Culture:: Fayaz A. Soomro, Faculty Member, National Officer's Academy-Chapter-2 (Culture)

Fayaz A.
Soomro, Faculty Member, National Officer's Academy-Chapter-2 (Culture)

NATIONAL OFFICER’S ACADEMY (NOA)
SOCIOLOGY, Lecture No. 2
Culture:
Before discussing Culture chapter, let us understand what are differences between
Chinese Culture and US culture with following 6 cultural differences between China and
the USA: -
1. Privacy: Chinese people do not have the same concept of privacy as Americans
do. They talk about topics such as ages, income or marital status, which Americans
think is annoying and intrusive.
2. Family: In China, elders are traditionally treated with enormous respect and dignity
while the young are cherished and nurtured. In America, the goal of the family is to
encourage independence, particularly that of the children. Unlike the Chinese, older
Americans seldom live with their children.
3. Friends: Chinese people have different meanings to define friends. Just hanging out
together time to time is not friendship. Friendship means lifelong friends who feel
deeply obligated to give each other whatever help might seem required. Americans
always call people they meet friends, so the definition of friends is general and
different. There are work friends, playing friends, school friends and drinking
friends.
4. Money: As is well known, the Chinese like to save. They are always conservative
when they are planning to spend money. It is different in the USA, where far fewer
families are saving money for emergencies and education than their Chinese
counterparts.
5. Education: Chinese people value education and career more than Americans, who
in turn put more emphasis on good character and faith.
6. Collectivism vs. Individualism: Basically China values the community and the US
values the individual. If you achieve something in the US, it's because you were
great. While in China, if you achieve something in China it's because the team, or
family, or company is great. Everything you do gets attributed to the greater whole,
while in America individual merits are celebrated.
CULTURE: The word 'culture' comes from the Latin cultus, which means 'care',
and from the French colere which means 'to till' as in 'till the ground'.
If you ask 100 anthropologists to define culture, you’ll get 100 different definitions.
However, most of these definitions would emphasize roughly the same things: that culture
is shared, transmitted through learning and helps shape behavior and beliefs. Culture is of
concern to all four subfields and while our earliest ancestors relied more on biological
adaptation, culture now shapes humanity to a much larger extent.
Culture is universal among all human groups and even exists among some primates. All
cultures have to provide for the physical, emotional, and social needs of their
Fayaz A. Soomro, Faculty Member, National Officer's Academy-Chapter-2 (Culture)
members, enculturate new members, resolve conflicts and promote survival for their
members.
Society must balance the needs of the whole with the needs of the individual. If individual
needs are continually suppressed, social systems can become unstable and individual stress
can become too much to handle. Every culture has its own methods of balancing the needs
of society in relation to individual needs.
1. One of the earliest definitions of culture was put forth by Tylor in 1871: “Culture, or
civilization, is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, law, morals,
custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society.”
2. Another, more modern, definition of culture is, “a society’s shared and socially
transmitted ideas, values and perceptions, which are used to make sense of experience
and generate behavior and are reflected in that behavior.”
3. Cooley, Argell and Car “The entire accumulation of artificial objects, conditions, tools,
techniques, ideas, symbols and behavior patterns peculiar to a group of people,
possessing a certain consistency of its own, and capable of transmission from one
generation to another.”
4. Spencer-Oatey 2008: ‘Culture is a fuzzy set of basic assumptions and values,
orientations to life, beliefs, policies, procedures and behavioral conventions that are
shared by a group of people, and that influence (but do not determine) each member’s
behavior and his/her interpretations of the ‘meaning’ of other people’s behavior.
5. According to Allama Iqbal “Culture encompasses all the mental, spiritual and physical
activities of a nation. It includes the basic beliefs and faith, values and literature, art and
architecture, music and mode of dress, manners and customs prevalent in a given
society.
6. Avruch 1998: ‘Culture ... is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art,
morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member
of society.’
7. Kroeber & Kluckhohn 1952: 181; cited by Adler 1997: 14 : ‘Culture consists of
patterns, explicit and implicit, of and for behavior acquired and transmitted by symbols,
constituting the distinctive achievements of human groups, including their embodiment
in artifacts; the essential core of culture consists of traditional (i.e. historically derived
and selected) ideas and especially their attached values; culture systems may, on the
one hand, be considered as products of action, on the other, as conditional elements of
future action.
8. Culture is the sum of total of the learned behavior of a group of people that are generally
considered to be the tradition of that people and are transmitted from generation to
generation.
9. Culture is a collective programming of the mind that distinguishes the members of one
group or category of people from another.
10. Some aspects of human behavior, such as language, social practices such
as kinship and marriage, expressive forms such as art, music, dance, ritual,
and religion, and technologies such as tool usage, cooking, shelter, and clothing are
said to be cultural universals, found in all human societies.
11. Culture is most important concepts in social sciences and psychology. Study of human
society immediately leads to study of human culture. Culture and society are
inseparable entities with each other. Working together is a big challenge in 21st
century: Working together with people of different cultures than your own can be very
difficult. It’s not just a challenge in Japan, but for people all over the world and in any
industry. As our world becomes increasingly globalized the opportunities are enormous
but so are the challenges.
Components of culture: A culture is an abstract nature of phenomenon, therefore,
components of culture can help to understand it and help to give a proper definition. These
components vary such as Religion, Language, Technology, Art, Architecture, Music,
Sports, Dress, Diet, Government, Technology, economy, agriculture, Law, rules,
regulations, values, education, recreation, work ethics, etiquettes etc.
MEANING AND CHARACTERISTICS:

1. Culture is learned: Culture is not inherited biologically but it is leant socially by man
in a society. It is not an inborn tendency but acquired by man from the association of others,
e.g. drinking, eating, dressing, walking, behaving, reading are all learnt by man.
2. Culture is social: It is not an individual phenomena but it is the product of society. It
develops in the society through social interaction. It is shared by the man of society No
man can acquire it without the association of others. Man is man only among men. It helps
to develop qualities of human beings in a social environment. Deprivation of a man from
his company is the deprivation of human qualities.
3. Culture is shared: Culture is something shared. It is nothing that an individual can
passes but shared by common people of a territory. For example, customs, traditions,
values, beliefs are all shared by man in a social situation. These beliefs and practices are
adopted by all equally.
4. Culture is transmitted: Culture is capable of transmitted from one generation to the
next. Parent’s papa’s cultural traits to their children and in return they pass to their children
and son on. It is not transmitted through genes but through language. Language is means
to communication which passes cultural traits from one generation to another.
5. Culture is continuous: It is continuous process. It is like a stream which is flowing
from one generation to another through centuries. “Culture is the memory of human race.”
6. Culture is accumulative: Culture is not a matter of month or a year. It is the continuous
process and adding new cultural traits. Many cultural traits are borrowed from out-side and
these absorbed in that culture which adopt it, as culture is accumulative and combines the
suitable cultural traits.
7. Culture is integrated: All the cultural aspects are inter-connected with each other. The
development of culture is the integration of its various parts. For example, values system
is interlinked with morality, customs, beliefs and religion.
8. Culture is changing: It remains changing but not static. Cultural process undergoes
changes. But with different speeds from society to society and generation to generation.
9. Culture varies from society to society: Every society has its own culture and ways of
behaving. It is not uniform everywhere but occurs differently in various societies. Every
culture is unique in itself is a specific society. For example, values, customs, traditions,
ideologies, religion, belief, practices are not similar but different in every society. However
the ways of eating, drinking, speaking, greeting, dressing etc are differs from one social
situation to another in the same time.
10. Culture is responsive: Culture is responsive to the changing conditions of a physical
world. It intervenes in the natural environment and helps man from all dangers and natural
calamities e.g. our houses are responsible to give us shelter and safety from storm and
heavy rains.
11. Culture is gratifying and essential: It is gratifying and provide all the opportunities
for needs and desires satisfaction. These needs may be biological or social but it is
responsible to satisfy it. Our needs are food, shelter, clothing and desires are status, fame,
money, sex etc are all the examples which are fulfilled according to the cultural ways. In
fact it is defined as the process through which human beings satisfy their need.
12. Linked with society and takes years to form: Last but not the least one of the
characteristics of culture that culture and society are one and the same. But if we say that
these turn two are twin sister, it would not be wrong. Society is a composite of people and
they interact each other through it. It is to bind the people within the society.
TYPES OF CULTURE: 1) Material culture, 2) Non -Material culture, 3) Ideal culture

and 4) Realistic culture.
FUNCTIONS OF CULTURE:
1. CULTURE IS TREASURY OF KNOWLEDGE: Provides knowledge essential
for physical, social and intellectual existence of human being. Birds and animals
have instinctively knowledge, but man has to learn from the society. There is
difference between human and animal life. Man has greater learning capacity.
Adopt himself according to the changing circumstances. Preserves knowledge and
enables him to behave according to the situation. Man receives everything from the
culture and feels adjusted
2. CULTURE DEFINES SITUATIONS: It determines the situations and enable us
how to behave with the social situations. What knowledge we should get, whom to
meet, how to talk, how to laugh, how to convince and how to observe situations.
Each culture has many subtle cues which define each situation. It reveals whether
one should prepare to fight, run, laugh or make love. For example, suppose someone
approaches you with right hand outstretched at waist level. What does this mean?
That he wishes to shake hands in friendly greeting is perfectly obvious – obvious,
that is to anyone familiar with our culture. But in another place or time the
outstretched hand might mean hostility or warning. One does not know what to do
in a situation until he has defined the situation. Each society has its insults and
fighting words. The cues (hints) which define situations appear in infinite variety.
A person who moves from one society into another will spend many years
misreading the cues. For example, laughing at the wrong places.
3. CULTURE DEFINES ATTITUDES, VALUES AND GOALS: Attitude refers
the tendency to feel and act in certain ways. Values are the measures of goodness or
desirability. Goals refers to the attainments which our values define as worthy. It is
our culture that conditions our attitudes towards various issues such as religion,
morality, marriage, science, family planning and so on. Each person learns in his
culture what is good, true, and beautiful. Attitudes, values and goals are defined by
the culture. While the individual normally learns them as unconsciously as he learns
the language. Attitude are tendencies to feel and act in certain ways. Values are
measures of goodness or desirability, for example, we value private property,
(representative) Government and many other things and experience. Goals are those
attainments which our values define as worthy, (e.g.) winning the race, gaining the
affections of a particular person, or becoming president of the firm. By approving
certain goals and ridiculing others, the culture channels individual ambitions. In
these ways culture determines the goals of life.
4. CULTURE MOULDS PERSONALITY: (ANNA AND ISABELLE)
 Environment
 Cultural norms dictate
 Early childhood experiences
 A competitive culture
 A creative culture
 Hardworking culture
 Religious culture
 Music culture
 (Child is father of man)
5. CULTURE DEFINES MYTHS, LEGENDS, AND THE SUPERNATURAL:
Myths and legends are important part of every culture. They may inspire, reinforce
effort and sacrifice and bring comfort in bereavement. Whether they are true is
sociologically unimportant. Ghosts are real to people who believe in them and who
act upon this belief. We cannot understand the behavior of any group without
knowing something of the myths, legends, and supernatural beliefs they hold. Myths
and legends are powerful forces in a group’s behavior. Culture also provides the
individual with a ready-made view of the universe. The nature of divine power and
the important moral issues are defined by the culture.
6. CULTURE PROVIDES BEHAVIOUR PATTERNS: The individual need not go
through painful trial and error learning to know what foods can be eaten (without
poisoning himself), or how to live among people without fear. He finds a ready-
made set of patterns awaiting him which he needs only to learn and follow. The
culture maps out the path to matrimony. The individual does not have to wonder
how one secures a mate; he knows the procedure defined by his culture. If men use
culture to advance their purposes, it seems clear also that a culture imposes limits
on human and activities. The need for order calls forth another function of culture
that of so directing behavior that disorderly behavior is restricted and orderly
behavior is promoted. A society without rules or norms to define right and wrong
behavior would be very much like a heavily travelled street without traffic signs or
any understood rules for meeting and passing vehicles. Chaos would be the result
in either case. Social order cannot rest on the assumption that men will
spontaneously behave in ways conducive to social harmony.
FACTORS OF CULTURAL DEVELOPMENT: -

1. CULTURAL DIFFUSION: Both material artifacts and ideas from one culture to
another culture. Sociologists estimate that about 90 % of the contents of every culture are
borrowed from others cultures. Some scientists and anthropologists consider diffusion as
the main source of cultural and social change. Sociologists define cultural diffusion as “the
borrowing of cultural elements from another society". Diffusion takes place in every
society. The most outstanding contemporary social change- the spread of modernization
process around the world- represents the diffusion of industrialism from the advanced to
the less developed societies. Material artifacts that prove useful are more readily of the
society into which they diffuse. For the reasons, the less developed societies always accept
the normative orders of advanced societies.
2. INVENTION: Invention refers to "new combination of or new use of existing
knowledge" Horton and Hunt. "An invention is the combination or new use of existing
knowledge to produce something that did not exist before" Ian Robertson. "An invention
is any re-combination of existing cultural elements in such a fashion as to produce
something new" Lorman and Gorman. Invention may be either material (Bow and arrow,
gun, spacecraft, computer etc). Social or non-Social material (Constitutional government,
corporations, alphabet, dance, drama and literature etc). The nature and rate of cultural
invention also varies from culture to culture and depends upon existing store of knowledge.
For cave dweller, their knowledge was much limited and therefore, bow and arrow was
just big achievements. Modern people are clever than primitive people due to repository of
knowledge. A number of inventions have been witnessed by human societies such as:
 Machines,
 Plans for many machines that were workable in principle
 Helicopters
 Submarines
 Machine guns
 Air conditions
 Areal bombs
 Hydraulic pumps etc
3. DISCOVERY: Discovery can also be defined as third source of socio-cultural change.
According to Hurton and Hunt, "A discovery is a shared human perception of an aspect
of reality which already exists". A new continent, the composition of the atmosphere, the
power of steam, the circulation of the blood etc were already there but a new discovery
becomes source of addition.
PAKISTANI CULTURE IS AN ISLAMIC CULTURE

Pakistan is an ideological Islamic State. Its very existence is due to Islam, so the Pakistani
culture is primarily based on the Islamic way of life. All other ingredients of culture are
inspired by Islam. Pakistani culture is highlighted by its grandeur, simplicity, firm
convictions and noble deeds and ideas.
Salient Features of Pakistani Culture
1. Religious Uniformity: Pakistan came into existence to provide its people a system
of life based on Islam. The people, in spite of some differences of languages,
customs and traditions commonly follow one religion of Islam. This is the religion,
which is practiced by all people of Pakistan.
2. Language: A number of languages are spoken in Pakistan. Some of them are
Punjabi, Sindhi, Pushto and Balochi. But Urdu is spoken and understand in all parts
of Pakistan. Being the official language, it is the media of communication between
all regions of Pakistan
3. Literature and Poetry: Literature is an important aspect of our cultural life. Most
of our poets reflect Islamic code and trend in their poetry. They gave the message
of love and brotherhood. Similarity of thought amongst poets and writers of all
regions is an important factor of our cultural life.
4. Dress and Diet: Dress is an important manifestation of culture. The regional dresses
of Pakistan undergo changes in the light of local traditions, economic condition,
way of living and wealth in the region. But in all Provinces people generally wear
Shalwar Kameez.
5. Mixed Culture: Pakistani culture is mixed culture although majority of people are
Muslims by birth and faith. But there is great influence of Hindus and British culture
on the present Pakistani society.
6. Male Dominated Society: In Pakistani culture, the male member of the family
enjoys the key position. Family is headed by a male member and in most cases, he
is the sole source of income for other members of the family
7. Arts and Architecture: The iconoclasm of Islam has given a characteristic form
and pattern in the use of elegant designs, based on geometric figures and floral forms
borrowed from nature. The Shah Jahan Masjid, Shalimar Garden, Badshahi Masjid,
Shahi Qila and many such graceful buildings are a living proof of the excellent
Mughal architecture
8. Handicrafts: Embroidery, leather works, glazed pottery, wood work, carpet
making, metal crafts and ivory are the essential parts of our culture. Pakistani
craftsmen are considered as the best in their craftsmanship. They are known for the
high quality works which is very popular in foreign countries.
9. Recreational Activities – Sports: The recreational activities all over the Pakistan
are common. The games like Cricket, Hockey, Football, Kabaddi etc are popular in
every part of our country. These games reflect our cultural identity.
10. Education: Education contributes a great deal in developing national character.
Educational system plays a vital role in the formation of Culture, Unity and
Solidarity of a nation. It is therefore, important that the entire syllabus right from
the lower to higher level should be placed in accordance with the ideology of
Pakistan
11. Religious Festivals: Festivals play an important part of our culture. Eid-ul-Fitr and
Eid-ul-Azha are our two main religious festivals. They are celebrated with great
happiness throughout the country
12. Islamic Rituals and Religious Festivals: Islamic rituals and festivals play an
important part of our culture. The rituals and festivals are observed with unusual
enthusiasm. Obligatory prayers, fasts during the month of Ramadan and the
payment of Zakat prescribed by Islam are being observed almost everywhere.
Statistics reveal that Paksitanis attendance at Hajj is usually very high. The
enthusiasm with which Pakistani families celebrate religious festivals is a
inspirational spectacle. Eid-ul-Fitr and Eid-ul-Azha are our two main religious
festivals. They are celebrated with great happiness throughout the country.
13. Ulema, Mushaikh and Sufi Poets: Ulema, Mushaikh and Sufi Poets occupy an
honored place in our cultural aspect of life. Sufis like Lal Shahbaz, Data GanjBaksh,
Shah Abdul latif, Sachal Sarmast, Hazrat Sultan Bahu and Waris Shah rendered
meritorious services for the spread of Islam in the Sub Continent.
ELEMENTS of CULTURE:
INTRODUCTION: Culture was defined earlier as the symbols, language, beliefs, values,
and artifacts that are part of any society. As this definition suggests, there are two basic
components of culture: ideas and symbols on the one hand and artifacts (material objects)
on the other. The first type, called nonmaterial culture, includes the values, beliefs,
symbols, and language that define a society. The second type, called material culture,
includes all the society’s physical objects, such as its tools and technology, clothing, eating
utensils, and means of transportation. These elements of culture are discussed next.
1. NORMS: Simply put, a norm is a rule that guides behavior among members of a
society or group. Definition: Norms refer to conditions for social relations between
groups and individuals, for the structure of society and the difference between societies,
and for human behavior in general. Norms are shared rules, customs, and guidelines
that govern society and define how people should behave in the company of others.
A customary way is called Norm.
Founding sociologist Émile Durkheim considered norms to be social facts: things
which exist in society independent of individuals, and that shape our thoughts and
behavior. Norms may be applicable to all members of society or only to certain subsets
of the population, such as students, teachers, clergy, police officers, or soldiers in warfare.
Norms guide smooth and peaceful interactions by prescribing predictable behavior
in different situations. For instance, in the Pakistan and other societies of the world,
handshaking is a traditional greeting;saying salm while entering in the house, waring dress
during the rituals, wearing various kinds of clothes occasionally etc.
Norms are generally accepted prescriptions for or prohibitions against behavior, belief, or
feeling. Norms cannot and must be upheld by a group. Norms always include sanctions
but values never do. We learn norms in a variety of settings and from various factors,
including our families, from teachers and peers in school, through the media, and simply
by interacting with others as we go about our daily business.
TYPES OF NORMS: Sociologists divide norms into four types: Folkways, mores, taboos,
and laws.
1. FOLKWAYS: The world is one, big community which is made up of several different
societies that are distinct from one another. These societies have their own history, laws,
beliefs, traditions, practices, customs, and ways of life. These make each society different
and shape how their people act. Even a nation or country can have societies or ethnic groups
that differ, each according to their own customs, traditions, and religions which they have
followed from their ancestors.
These beliefs, habits, practices, rules, customs, traditions, and manners are called by
different names. They are called etiquette, decorum, propriety, values, virtues, folkways,
and mores.
According to Reuter and Hart (1933), “The folkways are simple habits of action
common to the members of the group; they are the ways of the folks that are
somewhat standardized and have some degree of traditional sanction for their
persistence”.
Maclver and Page (1949) defined it as: “The folkways are the recognized or accepted
ways of behaving in the society.” In sociology, folkways are generally discussed in
contrast to mores because they are both types of social norms, though they vary in the
degree to which they are enforced. Folkways are the customs or conventions of daily
life. They are a type of social norm -- expectations for how we act.
Folkways are mildly enforced social expectations, while mores are strictly held beliefs
about behaviors. Mores dictate right and wrong, while folkways distinguish between
proper and rude behavior. Most people in a society follow traditional folkways but failure
to conform to them is considered neither illegal nor immoral. How do you greet someone
when you first meet him? Often, greetings include some form of 'Hello' and 'How are you?'.
Perhaps you shake the person's hand and smile when you introduce yourself. You probably
expect similar behaviors from the other person. You can be confident that the person you're
meeting will reciprocate in a similar manner because these behaviors are folkways.
Noted early American sociologist, William G. Sumner (1840-1910) identified two types
of norms in his book Folkways (1906), which he labelled as ‘folkways’ and ‘mores’.
They represent modes of procedure in a society or in a group.
They present to us the most frequent or most accepted or most standardized ways of doing
this or that. Folkways are distinguished from mores not by their content but by the degree
to which group members are compelled to conform to them, by the degree of importance,
by the severity of punishment if they are violated, or by the intensity of feelings associated
with adherence to them.
2. MORES: refer to stronger norms with associated moral values. Mores are strict
norms that control moral and ethical behavior. Mores are norms based on definitions
of right and wrong. Unlike folkways, mores are morally significant. People feel
strongly about them and violating them typically results in disapproval. Religious doctrines
are an example of mores. For instance, if someone were to attend church in the nude, he or
she would offend most people of that culture and would be morally shunned. Also, parents
who believe in the more that only married people should live together will disapprove of
their daughter living with her boyfriend. They may consider the daughter’s actions a
violation of their moral guidelines. Examples of common mores found in almost all
societies are prohibitions robbery, abusing, snatching, abusing, murder and ill speaking
against religions doctrines.
3. TABOOS: Rituals and customs accepted in one culture may be thought of as downright
bizarre in another. "Taboo" delves into that dichotomy, taking viewers across cultural
borders to explore traditional beliefs and deliberate lifestyle choices, ranging from body
modification and gender decisions to nudity and spiritual quests that test the limits of the
human body.
Taboos refer to the strongest types of mores.
Taboos include the belief that certain activities, such cannibalism (flesh eating) , are outside
the bounds of cultural acceptance.
Violations of mores and taboos tend to be treated with strong social disapproval or
criminal consequences. Often times the violator of the taboo is considered unfit to live in
that society.
For instance, in some Muslim cultures, eating pork is taboo because the pig is considered
unclean. At the more extreme end, incest and cannibalism are taboos in most countries.
4. LAWS: Laws refer to the mores that are formally enforced by political authority and
backed by the power of the state. Laws may enforce norms or work to change them.
Examples of laws that worked to change existing norms include the liquor prohibition laws
of the 1920s or civil rights legislation of the 1950s. Ultimately, social norms are important,
in part, because they enable individuals to agree on a shared interpretation of the social
situation and prevent harmful social interactions. When individuals transgress against
existing norms, they are engaging in a norm violation. Norm violations refer to public or
private instances of transgression and deviance from culturally-sanctioned behaviors
(Kiesler, 1967).
2. VALUES: values are a culture’s standard for discerning what is good and just in
society. Values are deeply embedded and critical for transmitting and teaching a culture’s
beliefs. Values are another important element of culture and involve judgments of what is
good or bad and desirable or undesirable. Values help shape a society by suggesting what
is good and bad, beautiful and ugly, sought or avoided. Values often suggest how people
should behave, but they don’t accurately reflect how people do behave. Values portray an
ideal culture, the standards society would like to embrace and live up to. But ideal culture
differs from real culture, the way society actually is, based on what occurs and exists. A
culture’s values shape its norms. In Japan, for example, a central value is group harmony.
EXAMPLE:
 The Japanese place great emphasis on harmonious social relationships and dislike interpersonal
conflict. When interpersonal disputes do arise, Japanese do their best to minimize conflict by
trying to resolve the disputes amicably.
 People often wanted to have Engineering rather than Doctor or vice versa is value
 People preferring higher education from abroad rather than local institutions is values
 Preferring food from restaurants rather than home is value
 Enjoying foreign trips rather than visiting one’s own country’s places is values
 Preferring family members as business partners is called values
 Reading foreign stuff rather than local stories is called values etc
3. SYMBOLS: Every culture is filled with symbols, or things that stand for something
else and that often evoke various reactions and emotions. Some symbols are actually types
of nonverbal communication, while other symbols are in fact material objects. Symbols
make social interaction possible. Let’s look at nonverbal symbols first. A common one is
shaking hands, which is done in some societies but not in others. It commonly conveys
friendship and is used as a sign of both greeting and departure. Probably all societies have
nonverbal symbols we call gestures, movements of the hand, arm, or other parts of the body
that are meant to convey certain ideas or emotions. However, the same gesture can mean
one thing in one society and something quite different in another society (Axtell, 1998). In
our society, for example, if we nod our head up and down, we mean yes, and if we shake
it back and forth, we mean no.
In most of Bulgaria, however, nodding means no, while shaking our head back and forth
means yes! In the United States, if we make an “O” by putting our thumb and forefinger
together, we mean “OK,” but the same gesture in certain parts of Europe signifies an
obscenity. “Thumbs up” in the United States means “great” or “wonderful,” but in
Australia it means the same thing as extending the middle finger in the United States.
Certain parts of the Middle East and Asia would be offended if they saw you using your
left hand to eat, because they use their left hand for bathroom hygiene. Some of our most
important symbols are objects. Here the U.S. flag is a prime example. For most Americans,
the flag is not just a piece of cloth with red and white stripes and white stars against a field
of blue. Instead, it is a symbol of freedom, democracy, and other American values and,
accordingly, inspires pride and patriotism.
During the Vietnam War, however, the flag became too many Americans a symbol of war
and imperialism. Some burned the flag in protest, prompting angry attacks by bystanders
and negative coverage by the news media. Other objects have symbolic value for religious
reasons. Three of the most familiar religious symbols in many nations are the cross, the
Star of David, and the crescent moon, which stand for Christianity, Judaism, and Islam,
respectively. Whereas many cultures attach no religious significance to these shapes, for
many people across the world they evoke very strong feelings of religious faith.
Recognizing this, hate groups have often desecrated these symbols. As these examples
indicate, shared symbols, both nonverbal communication and tangible objects, are an
important part of any culture but also can lead to misunderstandings and even hostility.
These problems underscore the significance of symbols for social interaction and meaning.
4. LANGUAGE: Perhaps our most important set of symbols is language. In English,

the word chair means something we sit on. In French, the word chaise means the same
thing. As long as we agree how to interpret these words, a shared language and thus society
are possible. By the same token, differences in languages can make it quite difficult to
communicate. For example, imagine you are in a foreign country where you do not know
their language and they do not know yours. As this scenario suggests, language is crucial
to communication and thus to any society’s culture. Children learn language from their
culture just as they learn about shaking hands, about gestures, and about the significance
of the flag and other symbols. Humans have a capacity for language that no other animal
species possesses.
Our capacity for language in turn helps make our complex culture possible. In the United
States, some people consider a common language so important that they advocate making
English the official language of certain cities or states or even the whole country and
banning bilingual education in the public schools. Language, of course, can be spoken or
written. One of the most important developments in the evolution of society was the
creation of written language. Some of the preindustrial societies that anthropologists have
studied have written language, while others do not, and in the remaining societies the
“written” language consists mainly of pictures, not words.
5. RITUALS: Different cultures also have different rituals, or established procedures
and ceremonies that often mark transitions in the life course. As such, rituals both reflect
and transmit a culture’s norms and other elements from one generation to the next.
Initiation and commencement ceremonies in colleges and universities are familiar
examples of time-honored rituals. Boys have their own initiation ceremonies, some of them
involving circumcision. That said, the ways in which circumcisions are done and the
ceremonies accompanying them differ widely. Are rituals more common in preindustrial
societies than in modern ones such as the United States? Consider the Nacirema, studied
by anthropologist Horace Miner more than 50 years ago (Miner, 1956). In this society,
many rituals have been developed to deal with the culture’s fundamental belief that the
human body is ugly and in danger of suffering many diseases. Reflecting this belief, every
household has at least one shrine in which various rituals are performed to cleanse the
body. Often these shrines contain magic potions acquired from medicine men.
6. WORK ETHICS: Another important value in the most of cultures is the work
ethic. A strong work ethic is vital to a company achieving its goals. Every employee, from
the CEO to entry-level workers, must have a good work ethic to keep the company
functioning at its peak. A work ethic is a set of moral principles an employee uses in his
job. Certain factors come together to create a strong work ethic.
i. INTEGRITY: Integrity stretches to all aspects of an employee's job. An employee
with integrity fosters trusting relationships with clients, coworkers and supervisors.
Coworkers value the employee's ability to give honest feedback. Clients trust the
employee's advice. Supervisors rely on the employee's high moral standards,
trusting him not to steal from the company or create problems.
ii. SENSE OF RESPONSIBILITY: A strong sense of responsibility affects how an
employee works and the amount of work she does. When the employee feels
personally responsible for her job performance, she shows up on time, puts in her
best effort and completes projects to the best of her ability.
iii. EMPHASIS ON QUALITY: Some employees do only the bare minimum, just
enough to keep their job intact. Employees with a strong work ethic care about the
quality of their work. They do their best to produce great work, not merely churn
out what is needed. The employee's commitment to quality improves the company's
overall quality.
iv. DISCIPLINE: It takes a certain level of commitment to finish your tasks every
day. An employee with good discipline stays focused on his goals and is determined
to complete his assignments. These employees show a high level of dedication to
the company, always ensuring they do their part.
v. SENSE OF TEAMWORK: Most employees have to work together to meet a
company's objectives. An employee with a high sense of teamwork helps a team
meet its goals and deliver quality work. These employees respect their peers and
help where they can, making collaborations go smoother.
7. ARTIFACTS: Cultural artifact, or artifact, is a term used in the social sciences,
particularly anthropology and sociology for anything created by humans which gives
information about the culture of its creator and users. Cultural artifact is a more generic
term and should be considered with two words of similar, but narrower, nuance: social
artifact and archaeological artifact.
Cultural artifacts can include objects recovered from archaeological sites, or
archaeological artifacts, but can also include objects of modern or near-modern society, or
social artifacts. Cultural artifacts, whether ancient or current, have a significance because
they offer an insight into: technological processes, economic development and social
structure, among other attributes. The last element of culture is the artifacts, or material
objects, that constitute a society’s material culture. In the simplest societies, artifacts are
largely limited to a few tools, the huts people live in, and the clothing they wear. Although
the wheel was a great invention, artifacts are obviously much more numerous and complex
in modern industrial societies. Because of technological advances during the past two
decades, many such societies may be said to have a wireless culture, as smartphones,
netbooks and laptops, and GPS devices now dominate so much of modern life. The artifacts
associated with this culture were unknown a generation ago. Technological development
created these artifacts and also new language to describe them and the functions they
perform.
ETHNOCENTRISM
A World of Diversity Ethnocentric, derived from the Greek words of Ethnos, meaning race,
people or cultural group, and Kentrikos, meaning concentrated about or directed to a center
is a word that greatly describes many cultures on this planet we call Earth.
The official definition of Ethnocentric is “characterized or based on the attitude that
one’s own group is superior” or “having race as a central interest”.
People from other cultures often do things that annoy, frustrate, and offend us, which is
also true in reverse. This is a fact of life—and one which is not confined to cross-cultural
interactions; people from our own culture can also annoy and offend us. While we do not
feel bad if we are upset when someone from our own culture irks us, when the perpetrator
is from another culture, we wonder if we have the right to be upset. Is it really fair to be
angry with that person?
Needless to say, when someone violates one of our cultural norms and does something that
is unnatural, this behavior is going to provoke strong responses because abnormal behavior
undermines our norms and thereby threatens what makes interaction possible and holds our
culture together. In short, when we react to or judge the behavior of someone else, we are
performing an essential function for the survival of our culture and society.
Thus, being ethnocentric is human nature. It is only when you’re dealing with people who
come from another ethnos that ethnocentrism doesn’t always work so well. If you happen
to be in their culture, for example, then the burden is on you to figure out their ethnos. But
if you’re in your own ethnos, then it is appropriate—and a very good idea—to be
ethnocentric.
If that is true, then where does this idea of trying to be culturally sensitive fit in? It doesn’t
mean not judging the behavior of others but being open to the possibility that the
“abnormal” behavior someone has done may not seem abnormal to them. It is still wrong
for you, and it probably wouldn’t hurt to let that person know, even as you would appreciate
knowing when you violated another culture’s norm.
Being culturally sensitive has very little to do with liking or accepting the strange behaviors
of people from other cultures; it means acknowledging that we’re all strange depending on
the context. Cultural differences and the judgments they provoke aren’t the problem; the
problem is to deny culture, which is just what you do when you ask people not to judge.
This is, admittedly, a rather extreme definition. The usual dictionary definition of
ethnocentrism is "the tendency to regard one’s own group and culture as intrinsically
superior to all others" (Webster’s Dictionary).
Superiority of the own group and culture, however, (psycho)logically implies inferiority of
other groups and cultures. And viewing other groups/cultures as inferior empirically
appears to imply some degree (however small) of contempt, stereotyping, discrimination
and dehumanization of, and at least a modicum of hostility toward, members of those other
groups/cultures.
ETHNOCENTRISM: BRIEF HISTORY OF THE CONCEPT

'Ethnocentrism' is a major theme in both biological and cultural theories of the causes of
primitive war.
Darwin (1871) had noticed that early humans and contemporary primitive peoples as a
rule confined their sympathy to the own tribe and generally did not regard violence against
other tribes as a crime. He clearly saw the correlation between intergroup competition and
intragroup cooperation, which is the core of the ethnocentrism syndrome, in human
evolution.
Thus Tylor viewed ethnocentrism (as well as the obligations of the blood feud) as
making sense within a framework of primitive concepts of law and justice.
Furthermore, it is a relatively old one. Though the term 'ethnocentrism' was to be coined a
few decades later, the concept was by no means unknown among 19th century
anthropologists such as Tylor (1871):
Comte: In his Course de la philosophie positive (1830-42) Comte dismissed the notion of
a peaceful golden age at the dawn of history. On the contrary, perennial and savage warfare
forced, according to his rather gloomy view, social solidarity as a defense against enemy
groups.
Spencer (1850) thought that war had fostered ’social cohesion’ in ’conquering races’. In
1892-1893, after half a century of work, Spencer completed his vast system of philosophy
with two volumes on The Principles of Ethics. In his studies of evolution, he had hoped
to find a code which placed human conduct on a scientific footing. Instead, he discovered
that evolution, as seen to work in human communities, spoke with two voices, each
enunciating a separate code.
Allama Ibn-e-Khuldoon’s theory of Alasabiya (Social solidarity) contains more or less
same meanings.
DEFINITION:
In simple words, ethnocentrism means considering one’s own culture superior to all other
cultures. Ethnocentrism makes our culture into a gauge with which to measure all other
cultures as good or bad, high or low in the proportion as they resemble ours. Most, if not
all, groups within the society are ethnocentric.
 Sociology. The belief in the inherent superiority of one's own ethnic group or
culture.
 Belief in the superiority of one's own ethnic group
 Overriding concern with ethnicity
Ethnocentrism is judging another culture solely by the values and standards of one's own
culture. Ethnocentric individuals judge other groups relative to their own ethnic group or
culture, especially with concern for language, behavior, customs, and religion. These
ethnic distinctions and subdivisions serve to define each ethnicity's unique cultural
identity. Ethnocentrism may be overt or subtle, and while it is considered a natural
proclivity of human psychology, it has developed a generally negative connotation.
A tendency to look at the world primarily from the perspective of one's own traditional,
deferred, or adoptive ethnic culture.
SOME EXAMPLES OF ETHNOCENTRISM:
EXAMPLE 1― NAZI GERMANY: This is one of the worst, most extreme, and most
tragic examples of ethnocentrism. Hitler believed that Jews, as well as people belonging to
some other communities were all inferior to his ethnicity, and did not deserve to live. He
had thousands and thousands of innocent people slaughtered in concentration camps, all
because they weren't of his 'pure' race, which was, according to him, superior among all.
Though ethnocentrism is not always this extreme, history does tell us stories about how the
concept and prejudice that rose from it, took such a turn for the worse, and had horrible
consequences.
EXAMPLE 2― IMPERIALISM: Imperialism is defined as a policy or practice by which
a country increases its power by gaining control over other areas of the world (Merriam-
Webster). The most famous example of it would be European imperialism, where European
countries believed that the other areas of the world, such as Africa, America, India, etc.
needed to be controlled by them owing to their supposed underdeveloped natures.
European countries establishing their colonies in other parts of the world is an example of
ethnocentrism: they believed that they were superior, civilized, and developed than other
countries, which is why they 'needed' to establish control in order to help these countries
come up to their standards, too.
EXAMPLE 3― TERRORISM AND HATE CRIMES: This is again a negative example
of ethnocentrism. Terrorism and hate crimes take place when one religion or community
believes that it is superior, and better than any other religion or community. Ethnocentrism
tends to blind people from seeing things from another perspective― just because another
community does something that yours doesn't― like a particular style of worship, for
instance, doesn't make it inferior to yours, and nor does it make the other community's style
of worshiping incorrect. However, ethnocentrism can make individuals feel as if the other
community is bad, or wrong, and can make them take action in the form of terrorist attacks
or hate crimes.
EXAMPLE 4― IN MOVIES: In movies and other sources of entertainment,
ethnocentrism is often, but not always, portrayed in a humorous, light-hearted manner. One
example of ethnocentrism portrayed in a light manner would be the movie, 'The Big Fat
Greek Wedding', where a Greek family believes that being Greek is the one and only
acceptable way of living. However, the makers of the movie took great care to make sure
that the Greek culture was never shown in a negative or pushy manner, and that the
audiences took it in the way it was supposed to be taken.
EXAMPLE 5― IN BUSINESS: Though it is easy to assume that ethnocentrism affects
only the lesser-educated, less aware people in the world, it is not really true. Ethnocentrism
can be seen on a large scale in business, and at the workplace. For instance, an employee
may refer to his client as a 'moron' if the client needed some time to understand whatever
the employee was trying to tell him. A business owner might yell at his foreign employees
and call them stupid because of their different races, cultures, or values that are different
from the boss'. Another business owner based in a developed country may refuse to merge
with a company that is originally based in a developing country because he believes that
the developing country is very inferior to his own. Ethnocentrism thus is a part of business
and is experienced at the workplace, but if it is not controlled, it has the capability to even
destroy a company.
EXAMPLE 6― IN SCHOOLS: Ethnocentrism can be witnessed in schools across the
world. Many experts agree that focusing a curriculum, say a world history curriculum, only
on the history of the major developed countries and ignoring the developing and
underdeveloped countries altogether, is an example of ethnocentrism in schools. Children
are taught only the greatness of one country, which might lead them to develop prejudices
against other countries. Sometimes, teachers and teaching patterns can also be slightly
discriminatory, which leads to ethnocentrism. The students belonging to minority
communities can feel sidelined, targeted, or ignored.
EXAMPLE 7― CONSUMER ETHNOCENTRISM: Consumer ethnocentrism is
observed in those consumers who judge others buying imported goods instead of nationally
or locally― produced goods. Choosing to buy a good is actually an individual choice, and
judging someone on the basis of their taste or preference is not a good idea. Consumer
ethnocentrism has become much more obvious since globalization, and consumers affected
by ethnocentrism believe that purchasing foreign goods is unpatriotic, as it does not support
the domestic economy but helps foreign economies instead.
EXAMPLE 8― IN AMERICAN SOCIETY: The popular belief among American
ethnocentric people is that their country, culture, values, development, and everything else
is superior to every other nation in the world, and that every other nation is inferior to the
United States. This belief has led to political meddling among the matters of other
countries, leading to misunderstandings and miscommunication between different
countries in the world. The present-day politics are a good example of the same. Here, the
country as a whole can be considered as one group, or the in-group.
EXAMPLE 9― ETHNOCENTRISM AND CULTURE: Every culture on earth tends
to impart ethnocentrism, albeit unintentionally. Various aspects of culture such as
mythological tales, folktales, legends, religion, songs, proverbs, language, rituals, etc.
promote the superiority of that one culture over others. Though this is an unintentional kind
of promotion of ethnocentrism, it instills the belief that 'my race/my culture' is really better
than the rest, in so many ways in most of us, especially during childhood or teenage.
EXAMPLE 10― IN DAILY LIFE: Like I said earlier, most of us tend to vehemently
deny this. However, it is true that we're all ethnocentric sometime or the other in our lives,
without even realizing it. For instance, if we see someone dressed according to a style we
don't follow, we immediately develop a biased judgment against them. "God, what is he/she
wearing? It's clear he/she has no sense of fashion." In an instance as small as this, we tend
to immediately conclude that the person we're judging has a bad fashion taste, and we're
much better than him/her.
RECENTLY THE EXAMPLES THAT WE HAVE BEEN FACED ABOUT

ETHNOCENTRISM ARE FOLLOWING:
 Movement for creation of Hazara province
 Movement for creation of Saraiki province
 Movement for creation of Bahawalpur province
 Issues and controversy between religious groups specially in sunni and shiah
 Abomination between the people of different provinces for example: Punjabi and
sindhi,
 Punjabi and Pathan Baloches want to their own power and rules in their tribes.
 Muhajir (MQM) in Karachi has started movements for their protections
POSITIVE EFFECTS OF ETHNOCENTRISM:
 Ethnocentric group seems to survive better than tolerant groups.
 It justifies sacrifice and sanctifies martyrdom.
 It reinforces nationalism and patriotism
 Without ethnocentrism, a vigor national consciousness is probably impossible.
 It encourages social solidarity in societies
 Forces of cooperation become stronger
 It helps to keep the nations tied to the concept of national sovereignty.
NEGATIVE EFFECTS OF ETHNOCENTRISM:
Since no culture is static, every culture must change if it is to survive, but ethnocentrism
do not support change in culture.
 It creates tight boundaries among various groups.
 Prejudice is created.
 Due to prejudice, hatred also takes its place in society.
 Process of social relations get slower.
 Conflict is created among various groups.
 It limits a person to a particular group, to which he belongs.
 Ethnocentric people are not influenced by social changes taking place around them.
 It discourages cultural change and due to this it creates backwardness.
 National development is hampered due to ethnocentrism
XENOCENTRISM
In psychological terms, Xenocentrism is considered a type of deviant behavior because it
sways from the norms of society. It is unexpected that an individual would value the goods,
services, styles, ideas and other cultural elements of another nation. However, in some
limited, circumstances, it has been noted that Xenocentrism can help to shed light on
cultural deficiencies, whether it be ideas or products, and offers the opportunity to fix that
which may legitimately inferior to another country or culture.
It is also noted that self-perception and self-esteem can contribute to Xenocentrism. In
certain circumstances, some individuals may attempt to elevate their perception among
others by eschewing domestic products for foreign ones. By doing so, the individual
believes she is painting herself in a better light as a more educated, worldly and savvy
consumer.
The opposite of Xenocentrism is ethnocentrism which is the tendency to overvalue one's
own native cultural beliefs and values and therefore devalues the worth of the elements of
other cultures.
DEFINITION:
In literary sense, Xenocentrism means a preference for the foreign, broadly speaking,
Xenocentrism is the term used that the people have been convinced that any products
developed in their own countries are inferior to those that are produced in more
industrialized nations.
Xenocentrism is the opposite of ethnocentrism which means preferring ideas and things
from other cultures over ideas and things from your own culture.
Or more precisely in sociology term we can define it as that: It is the belief by the people
that the products, styles, or ideas of their own society are inferior to those that originates
elsewhere in any other developed society.
SOME EXAMPLES OF XENOCENTRISM
 Americans' belief that European's produce superior automotive vehicles
 European Renaissance artists desire to emulate ancient Greek artwork
 Americans belief that French or Spanish wine is superior to what is produced by
American vineyards
 The belief that cheeses in France are far superior to those in the United States
 The concept that the quality of Ireland's beer is far superior to that produced
domestically
 Coveting the culture of another country such as in Central America where the work
day is set up far differently than in the United States
 The belief that the way of dress by another culture is significantly superior and that
those within one's native country should adopt that same dress
 The belief that other countries produce better children's toys
 The concept that a quality product can't be purchased in one's native country
 The idea that cloth to make clothes is better produced by other nations
CAUSES OF XENOCENTRISM IN PAKISTAN:
EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS: It is the very duty of educational institutions to
develop pride among the members of the nations that they belong to a respectable and
honorable culture. If this feeling is developed, then nobody will feel inferiority about
his/her own culture. But unfortunately our educational institutions did not perform their
duty well. Our education policy is not such that we realize our own cultural superiority
among the masses but it is more towards the Xenocentrism.
Might be it is one of the reason of our colonial masters who give us British and western
culture. We are neither proper Muslim, nor proper western civilized. We are hanging in
between our own Muslims, Indians or Hindus and western cultures. All this is what we are
teaching to our children and what we are learning in our educational institutions.
Some people of Pakistan are from foreign educational institutions. These institutions inject
in their delicate mind that your own culture is inferior to ours. So if you want to learn
civilization, then salute our culture and hate your own culture.
MEDIA, A CAUSE OF XENOCENTRISM: Media plays an important role in order to
develop the minds of a nation. Western media is promoting their own culture, values and
norms and show other cultures as a deviance. The common example of this is the French
media making propagandas against American media. But in case of Pakistan or other
colonial culture the things are totally opposite our media is showing which should not be
there on the screen. They are playing with our culture, changing the mind of the nation and
taken to the masses away from our own norms and values.
WRONG PICTURE OF SOCIETY BY MEDIA: Sometimes advertisements promotes
what actually lacks in the society, but promoted in a way as if it’s penetrated deep in their
roots. This is why we say media / advertisements are used for propaganda purpose too. The
advertisements that have special messages in terms of glamour, elevates temptation to
cause to switch. The degree of acceptance may vary from individual to individual. It may
have ‘macro effects’ and not ‘micro’ ones on the society and sometimes the change comes
so gradually that before we realize it, we are practically into it. Cultural and Social norms
are such issues that are at a stake almost in every society, especially in the developing ones,
like Pakistan.
INFLUENCE OF THE WESTERN CULTURE: It is very common in our society when
one wants to impress his/her fellows he says,” oh I bought this from Europe or I went to
England and was amazed to see their lifestyle and if I get I chance I will go there as I am
wasting time in Pakistan”.
Sad but it is a fact that our people prefer imported things over our products although they
are much better. It’s just not the matter of products but each and every aspect of our life
unconsciously influenced by Xenocentrism. Whether it may be the matter of dress, we
prefer theirs and feel confident and fashionable. We talk in their language and imitate their
accent, which we think can help us in making our status high. Even if we want to astound
others, we speak in English.
Once our dramas, talk shows and other programs were famous all over the world and other
countries used to copy our ideas but know the situation has totally changed. All programs
have fallen victim of Xenocentrism. It’s just not the media world but our living style, our
politics, education, culture and even our religion have become an amalgamation of western
and eastern.
FEUDALISM: Pakistan is hardly in metaphysical stage. It is among developing countries
with very low development rate. This is particularly so with regard to clichés such as
‘Pakistan is an agrarian economy’, and the view, that ‘Pakistan is largely rural’ this causes
disappointment in Pakistanis.
ILLITERACY: Pakistan is considered as an illiterate country. Foreigners take it as less
civilized and ill-mannered nation state. Foreigner’s down pay sight of honor to this country.
Pakistanis are considered to be less motivated towards education and those who get
education having poor standard, don’t know its practical implementation. So, in practical
life they really failed in the society.
EFFECTS OF XENOCENTRISM ON PAKISTANI SOCIETY:

1. DEVALUING OF CULTURE: This is the very effect of Xenocentrism in a
society. A Xenocentrism person always hates all the features of his culture rather all
the features are not bad. But once he has developed Xenocentrism, he always
dislikes his cultural characteristics.
2. CONFLICTS AMONG CIVILIZATIONS: Ethnocentrism and Xenocentrism
cause conflicts among civilizations. For example, cultural conflicts of eastern and
western culture are one of the reason of Xenocentrism among the society.
3. PRODUCT CHOICES: Xenocentrism has made Pakistanis more brand conscious
“Be Pakistani & Buy Pakistani” concept failed to being adopted. People take
Pakistani home product as substandard cheap and go to buy imported ones
4. CHANGE OF STYLES, ARCHITECTURE, DRESSES & FOODS: Our eastern
and subcontinent way of construction and architecture are now transferred toward
western style. Our dresses are no more National dresses. We usually use western
style of wearing. We are more towards fast foods from continental foods.
5. DESTRUCTION OF FAMILY SYSTEM: Xenocentrism has destroyed our
family structure. Earlier we had a pride on our joint family system. But now we
don’t like joint family system. Now Pakistanis are more towards nuclear family
system.
6. DESTRUCTION OF NATIONAL LANGUAGE: Our national language is Urdu.
But we feel shy to speak in Urdu. It is because of Xenocentrism. We feel proud to
talk in English. No one can be successful in life if he is not experts in English. We
have destroyed our national valuable heritage only because of this Xenocentrism.
7. Loss of businesses in the home country
8. Loss of jobs in the home country
9. Degraded economic situation
10. Overall reduction of morale within the nation
11. A loss of population to emigration
12. Negative impact on the identity of others in relation to culture
HOW TO REDUCE XENOCENTRISM IN PAKISTAN:
 Our Institutions must be strong; our social institutions are polluted with
Xenocentrism and are suffering from inferiority complex. So first we need to
strengthen our social institutions.
 Ideology of Pakistan should be properly defined and propagated.
 The concept of be Pakistani, buy Pakistani should be strengthened. We should be
proud of be Pakistani.
 Media should portray the real and positive picture of Pakistan rather than
copying the western media. It is the responsibility of media to promote our own
cultures, values rather than others.
 To develop cultural policy: We have to develop certain culture policy so that the
common men are made aware of our true culture. Common man doesn’t know that
what the true national culture of Pakistan is. We are stagnant with our ethical culture.
But we didn’t think what the whole culture of Pakistan is. Even, nowadays we do
not have true ethical culture. We are lacking behind in proper promotion of our
culture, the need of the hour is that Pakistani culture at the international level will
be promoted.
CONCLUSION:
In our fast-changing world, the rapid transformations in communication and technology
are bound to influence our culture. If confidence and pride is not restored to our cultural
values, it could result in the adoption of only superficial symbols of these new changes.
Such an adoption would lead neither to any meaningful change in our socio-economic
development nor to a meaningful integration of our social consciousness. It is essential
that our cultural structure is receptive to new ideas to comprehend the technological
stimulation of consciousness.
If globalization finds us in cultural confusion and chaos, we are bound to suffer from
externally imposed cultural patterns. Our cultural heritage is one of the oldest in the world
and our people have always shown resilience to new ideas. We need to rehabilitate our
cultural pride and to anticipate its future manifestations so that we emerge as a nation living
in the modern world with a unique, distinct, and proud heritage.
SOCIALIZATION
Culture and Socialization; formal and non-formal socialization, transmission of culture,
cultural relativism. Sub-cultures.
Socialization:
Young and Mack: the process of introducing the individual into social word is called
socialization. In common sense, socialization is a lifelong training for the adjustment of
one’s life in society. The process of socialization is process of learning norms, roles,
techniques and other social patterns.
Peter says that socialization is process of transmission of culture, the process whereby man
learns the rules and practices of social groups
Horton and Hunt said that socialization is the process whereby one internalizes the norms
of groups among whom one lives so that a unique “self” emerges.
FACTORS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF PERSONALITY
 Biological inheritance: The nature-nurture debate
 Physical environment: The climate & geographic conditions
 Culture: Components of culture
 Group experience: Birds of a feather flock together
 Unique experience: Siblings have different personalities
 Religion, education, politics: values, beliefs, philosophy, learning of knowledge and
skills
 society: society in ourselves
TYPES OF SOCIALIZATION
 Primary socialization
 Anticipatory socialization
 Developmental socialization
 Re-socialization
SOURCE /AGENCIES OF SOCIALIZATION
The family, Neighbors, Religion, Economics, Politics, Education, Peers or age mates,
Social institutions, Literature and mass media of communication, The community, Media,
Folkways, Mores, Customs, Clubs, Associations, Networks
FUNCTION OF SOCIALIZATION
 Man from biological being to social being
 Development of the personality
 Helps to become disciplined
 Helps to enact different roles
 Provides knowledge and skills
 Helps to develop right aspirations of life
 Contributes to the stability of social order
 Helps to reduce social distance
 Provides scope for bright future
 Helps the transformation of culture
FORMAL AND NON FORMAL SOCIALIZATION
Formal socialization is learning skills, values, and norms with planned and organized
experiences such as in school. Informal socialization is learning without an institution or
formal procedure.
Formal education – Organized, guided by a formal curriculum, leads to a formally
recognized credential such as a high school completion diploma or a degree, and is often
guided and recognized by government at some level. Teachers are usually trained as
professionals in some way.
Non-formal learning – Organized (even if it is only loosely organized), may or may not
be guided by a formal curriculum. This type of education may be led by a qualified teacher
or by a leader with more experience. Though it doesn’t result in a formal degree or diploma,
non-formal education is highly enriching and builds an individual’s skills and capacities.
Continuing education courses are an example for adults. Girl guides and boy scouts are an
example for children. It is often considered more engaging, as the learner’s interest is a
driving force behind their participation.
Informal learning – No formal curriculum and no credits earned. The teacher is simply
someone with more experience such as a parent, grandparent or a friend. A father teaching
his child to play catch or a babysitter teaching a child their ABC’s is an example of informal
education.
These may be overly simplified explanations. There are times when the lines between each
type of learning get blurred, as well. It isn’t always as cut and dry as it seems, but these
definitions give you a general idea of each type of learning.
STAGES OF SOCIALIZATION
1. Oral Stage
2. Anal Stage
3. Genital (Oedipal) Stage
4. Latency Stage
5. Adolescence Stage.
Erikson (1950) believes that personality continues to be molded throughout the entire
lifespan from birth to death. This period has been divided into eight stages by him. Each
stage has its characteristic features marked and affected by emotional crisis, particular
culture of the person and his interaction with the society of which he is a part.
1. ORAL STAGE: This stage expands from zero to one-and-a-half years. During this
period mouth is the sensitive zone of the body and the main source of joy and pleasure
for the child. How the infant is being cared for by the mother makes the infant trust or
mistrusts the world (represented by mother) around him. If his wants are frequently
satisfied, he develops trust and believes that the world will take care of him. In case of
frequent dissatisfaction, mistrust develops leading the infant to believe that the people
around him cannot be believed, relied on, and that he is going to lose most of what he
wants. After the first six months (sucking period), the remaining one year (biting
period) is fairly difficult for the child and mother because of eruption of teeth and
weaning. If properly handled, infant’s trust gets reinforced and he develops an in-built
and lifelong spring of optimism and hope.
Broken Family: Persons, who had an unpleasant (abandoned, unloved and uncared)
babyhood, are likely to find parenthood as burdensome and may express dependent,
helpless, abusive behaviour, and angry outbursts i.e., oral character. To such people,
caseworker is like parents, who helps the client to verbalise his anger and distrust and
later provides emotional support and protective services.
2. ANAL STAGE: Towards the end of biting period of oral stage, the child is able to
walk, talk, and eat on his own. He can retain or release something that he has. This is
true of bowel and bladder function also. He can either retain or release his bowel and
bladder contents. Now, the child no more depends upon the mouth zone for pleasure.
He now derives pleasure from bowel and bladder (anal zone) functioning, which entails
anxiety because of toilet training by parents. Child is taught where to pass urine and
where to go for defecation etc. In this training of bladder and bowel control, child may
develop autonomy, or shame and doubt. The task of anal is to develop autonomy. If the
parents are supportive without being overprotective and if the child is allowed to
function with some independence, he gains some confidence in his autonomy probably
by the age of three and prefers love over hate, cooperation over willfulness, and self-
expression over suppression.
Autonomy, thus, overbalances shame and doubt and leads to development of

confidence that he can control his functions, and also, to some extent, the people around
him. Contrary to this, the child may feel angry, foolish and ashamed if parents criticize
his faces and over-control his bowel and bladder functioning during the training for
toilet. Observations of sanskaras convey acceptance to the child and help the parents to
train them in appropriate manner. The children (with more mistrust and doubt in their
share) when adults may need help in accepting failures and imperfection as an inherent
part of one’s life. By accepting the client as he is, the caseworker can reduce his feeling
of self-hatred and perfectionism. Over-demanding adults or those who express temper
tantrums when asked to assume responsibility may need to be helped to control their
impulsive acts. They should be rewarded when they exhibit controls, and one should
reinforce their autonomy and independence when exercised. Autonomy and
independence are totally different from impulsive acts as these involve rationality and
not emotionality.
3. GENITAL (OEDIPAL) STAGE: The task for this period is to develop and strengthen
initiative, failing which the child develops a strong feeling of guilt. This period extends
from 3rd to 6th years of life, i.e., pre-school period. He is now capable of initiating
activity, both intellectual as well as motor on his own. How far this initiative is
reinforced depends upon how much physical freedom is given to the child and how far
his curiosity is satisfied. If he is led to feel bad about his behavior or his interests, he
may grow with a sense of guilt about his self-initiated activities.
Erikson (1950) opines that the child takes first initiative at home when he/she expresses
passionate interest in his/her parent of opposite sex. The parents ultimately disappoint
him/her. They should try to help the child to identify with the same sex parent, e.g., the
girl should be encouraged to identify with mother and the son with the father. In
addition to this initiative, the child also attempts to wrest a place for self in the race of
siblings for parent’s affection. He sees the difference between what he wants and what
he is asked to do. This culminates into a clear-cut division between the child’s set of
expanded desires and the parental set of restrictions. He gradually “turns these values
(restrictions, i.e., don’ts) into self-punishment”.
Slowly and gradually, he extracts more initiative from the conflict and grows happily
if his initiative gets proper and adequate reinforcement. The caseworker encourages the
clients burdened with guilt feelings to take initiative in family as well as in other
situations, and works with his social environment to strengthen his capacity to take
initiative.
4. LATENCY STAGE: This stage covers the period from 6 to 11 years, i.e., school
age. The child can reason out rationally and can use the tools that adults use. The sexual
interests and curiosity (common in genital period) get suppressed till puberty. If
encouraged and given opportunity, he gains confidence in his ability to perform and use
adult materials. This leads to feeling of industry in him. When unable to use adult
materials, he develops inferiority feelings. Such children may develop problems with
peers. They need to be encouraged to interact with classmates and be less dependent
upon others. If the child has mastered the task of genital period (initiative in place of
guilt) he will be able to master the tasks of latency (industry in place of inferiority) also
provided he is encouraged to undertake and helped to execute the responsibilities
entrusted to him.
5. ADOLESCENCE STAGE: This period, regarded as a period of turmoil, usually

starts at 12-13 years and can extend up to 18-19 years. The adolescents, during this
transitional process from childhood to maturity, behave something like an adult and
sometimes like a child. Parents too show their ambivalence to accept them in their new
role of an adult in-the-making. This stage exhibits all the psycho-social characteristics
of earlier period and only towards the end, all these get resolved into a new set of role
(identity) for the adolescent. In order to develop a personal identity, he becomes fan of
some hero, starts following certain ideologies, and tries his luck with opposite sex.
Indecision and confusion are not uncommon in this stage. Identification with a wrong
person shall create problems for him. The task of this age is to develop identity, i.e.,
values, strengths, skills, various roles, limitations, etc., failing which his identity gets
diffused and he fails to know how to behave in different situations. He needs to be
helped to deal with the physiological, emotional pressures along-with pressures from
parents, peers, etc. Group work is more helpful with problem-adolescents. When
showing confusion about their role, they can be helped to emulate the group leader or
identify with group worker. Parents can handle adolescents properly if educated
adequately about the needs and problems of this age.
Similarly, tasks for young adulthood, adulthood and old age are intimacy vs. isolation,
generativity vs. stagnation, and ego-integrity vs. despair. These psycho-analytical
concepts are helpful in understanding behavior of the individuals. Apart from these,
there are some other tasks described by some other scholars for each stage which
according to them are to be achieved for a normal human development.
THEORIES OF SOCIALIZATION
1. THE LOOKING-GLASS SELF
(In 1902, Charles Horton Cooley created the concept of the looking-glass self, which
explored how identity is formed)
The looking-glass self is a social psychological concept created by Charles Horton Cooley
in 1902. It states that a person's self grows out of society's interpersonal interactions and
the perceptions of others. The term refers to people shaping their identity based on the
perception of others, which leads the people to reinforce other people's perspectives on
themselves. People shape themselves based on what other people perceive and confirm
other people's opinion of themselves.
The looking-glass self is a social psychological concept, created by C H Cooley in 1902.
A person's self grows out of society's interpersonal interactions and the perceptions of
others about him/her. A social self of this sort might be called the reflected or looking-
glass self. C.H. Cooley has summed it up in his statement: "I am not what I think I am and
I am not what you think I am; I am what I think that you think I am. There are three main
components of the looking-glass self:
 First, we imagine how we must appear to others.
 Second, we imagine the judgment of that appearance.
 Finally, we develop our self through the judgments of others.
The self builds only with the help of others. If others start treating a pretty girl as
unattractive she will never feel beautiful. We discover our self through the reactions of
others is called “looking-glass self”. In the looking-glass self a person views himself or
herself through others' perceptions in society and in turn gains identity. Identity, or self, is
the result of the concept in which we learn to see ourselves as others do (Yeung & Martin
2003). The looking-glass self begins at an early age and continues throughout a person’s
life.
In hypothesizing the framework for the looking glass self, Cooley said, "the mind is
mental" because "the human mind is social. " In other words, the mind's mental ability is a
direct result of human social interaction. Beginning as children, humans begin to define
themselves within the context of their socializations. The child learns that the symbol of
his/her crying will elicit a response from his/her parents, not only when they are in need of
necessities, such as food, but also as a symbol to receive their attention. George Herbert
Mead described the self as "taking the role of the other," the premise for which the self is
actualized. Through interaction with others, we begin to develop an identity about who we
are, as well as empathy for others.
2. SIGMUND FREUD
(6 May 1856 – 23 September 1939). He is considered to be the founder of the
psychodynamic approach to psychology which looks closely at the unconscious drives that
motivate people to act in certain ways.
Freud’s Model of Personality

Basic drives and influence of society
Basic Human Needs Society in Action
The three parts of personality- operating within human mind

Ego
(the Control Centre)
A person’s conscious efforts to
balance innate pleasure-seeking
drives with the demands of society.
Id Superego
the instinctive and (the Police Force)
unsocialized desires. the operation of
It’s selfish & culture & society
antisocial within the individual
Learning Objectives
Explain the theory of psychosexual stages in the context of adult personality development.
Describe Sigmund Freud's psychoanalytic theory of personality
Key Points
Sigmund Freud's psychoanalytic theory of personality argues that human behavior is the
result of the interactions among three component parts of the mind: the id, ego, and
superego. This "structural theory" of personality places great importance on how conflicts
among the parts of the mind shape behavior and personality. These conflicts are mostly
unconscious.
According to Freud, personality develops during childhood and is critically shaped through
a series of five psychosexual stages, which he called his psychosexual theory of
development. During each stage, a child is presented with a conflict between biological
drives and social expectations; successful navigation of these internal conflicts will lead to
mastery of each developmental stage, and ultimately to a fully mature personality. Freud's
ideas have since been met with criticism, in part because of his singular focus on sexuality
as the main driver of human personality development.
THE Id
The id, the most primitive of the three structures, is concerned with instant gratification of
basic physical needs and urges. It operates entirely unconsciously (outside of conscious
thought). For example, if your id walked past a stranger eating ice cream, it would most
likely take the ice cream for itself. It doesn't know, or care, that it is rude to take something
belonging to someone else; it would care only that you wanted the ice cream. In other
words, Id is
 The id is the only component of personality that is present from birth.
 This aspect of personality is entirely unconscious
 According to Freud, the id is the source of all psychic energy (libido)
 The id is driven by the pleasure principle, which strives for immediate gratification
of all desires, wants, and needs
 If these needs are not satisfied immediately, the result is a state of anxiety or tension
However, immediately satisfying these needs is not always realistic or even possible
THE EGO
In contrast to the instinctual id and the moral superego, the ego is the rational, pragmatic
part of our personality. It is less primitive than the id and is partly conscious and partly
unconscious. It's what Freud considered to be the "self," and its job is to balance the
demands of the id and superego in the practical context of reality. So, if you walked past
the stranger with ice cream one more time, your ego would mediate the conflict between
your id ("I want that ice cream right now") and superego ("It's wrong to take someone else's
ice cream") and decide to go buy your own ice cream. While this may mean you have to
wait 10 more minutes, which would frustrate your id, your ego decides to make that
sacrifice as part of the compromise– satisfying your desire for ice cream while also
avoiding an unpleasant social situation and potential feelings of shame. The ego is,
 The ego is the component of personality that is responsible for dealing with reality.
 According to Freud, the ego develops from the id and ensures that the impulses of
the id can be expressed in a manner acceptable by the society
 The ego functions in the conscious, preconscious, and unconscious mind
 The ego operates based on the reality principle, which strives to satisfy the id's
desires in realistic and socially appropriate ways
 The reality principle weighs the costs and benefits of an action before deciding to
act upon or abandon impulses
THE SUPEREGO
The superego is concerned with social rules and morals—similar to what many people call
their "conscience" or their "moral compass." It develops as a child learns what their culture
considers right and wrong. If your superego walked past the same stranger, it would not
take their ice cream because it would know that that would be rude. However, if both your
id and your superego were involved, and your id was strong enough to override your
superego's concern, you would still take the ice cream, but afterward you would most likely
feel guilt and shame over your actions. The super ego,
 The superego is the aspect of personality that holds all of our internalized moral
standards and ideals that we acquire from both parents and society
 The superego provides guidelines for making judgments.
 According to Freud, the superego begins to emerge at around age five.
 There are two parts of the superego:
 The ego ideal: includes the rules and standards for good behaviors.
 The conscious: includes information about things that are viewed as bad by parents
and society.
 Culture controls human drives through superego- Freud called it “Repression”
 The competing demands of self and society are resolved through compromise-
Freud called it “sublimation” which transforms selfish drives into socially accepted
activities.
Freud believed that the id, ego, and superego are in constant conflict and that adult
personality and behavior are rooted in the results of these internal struggles throughout
childhood. He believed that a person who has a strong ego has a healthy personality and
that imbalances in this system can lead to neurosis (what we now think of as anxiety and
depression) and unhealthy behaviors.
Critical Analysis
 We appreciate Freud’s idea that early childhood experiences have lasting impact on
our personalities, and
 That we internalize social norms, but
 Most of the critics of Freud’s era refused to accept sex as basic human need
 Recently, Freud’s theory is criticized as male centered thereby devaluing women.
 Also Freud made biology a center point of his theory ignoring social, cultural and
other individual aspects.
ANTICIPATED AND PAST QUESTIONS ON CULTURE:-

1) What is the role of culture in socialization of an individual to become a useful
member of society? Discuss with examples.
2) Short note – Ethnocentrism and Xenocentrism
3) Discuss the role of culture and social group in the formation of personality.
4) Ethnocentrism leads to sectarianism. Is it so? How both are number one
problems of Pakistan? What are the remedies?
5) Define and corroborate – Culture and sub-culture
6) Short note – Ethnocentrism
7) Short note – Value and norm
8) Define culture. Use this definition as a framework and discuss the salient
features of Pakistani culture.
9) Prove that “individual is a social produce”. Highlight the contribution of
culture and society in this process.
10) Culture is everything which is socially learned and shared by the members of
a society. Discuss by giving examples from Pakistan society.
11) “The cultural deception of the West and the cultural diffusion of the East lead
to anomic.” Elucidate.
12) Often social change results in social disorganization. What cultural
prerequisite can avoid such situation?
13) Why is culture indispensable to human society and what part do norms and
values play in social life.”
14) It has been said that a person raised in one culture may learn to act like people
in an adopted culture, but will never be able to think and feel like a person of
adopted culture. Do you agree?
15) Discuss the role of media in social and cultural change in Pakistan. What type
of social planning/policy is needed to direct this change in the context of our
own social and cultural values? Discuss with examples.

Culture:: Fayaz A. Soomro, Faculty Member, National Officer's Academy-Chapter-2 (Culture)

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Fayaz A.

Soomro, Faculty Member, National Officer's Academy-Chapter-2 (Culture)

MEANING AND CHARACTERISTICS:

TYPES OF CULTURE: 1) Material culture, 2) Non -Material culture, 3) Ideal culture

FACTORS OF CULTURAL DEVELOPMENT: -

PAKISTANI CULTURE IS AN ISLAMIC CULTURE

4. LANGUAGE: Perhaps our most important set of symbols is language. In English,

ETHNOCENTRISM: BRIEF HISTORY OF THE CONCEPT

RECENTLY THE EXAMPLES THAT WE HAVE BEEN FACED ABOUT

EFFECTS OF XENOCENTRISM ON PAKISTANI SOCIETY:

Autonomy, thus, overbalances shame and doubt and leads to development of

5. ADOLESCENCE STAGE: This period, regarded as a period of turmoil, usually

Freud’s Model of Personality

The three parts of personality- operating within human mind

ANTICIPATED AND PAST QUESTIONS ON CULTURE:-

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