Methods of measurement

In surveying there are several methods for measurement of distance. These are

1. Direct methods;
2. Optical methods; and
3. Electronic method.

In any work, the choice of a method depends on many factors like field condition, accuracy
required, availability of resources (instruments, time, skill, fund etc). Table 8.1 summarizes
the principal methods, instrument required, precision, use, errors of measurement of
distance.
Direct Measurement
When the distance between points / stations are measured directly, usually by using tape, is
known as direct method.
 Ranging

1. Direct Ranging
2. Indirect Ranging
o Reciprocal Ranging
o Random Line Method

When the distance to be measured is more than a tape length, a straight line is required to be
laid between the points/ stations along which measurements are to be carried out. The process
of laying out a straight line between points is known as ranging.

 Direct Ranging
 Indirect Ranging

When the end stations are inter visible, ranging is being carried out directly. The intermediate points
are placed at distances having interval less than one tape length. The intermediate points are found
by moving a ranging pole in transverse direction and thus, points are selected in such a way that the
end points and the intermediate points lie in a straight line (Figure 8.1). In this method, two flags,
one ranging pole and a bunch of pegs are required in a team of at least one surveyor and one
assistant.
When the end stations between which a straight line is to be laid, are not inter visible, indirect
method of ranging is being adopted. It is being carried out either by reciprocal method or by
random line method.

1. Reciprocal Ranging
2. Random Line Method

Taping involves measurement of the distance with tapes (steel/linen), either by placing it on the
ground or sometimes by getting it suspended between points. Additional equipments employed
during taping are plumb bob, the hand level, pegs/ pins and range pole (or flag or ranging rod) etc.
The precision of distance measured with tapes depends upon the degree of refinement with which
measurements are taken.

Lesson 9 Errors in Measurement of Distance

Objective of Lesson 9 is to explain the different errors/corrections involved in direct measurement.

The length of a tape is standardized at certain temperature and pull to amend distance be
measured in horizontal along a plane surface. But ideal condition is hardly obtained during
field observation. Thus, it is usual that the observations taken in the field are fraught with errors.
These are of various types depending on the origin and nature. These are required to be
determined and necessary corrections are to be applied before making use of the measurements
for further works.

Depending on the nature, errors present in the measurement of distance have been classified
into two types: Systematic error and random error.

 Systematic Errors

Systematic errors (in taping) are caused due to: non-standard length of tape, slope in terrain,
variations in temperature during measurement, variations in tension, sag, incorrect alignment of the
tape etc. A summary of the systematic errors in taping is given in Table 9.1 and the details of which
are explained next.

 Random Errors

Distance measured depends on observations and on the determination of quantities such as

temperature t, tension or pull p, slope angle q or elevation difference h. Each of these quantities is
subject to random errors which when propagated through the corresponding relations result in
random errors in the distance. Thus the random errors cause random variation in the distance
corrected for systematic errors. The random errors are of much lower magnitude than the
systematic errors.

Correction for Standard Length

The designated (nominal) length of a tape, as stated by the manufacturer, rarely equals to the
true distance. The difference between the true distance and the designated length is known
as error due to standard length (of tape). Thus, the correction for absolute length of tape,
Cd = true length – nominal length

Ex9-2 The length of a survey line was measured with a tape having nominal length 20 m
and was found to be 236.4 meter. As a check the length was again measured with a 30 m
tape and was found to 240.5 meter. On testing, it was found that the 20 meter tape is 6 cm
too short. Estimate the true length of 30 m tape.

Solution : Given , 20m tape is 6 cm too short

Thus, from

Thus, 30 meter tape is 0.60 m i.e., 60 cm too short

Ex9-3 The area of a plan of an old map plotted to a scale of 10m to 1cm measures 100.2
square cm as measured by a planimeter. The plan is found to have shrunk so that a line
originally 10 cm long measures 9.7cm. Further, the 20m tape used was 8cm too short. Find
the true area of survey.

Solution : Given, the scale of the map = 1cm to10 m = 1: 1000

Present area of the plan, Ap= 100.2 cm2

Designated length of the tape , l = 20m

Actual length of the tape , l ' = 20m -8cm = 19.92 m

Since, originally 10 cm long measures 9.7cm,

Correction for Slope

(Figure 9.1) Let s represents the slope distance between two points A and B, h be the difference in
elevation and H the horizontal distance between the points, all in the same units. Let q be the slope
of the terrain. Then, the horizontal distance is

H = s cos q or H = ( s2 - h2 )1/2

and thus, slope correction for measured distance s is

Ch = H – s = (s2 – h2) – s ( always subtractive)

Ex9-4 A survey line PQ is run on a terrain having distance 240 m along a downward slope 1
in 12 from P to A; a distance of 225 m from A to B having an angle of elevation 5°30"; a
rise of 20m from B to Q at a distance of 250m. Find the horizontal distance between P and Q
if the distances were measured with a 20m tape which was 5cm too long.

Solution : The desired distance, PQ is equal to PA + AB + BQ.

Given, for PA, measured distance, D1 = 240m

Ex9-5 With what accuracy must the slope angle 5°30" be measured if the horizontal distance
from the measured slope distance of 1320.50 meter is to be accurate to 0.005 m.

Solution: Given, slope distance, s = 1320.50 m

Correction for Temperature
If the temperature of standardization is T0 degree and measurements are taken at a
temperature of T degree, there is an error in length of the tape, due to difference in
standarised temperature and temperature during observation. The corresponding correction
Ct is given by

C t = a L (T- T0)

where a is the coefficient of thermal expansion of the material of the tape and L is the
measured distance.
Correction for Tension
If a tape is standardized at a tension of Po and measurements are taken at a tension of P, the
correction Cp for change in length per distance L due to difference in standarised pull and
actual pull during observation is given by

where a is the cross sectional area of the tape and E is modulus of elasticity of the material
of the tape.
Correction for Sag

(Figure 9.2) When the tape sags between points of support, it takes the form of a catenary.
The correction for sag Cs is always subtracted from observed distance and is given by
where W is the total weight of tape between supports, L is the distance between supports and
P is the applied tension.

Correction for Incorrect Alignment/ Mean Sea Level

(Figure 9.3) If the intermediate points are not in correct alignment with the ends of the line
or they are not on the line to be measured, a correction, Ch known as correction for
alignment has to be subtracted from measured distance. It is given by

where d is the perpendicular distance by which the other end of the tape of length L is out of
alignment.
Combined Correction
Whenever corrections for several effects such as slope, tension, temperature, sag etc are to
be applied, for convenience they are combined as a single net correction per nominal tape
length. When corrections are applied to the observed length of a line measured between
fixed points (designated measurement) with a tape that is too long, the correction is added
and vice versa.
Ex9-6 A 30 m tape weighing 0.50 kg and with a cross–sectional area of 0.025 cm2 was
standardized and found to be 30.006 m at 18o C, with 5-kg tension and supported at the 0 and
30 m points. The tape was used to measure a distance of about 120 m over terrain of a
uniform 3 percent slope. The average temperature during measurement was 25o C, the tape
was fully supported throughout, and tension of 4 kg was applied to each tape length. The
observed distances were 30.0 m. 30.0 m and 30 m. Calculate the horizontal distance between
the points.

Given a = 1.16 x 10-5 / C.

Solution : Slope temperature and standardization are in direct proportion to the length and
can be calculated for the total distance. On the other, the sag correction must be calculated for
each segment.

Distance corrected for slope

H = (s 2 – h 2)1 / 2 = [ (120.0)2 – (0.03 x 120) 2 ]1 / 2

= [ (120)2 (1 – 0.0009) ]1 / 2

= 120 x 0.999549 = 119.946 m

Reduction to Mean Sea level

(Figure 9.4) In plane surveying, horizontal distances are reduced to sea level when it is
required to count them into equivalent distance at another elevation, such as the plane
coordinate system or the average elevation of a survey for which the variation in elevation
over the area is large.
where, D is the measured distance on the surface of the earth;

R is the mean radius of the earth;

h is the mean height of the terrain above the msl.

Ex.9-1 A building 25 m by 60 m is to be laid with a 20 m tape which is 0.02 m too long.

What ground measurement should be made?

Ex.9-2 A 30 m steel tape weighing 0.75 kg has a cross - sectional are 0.04 cm2 is
standardarised at 18o C with 6 kg tension under full support.

(a) A line on a smooth level ground is measured with the tape under a tension of 12 kg at a
temperature 25o C and is recorded as 1543.68 m long. Compute the corrected length. Given
E = 2.1 x 10 6 kg / cm 2.

(b) The same tape is used to meaner another distance and recorded as 875.62 m over level
ground, with tape supported only at the two ends and 6 kg tension. Calculate the corrected
length of the line.

For Exercise 9

M3-Ex.9-1 [24.975 m by 59.940 m]

M3-Ex.9-2

(a) 1543.817 m
(b) 876.380 m