Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
N. Chaumier
"Cahiers Techniques" is a collection of documents intended for engineers
and technicians, people in the industry who are looking for more in-depth
information in order to complement that given in product catalogues.
Foreword
The author disclaims all responsibility subsequent to incorrect use of
information or diagrams reproduced in this document, and cannot be held
responsible for any errors or oversights, or for the consequences of using
information and diagrams contained in this document.
Nicolas CHAUMIER
Contents
1 Introduction 1.1 Players p. 4
1.2 Needs p. 4
2 Itemizing energy consumption and 2.1 Energy consumption p. 5
available energy sources 2.2 Energy sources p. 6
3 Reducing energy costs 3.1 Analyzing energy bills p. 8
3.2 Using the existing contract p. 8
3.3 Renegotiating the contract p. 9
4 Reducing energy consumption 4.1 Savings in the HVAC system p. 10
4.2 Savings on domestic hot water p. 15
4.3 Savings on lighting p. 15
4.4 Reducing electrical energy losses p. 16
4.5 Other savings p. 19
4.6 Advantages of correct maintenance p. 19
4.7 Importance of metering p. 19
4.8 The energy audit approach p. 20
5 Case studies 5.1 Optimizing energy bills in a hospital p. 21
5.2 Installation of ventilation with a variable speed drive p. 21
6 Conclusion p. 23
Appendix: cogeneration p. 24
It is first of all advisable to identify the aims of consideration and their needs in relation to
each player concerned with the building under energy management.
1.1 Players
The main players are: c The suppliers, in particular energy suppliers
c The operator, who may be the actual occupier (electricity, fuel oil and gas distributors, etc.),
of the building or a designated management c The competent regulatory authorities for the
company, building under consideration.
c The customer, i.e. the owner of the building,
either as occupier or investor,
c The project manager: the architect or design
department responsible for the construction of
the building,
1.2 Needs
Needs of operators Needs of regulatory authorities
All operators, commercial and industrial, have a The various official organizations which have
pressing need to offer their products and authority over the design of buildings are given
services at competitive prices. by the States the responsibility for implementing
The operator’s overriding objective is therefore a general energy policy with the following main
to reduce energy bills through a lower tariff, objectives:
through reduction of energy consumption and c ensuring the long-term management of
through government aid for the reduction of national energy supplies with a view to greater
energy consumption, while simultaneously energy independence;
maintaining all of the services required for the c ensuring a coherent approach to overall
correct operation of the operator’s activities and
consideration of environmental aspects: global
for the comfort of the people occupying, working
climatic warming, CO2 emissions into the
in and visiting the building.
atmosphere, heat and pollutant emissions;
Needs of customers c ensuring that economic development is
compatible with sustaining the environmental
c to ensure conformity with current energy
regulations, conditions to make it possible (“sustainable
development”);
c to benefit from grants for the installation of
energy-saving systems, c promoting and applying the international
agreements relating to energy and the
c to increase and maintain the real value of their
environment.
property.
In certain cases, it is apparent that the various
Needs of project managers players have directly opposing interests: for
c to remain competitive in terms of services and example, installing a highly efficient heating
price at the time of selection, system which is expensive to buy is an
c to remain within budget during installation work. additional charge for the investor, but a saving
for the operator. In other cases, the same player
Needs of energy suppliers may simultaneously have two roles (e.g. in the
c to optimize the operation of their networks, case of an owner-occupier).
c to control peaks in energy demand without Hence the need for an overall approach which
oversizing their installations. takes account of the energy costs, installation
And, in the special case of electrical energy: costs and equipment maintenance costs.
c to control reactive power, In addition there is the fundamental requirement
c to control power quality (reducing voltage not to reduce production capacity, nor the
fluctuations, power cuts, harmonics, etc.). comfort level in the building.
a- b-
Other Other
3% Cooking 7%
IT equipment Lighting Lighting
8% 24% 6% 32%
Refrigeration
of foodstuffs
28%
Ventilation
11%
Ventilation
9%
As stated above, the main motivation for decision (from two to five years in most cases).
makers to take an interest in energy control With cost savings thus the dominating factor,
solutions is economic efficiency. it is highly worthwhile to attempt to optimize
When deciding whether to invest in improvement the application of energy supply agreements
work, the manager of a building, for example, before even considering technical changes to
must be convinced that the operation will reduce actual physical consumption. It is thus
produce immediate results as well as an a question of first trying to spend less rather
acceptable time for return on the investment than trying to use fewer kWh.
As savings in terms of costs are the main the procedures and behavior of users. Separate
concern for the operators, the first approach, as from the process, the power consumed by the
outlined in the previous section, is to try to pay functional systems in the building must be
less for the same amount of energy. reduced (while maintaining output and comfort)
This approach is the easiest as it does not require as described in the following subsections.
any radical change to behavior or installations. It should however be stressed that this approach
The next step of the approach requires that a contributes to the improvement and
smaller quantity of energy be used to achieve modernization of production equipment
the same result. (providing new solutions in terms of both
Reducing consumption is also strongly performance and quality): it thus also satisfies a
encouraged by the requirements of the professional requirement.
regulatory authorities (see Section 1). Generally, for a building containing an industrial
This involves technical modifications to the process, the main area for savings lies in the
design of future or existing buildings, the design production equipment, which must therefore be
and implementation of improvements, the studied with specialists in the relevant
adaptation of new systems, and even changes to application area.
20°C 20°C
Air conditioning
Process Process
Heat loss
c Avoid any improper use of heating: via hot water pipes and thermal metering is used
v In all buildings housing commercial, industrial for billing purposes. In other cases, thermal energy
or administrative activities, a temperature of is generated in a boiler located in the building.
20°C to 22°C should not be exceeded during To be fully efficient, a boiler must be of recent
heating periods. Temperature settings are design and adjusted and maintained by qualified
necessarily higher in hospitals and health personnel. Its efficiency can be measured,
centers, while colder ambient temperatures are regardless of the type of fuel, by monitoring the
possible in gymnasiums and sports halls. level of CO2 and the temperature of the exhaust
v Prevent or limit the opening of windows (both gases.
during cold spells and heat waves) or make c Use heat pumps
individual heating (and cooling) systems Heat pumps can be used alone or in combination
dependent on the windows remaining closed. with a boiler, with the type used depending on
v Do not heat, or if necessary maintain just the heat source.
above freezing, unoccupied or partially occupied v The heat source may be the surrounding air,
buildings (storage and service areas). For but in this case the pump cannot be used
individual offices, rooms, etc., it is possible to effectively below a certain temperature, because
control the operation of local heating, or the of icing. “Air-water” or “air-air” heat pumps are
opening of air vents, by a presence detector. thus most frequently used in mid-season, with
c Optimize the output of heat generators the boiler taking over during the coldest periods.
Heating systems can be either individual or v The heat source may also be subterranean
centralized. water, where available (see fig. 5 next page), or
v Individual systems generally draw on electric the subsoil. The heat pumps are in this case of
radiators (convector, radiant or blower type) the “water-water” type and have a much greater
which heat each area of the building separately range of use, as they are not limited by the
(offices, rooms, common areas). However, outside temperature.
although the efficiency of an electric radiator is Note: The efficiency of a heat pump is measured
100% (all of the energy used is converted into by its coefficient of performance (COP), which is
heat in the building), this type of heating is the ratio of the thermal energy delivered under
seldom the most economical. To be effective, it specified temperature conditions to the electrical
must be controlled so as to switch off the heating energy consumed by the compressor (and
once a room is no longer in use. possibly the fan).
v Centralized systems include a heat generator The COP of an “air-water” heat pump is 2 to 3.5
(boiler) and a distribution system. When heat is depending on the air temperature. A “water-
purchased from a supplier, the energy is delivered water” heat pump can achieve a COP of 3 to 5.
Condenser
Evaporator
Compressor
Underground water
circulation
Management PLC
External
θ°C sensor Variable
Internal θ°C sensors speed drive
Thermostat
Convector Radiators Circulation
pump Boiler
θ°C sensor
Regulation
Pressure reducing
valve
θ°C sensors
Fan Fan
Condenser Evaporator
Drive
Compressor
Extrator fan
Extractor channel
M M M
Drive
Fig. 12 : extension of an industrial network with reactive power compensation (source: Schneider Electric).
The solution to this problem is to install reactive and the equipment. In practice, optimum
power generators (capacitors), either closest to compensation is possible using capacitors
the loads which consume it (local compensation) grouped in “steps”, with each step connected to
or at selected points on the electricity supply the electrical circuit via a contactor controlled by
network (central compensation). a regulator subject to the measured power factor.
Compensation is on the low voltage part of the
electricity supply network and sometimes, in the Reduce the harmonic ratio
case of more powerful installations, on the “Harmonics” (currents or voltages with a
medium voltage part. frequency which is a multiple of the 50 or 60 Hz
Correct compensation enables the operation of operating frequency) are generated by certain
an installation to be maintained at a power factor “non-linear” equipment, in particular those
of higher than 0.93, which is regarded as containing electronic components: domestic
satisfactory. equipment, computers, inverters, variable speed
However, installations do not permanently drives, etc. They are superimposed on the
function in the same configuration: circuits are current or voltage in the electricity supply network.
switched, loads are activated or removed, These harmonics travel upstream on the network
motors start and stop. It is also undesirable to and create a form of pollution for all other
leave the compensation calculated for maximum equipment, some of which is very sensitive. They
loading permanently connected, as there is a are also the cause of energy losses due to the
risk of “over compensation” leading to Joule effect which may reach 10%, in conductors,
overvoltages which can damage the installation transformers and all other equipment.
In 1980 In 2000
Average length of connections Average length of connections
in a LV distribution board: 50 cm in a LV distribution board: 5 cm
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
End
End
1
2
3
4 Start
Start
Fig. 13 : evolution of the architecture of an electrical switchboard between 1980 and 2000 (source: Merlin Gerin Alpes).
Fig. 15 : comparison of the electricity supply bills in a hospital before and after modification.
Fig. 17 : possible savings using a variable speed drive in a ventilation system (drive reference: ALTIVAR-
Telemecanique ATV58HD28N4 with integrated line choke, source: Schneider Electric).
Control of energy consumption has for a long Professionals in the field of energy distribution
time been a major source of concern for many and management (design offices, system
countries – even for those which did not sign the builders, service companies) are thus the first
Kyoto agreement – as a result of budgetary worries people concerned: they must develop highly
and a fear of shortages in particular due to: innovative solutions and make them available to
c an operational electricity generation base their customers, both during improvement work
which is insufficiently productive, and when designing new buildings.
c an obsolete or ineffective electricity distribution To do this, the most advanced manufacturers of
system. electro-technical equipment, such as Schneider
Electric, are developing ranges that integrate
At a world level, this concern has continued to
intelligence and communication to perform the
grow over recent years, and all the signs are that
functions required of them.
this situation will persist for some time.
Finally, an appropriate energy audit is an
In addition, to reduce CO2 emissions and global
essential stage in the search for energy saving in
warming, certain states have begun action which
buildings to achieve genuinely optimized
will probably be long term and extended to other
consumption.
countries. The pressure and incentives will
continue to increase in many countries over the
next decades.
Users on the other hand require reliable and
constantly improved operation of their production
facilities and comfort level in their buildings; at
the same time they have to comply with national
regulations and control their energy consumption
costs.
Cogeneration is defined as the combined There are two different cogeneration concepts:
generation of electrical and thermal energy from the upstream cycle and the downstream cycle.
the same fuel source.
Exhaust gas
Water circulation
Control system
Hot gases
Turbine Alternator
7.3 Advantages
Cogeneration systems are more efficient in their variety of fuels can be used: natural gas, fuel oil,
fuel use than separate systems, usually resulting coal, wood, agricultural waste products
in savings of up to 30% (see fig. 20 ). A wide (biomass) and household waste.
Generator Combined
efficiency: 35% 100 Generator 35 efficiency: 85% Generator 35
100
Loss Boiler 50
65 Loss
Boiler
efficiency: 90% 55 Generator 50
Loss
15
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