the Light at
about (20-25) degree API. Both types are paraffinic and in low sulfur content.

Nigeria has a total of 159 oilfields and 1481 wells in operation according to the
Department of Petroleum Resources. The most productive region of the nation is the coastal
Niger-delta basin in Niger delta or “south-south” region which encompasses 78 of the 159
oilfields. Most of Nigeria’s oilfields are small and scattered, and as of 1990 these small
unproductive fields accounted for 62.1% of all Nigerian production. This contrast with the
sixteen largest fields which produced 37.9% of Nigeria’s petroleum at that time.
2 Nigeria’s Petroleum Products Consumption by products (2010-2017) reflecting
various products from LPG, PMS, HHK, ATK, AGO to FUEL OIL.

It’s rather an obvious fact that in Nigeria the volume of crude oil refining channels
it’s prime effect on the overwhelming demand for Premium Motor Spirit. And as such it is
unarguably true that the overall consumption of PMS outweighs that of other petroleum
products. A necessary introduction to the proffer an understanding of the various terminologies
regarding Nigeria’s petroleum products is provided below. It is also necessary to note that the
configuration of Nigeria’s refineries is based on the statistical market demands which indelibly
reflect the key product consumption.

Liquefied Petroleum Gases(LPG)

Liquefied Petroleum Gases includes ethane, ethylene, propane, propylene, normal

butane, butylene, isobutene and isobutylene. The Liquefied Petroleum Gases consumption also
includes, where data are available, liquefied petroleum gases sold directly from natural gas
processing plants for fuel or chemical uses and pentanes plus.

ANNUAL LPG PRODUCTION

EXPORTS NATIONAL CONSUMPTION

Nigeria is a net exporter of Liquefied Petroleum Gas; producing an average of 3 Million metric
tons annually and an annual consumption of 400,000metric tons – a mere 15% of production.
Conservatively, about 85% -95% of the LPG consumed in Nigeria is primarily for domestic
cooking.
 Petroleum Motor Spirit (PMS)
Petroleum Motor Spirit is also known as petrol or gasoline, is used to power
internal combustion engines mostly in vehicles and generators. It’s obtained from crude
distillation.
Household Kerosene (HHK) or Dual Purpose Kerosene (DPK)

Household Kerosene or Dual Purpose Kerosene (DPK) but generally known as

Kerosene in Nigeria is one of the fractional distillates of crude derived through refining
process. It is used for cooking and other industrial use.

Aviation Turbine Kerosene ATK

Aviation Turbine Kerosene Fuel is a specialized type of petroleum-based fuel

used to power aircraft. It is generally of a higher quality than fuels used in less critical
applications, such as heating or road transport, and often contains additives to reduce the risk
of icing or explosion due to high temperature, among other properties,

Automotive Gas Oil (AGO)

Automotive Gas Oil is the name given to the fuel intended for use in road vehicle
(truck, buses, vans and cars) powered by diesel engines. AGO are used for two main types of
vehicle:
Heavy-duty vehicles and Light-duty vehicles.
FUEL OIL
Fuel Oil is a fraction obtained from petroleum distillation, either as a distillate
or residue at the oil refinery. Fuel Oil is any liquid petroleum product that is burned in a furnace
or boiler for the generation of heat or used in an engine for the generation of power, except
oils having a flash point of approximately 40degree Celsius and oil is burned in cotton or wool
wick burners. The term fuel oil is also used in a stricter sense to refer only to the heaviest
commercial fuel that can be obtained from crude oil, heavier than gasoline and naphtha.

Table2.0 showing the consumption of petroleum products by products from 2010-2017 in

thousand barrels per day
Petroleum products. Nigeria’s petroleum product consumption between 2010-2017
(103 bpd)
2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016

Liquefied petroleum 2.8 4.3 3.4 6.4 2.4 1 2

gas
Premium Motor 180 172 179 167 148 172 299
Spirit
Household Kerosene 27 16 14 15 14 13 16
Aviation Turbine 3.5 4.0 3.7 7.4 6.6 7.4 9
Kerosene
Fuel oil 27 16 14 15 14 13 72
(distillate)
Fuel oil 17 18 19 20 18 11 16
(residual)

3 Nigeria’s Petroleum Product Importation by products (2010-2017)

 Table 3.0: showing the importation of petroleum product by products from 2010-2017

YEAR/ 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017

PRODUCTS
PMS 11902519.69 15278901.22 11349633.47 12390826.3 13505465.77 19139369628.87 13557231.75 17,313,512,018

HHK 1512236.07 1471863.1 1753309.69 2136631.32 2316190.02 1752879991.97 483345.4 340333700

AGO/DIESEL 2605288.11 2055338.23 1803929.68 2143910.21 3253232.85 3875483242.00 3828297.23 4,277,630,139

ATK 454277.29 479340.66 525076.91 412982.11 344110.39 440689.2 450752.11 592,732,671

4  PORT HARCOURT REFINING COMPANY LIMITED (PHRC)

Port Harcourt Refining Company Limited is located at Alesa Eleme, Port

Harcourt. P.O. Box 585.The Port Harcourt Refining Company Limited is in business to
optimally process hydrocarbon into petroleum products for the benefit of all stakeholders. The
company’s vision is to be an innovative international hydrocarbon processing company of
choice.

PHRC Limited is made up of two refineries. The old refinery commissioned in 1965
with current nameplate capacity of 60,000 barrels per stream day (bpsd) and the new refinery
commissioned in 1989 with an installed capacity of 150,000 bpsd This brings the combined
crude processing capacity of the Port Harcourt Refinery to 210,000 bpsd. It has five (5) process
areas - Areas 1-5. The new refinery is made up of Areas 1-4 while the old refinery is Area 5.

Area 1 is made up of the Crude Distillation Unit (CDU), where kerosene and
Automotive Gas oil (AGO) are produced as finished products. Other intermediate products
from CDU are Straight –Run Naphtha (SRN). Straight Run Gasoline (SRG) used for PMS
blend, Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) and Atmospheric residue (AR). Vacuum Distillation
Unit (VDU) where AR (CDU bottoms) are further processed under vacuum, or significantly
less than atmospheric pressure to produce high –value products without cracking like vacuum
gas oil (VGO) FCCU feedstock and light as gas oil.

Area 2 is made up of Naphtha Hydrotreatung unit (NHU), where naphtha is hydro-

desulphurised; the Catalytic Reforming Unit (CRU), responsible for upgrading naphtha to
reformate which has a higher octane value for PMS blend; the kero hydro treating Unit (KHU)
where kero is treated to make it acceptable for aviation use: Area 2 also has the Continuous
Catalyst Regeneration Unit (CCR), which constantly reactivates the deactivated catalyst from
the reformer. Other units in Area 2 include, the Hydrogen Purification, Fuel Gas Vaporizer,
Sour Water Treatment and Caustic Treatment units.

Area 3 is made up of a Fluid Catalytic Cracking Unit (FCCU), where Vacuum Gas Oil
(VGO) and heavy diesel oil (HDO) are cracked to obtain more valuable products, like FCC
gasoline used as PMS blend and Light Cycle as blend component for LPFO and LPG. Other
units in Area 3 include the Gas Concentration, Gas Treating and Mercaptan Oxidation units.

Area 4 has three process units namely Dimer sol, Butane Isomerization and Alkylation
units. The units are designed to produce high octane gasoline blend component.

Area 5, which is the old refinery, is made up of the Crude Distillation Unit (CDU); the
Platform Unit (CRU), the LPG Unit, as well as utilities section.

The refinery is self-sufficient in power and utilities generated from the Power Plant &
Utilities. There are four (4) turbo-generators each with a capacity of 14MW of electricity per
hour and four (4) Boilers, capable of generating 120 tons of steam per hour each. The section
also generates cooling/service water, plant/instrument air and nitrogen.
 The refinery has a pool of maintenance personnel that take care of routine,
programmed and emergency repairs of equipment. There is also the Supply Chain
Management Department that oversees the procurement and storage of needed spare parts and
chemicals.

PRODUCTS:

PHRC produces the following products: -

 Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG)

 Premium Motor Spirit (PMS)
 Kerosene (aviation and domestic)
 Automotive Gas Oil (AGO - diesel)
 Low Pour Fuel Oil (LPFO) and High Pour Fuel Oil (HPFO).

PHRC produces UNLEADED gasoline that meets international standard.

The PHRC also has in-house firefighting capabilities.

Fuels Products

The Fuels Plant of KRPC is designed to process Nigerian crude oils in the No.1 Crude
Atmospheric and Vacuum Distillation Units (CDU 1) while the rest of the Fuels section is
designed to process a mixture of light and medium fractions from the domestic crude as well
as from the imported crude oil used in the Lubes Plant. Products from the Fuels Plant are:
Liquefied Petroleum Gases (LPG), Premium Motors Spirit (PMS), Dual Purpose Kerosene
(DPK) for household and aviation usage, Gas Oils, Fuel Oils and Sulphur Flakes.

Daily Production Rate

 Product Production Rate

 PMS  3,857 MT/Day

 Kerosene  1,686 MT/Day

 AGO (Diesel)  3,000 MT/Day

 Asphalt  1,796 MT/Day

 LAB  91 MT/Day

 Base Oils  657 MT/Day

 LPG  620 MT/Day

WARRI REFINERY AND PETROCHEMICALS CORPORATION (WRPC)

Warri Refinery and Petrochemical Company was incorporated as a limited liability

company on the 3rd of November 1988 after the merger of the then Warri Refinery and the
Ekpan Petrochemical Plant. The Warri Refinery, the first Nigerian government wholly owned
refinery was commissioned in 1978. It was built to process 100,000 barrels of crude oil per
day but was later de-bottlenecked to process 125,000 barrels per day in 1987. It was essentially
built to add value to some of the refinery by-products such as propylene rich stock and decant
oil.

The operability of these plants is contingent on the availability and reliability of the following
facilities:
• Electric Power and Utilities: These are produced within WRPC and are critical to the steady
processing of crude oil into petroleum and petrochemical products. They include among others
steam, electricity, various types of water quality such as (firewater, process water, portable
water, boiler feed water and cooling water), instrument and plant air and nitrogen.The
company has a design potential to generate 125MW of electrical power from 3 Gas Turbine
Generators and 3 Steam Turbo-generators (STGs).

Some of the utility generating facilities within WRPC include:

 Water treatment plants

 Two Nitrogen Plants,

 Compressed air systems and

 Refinery and Petrochemical Effluent Water Treatment plant.

Products Produced in WRPC

Liquefied Petroleum Gas: LPG for aerosols purposes.

 Petroleum Motor Spirit

 Kerosene
 Automatic Gas Oil
 Fuel Oil
 Polypropylene pellets: The polypropylene plant with a production capacity of 35000
metric tons/year produces polymer for in the following industries: - film, fiber,
household articles molding, industrial article molding, mechanical/electrical
appliances, automotive wares.
 Hard Carbon Black pellets: The Carbon Black Plant which produces 18000 metric
ton/year has the potential to produce 15 different grades of carbon black product.

KADUNA REFINING AND PETROCHEMICAL CORPORATION

Kaduna Refining and Petrochemical Corporation is located at KM 16 Kachia Road

Kaduna, 2252, Nigeria. It is a business of refining crude oil into high quality petroleum
products and the manufacturing of petrochemical and packaging products to the satisfaction
of her customers. The Refinery was designed to process both imported paraffinic and Nigeria
crude oils into fuels and lubes products and was constructed by Chyiyoda Chemical
Engineering and Construction Company of Japan. The design capacity of fuels plants of the
Refinery was successfully increased from 50,000 BPSD to 60,000 BPSD, bringing the total
refinery installed capacity to 110,000 BPSD.

PROCESS PLANTS & OIL MOVEMENT UNITS

KRPC's operation is highly dependent on adequate supply of water and power for these
utilities. Water is obtained from Kaduna River at the Raw Water Intake facilities located at
about 13 kilometers from KRPC installations. The water is chemically treated to meet quality
specifications for the various process units and steam generation.

FUELS PROCESS PLANT:

The Fuels Plant of KRPC is designed to process Nigerian crude oils in the No.1 Crude
Atmospheric and Vacuum Distillation Units (CDU 1) while the rest of the Fuels section is
designed to process a mixture of light and medium fractions from the domestic crude as well
as from the imported crude oil used in the Lubes Plant. Products from the Fuels Plant are:
Liquefied Petroleum Gases (LPG), Premium Motors Spirit (PMS), Dual Purpose Kerosene
(DPK) for household and aviation usage, Gas Oils, Fuel Oils and Sulphur Flakes.

LUBES PROCESS PLANT:

The Lubes Plant, consist of eight (8) units as shown in the diagram below has the capacity to
process 50,000 BPSD of imported crude oil into Lube base oils, Asphalt and waxes. Sulphur
is also produced from the off gases derived from the imported crude. The Lubes Plant is
designed to process heavy crude oil from Kuwait, Venezuela (Lagomar), Saudi Arabia
(Arabian Light Crude) or Russian (Urals).

The Arabian Light crude oil is currently being processed, the change over from the Lagomar
crude, processed since plant inception, to Arabian Light crude was in October, 1988 to solve
the bottom of the barrel problem.

THE LINEAR ALKYL BENZENE (LAB) PROCESS PLANT:

The Linear Alkyl Benzene process used in KRPC Petrochemical Plant is licensed from
Universal Oil Products (UOP) of Des Plaines, Illinois, USA.
The plant has a capacity to produce 30,000 metric tons of Linear Alkyl Benzene a year,
enabling Nigeria to substantially reduce import of this product for the local manufacture of
detergents.

The plant comprises of five process units namely: Kerosene Hydrosulphurisation, Molex,
Thermal Hydrodealkylation (THDA), Paraffin Conversion to Olefins (PACOL) and Detergent
Alkylate units.

Commissioned in March 1989, the plant was designed to produce 30,000 metric tons/year of
Linear Alkyl Benzene from Kerosene and Reformate feedstock from the Fuels plant

FINISHED PRODUCTS FROM THE REFINING & PETROCHEMICAL PLANTS

 Premium Motor Spirit (PMS)

 Kerosene (Aviation and Domestic)

 Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG)

 Automotive Gas Oil (AGO-Diesel)

 Low Pour Fuel Oil (LPFO)

 High Pour Fuel Oil (HPFO)

 Lube Base Oils

 Hydro-Finished Wax

 Asphalt

 Linear Alkyl Benzene

 Benzene

 Heavy Alkylate

 Kero Solvent

 Normal Paraffin

 Toluene

 Aromatic Solvent
  Heavy Paraffin

 Sulphur Flakes

No. Product Production Rate

1 PMS 3,857 Mt/Day

2 Kerosene 1,686 Mt/Day

3 AGO [Diesel] 3,000 Mt/Day

4 Asphalt 1,796 Mt/Day

5 Lab 91 Mt/Day

6 Base Oils 657 Mt/Day

7 LPG 620 Mt/Day

8 Fuel 2,100 Mt/Day

 DANGOTE REFINERY
The Dangote Refinery is an oil refinery owned by the Dangote Group that is under
construction in Lekki, Nigeria. When complete, it will have a capacity to process about
650,000 barrels per day of crude oil.
The refinery is situated on a 6,180 acres’ site and will process about 650,000 barrels
of crude oil daily, transported via pipelines from oil fields in the Niger Delta, where natural
gas will also be sourced to supply the fertilizer factory and be used in electrical generation for
the refinery complex. The project is expected to cost up to $15 billion in total, with $10 billion
invested in the refinery, $2.5 billion in the fertilizer factory, and $2.5 billion in pipeline
infrastructure.
With a single crude oil distillation unit, the refinery will be the largest single train
refinery in the world. At full production, the facility will be able to produce 50,000,000 liters
of gasoline and 17,000,000 liters of diesel daily, as well as aviation fuel and plastic products.
With a greater capacity than the total output of Nigeria’s existing refining infrastructure, the
Dangote Refinery will be able to meet the country’s entire domestic fuel demand, as well as
export refined products.

REFERENCES
1. Anon., Niger Delta Oil Reserves. Retrieved from http://www.nigeria.opendataforafrica.org
2. McLennan et al (2005). Deep Water Africa reaches turning point. Oil & Gas Journal. Vol.
103 pg. 18
3. The Price of Oil: Corporate Responsibility and Human Right Violations in Nigeria’s Oil
Producing Communities (Human Rights Watch 1999)

EOR is the acronym of enhanced oil recovery and refers to all the ultimate technologies to compensate the natural
depletion of the oil and gas fields

Enhanced oil recovery (abbreviated EOR), also called tertiary recovery. It is a more technologically advanced method
of bringing production to surface than traditional methods of drilling.

Production of oil and natural gas requires energy to lift the fluids from the reservoir deep underground to the surface.
The reservoir's natural pressure provides much of this energy but is usually supplemented by artificial lift equipment.
The reservoir can also be re-pressurized by injecting water or gas to mobilize and displace additional oil. Even after
applying these techniques, a large quantity of oil and gas may remain in the reservoir. It is the extraction of crude oil
from an oil field that cannot be extracted otherwise. EOR can extract 30% to 60% or more of a reservoir's oil, compared
to 20% to 40% using primary and secondary recovery. According to the US Department of Energy, there are three
primary techniques for EOR: thermal, gas injection, and chemical injection. More advanced, speculative EOR
techniques are sometimes called quaternary recovery. In developing a new oil and gas field, the natural pressure of
the reservoir is at its maximum.

For the oil fields, this natural pressure combined with the viscosity of the oil and the percentage of associated gas will
determine the producing conditions.
For the non-associated gas reservoirs, it will be the combination of the natural pressure of the gas and the percentage
of condensate.

If those natural pressures are too high, above 500 bar, the drilling operations and production will remain always
challenging to keep the control of the wells.

If too low, below 20 bar, the oil and gas production will request soon some assistance..

In this context, the oil and gas recovery is defined in three stages.

The first stage is called Primary Oil Recovery and correspond to the first period of production when the oil and gas can
flow through the reservoir up to the wellheads naturally without any assistance.

In general, the quantity of oil and gas collected during the Primary Oil Recovery period represents 5 to 15% of the
Original Oil In Place (OOIP).

The second stage is the Assisted Oil Recovery and starts when the natural pressure in the reservoirs declined that
much that some additional help must be provided with extra pumps and compressors to stimulate the production up
to collecting 10 to 30% of the OOIP.

The third stage is when the operating companies want to go beyond this level of recovery, up to 60% of the OOIP.

This third stage defines what is called the Enhanced Oil Recovery or EOR.

Since the production costs escalate exponentially for each additional percentage of recovery, the oil and gas field must
contain a significant remaining quantity of barrels of oil equivalent (boe) to justify the corresponding capital
expenditure.

At a certain point of recovery somewhere between 30% and 60% it is better to stop investing and leave the oil and gas
recoverable reserves in the ground in the meantime that technology improvements or oil and gas market prices open
new opportunities to produce again.

The challenge to EOR lies in the complex interaction of injected agents with the existing reservoir fluids in an ever-
changing downhole environment. Many of these challenges are well known from the development of the field. The
difficulty is ensuring the proper chemical interaction and subsequent flow conformance of the EOR sweep front to
recover more oil, more quickly. Making the right parametric decisions regarding a chosen EOR technique, while
evaluating dynamic economic conditions, compounds these complex challenges.

There are two phases involved with the extraction of oil from reservoirs that are employed as the extraction develops.
Primary recovery leads to a natural depletion of the reservoir. In order to aid oil, recovery water is pumped to sweep
oil and also to maintain reservoir pressure, this is the ‘second recovery’ phase of the operation. If water injection fails
to recover all the oil reserves ‘tertiary recovery’ techniques are employed to harvest the remaining deposits.

Gas injection.
Gas injection, which uses gases such as natural gas, nitrogen, or carbon dioxide (CO2), accounts for nearly 60 percent
of EOR production in the United States.Gas injection or miscible flooding is presently the most-commonly used
approach in enhanced oil recovery. Miscible flooding is a general term for injection processes that introduce miscible
gases into the reservoir. A miscible displacement process maintains reservoir pressure and improves oil displacement
because the interfacial tension between oil and water is reduced. This refers to removing the interface between the
two interacting fluids. This allows for total displacement efficiency.[10] Gases used include CO2, natural gas or
nitrogen. The fluid most commonly used for miscible displacement is carbon dioxide because it reduces the oil viscosity
and is less expensive than liquefied petroleum products.

In carbon dioxide flooding, injected CO2 releases trapped oil from porous rocks in the reservoir and causes it to flow
more easily to the wellhead.

During this process, a mixture of oil, natural gas and a portion of the injected CO2 flows into nearby wells and is
produced at the surface. The CO2 is recovered from this production stream and re-injected in a closed loop process
that results in additional oil recovery. Over time, virtually all of the CO2 introduced into a field becomes trapped
underground, occupying the pore space left after the oil and associated gas are produced.

Applicable to a variety of suitable oil and gas reservoirs, CO2 EOR can increase ultimate oil and associated gas recovery
by 10 to 25 percent in the fields where it is employed.

Environmental Benefits of CO2 Injection.

CO2 EOR benefits the environment in three ways:

First, recovering additional oil from existing fields requires fewer resources than installing new infrastructure and
equipment in new locations. Thus, EOR maximizes the efficient use of existing infrastructure and reduces land and
habitat disturbance.

Second, expansion of EOR operations as additional manmade sources of CO2 become available has the potential to
substantially reduce greenhouse gas emissions — by capturing the CO2 instead of releasing it into the atmosphere.
Currently, the majority of CO2 that Occidental uses is produced from natural underground CO2 reservoirs. Occidental
is actively developing projects that will capture CO2 emissions for use in our EOR operations, and we are seeking other
economic manmade sources of CO2.

Third, because carbon dioxide becomes trapped in deep, underground formations, CO2 EOR can provide information
and experience that will help foster full-scale commercial deployment of other carbon capture and storage
technologies.

Thermal injection

Thermal injection, which involves the introduction of heat, accounts for 40 percent of EOR production in the United
States, with most of it occurring in California.In this approach, various methods are used to heat the crude oil in the
formation to reduce its viscosity and/or vaporize part of the oil and thus decrease the mobility ratio. The increased
heat reduces the surface tension and increases the permeability of the oil. The heated oil may also vaporize and then
condense forming improved oil. Methods include cyclic steam injection, steam flooding and combustion.

Steam flooding

Steam flooding is one means of introducing heat to the reservoir by pumping steam into the well with a pattern similar
to that of water injection. Eventually the steam condenses to hot water; in the steam zone the oil evaporates, and in
the hot water zone the oil expands. As a result, the oil expands, the viscosity drops, and the permeability increases. To
ensure success the process has to be cyclical. This is the principal enhanced oil recovery program in use today.

EOR – Low Salinity

As technology evolves constantly, the monitoring of reservoirs in terms of optimum method to employ EOR in our
offshore assets.

Low salinity water (EOR LSW) highlights the effect that salt water has on oil recovery. Replacing sea water injection
with low saline water increases the recovery of oil. This is a relatively new concept but one that is nearing maturity in
terms of R&D and testing.

Solar EOR is a form of steam flooding that uses solar arrays to concentrate the sun’s energy to heat water and generate
steam. Solar EOR is proving to be a viable alternative to gas-fired steam production for the oil industry.

The global average recovery factor for a typical oilfield is approximately 40%. This results in a large amount of identified
oil left behind despite an existing production infrastructure. The need to improve the recovery factor and the
accelerating of the associated production is the main driver behind the many EOR schemes in practice around the
world.