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Fundamental of International

System of Units

1
Fundamental of International System
of Units
• The international system of units, called SI units, was
established by international agreement in 1950 and consists
of seven base units as shown in Table 1.1

SI unit 2
Derived units
From the base units shown in Table 1.1, all other units used in physical
science are derived. Table 1.2 lists the quantities used in the module.

SI unit 3
Prefixes for SI units
• The unit of length, metre, is too large when it
is required to measure something say the
diameter of a sewing needle (typically 0.001
m) and too small when measuring another
one say the diameter of Earth (approximately
12,800,000 m).
• For this reason, prefixes are used so that a
quantity can be expressed in realistic terms.

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Prefixes for SI units
• Using prefixes, the diameter of the sewing
needle is 1 mm and the diameter of Earth
(approximately 12,800,000 m) approximately
12,800 km.

• Table 1.3 show the preferred prefixes in bold


type.

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Table 1.3 Prefixes for use with SI units
Prefix Symbol Multiply by

Peta P 1015 = 1000 000 000 000 000


Tera T 1012 = 1 000 000 000 000
Giga G 109 = 1 000 000 000
Mega M 106 = 1 000 000
Kilo k 103 = 1 000
Hector h 102 = 100
Deca da 101 = 10
deci d 10-1 = 0.1
centi c 10-2 = 0.01
Milli m 10-3 = 0.001
Micro  10-6 = 0.000 001
Nano n 10-9 = 0.000 000 001
Pico p 10-12 = 0.000 000 000 001
Femto f 10-15 = 0.000 000 000 000 001

http://www.math.com/tables/general/measures/metric.htm 6
Force Polygons

The resultant of two vectors can be found


by placing the two vectors (which act at the
same point) in a tip-to-tail fashion and
completing the triangle with a vector.

b
c

a b

a
7
The resultant vector (c) is the sum of the original two vectors
(a and b) and therefore replaces the original two vectors.

By using Cosine Law,

c2 = a2 + b2 – 2 a b cos C

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The resultant vector c is the sum of the
original vectors a and b and therefore
replaces the original two vectors.

f
f e
r

e
d
d

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Moment of a force

Moment of a force is a measure of the turning effect of


the force.

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Moment of a force
The magnitude of a moment is dependent on two items --
- the magnitude of the force and the perpendicular
distance between the point or axis of rotation and the
force involved.

Moment of a force about a point


= force x perpendicular distance from the point

i.e. M=Fxd

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Example
The frame is loaded as shown in the following diagram.
Calculate the moment caused about point A at the base of
the frame.
0.25 m

0.5
10
m
kN

Moment , M = Force x Perpendicular Distance


= 10 x 0.25
= 2.5 kNm

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Principle of moments
When an object is in equilibrium, the sum of
the clockwise moments about any point is
equal to the sum of anti-clockwise moments
about that point.
i.e.
M  0

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Moment

Example 1
When the light ruler in the figure is balance, what is the
weight of W? 0.4 m
0.2 m 0.15 m

W 4N 1N

Solutions :
Total anticlockwise moment = Total clockwise moment
W x 0.2 = 4 x 0.15 + 1 x 0.4 ∴W=5N

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Moment
Example 2
Calculate the resultant moment about end A of the force system below.

5m
1m 15N
5N
30°
A 3m 10N

5 sin30°
Solutions :
Clockwise M = 5 x 1 + 15 x 5 sin30°= 42.5 Nm
Anticlockwise M = 10 x 3 = 30 Nm
Resultant M = 42.5 – 30 = 12.5 Nm clockwise

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Moment
Ex 2.1
An egg is weighted by a balance as shown. The weight of the
pan and the brass block is 2 N and 5 N respectively. When the
brass block is located 0.3 m away from the handle, the stick is
levelled. Neglect the weight of the stick, find the weight of the
egg.
Handle
0.3 m 0.05 m

egg
Brass block 5 N
Pan 2 N 16
Equilibrium of Forces
A structure is considered to be in equilibrium if
it remains at rest when subjected to a system
of forces and moments.

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Equilibrium of Forces
If a structure is in equilibrium, then all its
members and parts are also in equilibrium.

For a structure to be in equilibrium, all the


forces and moments (including support
reactions) acting on it must balance each
other.

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• For a plane structure subjected to forces in
its own plane, the conditions for
equilibrium can be expressed by the
following equations of equilibrium:

F 0x

F  0
y

M  0
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Force Vectors - Components in Polar
and Rectangular coordinates
• A Force is a vector quantity since it has direction as well as
magnitude. fy

• Fy F

Fx
• Figure 1
fx

• In the x-y plane the force vector F in the above diagram can be
resolved into its components in the x and y directions (rectangular
coordinates), where,

• Where Fx, and Fy are the components of F in the x and y directions.

F = Fx  Fy ;
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• The vector can also be represented in terms of
components in polar coordinates. The
components in rectangular (x, y) coordinates
can be expressed in terms of the components
in polar coordinates as follows:
Fx = F.cos; and Fy  F.sin;
• and the inverse relationship as:
F 
F = Fx  Fy and   tan  
2 2 -1 y

F x 

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Addition of Force Vectors and the
Resultant Force
• Figure 2 shows forces F1 and F2 acting at a
point (on a particle).
• The vector R is called the Resultant and is
equal to the vector sum (addition) of force
vectors F1 and F2. The resultant force can be
found by calculation (Algebraic) method or
graphical (triangle of force) method.

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• Figure 2
Force F1

ForceF2
Particle Resultant R
Note means "equivalent to"

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Algebraic Method

The vectors can be added algebraically by first


resolving the forces into their rectangular
components in the x and y directions, adding
F
the components and 2, y

F 2

then converting back


 2
into polar coordinates.
F1,x F2,x

1
Figure 3
F1,y F1
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R x  F1,x  F2,x  F1 cos 1  F2 cos  2
Ry  F1, y  F2, y   F1 sin1  F2 sin 2

R  Rx  Ry
2 2

 Ry 
1
  tan  
 Rx 

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Triangle of Forces Method

• In this method the vectors are drawn so that the tail of


one vector joins the head of the preceding vector. The
length of each force vector is proportional to the
magnitude of the force it represents and is drawn
parallel to the direction of the force.

• The vector R is then drawn to close the triangle. The


order in which the vectors are drawn is not important
as long as they are drawn head to tail. Figure 4 shows
F1 drawn first and Figure 5 shows F2 drawn first.

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Figure 4 Figure 5

Fy
R Fy F1
F2 R
F2

F1

Fx Fx

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Example
Find T1, T2 hanging 5 kg by graphical method (using scale 1 cm = 10 N) ?
Solutions :
W = (5 kg)(10 m/s2 ) = 50 N ; In the space diagram: mark region between W & T1, W & T2, T2 &
T1 as A, B, C respectively.
In the force diagram: draw a line 5 cm vertically from point a to point b  ab representing W =
50 N; Draw a line parallel to T2 from point b & draw another line parallel to T1 from point a.
These 2 lines intersect at point c. Then measure bc & ca.
Since bc = 4 cm & ca = 3 cm  T2 = 40 N & T1 = 30 N >>

C a

T1 900 T2
900
1430
c
A B

W b 1430

Scale 1cm = 10N


5kg

Space Diagram Force Diagram


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Newton’s first law of motion
(Law of inertia)
Every object remains in a state of rest or of
uniform speed along a straight line unless
acted on by an unbalanced force.

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Force and Newton's First Law

• If the resultant force acting on a particle is zero,


the particle will remain at rest (if originally at
rest) or will move with constant speed in a
straight line (if originally in motion).

• To understand and use the First Law it is helpful


to first develop a concept of a state of
Equilibrium. Equilibrium exists when all the
forces on a particle are in balance. The velocity
of a particle does not change, if the particle is in
Equilibrium.
http://www.nasa.gov/mov/192447main_017_law_of_inertia.mov
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Interpretations of the First Law

• A body is in Equilibrium if it moves with constant velocity. A body at


rest is a special case of constant velocity i.e. v = 0 = constant.

• For a body to be in Equilibrium the resultant force (meaning the


vector addition of all the forces) acting on the body must be zero.

• A Force can be defined as 'that which tends to cause a particle to


accelerate', assuming that the force is not in Equilibrium with other
forces acting on the body.

• Note: A force cannot be seen only the effect of a force on a body


may be seen.

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Newton’s second law of motion
The acceleration of an object is directly
proportional to, and in the same direction as,
the unbalanced force acting on it, and
inversely proportional to the mass of the
object:
F = ma
Unit : F(N), m(kg), a(m/s2)

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Newton's 2nd Law
• Note that the mass of the object (also called the
inertial mass) determines how great the effect a
given force has on that object. The greater the
mass, the harder the object is to accelerate. This
relation between force, mass, and acceleration
agrees with our intuitive concept of what a force
is: a given force will cause a small mass to
accelerate more than a large mass, and for a
given mass a larger force will cause a greater
acceleration.

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Newton's 2nd Law
• From the 2nd law we can also see that the
units of force must be (kg m/s2), which are
given the special name of Newton (N). That is,
1 Newton = 1 kg m/s2 is the force required to
accelerate a 1 kilogram object at a rate of 1
m/s2.

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This is an example of how Newton's Second
Law works:

• Peter's car, which weighs 2,000 kg, is out of


gas. Peter is trying to push the car to a gas
station and he makes the car go at 0.05 m/s2.
Using Newton's Second Law, you can compute
how much force Peter is applying to the car.

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Newton’s third law of motion
For every action force there is an equal and
opposite reaction.

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Mass

Mass (m) is a measure of the inertia of


an object and is an unchanging quantity.

Unit : kg

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Weight
Weight (W) is the force of gravity on an object.
Unit : N
W = mg

where g : acceleration due to gravity, 9.81 m/s2

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Example
100 N a

10 kg

30 N

Calculate :
(a) the net force acted on 10-kg mass, and
(b) the acceleration of 10-kg mass.

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Example
A 3-kg mass is hung from a spring balance
which is suspended from the ceiling of a lift. If
the balance reads 40 N, what is the
acceleration of the lift ?

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Friction
Friction arises whenever an object slides over
another.
It always acts in the opposite direction to the
motion.
It is produced by the interlocking of
irregularities of the surfaces in contact.

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Types of Friction

Dry Friction (Coulomb Friction)


- Occurs when there is relative motion
between two rough surfaces without any
lubrication.
Fluid Friction (Viscous Friction)
- Develops between layers of fluid moving
at different velocities.
The Laws of Dry Friction
Experiments shows that for Dry Friction
• Friction force  Normal reaction.
• Friction force acts along the contact surfaces.
• Motion takes place when the applied force
larger than the static friction force.
• Once motion started, the friction force
reduces to a lower value known as the
kinetic friction force.
Friction Force against Applied Force
F
Fs
Fk

At Rest In Motion

P
A block of mass M kg rests on a
rough surface with a force P applied
on it as shown below.

W=Mxg
P
h
Free Body Diagrams

Mg

P N
F

F
N

Block Plane
Dry Friction
When the block is in static equilibrium and about to slide,

P = F < Fs the block is in static equilibrium and no motion occurs

P  F  Fs the block is in static equilibrium and about to slide

P = F  Fk the block is sliding at constant velocity or accelerating

P = F  Fk the block ceases to slide and returns to static equilibrium


Coefficients of Friction
By increasing P such that it reaches Fs and
sliding starts to occur.
Fs  N ; or Fs = s N
s – coefficient of static friction

Similarly, F k = k N
k – coefficient of kinetic friction
Coefficients of Friction

The coefficients of friction s and k do not depend upon


the area of the surfaces in contact.

Both coefficients, however, depend strongly on the nature


of the surfaces in contact.
Coefficient of friction

friction(f)  coefficient of friction( )


x normal reaction(R)

f  R

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The normal force is the reaction which
occurs perpendicular to the moving object
and the surface over which it moves.

Normal Force = Weight of the object

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Typical Values of Coef. of Friction, s
Metal on metal 0.15 - 0.60
Metal on stone 0.30 - 0.70
Metal on leather 0.30 - 0.60
Metal on wood 0.25 - 0.50
Wood on leather 0.25 - 0.50
Stone on stone 0.40 - 0.70
Earth on earth 0.20 - 1.00
Rubber on concrete 0.60 - 0.90
Engineering Applications with friction
• Inclined plane
• Wedges
• Screw threads
• Frictional clutch
• Belt drive
• Brake
Example

A block weighing 730 kg is being pulled along


a horizontal surface by a cable parallel to the
surface. If the coefficients of kinetic and
static friction between the block and the
surface are 0.4 and 0.45 respectively.
Calculate the force in the cable.
Example
A block weighing 50 kN rests on a level
surface as shown. If the coefficient of static
friction between the surfaces is 0.3,
determine the force needed to start the
block in motion.

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• Solutions :
Since the force system is
concurrent, the equations of
equilibrium that are needed are

F x 0 F y 0

F x 0 P=F

F y 0 N = 50 kN

F=xN
Therefore, in this case :
F = P = 0.3 x 50 kN
= 15 kN

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