Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Literature Review
2.1. Introduction
In this chapter, research drawn from classroom management literature, self efficacy and teacher
efficacy literature, and five factor model of personality in teaching context. In this chapter the related
literature on research variables is reviewed. Information organized around the following questions: (a)
what is classroom management and what influence does teachers’ beliefs on classroom management?
(b) What is self-efficacy and what do we know about teacher efficacy? And (c) What do we know about
five factor model of personality and how does it help to find out teachers’ personality profiles?
Information related to question (c) is not exhaustive, but rather is limited to findings that are relevant to
the objectives of this thesis. Specifically, information pertaining to classroom management (with an
emphasis on teacher characteristics), information pertaining to teacher efficacy as a predictor of
instructional outcomes (with an emphasis on its relation to classroom management style and teacher
characteristics), and information pertaining to five factor model of personality as a predictor of
classroom management style and teacher efficacy is reviewed.
A) What is classroom management and what influence does teachers’ beliefs on classroom
management?
The dictionary meaning of class is member or body of persons with common characteristics, or in
like circumstances, or with a common purpose, etc. In education, a class is a group of students under
one teacher, or pursuing a study together. A classroom is a room in a school in which classes meet. It is a
meeting place of a group of students for instruction and learning. In the present time, management is
taken as a serious applied social science. In that light, it is defined as the process of working with and
through individuals and groups to accomplish organizational goals. Or it is the process of optimizing the
use of four or five resources namely, persons, money, material, information and time for achieving some
predetermined goals of an organization. Based on certain general consideration, all managers in their
stations of work perform the same main functions such as forecast, plan, organize,direct and control.
Thus, be it a factory chief, military general, housewife , school principal or a teacher , all are managing
.With some added specifics skills for educational management, a school principal does institutional
management and a teacher ,classroom management( Khetarpal,2005).
Translating instructional goals into learning experiences is what classroom management is all about.
In all classrooms the teacher is in charge of organizing the environment, managing the learning process
and student behavior as well as establishing the framework for a sprit of enquiry. In the ultimate
analysis, good classroom management is when ‘my students really want to come to my class and the
responsible parents are ager to send them there after watching their day to day progress on some hard
indicators’. Practicing the art or applied social science for achieving such results has always been a
challenge for those who deliver a curriculum in the classroom. Highly successful teachers may be finding
very different as persons and as professionals. They will be found utilizing different teaching strategies
and will express different ideas about maintaining student discipline. Contrast the classrooms of these
teaching superstars, and you will find major differences in how they structure learning environment for
their students and manage their classroom.
Seven indicators, although not exhaustive, of such structuring reveal much about the depth in the
concept of classroom management (Khetarpal, 2005). These are listed below and described thereafter.
1. Classroom climate; as a set of characteristics that describe a classroom, distinguish it from other
classrooms and influence the behavior of teachers and students in it, relatively enduring over a period of
time.
2. Classroom communication; the process by which someone who has a purpose to accomplish , say a
teacher, tries to convey something to get someone else, say a student, to act for the achievement of the
purpose. Communication involves both exchanging information and transmitting meaning.
3. Classroom management of student learning to belong; which is about focusing on culture which can
help shape attitudes , dispositions , and behaviors and a strong sense of belongingness of those in the
school , all of which work in pursuit of the technical part of school. The culture produces a strong sense
of community for the school and a feeling of belonging to that community on the part of teachers and
students and parents. Teachers creating learning experiences for their students by knowing about their
background knowledge of skills, interests outside school, cultural heritage and special needs through
various methods.
5. Teaching strategies; means selecting best method for teaching once teacher become aware of what
the class needs in terms of learning experiences; teaching the whole class, teaching groups, or individual
work.
computer lab management. Obviously, classroom management for the new generation will
as a learning environment; the management of student discipline, order and care; the
grouping of student for different tasks and patterns of interaction; the individualization of
students learning (Stensimo, 1995, Emmer, Everston, Clements, &Worsham, 1994, Jones and
Jones, 1990 as cited in Martin & Shoho, 2000, and Smith, 1991). The task of classroom
management is also defined as follows (Truly et al 1992).
Drawing from the works of Martin and Baldwin (1998), although often used
interchangeably, the terms classroom management and discipline are not synonymous. The
term discipline typically refers to the structures and rules describing the expected behavior of
students and the effort to ensure that students comply with those rules. However, classroom
management is defined as a multi-faceted construct and umbrella term that includes three
broad dimensions describing teacher efforts to oversee the activities of the classroom:
structuring daily routines, and allocating materials; Dimension two people management
pertains to what teachers believe about students as persons and what teachers do to develop
the teacher – student relationship. A large body of literature indicates that academic
achievement and productive behavior are influenced by the quality of teacher- student
relationship (Burden, 1995; Weinstein, 1996, Martin & Baldwin, 1998); the third dimension,
behavior management, is similar to, but different than, discipline in that it focuses on pre
planed means of preventing misbehavior rather than the teacher’s reaction to it. Specifically,
this facet includes setting rules, establishing a reward structure, and providing opportunities
Froyens and Iverson, (1999) have considered three major components for classroom
management:
(a) Content management – occurs when the teachers manage the space, materials,
equipments, movement of the people, and lessons that are part of a curriculum or program of
studies.
(b) Conduct management: is centered on one’s beliefs about the nature of people. By
integrating knowledge about human diversity (and individually at the same time) into a
27
particular instructional philosophy, teacher could manage their classroom in a better and
(c) Convenient management: stresses the classroom as a social system. Teacher and student
roles and expectations shape the classroom into an environment conducive to learning.
Definitions of classroom management vary, but usually include action taken by the
teacher to establish order, engage students, or elicit their cooperation (Emmer & Stought,
2001). Doyle (1986) summarized it as “The action and strategies teachers use to solve the
problem of order in classroom”. Jackson’s (as cited in Emmer & Stought, 2001) analysis of
3. The use of instructional methods that facilitates optimal learning by responding to the
28
4. The use of organizational and group management methods that maximize on-task
behavior.
5. The ability to use a range of counseling and behavioral methods to assist students
student needs, handling discipline problems, and helping students adjust to the school
environment.
Levin, Nolan, Kerr, & Elliot (2005) describe three main theories of classroom
management as student- directed, collaborative, and teacher directed. The student – directed
theory believes that students have the primary responsibility for controlling their behavior.
Collaborative management is based on the belief that the control of student behavior is the
joint responsibility of student and teacher. In the teacher – directed method, the teacher
decision – makers by internalizing rules and guidelines for behavior. Levin et al. (2005)
describe the models as three points on a continuum that move from student – directed toward
teacher- directed practices. The points may be thought of as the beliefs that teachers hold to
following figure.
29
There are two ways of viewing the issue of classroom management or classroom control.
One way is to consider the issue from the standpoint of reducing discipline problems or
dealing with misbehavior. The other is to examine the interaction pattern that exists in the
classroom and to note the extent and the means of teacher’s control and direction of all the
Withall, (1951,as cited in Kasinath, 2001) developed one of the teacher instruments for
assessing the classroom interaction. Based on the seven categories in the Withall’s climate
index one is able to consider evidence of two types of classroom control (management),
learner- centeredness and teacher- centeredness. Withall found that different teachers
produced a different climate with the same group of students. The categories are: 1. Learner-
gain insight into his problem), 3.Problem- structuring (teacher’s intent to elucidate the
problem and to facilitate the learner’s problem solving effort), 4.Neutral statements with no
30
supportive intent, 5. Directive statements (teacher’s intent to have the student adopts the
teacher’s point of view and pursues the course of action advocated), 6. Reproving,
disapproving or disparaging statements (teacher’s main intent to admonish the student for
achievement), and 7.Teacher- supportive statements (teacher’s intent to assert his position in
Another classic study on classroom management is that of Lippitt and White (1958, as
cited in Kasinath, 2001) who examined the leadership styles of youth leaders, highlighting a
threefold typology: Authoritarian, laissez- faired, and Democratic. The chief characteristics
Authoritarian Democratic Laissez-faire 1. All determination of policy by leader. 1. All policies a matter of
group discussion and decision encourage and assist by leader. 1. Complete freedom of group or
individual decision, with a minimum of leader participation. 2. Techniques and activity steps dictate by
the authority, one at a time, so that future steps are always uncertain to a large degree. 2. Activity
perspective gain during discussion period. General steps to group goal sketch, and, where technical
advice is needed, the leader suggests two or more alternative procedures from which choice could be
made. 2. Various material supplies by the leader, who make it clear that he could supply information
when asked. Leader takes no other part in work discussion.
3. The leader usually dictates the particular task and work companion of each member.
3. The members are free to work with whomever they chose, and the division of task is left up to the
group.
3. Complete non participation of4. The dominator tends to be personal in his praise and criticism of the
work of each member, remaining aloof from active group- participation except when demonstrating. 4.
The leader is objective or fact minded in his praise and criticism and try to be a regular group member in
sprit without dong too much of the work.
cited in Tassall, 2004) distinction between Theory X and Theory Y. Theory X suggests that
managers assume that those with whom they work dislike it so that they have to be
controlled. Coerced and directed in order to achieve the desired outcomes, whereas Theory Y
concentrates on the way that managers focus on the human side of their employees and
1. Non- Interventionist
2. Interventionist
3. Interactionalist
non directive teaching (Akbaba & Arif, 1998; Joyce &Weil, 1996). This theory is based on
the work of Carl Rogers and suggests that the child (student) develops from on inner
unfolding of potential. In other word, the non-interventionist presupposes the child (student)
has a inner drive that needs to find it expression in the red world. So, the teacher’s role is to
facilitator. In this role the teacher helps students explore new ideas about their lives, their
32
school work and their relation with others. The model creates an environment where students
and teachers are partners in learning share ideas openly and communicate honestly with one
“The hard part of figuring out how to teach is learning when to keep your mouth closed,
which is most of the time (Joyce &Weil, 1996).
At the opposite end of the continuum are interventionists: those who emphasize what the
outer environment (or people and objects) does to the human organism to cause it to develop
in its particular way. This model base on behaviorist approach, suggests that children
punishment. The teacher’s role in the classroom is to establish rules and procedures
communicate these clearly to student and implement appropriate rewards and punishments
maintain an orderly and productive classroom. According to this model the teacher is a
model focus on long-term goals in teaching-learning process (Levin & Nolan, 1991).
Midway between these two extremes is interactionalist. Proponents of this model (Alfred
Adler, Rudolf Dreikurs, and William Glasser) views child’s developments as he interaction
of inner and outer forces. This approach is known to confronting- contracting model, also.
William Glasser, best known for his book schools without failure “emphasizes that “students
have a responsibility to learn at school, but with the teacher’s help. A classroom with non
centered, and classroom with interactionalist managing is teacher – student centered. The
33
assumption is that teachers believe and act according to all three models of classroom
management. But one usually predominates in beliefs and actions. (Martin,et al.,1995).
since 1900.
Supportive/StudentCentered
The political Pendulum, 1900’s
2.2.4. Teacher Beliefs Teacher beliefs have been discussed here because it makes possible a rich and
robust
understanding, premises, or proposition about the world that are felt to be true. Richardson
explains that beliefs and attitudes are subsets of a group of constructs that name, define, and
34
describe the structure and content that derive a person’s actions. In the realm of education
teachers’ beliefs will ultimately affect what they teach and how they teach.
Teachers’ beliefs may come from a variety of sources. Three categories of experience
influence the development of beliefs about teaching – personal experience, experience with
schooling and instruction, and experience with formal knowledge (Richardson, 1996).
Studies have shown that the influence of the quality of pre-service classroom experience and
the opportunity for reflection on the pre- service experience has an effect on a teacher’s
beliefs(Brousseau,Book,&Byers,1998;Bean&Zulich,1992;Cherland,1989;Richardson,Grip,&
Personal experience includes the aspects of life that go into the formation of the world
view- the intellectual and moral dispositions, beliefs about self in relation to others,
understanding the relationship of schooling to society, and other form of personal , familial,
and cultural understanding. Clandinin (1986) suggests that personal experience is encoded in
images that affect practice; these images have moral, emotional, personal, and private
dimensions.
Regarding schooling and instruction experience, research has shown students arrive in
their pre-service education year with inherent beliefs about the nature of teaching based on
their own experiences. When combined with the real world of teaching practice, students’
established beliefs create conditions that can make it difficult for pre-service teacher
education to have an impact (Richardson, 1996). For example, Knowel’s (1992) life history
study reported that family influences and previous teachers had influenced the pre-service teachers’
conceptions of teacher’s role. Personal experiences of learning in classroom and
observing teaching models, coupled with parental involvement, may contribute to the
perception of the teacher role. Examples of experience with formal knowledge of students
entering school are found in school subjects, outside readings, and television. When learning
to teach, examples of formal knowledge are exhibited in knowledge of subject matter, and
conceptions about the nature of subject matter and how students learn it (Richardson, 1996).
Studies of the origins of teachers’ beliefs show that a variety of life experiences will
contribute to the formation of strong and enduring beliefs about teaching and learning.
Furthermore, the studies suggests that teachers’ beliefs should be surfaced and acknowledged
during teacher education program to make a difference in the deep structure of knowledge
While beliefs affect all areas of teaching, they are important to note in several ways.
Nespor (1997) stated that they are useful in task definition in the cognitive realm because
they function as framing or defining the teaching task. Beliefs help in facilitating memory
processing by aiding recall, and the constructive and reconstructive processes. Nespor sums
up the uses of beliefs in the following quotation: “The Effect and emotional components of
beliefs can influence that ways events and elements in memory are indexed and retrieved and
how they are reconstructed during recall. Emotion and effect thus have important
implications for how teachers learn and use what they learn’’.
Considering teachers, this quotation refers to how the intricacies of belief system
influence emotions and how learning experiences are perceived. For example, a teacher may
find themselves in a particular situation which requires a specific action; recalling a similar
36
situation and their corresponding beliefs may connect them to how they felt and how they
acted in order to respond appropriately to the present situation. Nespor (1997) argues that the
contexts and environments within which teachers work, along with the problems they
encounter ,are ill-define and deeply entwined, and that they peculiarly suit beliefs for making
sense of those contexts. Implications for understanding beliefs suggests that, if the great
interest is in why teachers organize and manage classrooms as they do, then consequently,
more attention must be made to the goals they pursue and to their subjective interpretations
of classroom processes.
Studies have shown that teachers’ expectations can significantly influence student
behavior and academic performance (Good, 1987). Subsequently teachers may behave
differently towards students, and their actions may convey behavioral and performance
expectations (Good, 1987). Teachers’ implicit theory about the nature of knowledge
acquisition can also affect the behaviors they use in the classroom, and ultimately, how the
students learn from the behaviors. Teachers’ beliefs and philosophies about their teaching
style will ultimately affect teaching and learning (Good, 1987; Anders & Evans, 1994;
Stoddert, 1994, as cited in Fang, 1996). A teacher’s particular approach to an issue may have
an impact on what the student is learning based on the teacher’s beliefs and how they convey
teaching realm; researchers acknowledge that teaching is complex, demanding, and uniquely
human (Clark& Peterson, 1986). Studies indicate that teacher beliefs can make or break the
learning process, and researchers are paying closer attention to teacher attitudes and beliefs
37
on students and on the quality of school life (Ange, Greenwood& Miller, 1994). Where
personal beliefs are concerned, if the purpose is to define what makes a good teacher, it is
beliefs may open up the possibility for a greater range of possible choices and responses to
Studies have been done to conduct research that leads to understanding the complexities
of teaching contexts and of teaching processes and actions within those contexts. Richardson
to both beliefs and actions through interviews and observations. Moreover, this attention may
contribute to change in beliefs and practices if the research conducted is done collaboratively.
Richardson (1996) also asserts that beliefs are thought to drive actions, with experience and
Levin et al. (2005) states that beliefs strongly affect one’s behavior; however, experience
and reflection on action may lead to changes or amendments to beliefs. Changes in beliefs
are beneficial because having a strong, positive belief system will benefit both the teacher
and his or her students. Being aware of the type of beliefs that are positive as opposed to
those that need work will help teachers become more effective educators. For example, in
terms of producing constructive results in the classroom, a belief in the importance reflection
on the success of a lesson many produce a more positive effect on teaching strategies than a
belief which does not include reflection practices. Researchers say that significant change in
teachers can occur if they are engaged in personal exploration, experimentation, and
reflection upon their thoughts and actions (Richardson, 1996). 2.2.5. Linking Teachers’ Beliefs and
Classroom Management
Several studies have been done that look into the beliefs regarding classroom
management style and comparing them with particular demographics; the next section further
describes findings.
Several studies done by Martin, Baldwin, Sohoho, and Yin (1992, 1993, 1994, 1995,
1997, and 2000) have investigated differences in classroom management perceptions and
beliefs in terms of the following demographics: teacher of different training and age, novice
and experienced teachers, teacher personality characteristics, grade level taught, gender, and
geography of teachers. For example, Martin and Baldwin (1992) found that novice teachers
differ from and are influenced by those more experienced, regarding their beliefs on
discipline. Beginning teachers appeared to be patient, share responsibility, and interact with
procedures,[and] punishing students (Martin and Baldwin ,1992). Thus this finding illustrates
The researchers believed the reason for this difference is perhaps experienced teachers
are more interventionist because they perceive outside pressure from administrators, parents,
and faculty. This causes them to take an active and controlling approach to classroom
situations (Martin and Baldwin, 1992). Regarding locus of control, experienced teachers
were found to score more internally than pre-service teachers. It appears that years of
40
Martin and Baldwin (1994) suggest that their results may imply that novice teachers’
own experiences as students may influence their perceptions of classroom management more
than their experiences in pre-service training programs. More experienced teachers may have
modified their practices and beliefs to correspond to particular teaching realities and skill
Beliefs regarding classroom management vary among teachers. When they studied
Martin, Baldwin, and Yin (1995) found that teachers scoring more interventionist or
inhibited, more practical, and more astute and aware of social conventions. Significant
positive and negative in direction on the scales used, and consistent with expected patterns
based on past research (Martin, Baldwin, &Yin, 1997). Sharma (1980) in his study showed
that each teacher differs from the other in respect of the development of type of leadership.
Some teachers influenced their pupils through democratic strategies while others did so by
giving freedom to their pupils to a degree that they act in any way they choose. She referred
In contrary with, Henson, Bennett, Sienty, & Chambers (2002) examined the personality
efficacy beliefs. Data analysis indicated that there was a limited relationship between
41
Regarding gender, Martin, Yin, Baldwin (1997) reported that no significant differences
were found between male and female teachers regarding their attitudes and beliefs on
classroom control. The teaching setting (rural or urban) was evidently more of a factor than
gender in determining beliefs regarding classroom management style at the high school level
When researching age, Martin and Sohoho (2000) hypothesized that age could account
for differences in beliefs concerning classroom management style. They found that
traditionally certified teachers and additional certification program participants scored more
interventionist than student teachers on both subscales used. Martin and Sohoho found that as
teachers age, their beliefs and attitudes toward classroom management become more
controlling; they assume that most of the older subjects were also likely to be parents. They
speculate whether or not it is teaching experience or life experience that causes this
difference in the teachers’ attitude. Martin and Sohoho also wonder if teachers who are
parents approach their classrooms differently from those who are not parents.
They conclude that over the past several years a change in people has occurred who enter
teacher preparation programs; they may be older and more diverse. Because the non
traditional student teacher is likely to have the benefit of richer experiences, teacher
preparation program should respond accordingly by tailoring their approach to their student
body and abandoning a one-size-fits-all approach (Martin &Sohoho, 2000). They found that
practical classroom experiences make a difference in teachers’ perceptions and beliefs. More
richly developed field training will be more beneficial to alleviate the beginning teachers’
idealism with realism, thus educating about the differences between what teachers believe
they know and what actually occurs in existing classrooms. This may include providing more
42
Martin and Baldwin (1996) extended their research to investigate the differences
between the classroom management style of elementary and secondary level educators and
their beliefs regarding the nature of appropriate and inappropriate student behaviors. The
findings indicated that elementary teachers scored significantly less interventionist than their
Laut (1999) conducted a study on beliefs of pre service teachers and classroom teacher
suggested that there were no differences on the classroom management style. Pre service
teachers- those with the least teaching experience – were more non-interventionist than other
group. Interns with the middle level of teaching experience were more interventionist than
manner, same to the practicum pre service – students. According to results of this study, as
mentioned, for intern teachers (Middle level of teaching experience) is easier to interact with
the students from an interventionist position than create opportunities for students to
communication with the teacher. There is greater security for the teacher with specific rules
and procedures are stabilized and management restricted to use of; direction statement,
modeling behavior, reinforcement, intervention and isolation. There can be little doubt that
beliefs regarding experiences and the manner in that teachers approach them, to create a
unique and individual styles of classroom management. Of great importance is that efficient
43
lesson planning and effective classroom management are both necessary in order for learning
to take place.
Gholami (1999) at his study” the relationships between classroom management styles and
academic achievement of primary school students of Khoramabad city in Iran reported that:
4. The academic achievements of the students with student oriented teacher ( non –
directive / humanistic / non – interventionist) was more than students with task
styles, that is, women more use of student -oriented styles than men.
For example, the beginner teachers have shown less flexibility at the classroom. The
researcher has shown that they are very often task- oriented.
7. In this study that was used “PCL inventory” for the collection data, most of the teachers were
completely agreed with 22nd item inventory: The teaching must be
Akbaba (1998) in his study examined 14 sixth grade teachers’ opinions about
classroom management, gathering information from on online discussion group. It was found
that nine teachers (64, 21) were using the interventionist classroom management approach,
three teachers (21.4%) were using the interactionalist classroom management approach, and
44
only one teacher (7%) was using both the interactionalist and the interventionist. Based on
the data analysis, the interventionist classroom management approach is the most frequently
used one by the teachers. It seems that teachers still determine the rules (instructional
Behavioral) by themselves and like to run the classroom with these rules. They also support
or prevent behaviors with reinforcements. It is also found interesting that none of 14 teachers
was using the non-interventionist approach, although the importance of humanities approach
is mentioned in many educational environments there might be some reasons for teachers
perfectly in the classroom. In addition, they do not find it appropriate situations. Classroom
management depends on many things such as class size, the place where school is located,
socio-economics status of students and their aspiration for education and students personal
characteristics. More over, to being awarded of all theories that they provide basis for
grades 5 Swedish teacher-in terms of five management tasks: planning, control, motivation,
grouping, and individualization. He in his study reported that Mrs. A reflected a production
oriented style, focusing on subject matter and tight management of classroom activities
towards teacher defined goals. Mr. B exhibited a more relation oriented style, focusing on
students needs and feelings. Mrs. A. and Mr. B work in the same school context with parallel
classes. This means that they have common conditions; common goals and curricula. But the
school context also permits them to work differently in their classrooms. Mrs. A and Mr. B
45
adjustment and Mr. B. stands for a philosophy of change. Mrs. A. class is a teacher- centered
(interventionist), following Mrs. A: agenda through the curriculum. Mr. B. class is a student
ACHIEVEMENT
ABSTRACT
The purpose of this causal comparative study was to test the theoretical Classroom
Management Teacher Behavior Continuum of Wolfgang and Glickman (1980) that suggests that
interventionist, noninterventionist, and interactionalist classrooms may differ in student outcomes. This
study explored whether student outcomes in statewide standardized tests reading, English language
arts, and math differ by interventionist, noninterventionist, or interactionalist teacher instruction
management (IM) and behavior management (BM) styles. Survey data from eighty-three 3rd, 4th, and
5th grade teachers regarding instructional and behavioral classroom management beliefs were
contrasted in the percentage students passing standardized tests of reading, ELA, and math using
MANOVA at a threshold of p < .05. Student performance did not significantly differ by IM style, while
interactionalist BM classrooms had a significantly higher percentage of student passing statewide tests
of math, reading, and ELA than interventionist classrooms. This line of investigation is important
towards fostering best practices for teachers and optimal outcomes for elementary school students.
Introduction
Classroom management is a major concern in schools today. According to Martin and Sass
(2010), classroom management entails an “umbrella of definitions that include learning interactions,
learning, and the behavior of students” (p. 1125). Walker (2009) stated, “The best teachers don’t simply
teach content, they teach people” (p.122). According to Marzano, Pickering, and Pollack (2001), to
effectively teach their students, teachers need to employ effective behavior management strategies,
implement effective instructional strategies, and develop a strong curriculum. In addition to managing
the instruction in the classroom, a teacher’s most significant challenge is also managing the behavior of
students in the classroom because of how it can affect instruction, learning, and achievement. Since the
mandates associated with the federal law NCLB (No Child Left Behind), the CCRPI (College and Career
Ready Performance Index), and achievement based programs, such as Race to the Top; teachers are
concerned about punishing students in ways that will remove them from the regular classroom setting.
Nevertheless, when they decide to address the discipline issue, students are removed from their
instructional area of expertise to a possibly weaker and undertrained skill of classroom management,
like ISS (Etheridge, 2001). Teachers must continuously decide whether they should address disruptive
behavior through disciplinary actions or continue to attempt to teach those students (Etheridge, 2010).
Educators cannot meet the demands of these mandated plans without effective classroom management
strategies employed in their classrooms. According to Shupe (1998), student achievement has suffered
in schools where plaguing discipline and behavioral issues have not been adequately addressed.
“There’s not a teacher alive who hasn’t felt the frustration of trying to manage a classroom with at least
one student who repeatedly pulls other students off-task with annoying, disorderly behavior” (Daly,
2005, p. 9). When students with behavior issues are not handled properly, research has shown they can
negatively influence the learning environment by persuading other to join them, which cause teacher
effectiveness to be questioned, and causing an increased stress for the teacher (Braden & Smith, 2006;
Etheridge, 2010). The effect of classroom disruptions, especially the noncompliant behaviors, attributed
to 2% to 5% of students, is a concern. These noncompliant behaviors interfere with the teacher’s ability
to function effectively by consuming a disproportionate amount of the teacher’s time and energy.
Furthermore, it has been suggested that identifying effective and efficient strategies for improving
behavior must be included in educational reform before a profound impact on schools is noticed (Sailor,
Stowe, Turnbull III, and Kleinhammer-Trammill (2007, p.368).
Students have changed over the past 100 years; therefore, classroom management strategies
need to be readjusted to meet the demands of a new generation. It is important to distinguish between
instructional management (IM) and Behavioral management (BM). Instructional management is when
the educator maintains control within their classroom with the rigor of the lesson. According to Fowler
(n.d.), “discipline is a subcategory of classroom management, and classroom management is a
subcategory of instructional management” (p. 20). Instructional management is based on planning
effective lessons within the classroom where the students remain engaged and on task. Students are
very impressionable and require teachers who have the knowledge of how to create the best outcome
for everyone in the learning environment.
The theoretical framework for this study is the teacher behavior continuum of Wolfgang and
Glickman (1980; Lanoue, 2009; Martin & Sass, 2010). According to the continuum of Wolfgang and
Glickman, instructional and behavioral classroom management can be conceptualized as interventionist,
noninterventionist, and interactionalist (Lanoue, 2009; Martin & Sass, 2010) (Figure 1).
Historically, classroom management has focused on discipline as the foundation for behavioral
and instructional management. McArthur (2002) showed that educators have long understood that
behavior issues can affect the classroom environment. Rosas and West (2009) reported, “Classroom
management is an understandable concern for teachers, particularly given the fact that schools are
expected to provide a safe, orderly environment and that teachers are accountable for students’
academic achievement” (p. 55). To better understand classroom management, Wolfgang and Glickman
(1980) developed a classroom management model that is expressed as a continuum from
interventionist to and non-interventionists, with interactionalist in-between (Martin, 1995; Ritter &
Hancock, 2007; Wolfgang & Glickman, 1980).
Figure 1. Classroom Management Teacher Behavior Continuum of Wolfgang and Glickman (1980) and of
Martin and Sass (2010).
In the context of this theoretical framework, interventionists react to student behavior with
consequences, while non-interventionists, rather than react to students, plan their environment to
proactively facilitate the classroom. Interactionalists seek to utilize the best aspects of interventionists
and non-interventionists classroom management (Lanoue, 2009; Martin & Sass, 2010; Wolfgang &
Glickman1980).
These three classroom management approaches are reviewed below, including the important
historical figures aligned with aspects of interventionist, noninterventionist, and interactionalist
approaches to classroom management. Empirical evidence supporting or not supporting each classroom
management approach is then presented, followed by a chapter summary. This section begins with the
interventionist approach to classroom management.
According to Skinner, reinforcements can increase desired behaviors and decrease unwanted
behaviors. Types of reinforcements could be social, graphic, tangible, or an activity (Andrius, 2012).
Skinner (1974) wrote, “Everything we know about operant conditioning is relevant to making behavior
more or less likely to occur upon a given occasion. This is the traditional field of rewards and
punishment, but much sharper distinctions can be made in taking advantage of what we know about
contingencies of reinforcement” (p.181). Operant conditioning of behavior is a process of behavior
modification in which the likelihood of a specific behavior is increased or decreased through positive or
negative reinforcement each time the behavior is exhibited, so that the subject comes to associate the
pleasure or displeasure of the reinforcement with the behavior (American Heritage Dictionary, 2009, p.
1). Skinner (1974) implied that a teacher can control the classroom environment through instantaneous
reinforcement. These reinforcements can come in positive (special opportunities, celebrations, candy)
and negative (loss of opportunities, office referrals, in school suspension, out of school suspension)
forms to create an environment where each student works productively. Skinner (1974) closed with a
concept, “…problems can be solved, even the big ones, if those who are familiar with the details will also
adopt a workable conception of human behavior” (p.251). From the behaviorist view of Skinner, the
student’s behavior can be shaped by consequences. However, a classroom has more than one student
at a time, and learning can occur vicariously. To extend the behaviorist concept of learning from
consequences to include learning by observing the consequences of the behaviors of others, a social
learning theory was needed.
Albert Bandura Albert Bandura developed the Social Learning Theory built around the view that
people learn appropriate and inappropriate behaviors from each other. Bandura (1986, 1997) thought
that students learn through their perceptions and imitations of certain behaviors demonstrated by
parents, teachers, or other students. Bandura believed that, as behaviors were exhibited, individuals
would emulate one another (Bandura, 1993). This theory has important implications for classroom
management. According to Bandura’s (1986, 1997) Social Learning Theory, people acquire a self-
efficacy or a self-belief system, which allows them to possess self-control of their thoughts, actions,
inspiration, drive, and feelings throughout various levels of life. Bandura characterized self-efficacy as
the “beliefs in one’s capability to organize and execute the courses of action required to manage
prospective situations” (Bandura, 1997, p. 2).
Social Learning Theory also emphasizes the importance of student perceptions in the learning
process with an emphasis on the idea that people frequently acquire knowledge, rules, skills, strategies,
beliefs, and attitudes by watching others (Bandura, 1986). Therefore, social learning is important in
classrooms. Bandura (1997) believed that self-efficacy persuaded the choices people make because a
person’s experiences and learning from others are the groundwork through a person reveals his or her
behavior. “Efficacy beliefs are the foundation of human agency. Unless people believe they can produce
desired results and forestall detrimental ones by their actions, they have little incentive to act or to
persevere in the face of difficulties” (Bandura, 2001, p. 10). Bandura (1997) offered “triadic reciprocal
causation” as an identifier for justifying how one’s personal behavior and uniqueness, along with the
surrounding environment, work together to make people both products and producers in their
environments (Bandura, 1997, p.6). This triadic reciprocal causation is the interaction between thought,
influence, and action (Bandura, 1997) in what people believe, think, and experience that determines
how they behave (Bandura, 1986; Bower, 1975; Neisser, 1976). Efficacy beliefs that a person possesses
regarding their skills, influence their actions in the present and future. Bandura’s theory is the
foundation for classroom management strategies that center on the idea that students learn from each
other and that teachers can shape a student behavior by influencing students to realize they have the
power to change. While Bandura’s Social Learning Theory showed how students can learn from the
consequences of others, which extended the views of behaviorists like Skinner, Dreikurs showed how
interventionalist classroom management can occur in the absence of rewards and punishments by
focusing on logical consequences of classroom behavior. Rudolf Dreikurs Rudolf Dreikurs developed a
social method of classroom discipline. “Dreikurs had four behavioral goals: attention, power, revenge,
avoidance of failure (McLain, 2008, p.1). “Dreikurs did not believe in the use of punishment,
reinforcement or praise. Instead, he believed that natural/logical consequences (directly tied to
misbehavior, involve moral judgments, etc.) and the process of encouragement are the most useful
techniques for preventing discipline problems” (Gurcan & Tekin, n.d., p.6). Dreikurs (1991) believed
students needed to be taught in democratic classroom. Teachers should be warm, friendly, and kind
while at the same time remaining firm. “As the teacher learns to talk less, act more [sic] and respect
students as individuals with enormous potential, she can then teach in a co-operative [sic] atmosphere
where students are willing to learn and discipline problems are minimal” (Dreikurs & Cassel, 1991, p.
96). According to this cognitive theory, if students understand the logical consequences of their
behavior, they are more likely to act in a manner that is compatible with the goals of the classroom.
Interventionists can be behaviorists like Skinner, or social learning theorists like Bandura, or
cognitivists like Dreikurs, in that they all foster methods to intervene with perceived consequences.
Canter contributes assertiveness to interventionist classroom management. Lee Canter Lee Canter
promoted the reactive interventionist discipline method. In 1976, Lee and Marlene Canter created and
published the Assertive Discipline plan for classroom management. When consulting for school systems,
they found that many teachers were unable to control undesirable behavior that occurred in the
classrooms (Canter & Canter, 1993). The assertive discipline method was more for teachers to execute a
discipline plan geared at eliminating behavioral problems. According to Canter and Canter (1993)
“Assertive teachers believe that a firm, teacher-in-charge classroom is in the best interests of students.
They believe that the students wish to have their behavior directed by the teacher” (p.1). The Canters’
viewpoints and practices have changed along with society and educational trends and demands pushed
down from the head leaders in the state and federal educational departments . Just as Skinner (1974)
recommended the usage of positive and negative reinforcement to alter the classroom environment and
instill purpose, Canter and Canter believed in the utilization of rewards and consequences to stimulate
students to make suitable choices.
Mostly, the Canters (2006) proposed methods to be used for improving academic success for all
students by establishing a positive learning environment. He believed that all of this could be
accomplished by developing and maintaining relationships between the students and the teachers
(Canter, 2006). He created quite a few characteristics of effective classroom managers. Some of these
characteristics include areas related to implementing rules, procedures, and student expectations. One
area of the Canter’s classroom management approach that is positive was idea of motivating students
far past their individual potential. Canter and Canter (2001) thought teachers should be proactive in
terms of creating a functional learning environment. Teachers who desire to create this type of learning
environment must donate the same consideration and planning as they devote to their teaching. Canter
and Canter (1976) discussed several benefits of executing an assertive management plan within their
classroom. Some of the benefits of implementing this type of management plan are consistency and
confidence of the teacher. Essentially, teachers usually lean towards using techniques that prevent any
type of behavioral issues or problems. Dr. Karen Walker quoted the following statement from Good and
Trophy (1984) “investigated teachers’ basic skills and efficacy and found that many teachers felt their
worth as a teacher was directly related to their success of implementation of management skills” (p.1).
Assertive/reactive discipline is geared more toward teachers developing a reward system comprised of
positive and negative consequences based on the student’s behavior. The original model stated that
teachers were to write students’ names on the board when a violation occurred and a punishment
would be given (Canter & Canter, 1976). Needless to say, that model has been discarded and replaced
with keeping names in a journal or record book. This eliminates embarrassment and protects teachers
from violating privacy acts. Using the Canter system created a real downside in that teachers were
expected to use a reward system for behaviors that were expected but never were these linked to
reallife experiences. According to No Child Left Behind, teachers are to develop strategies that are
genuine to real life experiences (U. S. Department of Education, 2008). Unfortunately, Canter and
Canter did not develop any other types of discipline methods or practices that were not assertive
discipline methods. Their primary belief was that if teachers use disciplinary action to control their
students, then that would equal a wellbehaved environment would occur in the classroom (Canter &
Canter, 1992). They believed that responsible behavior should be taught, but the educator’s
expectations must also be taught and retaught with the same rigor as an academic lesson (Canter and
Canter, 2001).
Empirical research has demonstrated the importance of classroom management. Little and Akin-
Little (2008) gave a self-assessment survey addressing classroom management practices to 149
teachers, encompassing four major components of classroom management: classroom rules, enhanced
classroom environment, reinforcement strategies, and reductive procedures (Little & Akin-Little, 2008).
The survey revealed 83% employed verbal reprimands in response to class disruptions, 97% showed
verbal praise used as reinforcement for appropriate behavior, and 63% showed frequent behavioral
problem students freedoms were revoked, while 10% showed the utilization of corporal punishment in
response to chronic offenders. Further, Taila (2009) found that high school student outcomes were
better when students perceived the teacher management approach as being well prepared and well
organized. Together, the findings of Little and Akin-Little (2008) and of Taila (2009) demonstrate the
wide range of teacher utilization of rules, procedures, and consequences in managing the classroom.
In a study of 22 teachers of grades 3-6, Gilpatrick (2010) found that “100% of the teachers felt
that they could become discouraged with the ineffectiveness of their classroom management strategies.
Yet, 64% of the teachers claimed that their current strategies are effective in minimizing the disruptions
made by noncompliant students.” (p. 59-60). The findings of Gilpatrick (2010) demonstrate the
importance of determining the optimal classroom management strategies for promoting positive
student outcomes. Empirical research comparing the interventionist, noninterventionist, and
interactionalist approaches to classroom management began with the Beliefs on Discipline Inventory of
Wolfgang & Glickman in 1980. The development of the Attitudes and Beliefs on Classroom Control
(ABCC) by Martin, Yin, and Baldwin in 1998 allowed researchers to directly focus on classroom control
from interventionist, noninterventionist, and interactionalist perspectives. However, the ABCC and the
revised ABCC-R (Martin, Yin, Z., & Mayall, 2007) had unacceptable overlap in inter-item correlation and
therefore lacked discriminant validity. For these reasons the Behavior and Instructional Management
Scale (BIMS, Martin & Sass, 2010) was designed to provide a psychometrically sound measuring
instrument for determining interventionist, noninterventionist, and interactionalist approaches to
instructional and behavioral classroom management. Crucial to appreciating the background of the
proposed study, interventionist, noninterventionist, and interactionalist management styles can now be
reliably measured using the Behavioral and Instructional Management Scale (BIMS) (Brannon, 2010;
Martin & Sass, 2010). “The most essential findings that are behind this study are from Martin and Sass
(2010).
Interpersonal Self-Efficacy and Bullock, Ellis, and Wilson’s (1994) survey instrument. Both
components used a Likert scale to investigate the classroom management techniques of teachers.
Overall, the authors reported a correlation between teachers’ perceptions of classroom management
and willingness to control unpleasant classroom behaviors displayed by students. Santiago (2012) found
that, in high school teachers, BIMS scores varied across a wide range in both instructional classroom
management and in behavioral classroom management. Brannon (2010) explored the relationship
between student academic success and classroom management beliefs on fifth grade English language
arts and math scores. Brannon used the Attitudes and Beliefs on Classroom Control (ABCC) Inventory-R
to identify teachers as interventionist, noninterventionist, and interactionalist, so that “the lower survey
score results in a less controlling (noninterventionist) ideology, and the higher survey score results in a
more controlling (interventionist) ideology” (p. 48). ELA and math achievement were assessed using the
California Standards Test (CST) database. For the forty-one fifth grade teachers who participated,
rannon found that ELA and math scores were did significantly differ by group for 4th grade students, but
cautioned, “It is important to note that the means are higher for ELA for noninterventionist, teachers
with a less controlling ideology, while for Math, there was a higher mean for Interactionalist teachers
that mix both controlling and noncontrolling ideologies.” While the lack of significant differences
between interventionist, noninterventionist, and interactionalist teachers in student achievement
suggests that classroom management styles may not be important in student achievement, Brannon’s
(2010) study suffered from weaknesses that must be addressed before concluding that classroom
management and student achievement are independent of each other. First, Brannon (2010) only
included four (4) noninterventionist teachers. That is, because statistical power is a function of sample
size (Creswell, 2003), Brannon’s (2010) study may have lacked the statistical power to show significant
differences. Further, Brannon used the ABCC-R, which has questionable psychometric properties (Martin
a& Sass, 2010) compared to the more modern BIMS scale. Furthermore, Brannon combined ABCC-R
people management with instructional management into one overall categorization that may not be
reflective of behavioral and instructional classroom management. Additionally, while Brannon (2010)
measured standardized scores on statewide tests (which can be useful), compliance with AYP guidelines
are based on percent students passing core studies. Lastly, Brannon (2010) measured the relationship
between demographic variables and teacher instructional style, but failed to include the covariates in
determining the relationship between instructional style and student outcomes. This is important,
because demographic variables can have effects on relationships (Baron & Kenny, 1986). Additional
empirical evidence from other scholarly works conflict with the conclusions of Brannon (2010). Bennett
(2001) found that classroom climate is correlated with mathematics achievement. Khatib and Ghannadi
(2011) studied English Language Learners and found significantly higher scores for the interventionist
groups over the noninterventionist in the recognition and production of phrasal verbs. Moore (2008)
assessed 270 students and 19 grammar school classroom teachers and concluded that “the findings of
this research study suggest that relationships exist between some classroom management strategies
and higher student achievement scores in diverse elementary settings.”
The published literature includes reflections on the impact of experience and demographic
variables on classroom management. Some studies evaluated here indicate a relationship between a
teacher’s classroom management style (noninterventionist, interventionist, and interactionalist) and the
teacher’s demographic variables (Baker 2005; Cerit, 2011; Little & Akin-Little, 2008). Santiago (2012)
found that gender, number of years of teaching, and highest education degree can affect BIMS
instructional management scores in high school teachers. Experience may matter, as Hicks (2012)
suggests that classroom management skills may be learned ‘on the job’ (p. 87), while Green (2006)
cautioned that “years of experience in the classroom do not guarantee exemplary results with regards
to classroom management” (P. 88) while Lanoue (2009) showed that classroom management can be
trained in teachers. Further supporting the differential efficacy of classroom strategies, Green (2006)
measured four elementary school “master classroom managers” and found that all four were in the
interactionalist range of the ABCC. Green concluded, “While the number of participants was small, it can
be theorized that other teachers identified as “master” classroom managers, using the same criteria for
identification, would have beliefs and practices similar to those identified in this study” (p. 99-100).
Clearly, no study to date has definitively determined the relationship between instructional and
behavioral classroom management strategies applied in the classroom and grammar school student
outcomes in percent passing standardized tests of math and ELA. To determine the effect of teacher
classroom management approach on student outcomes above any possible effects of teacher
demographics, what is needed is a study that incorporates teacher ideology derived from the BIMS
(interventionist, noninterventionist, and interactionalist) in both instruction management and behavior
management dimensions along with teacher demographics towards identifying differences in the
percent of students passing statewide exams in reading, ELA and math.
AbstrAct
This paper reviews a range of evidence-based strategies for application by teachers to reduce
disruptive and challenging behaviours in their classrooms. These include a number of antecedent
strategies intended to help minimise the emergence of problematic behaviours and a range of those
which provide positive consequences for appropriate student behaviours. Also included is information
on teacher feedback and a review of strategies for enhancing teacher-student relationships. The
approaches covered by the paper are consistent with those of the Ministry of Education’s Positive
Behaviour for Learning (PB4L) initiatives.
practice paper
introduction
Behaviour problems in a classroom increase the stress levels for both the teacher and pupils,
disrupt the flow of lessons and conflict with both learning objectives and the processes of learning. They
also change the classroom dynamic as the focus of attention shifts from the academic tasks at hand to
the distractions provided by disruptive behaviours. Typically, one or two pupils are identifiable as
‘problems’, sometimes they act in ways that compound management difficulties by inciting each other
and, possibly, others in the class into disruptive activities. The usual response to problematic behaviour
is to identify the child(ren) involved as ‘the problem’, to focus on them as a source of ‘trouble’ and to
devise strategies specifically to deal with their inappropriate behaviour.
However, a classroom is an environment with its own ecology, including teacher, pupils and
their interrelationships, the equipment, books and a range of activities which all interact to influence the
behaviour of the room’s inhabitants. To complicate things further, both teacher and pupils bring into
class experiences and issues from the wider ecological systems in which they live and function e.g. the
rest of the school community, home, family/whanau, community and the wider world. Simply targeting
interventions at individual children in the classroom may not actually solve a classroom behaviour
problem. Indeed, focusing on individuals may lead one to ignore examination of systemic problems in
teacher-pupil relations, the management and teaching styles of the teacher, the curriculum and the
skills required by students to access it, the order in which activities are scheduled, and a whole host of
other aspects of the classroom and wider school ecology. It also has to be remembered that children
bring to school all sorts of concerns, distresses, reactions and patterns of behaviour established,
permitted and supported outside of the classroom itself. Thus, targeting a child as ‘the problem’ may
divert one’s attention from a careful examination of the classroom ecology or that of the wider school
and the family and community environments within which the school is embedded. Equally, children
learn to discriminate the behaviours required in a variety of settings and thus can learn to behave
differently if appropriate and desired behaviours are signalled, encouraged and supported in any given
setting: it also needs to be assessed against the background of the environment in which it occurs. To
place problem behaviour in context, 88 percent of a sample of 42 New Zealand teachers responding to a
questionnaire rated classroom mismanagement as ‘sometimes’ or ‘very often’ a cause of problematic
classroom behaviour (Johansen, Little & Akin-Little, 2011). Of concern was the fact that many of these
teachers had had minimal preservice training in behaviour management and inservice professional
development was considered by some to be of little benefit or not commonly offered.
classroom strategies
If the study by Johansen, Little and Akin-Little (2011) cited above accurately represents teacher
awareness that poor classroom management is an important factor associated with disruptive
behaviour, then it would follow that interventions which target teaching skills and classroom behaviour
management have the potential to produce significant impacts on disruptive behaviour. According to
the Elton Report (1989, cited in the Office for Standards in Education, Children’s Services and Skills 2005,
section 65, p.15), it was estimated that in the United Kingdom 80 percent of disruptive behaviour was
attributable “to poor classroom organization, planning and teaching”. According to the report, British
teachers stated behaviours such as talking out-of-turn, and other forms of persistent low-level
disruption as the most frequent and stress-inducing because of their constantly disruptive effect on both
classroom activities and the teaching-learning process. Important factors identified related to teacher
confidence and competence, their ability to engage children in the curriculum and for teachers to have
good group management skills so that the class focus was on appropriate behaviour.
Effective teaching and positively functioning classrooms with low levels of disruptive behaviour
require planning and consistency. Factors which have been found to contribute to these outcomes
identified in a literature review by Kern and Clemens (2007) are:
• Clear, simple rules and expectations which are consistently and fairly applied.
• Frequent use of praise, both verbal and non-verbal. Teacher praise has demonstrated
effects on both those earning it and those nearby. Verbal praise should be specific and
descriptive. Teachers should try to provide a child with at least four praise statements
for every reprimand.
• Because disruptive behaviour is often associated with learning deficits, task difficulty
needs to be monitored. All students need to have the required entry skills and ability to
successfully engage in assigned activities. Participation and learning can only follow
successful access to the curriculum and encouragement to sustain activity.
• Seating arrangements: For older students (10 years and above) seating in rows works
better than group seating.
• Sequencing of activities, so that easy and brief tasks are interspersed with longer and
more demanding ones, enhances engagement and learning as well as reducing
disruption. Preceding difficult activities with a few simple ones has been found to
enhance transition to a new activity as has scheduling active learning after breaks
before moving on to more passive activities so that children have time to adapt to
quieter routines.
• Pace of instruction is best if it is brisk. This can be achieved by increasing the rate of
instruction or decreasing the pauses between student response and the presentation of
the next task. Increased pace needs to be managed so that students do not lose
opportunities to respond and access reinforcement.
• Choice and access to preferred activities increases engagement and reduces problem
behaviour. Using children’s own special interests as the basis for activities can
significantly increase engagement While these elements may each present as common
knowledge to teachers, the consistent and skilled application of them as a systematically
used package of effective teaching strategies is what increases the probability of
enhanced learning and reduced problematic behaviour. To assist teachers with
particular management problems it is sometimes necessary to implement specific
interventions.
Related
Information
PDF
PDF
Tools
Request permission
Export citation
Add to favorites
Track citation
Share
Give access
Share full text access
Share full text access
Please review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.
I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of Use.
Shareable Link
Use the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more.
Copy URL
Share a link
Email to a friend
Facebook
Twitter
Linkedin
Google+
Reddit
CiteULike
Abstract
This study was designed to determine the relationship among teacher classroom management behavior, student
engagement, and student achievement of middle and high school science students. These variables were
investigated across varying levels of academic aptitude. Two week long units were taught by 30 experienced
science teachers. During this period of time teacher classroom management behavior, student achievement (n =
570), student engagement (n = 269), and student academic aptitude (n = 649) were measured. Twelve selected
management indicators from Georgia Teachers Performance Assessment Indicators (TPAI) were used to
measure teacher classroom management behaviors. Regression analysis was used to determine the relationship
between the variables, and appropriate post hoc procedures were used. Analyses showed that there was a
significant relationship among all variables. Post hoc analysis showed that these results were consistent across
levels of aptitude. Other relationships found were between student engagement and achievement, student
aptitude and achievement, and student aptitude and engagement. Correlation coefficients were obtained for
each individual management indicators. Those particular management behaviors which were correlated with
achievement and engagement are: identifies students who do not understand directions and helps them
individually, maintains learner involvement in lessons, reinforces and encourages the efforts of learners to
maintain involvement, attends to routine tasks, uses instructional time efficiently, provides feedback to learners
about their behavior, manages disruptive behavior among learners.
CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT: RESEARCH FOR BEGINNING TEACHERS
by
Darci Borden
Master in Teaching
2013
ABSTRACT
has been a primary concern for teachers since there have been teachers in the
classroom. A lack of classroom management affects both the teacher and the
students. Studies show that some form of intervention makes a positive impact
personally connect with each student in the classroom in order to make students
Introduction Chapter one discussed the implications a teacher might face if there is a lack
teacher can develop good classroom management skills he/she will be able to
reduce much of the anxieties that go along with being an inexperienced teacher.
Early studies, such as the one done by Kounin (1970), show that a teacher who
possesses with-it-ness will be more prepared for classroom management issues
is divided into three sections. The first section, preservice and beginning
teachers, surveys the challenges that all new teachers face and makes
intervention strategies for students who are displaying disruptive behavior, and
found that some form of intervention had a positive impact on disruptive students.
personal level.
Preservice and Beginning Teachers The following eight studies analyzed the influence and
impact that first year
teachers and teachers in their first couple years had on students, and the impact that students
and the stress of classroom management had on these new
teachers. Desiderio (2005) did a dual study to determine whether or not students
could adapt to two different teachers’ behavior management styles and found
that the students had no trouble adapting to both styles. Kalis (2007) studied the
effectiveness of self management for increasing the rate of teacher praise for
preservice teachers and found that extending the use of self reflection to
and found that the supportive, reflective, constructive mentor teacher prepared
the preservice teacher with confidence going into the first year of teaching.
Martin (1996) studies how beginning teachers are different from experienced
and found that beginning teachers have unrealistic expectations about what
found that a sense of humor and confidence increased the first year teacher’s
positive responses to students and parents. McCann (2004) studied the reasons
that new teachers cry and found that there was a huge discrepancy between the
the usefulness of case studies in teacher training and the insights that are related
16
to improved teacher training and found that the classroom course proved to be a
helpful learning tool. Overall, these studies found that there were many diverse
factors that caused extreme stress for new teachers; and some of these stress
factors caused new teachers to leave the teaching profession altogether. The
main factors that drove new teachers away from the profession were related to a
young students would be able to adapt to two different teachers with different
teacher and her mentor teacher taught class on five different occasions and
found that students were able to adjust to each teacher’s management style.
teaching period. Katherine documented her assertive discipline plan through self
reflection and also received evaluations from her mentor teaching four times over
teacher evaluation, observed student behaviors while Katherine and her mentor
students that had inappropriate behavior. Desiderio (2005) also mentioned that a
generalized claim can not be made from the research that was gathered.
Instead, the individual must read the data and decide for themselves whether or not their own
style resembles that of what Katherine used while teaching.
Transferability will depend on the specific teacher and the students in the
classroom. The study did not include an outside third party to review any of the
Kalis (2007) studied the effectiveness of self management for increasing the
rates of teacher praise and the acceptability of using the technique with
effective. Grace, a 24 year old married woman who is in her first year of
teaching, was selected after being observed. The researcher chose her because
students who were labeled EBD (emotional behavior disorder) in a large urban
public school in the southern United States. An average of five students and one
paraprofessional were in the room with the teacher. Observations were done in
a basic math class, four boys and one girl, of these students there were three
Timed, controlled, and scripted direct instruction (DI) lessons were used to
for student responses and the students were encouraged to actively participate in
the lesson. The main variable in the study was praise. Praise was defined as
verbal or physical behaviors indicating the positive quality of a behavior over and
above the evaluation of accuracy. Statements such as “right” and “ok” were not
18
considered praise statements. Behavior specific praise was defined by the study
as verbal praise for a desired student behavior specified in the praise statement
such as “I like the way Michael is sitting quietly in his chair.” The independent
variable in the study was recognized as self monitoring. Self monitoring was
done when a participant identified the target behavior that occurred, and then
Kalis (2007) found that the use of self-monitoring increased the effectiveness
.923, which indicated a strong impact on rates of praise. This study showed
promise for using self monitoring in other areas of teaching and learning. Self
Kalis’ (2007) research used environmental control which led to reliability in the
study; however, there was no third party observer to see over the research data
and materials. To establish social validity on the use of praise and the use of
grades from both before and after the intervention were also collected.
episodes, and found that the supportive, reflective, constructive mentor teacher
prepared the preservice teacher with the confidence to teach in her first year.
19
Anna, a 19 year old college student in her 2nd year, was in her first field
experience at a practicum site with her mentor teacher. Anna’s mentor teacher,
teachers in the past, and taught at seven different primary schools. A meeting a
week prior to Anna’s start date in the classroom with Grace was conducted. A
the researcher, a formal interview with the mentee and then the mentor, and the
The findings for this research indicated that the mentor teacher was
supportive of the mentee by providing quality time to talk and listen to the mentee
mentee with confidence in her teaching and indicated that the mentor teacher
of this research were the questioning strategies used for providing feedback and
self assessment for the mentee. Questions such as “What worked well?, What
didn’t work well?, What would you change for future lessons?,” were used to
20
provide the feedback. The study did not include an outside third party to review
any of the data and material collected by the initial researcher. Further research
can include using this model for exploring other specific pedagogical knowledge
relationships and what practices are most effective in instilling confidence and
United States. There were 107 participants, 40% which were inexperienced
teachers and 60% which were experienced. About 92% of these teachers were
female, 85% were Caucasian and the remaining 15% were African American.
The teachers ranged in age from 19-61. The average age of inexperienced
teachers was 27 years old, and the average age of an experienced teacher was
teaching experience. Previous research has shown that teachers need at least 3
years of experience before they become expert problem solvers and managers.
21
using items from the Inventory of Classroom Management Style (ICMS). The
proposes that the child has an inner drive that needs to find its expression in the
real world. At the opposite end of the spectrum are interventionists who
emphasize what the outer environment does to shape development in the child.
Half way between these are interactionalists who focus on what the individual
does to modify the environment, as well as what the environment does to shape
the individual.
scored more interventionist in dimensions reflects that they may overly rely on
22
allocating materials.
the biggest impact on student success by directly observing a first year teacher in
the first couple weeks of the school year and found that a sense of humor and
confidence increased the first year teacher’s positive responses to students and
parents. A single researcher sat in on the classroom and observed the teacher
and her interactions with students for the first two weeks of the school year. Ms. Darling, the
first year teacher that was observed, had a class of thirty 4th grade
students. She became a yeller after only 10 days in her first year of teaching and
went home each night after school feeling tired and upset. She did self
reflections for 30 days straight and all she was able to come up with were
negative events. She was asked to make some general goals of what she
wanted to accomplish be the end of the year and then sat down to write up a
classroom management plan. With help from a veteran teacher, Ms. Darling
recorded reflections for the next week that included both positive and negative
environments are the result of careful planning and constant refinement. Stewart
(1997) also found that the use of humor and having confidence in a student’s abilities improved
positive responses towards students and their parents. This
study and the findings made extremely general assertions and there was a lack
McCann (2004) researched the reasons that new teachers cry by interviewing
and having phone conversations with eleven first year teachers, at the high
school and elementary school level, over a two year period, and found that there
During the interviews, McCann (2004) asked two central questions to the first
year teachers. Teachers were asked, (1) what are the significant frustrations that
could influence beginning teacher to leave the profession, and (2) what supports,
taped conversations, and talked over the phone. After these interviews,
check for any causes of stress, any methods for coping with the stress, and any
readers to view the transcribed interviews added a third party perspective, which
helped strengthen the study. One particular case of a first year 5th grade teacher, Clara,
possessed
profession. Clara entered the classroom in her first year and thought she was
24
classes where she learned different classroom management strategies, and also
got ideas from her mentor teacher. These strategies failed her in the classroom.
Clara was confused and expected these strategic interventions to solve the
problems. Clara got frustrated because she knew, as a teacher, that she should
expect to encounter challenging groups of students in the classroom at some
point; however, she felt as if she was entering a classroom every day where
students were unmanageable and nothing she did was effective in governing
them.
McCann (2004) and his researchers found that there was a discrepancy
what the actually experience was like. Three stressful incidents that come highly
expressed her frustration and said, “I knew what I was supposed to be doing. I
thought I knew how to do it, but their behavior was so poor. I had a real hard
time dealing with it, especially that week and weeks after, because I had no
experiences, no nothing. It was like, ok, figure it out. Get some control and
figure out how to do this, but it was a shocker” (McCann, 2004). Clara’s
frustration resulted from the contrast between her initial beliefs of how to manage
a class and the subsequent discovery that none of her classroom management
strategies worked.
25
classroom, and found that 78% focused on their classroom instruction rather than
interactions between the teacher and students in the classroom. There were 290
students enrolled over a five year period in a combined teacher credential and
290 students, 87% were females, 13% were males, 59% were Caucasian, 23%
Latino, 15% Asian Pacific Islander, 2% African American, and 1% other. Sixty
seven percent of the students were preparing to teach at the elementary level
and 24% were preparing to teach at the secondary level. The program was
and practice. Candidates began field experiences early in the program and had
teaching in the next school year. Students completed as assignment that asked
them to “describe a teaching experience that you would handle the same way
again” and to “describe a teaching experience that you would handle differently if
you could.” The assignment also asked students to explain their reasoning.
students would handle the same way again, the preservice teachers
experience that they would handle differently, close to 75%, again, focused on
26
instruction. Over the 5 year period, only 21 out of 290 prospective teachers
management focuses on the actions and strategies teachers use to solve the
ability to think systematically about their practice and learn from experience.
Tal (2010) analyzed the usefulness of case studies in teacher training and the
events in their field placement. Students were asked to write down their overall
the issue in similar circumstances. Finally, they were asked to compare the two
events and draw conclusions. Tal (2010) found that later reflection upon analyzed materials by
teachers, or
situations are perceived and dealt with by preservice teachers. The study
and colleagues. Another strength of the study included a third party analyzer that
observed in the classroom, observed teachers in the program, and also observed
Overall, these studies found that there is a huge discrepancy between what
preservice teachers think teaching is, and how it end up being. It has also been
instruction in the classroom, they are not taking as much time to concentrate on
be under large amounts of stress. In order to lessen these stresses in the first
Challenging Student Behavior The previous section analyzed the influence and impact that first
year
teachers and teachers in the first couple years had on students, and the impact
that students and the stress of classroom management had on these new
teachers. The following thirteen studies looked at challenging student behavior in
the classroom, intervention methods to deal with these disruptive behaviors, and
28
schools, youth who were disciplined or court involved were at an increased risk
of dropping out and becoming involved in the juvenile justice system. Wilkinson
school based behavioral consultation and found that establishing a school based
a classroom Check-Up, plus visual performance feedback and found that all the
classrooms observed had higher rates of classroom disruptions than praise and
therefore, had increased the level in which they felt the intervention was effective.
Disorder and found that middle school teachers knew key characteristics
education services and found that teachers were more willing to deal with
problem behaviors in their own classrooms when students were younger; but, as
they get older, teachers may be more likely to send students to the office
29
intervention, monitoring and assessment for students in the classroom and found
implemented at the beginning of the year and found that the treatment group had
emotional and behavioral disorders and found that teachers of students with EBD
students, and this perception was greatly multiplied for the less experienced
classroom based on differing student needs and found that the inquiry based
classroom presents the teacher with added challenges and required them to
modify activities to meet all student needs. Durmuscelebi (2010) researched the
(2004) analyzed middle year teacher’s perceptions and management of disruptive classroom
behavior and found that there was a significant negative
and the use of referral strategies for male students. Overall, these studies found
Texas and retrieving data from administration and juvenile detention centers, and
found that through zero tolerance schools, youth who were disciplined or court
involved were at increased risk of dropping out and becoming involved in the
Fowler (2011) found that holding all other risk factors statistically constant,
students involved in one or more disciplinary incidents were 23.4 times more
infraction increased that likelihood by 1.5%, and each day a student was
suspended from school increased the probability of referral to the justice system
by 0.1%. Out of the 412 Texas school districts in the study, pipeline research
referral rates between school districts suggests that where a student attends
31
school, and not the nature of the offense, determines the likelihood of disciplinary
action.
interviews with an elementary school teacher to find out what behaviors were
most troublesome, which happened most often, and to what level the behaviors
In Wilkinson’s (2003) study, the subject was a seven year old girl, Ana, who
was in the first grade and who demonstrated a consistent pattern of disruptive
behavior that interfered with her classroom performance. Some of the problems
that came about were frequent off task behavior, arguing and fighting with peers,
temper tantrums, and refusal to follow the classroom rules. Ana’s teacher
decided to meet with a child study team to assist with the development,
teacher had eight years of experience teaching in the first grade. Three
interviews were held with Ana’s teacher that ranged from 45-10 minutes each. A
specify the target problem and discuss data collection procedures. Interview
questions included: (a) Which behaviors are most problematic? (b) How often
does the behavior occur, how long does it last, and in what settings does it
occur? (c) What are Ana's strengths and adaptive behavior? (d) What would be an acceptable
level of the behavior? and (e) What would be the best way to keep
room to assist with instruction and facilitate observation and recording. Data was
Wilkinson (2003) found that Ana's T-scores on the Social Problems syndrome
scale decreased from 79 to 66; Attention Problems T-scores fell from 75 to 62;
and Aggressive Behavior syndrome scale T-scores decreased from 85 to 65, all
According to Wilkinson (2003) the findings of this study were consistent with
used a third party observer, the para-professional, which was a strength of the
study, and also referenced previous studies that aligned with the findings of this
one. A weakness in the study was the lack of definitions. Academic language
was used such as disruptive behavior, aggressive behavior, and social problems,
in which none of them were specifically defined in the study. Limitations of the
study include the possibility that events other than the treatment plan may have
whether the positive changes in behavior would have occurred even without
33
variables that involved four white elementary school teachers in the Pacific
Northwest. He found that all the classrooms observed had higher rates of
classroom disruptions than praise; therefore, had increased the level in which
Participants in Reinke’s (2008) study, one first grade, two second grade, and
one third grade teacher, were selected for participation based on their request for
ranged from 5-25 years. A single subject, multiple baseline design was used
variables. The study was conducted in the Northwest Region of the United
States in two different elementary schools. The dependent variables for this
One student variable was the occurrence of student disruptive behavior. A ten
variables was done on a daily basis in each classroom. Data collection always
occurred during the same time period and classroom topic. All behaviors were
34
counted simultaneously throughout the observation using the real time Multi
Reinke (2008) found that all classrooms had higher rates of classroom
disruptions than praise. The mean rate of praise delivered to classroom students
during the follow-up period for the first teacher was 1.17, with a range of 0.08
1.80. The mean rate of praise delivered to classroom students during the follow
up period for the second teacher was 2.53, with a range of 1.60-3.30. Classroom
teacher three delivered praise to classroom students at a mean rate of 3.53, with
a range of 2.00-5.70. Classroom teacher four had a mean rate of praise of 2.40,
Upon completion, all teachers, except the teacher who had reported the highest
level at baseline, had increased the level in which they felt the intervention to be
effective.
Reinke visited the classrooms one month after the interventions. This was the
only time data was collected after the intervention. There were no other
unequal amounts of time in each classroom while collecting the follow-up data.
Three days of data collection were spent in three participating classrooms, and
Several steps were taken to monitor procedural integrity during the study.
35
step, taken to ensure procedural integrity, was to have every teacher interview
independent researchers.
Ornelles (2007) researched the effects of a structured intervention on the
intervention conditions. Three first grade students were chosen for the study from
an urban public school. The majority of the school’s population was African
American (75%), Hispanic (9.4%), and Asian (6.8%). A multiple baseline design
across students was used to test the effectiveness of the intervention in bringing
criteria: a low score on the school district's kindergarten checklist, and teacher
52 to 71 (average scores range from 80 to 90). The teacher reported that the
noted that the three were frequently absent. The target behaviors for these
36
discussions.
Data was collected on 6 children, the three participants and their three
typical peers, over 21 weeks for the aspects of engagement, initiations, and
week during a 1-hr science period. There were four 10-min time sampling
typical peers. Thus there were three 10-min time samples for each of the
participants and one 10-min time sample for a typical peer. Each 10-minute time
sample consisted of 20 observation intervals. Each interval was 30 seconds in
engagement during the intervention conditions. These increases remained for the
duration of the study. Student #1’s engagement increased from a mean of 13.2%
during intervention and to 72.6% during the maintenance phase. The mean
percentage for comparison peers on this variable was 81.7%. The data showed
increased engagement and increased initiations to peers for all three students. In
37
Although data for this study reflected a correlation between initiations and
participants, future researchers could explore the nature and quality of the
attempts that are made. By addressing these kinds of questions, researchers will
reciprocal interactions. Did students adjust their style or mode of initiation to their
peers? Exploring questions like this may reveal whether students can develop
positive peer responses. Increases in peer responding can have other effects on
student initiations and positive perceptions about oneself and about school
(Ornelles, 2007).
Nowacek (2007) analyzed the understanding of elementary school
school teachers and two middle school teachers with a combined 39 years of
teaching experience and found that middle school teachers knew key
management strategies. Teachers were selected based on the following criteria: they were
identified
by their principal as being effective, had at least five years teaching experience,
and were currently teaching students with ADHD. Ms. Bradley, an educator for
over 11 years, taught second grade. With five out of 21 students in her class
identified as having ADHD and only one special education teacher in the school,
she reported that she experienced little external support. Mr. Campbell was a
sixth grade teacher who had been teaching for 28 years. He and one other sixth
grade teacher shared responsibility for the 50 sixth-grade students to whom Mr.
Campbell taught science, social studies, math, and physical education. At the
time of the study, he had four students identified with ADHD. Patricia Rossford, a
elementary school. During the study, five out of 24 students were identified with
elementary school teacher. At the time of the study, one out of 17 of her
students were identified to have ADHD. After the interviews were conducted,
observations were done. The following questions made up the interview with
teachers: (1) What does the term ADHD mean to you? (2) What characteristics
for students identified as having ADHD? (4) What academic modifications do you
make in your classroom for students identified as having ADHD? (5) (asked of
middle grades teachers only): What resources are available to you here to
39
grades teachers only): What types of decisions do you make as a team? (7) How
2007).
associated with ADHD. Specifically, they indicated that students with ADHD
Findings among elementary school teachers were not vocalized in this study.
The study never mentioned how many researchers were involved with the
interviews and observations. There was a plural pronoun used, “we,” to describe
who was observing and conducting the interviews. The researchers conducted
one long-depth interview with each teacher that may have limited reliability. All
Even though all of the participants in the study had attended some recent in
service activities regarding students with special needs, only three of the eight
reported discipline referrals from 16 elementary schools from Oregon and Hawaii
and found that teachers are more willing to deal with problem behaviors in their
40
own classrooms when students are younger; but, as students get older, teachers
may be more likely to send students to the office because they feel students
should know behavioral expectations.
number of teachers at each school ranged from 8.3 to 66.5. The average number
of teachers in a school was 21.9. The range of the student population eligible for
free and reduced lunch was 19.7% to 95.5%, with a mean of 48.4%. The
30.9%, with the mean of 13.2%. The average daily student attendance ranged
from 91.0% to 96.6%, with a mean of 94.4%. The total number of suspensions
and expulsions ranged from zero to 39, with a mean of 8.9, and the number of
classroom discipline referrals per hundred students ranged from 2.7 to 51.1,
Defiance/disrespect and fighting were the two most frequent behaviors resulting
occurred an average of 9.08 (range = 1.01 to 30.94) and was the highest
occurring behavior per hundred students in 15/16 schools. For fighting, the mean
was 3.67 referrals (range = .22 to 8.97). Means and ranges for additional
41
with an average of 1.18 (range = .00 to 4.48), vandalism, with an average of.22
(range = .00 to 1.35), and property damage, with an average of.18 (range = .00
and for 10 schools this administrative decision was in their top three most used
average of office discipline referrals associated with it (4.25 per 100 students;
range = .00 to 19.92). Parent contact was used by 15 schools, and averaged
4.17 (range = 0.0 to 15.7) as an administrative decision per 100 students. Having
a conference with the student had an average occurrence per 100 students of
3.70 (range = .00 to 12.56). The use of in-school suspension averaged 1.16
administrative decision for office discipline referrals from the classroom with an
average of 1.21 (range = .00 to 4.88). Both detention and time in office occurred
in 10 schools, and averaged 2.04 (range = .00 to 7.27) and 1.38 (range = .00 to
The data from the 16 schools showed that fourth and fifth grade students had
higher numbers of referrals. It is possible that teachers are more willing to deal
with problem behaviors in their own classrooms when students are younger, but,
as students get older, teachers may be more likely to send students to the office
42
because they feel students should know behavioral expectations and the
One limitation of the study was the sample size and composition of the
were taken from only 16 schools from two states, to generalize the results to
other schools and states is limited. During the time of the study, the number of
students per grade was not available, so the datawere not adjusted across the
discipline referrals is different at the higher grade levels. Also, the schools
PBS project. Finally, all schools were elementary schools, so the findings can
14 schools principals and vice principals and found that the primary classroom
teachers, and principals, which were developed for the study, based on informal
interviews with two faculty members who were in the process of teaching a
43
indicate the discipline problems in the IT classes, and the possible reasons of
questions were not available for viewing through the online research.
problems were the nature and status of the course in the curriculum, classroom
the parent and cooperating with other groups of teachers in the school.
44
One of the limitations of this study was the sample size. With only 14 schools
represented from the study, the findings can not be generalized. The study did
for the target students as well as other students in the classroom by observing
responsible for all assessment, intervention, and monitoring for the target student
as well as all other students in the classroom during that time. In the first case
study, Lou was a 4th-grade student who was identified as having a specific
learning disability in written language. He went to the resource room daily for
language arts and was monitored for writing in his regular classroom. During
instead to play with his papers, tearing, drawing on, and often losing
name, writing sloppily, and producing poor work. In the second case study, Andy
was a 6th-grade student identified as learning disabled in several areas who also
received services for speech and was noted to have slow motor skills and
awkward movements. With a full-scale IQ of 83, Andy attended a special Short periods of time
during which maintenance and generalization were
assessed create limitations in the ability to make strong statements about the
school year. Because student teachers have a brief amount of time in their
of the study is that each intervention was directly tied to functional behavior
convenience or familiarity, they were selected and tailored to reinforce and teach
desired behaviors.
elementary school teachers from two Arkansas school districts, (14 teachers in
the treatment group and 15 in the control group), and found that the treatment
All 29 teachers in the experiment were observed six times. They were observed
four times after the first workshop, and two times after the second workshop. All
observations lasted 30-50 minutes and started on the first or second day of the
school year. The same number of lessons were recorded for the control group
and treatment group. Observers were not told which teachers were involved in
the workshop, and the observers saw the same number of control group teachers
Evertson (1989) found that all of the variables observers used to assess the
47
allowing privileges more frequently in the classroom. They also used signals to
cue correct behavior, such as a bell to begin an activity, and alerted students as
to what was expected before they began an activity. There was also more
The process and product of the data collection and analysis were audible by
an outside party. This study claims to have transferability to the high school level
needs and differences in reported needs between fully licensed and emergency
licensed teachers of students with emotional and behavioral disorders (EBD) and
moderately sized, middle eastern U.S. metropolitan area and found that teachers
instruction to their students, and this perception was greatly multiplied for the less
Of the 367 distributed surveys, 109 were returned. Ninety of the teachers
(82.6%) indicated that they were licensed to teach students with EBD, and 19
were not fully licensed. Licensed teachers were significantly more experienced
48
than those with emergency licenses, t(1, 106) = 5.34, ρ = .000. Sutherland
development needs from teachers of students with EBD in the four participating
school districts. First, respondents were asked for demographic information, and
rate their ability at performing skills relevant to teaching students with EBD such
ranging from 1 (not at all comfortable) to 4 (very comfortable), with the other
the study occurred when four individuals with expertise in conducting research
and training teachers of students with EBD were asked to review the survey.
Sutherland (2005) found that teachers of students with EBD perceive limitations
in their own ability to provide academic instruction to their students, and this
teachers. Fully licensed teachers had a mean of 3.15 and SD of .51 in concern
2.86 and SD of .53. When asked about behavior and social skills, licensed
Due to the small sample size and homogeneity of the sample, these findings
are not transferable. This study lacks confirmability due to the absence of
accessibility of information for an outside party. Baker (2002) studied how inquiry based
classroom management could be
problems in their class and found that the inquiry based classroom presents the
teacher with added challenges and required them to modify activities to meet all
student needs.
lessons. They then ranked each problem in terms of its severity (not a problem,
Researchers then asked the teachers to consider each one and suggest ways to
overcome them. The research indicated that the inquiry classroom presented the
teachers with unique challenges that often required them to modify activities in
skills. Classrooms are more successful when teachers are able to differentiate
Specifics of the study were far and few between. The teachers in the study
weren’t specifically described and there was no indication of the location where
the study took place. No outside observers or reviewers came in to act as a third
50
part questionnaire to 79 private school teachers and 166 state school teachers,
The research done by Durmscelebi (2010) asked two main questions, (1)
what are the differences in state primary schools and private primary schools
according to determined misbehaviors, and (2) which misbehaviors are the most
encountered or which ones are the least encountered in both types of schools?
Answers in the questionnaire were set up using a Likert Scale and split up into
Packages for the Social Sciences). The first part of the questionnaire, personal
physical conditions of the classroom, and the level of guidance students are
inappropriate for the specific setting or situation in which it occurs. There were
Teachers selected the behaviors, from the list of 28, and ranked how often
the particular misbehaviors happened in their classroom using the likert scale
1-5 (1 being never and 5 being on a daily basis). A four out of five elicited an
At a .05 confidence interval, the study found that in general there was no
“Complaints about friends” came up most frequently in state primary schools and
second most for private primary schools (Durmuscelebi, 2010). The most
studying without a plan, not listening to the teacher, doing other things during the
lesson, and fighting with friends. The most unwanted misbehaviors that teachers
were faced with was cheating, eating in the classroom, coming late to school,
disrespecting the teacher, excluding friends from activities, and using other
between the state and private primary schools, they did find that with a .05
confidence interval there was meaningful data among teachers who have taken a
cleanness rules, not attending to class activities, and walking around the room
52
Teachers from private and state schools rated 28 attributes in the classroom.
The number one and two rated disruptions in the classroom were, “complaint
about friends” (state mean: 2.99, private mean: 2.75) and “talking without
permission (state mean: 2.93, private mean: 2.87).” The disruption occurring the
least amount of time for both private and state schools was “cheating”
(Durmuscelebi, 2010).
The mean of state school teachers that took the classroom management
private school teachers with a mean of .84. The mean of state school teachers
that did not take the classroom management course was 2.86 compared to
private school teachers who did not take the course with a mean of .72
(Durmuscelebi, 2010).
This study makes some very general statements when reasoning why a state
school may have higher rates of discipline issues such as, “This may be the
result of the home environment that students come from. The students who are
coming from families which have higher incomes have an advantage because
their families take pains to their education. Also, physical conditions of private
schools are better than the ones of state schools” (Durmuscelebi, 2010). This
was stated immediately after the findings that revealed there was no significant
difference between the two schools according to the importance level. Another
finding that Durmuscelebi (2010) discusses is that teachers working in the state
schools come face to face with more misbehavior than teachers in private
schools. His discussion of this finding is that this may be the result of the home
It is important when writing about research to get clear about the difference between
research that is inadequate and research that is partial.
There are two concepts that are helpful in deciding which of these is the case. They are:
(1) Blind spots – these are the things the method, definitions or theoretical approach
does not allow to be seen/said. For example, surveys are very good for answering
questions such as how many, and how often. They are not very good at probing the
reasons why this may be the case. Conversely, a small number of case studies may allow
you to build really rich descriptions but does not allow you to generalise to scale.
(2) Blank spots – these are the things that are not yet covered by this study. All studies
have a particular scope, location, are conducted at a particular time, in a particular
context and with particular people and things… there are therefore plenty of other
circumstances which the research doesn’t cover. These things-not-covered constitute
blank spots.
Having blank and blind spots in a piece of research is not necessarily a problem. In
reality, all studies have these. All research is partial. It can’t do everything, cover all
possibilities. It is therefore not a sign of inadequate research that some things are left
unprobed since no research can do this.
The problem comes when there is an ambit claim made for coverage. In reality, most
researchers do acknowledge the limitations of their particular studies and make their
claims for contribution fit these. In other words, they do not claim things that they
evidentially can’t because of the blank and blind spots in the research design.
Research that is inadequate is very often where the method, findings and claims do not
match. The researcher has asked a question and then they have claimed that they have
found things that they haven’t – and indeed couldn’t because the method wouldn’t allow
it. They claim that the findings can apply to situations where there is insufficient
evidence to suggest they will, in other words they claim coverage far greater than the
particular study will allow.
There is also of course sloppy research where methods have been applied badly – texts
under-analysed or statistics misapplied or carried out inadequately.
New researchers often get inadequacies and blank and blind spots muddled up. While
research which has blank and blind spots might be disappointing, it is not actually
sloppy – it’s either under-ambitious or, in reality, more likely simply partial. It’s
important in literature reviews not to suggest something is sloppy research when it is
simply limited by its methods or scope/location/sample etc and doesn’t make claims to
be more than it is. It is important always in literature reviewing to look for the ‘fit’
between the blank and blind spots and the claims made in any piece of empirical
research.
It is also particularly important – no, it’s crucial – to be clear about the blank and blind
spots in your own research and getting this crystal clear before beginning to write the
last chapter of the dissertation when the claims about contribution to knowledge are
made. It is often when bigger claims are made than can actually be justified – for
example policy recommendations are made on the back of small studies with limited
scope and particular samples- that examiners get punitive.
It is not a weakness to note the blank and blind spots, and there is no need to go on
about them at length, or to be apologetic. All research has blank and blind spots and we
just need to know what they are, so that we know what we are legitimately able to say.
Note
The notion of blank and blind spots used here is based on: Wagner, J. 1993, ‘Ignorance
in educational research: Or, how can you not know that?’, Educational Researcher, vol.
22, no. 5, pp. 15-23. Barbara Kamler and I have worked with/on it as a pedagogical
strategy
Effective Classroom Management in StudentCentered Classrooms Deena VanHousen St. John
Fisher College
Department Education
opportunities. According to Wong, Wont, Rogers, and Brooks (2012), “classroom management
refers to all the things that a teacher does to organize students, space, time, and materials so
that
student learning can take place” (p. 61). Effective teachers, who establish an efficient
management system from the beginning of the school year, will have more time to devote to
student learning, than teachers who are constantly trying to use an inefficient management
system. The two federal laws, No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) of 2001 and the Individuals
with Disabilities Education Improvement Act (IDEIA) of 2004 made it a necessity to improve
student achievement for students of all learning abilities. Due to these changes, classrooms are
Students of all learning abilities and cultural backgrounds are learning together in the
same classrooms with teachers being held accountable for each individual student's
achievement.
This study will review recent literature regarding classroom management and specific student
his/her management style, research has found commonalities within the most effective student
Although a child-led approach is often seen as a direct contrast to teacher directed (i.e
the two approaches lies in the emphasis placed on a child’s freedom in completing
learning tasks and the amount of teacher control deemed necessary for proper learning to
In classrooms today, students of all learning abilities and cultural backgrounds are
ideas are valued and enrich the learning environment. McCombs, Daniel, and Perry (2008)
explain, “for the past two decades, there (also) has been strong recognition of the needs for
interventions to target student motivation and social-emotional growth" (p. 254). This study
will
determine how classroom teachers, and other school professionals working in a classroom,
work
Literature Review
Schools and classrooms need to be a safe and welcoming place that provides the
necessary academic, as well as social and emotional supports, all students need. Kohn’s
Kohn (2008), progressive education cannot be defined in one sentence because certain
elements
of the theory can be interpreted differently. There are, however, elements of the theory that
support student-centered classroom management. For example, educators who apply
progressive
education theory believe in collaboration among the teacher and students. Progressive
educators
value not only academic growth, but also the social and emotional growth of all students. Kohn
(2008) explains, “in progressive schools, students play a vital role in helping to design the
curriculum, formulate the questions, seek out (and create) answers, think through possibilities,
and evaluate how successful they - and their teachers - have been” (p. 2). Kohn’s progressive
education theory values students’ ideas and opinions. In student-centered classrooms, the
curriculum is no longer dictated by the next chapter in a scripted teacher’s manual, but is
dictated
by student interests. Schools and teachers, who want to use a student-centered approach,
should
Research Question
It is becoming uncommon today to see a classroom set up with desks in perfect rows and
a teacher standing in the front of the room for a majority of the day. Classrooms are becoming
Although there are numerous classroom management theories, how can teachers effectively
manage a classroom with a wide range of learning abilities and styles, in a student-centered
way?
classrooms focus on the needs of each individual student. There are, however, different
management programs, which suggest specific strategies for teachers and students to
implement.
possible only if there are strong positive relationships between the teacher and students as well
as, students and their peers. In student-centered classrooms, teachers share responsibilities
with
students, so having mutual respect for each other is essential. Also, in order for a student
stated, student-centered classrooms rely on both ideas and opinions from teachers and
students.
Therefore, especially in the beginning of the year, it is important for teachers and students to
establish and practice classroom expectations and routines. Student-centered classrooms can
be
successful when each individual teacher and student knows his/her contributions are needed in
Teachers and students begin establishing a classroom management system on the first day
year. Consistency Management and Cooperative Discipline (CMCD) “is an instructional and
classroom management program that provides teachers, administrators, students, and school
staff
with the tools needed to build community and organizational capacity within their schools”
(Jerome-Freiberg, Huzinec, & Templeton, 2009, p. 64). This management program creates a
student-centered classroom and school by giving students responsibility for their actions, which
promotes active learning. According to Jerome-Freiberg et al. (2009), often times management
programs focus on discipline after the issue, instead of prevention. Schools and classrooms
who
apply CMCD, "create fair, consistent, and engaging instruction with predictable daily classroom
routines in which students are active participants" (Jerome-Freiberg et al.,, 2009, p. 65). A
predictable school and classroom environment, where students are given responsibilities and
held
accountable for their actions, will decrease the amount of time teachers and students have to
spend on classroom management and discipline (Jerome-Freiberg et al., 2009). When teachers
and students spend less time on classroom management and discipline, they are able to devote
14 elementary schools that implemented CMCD. The study revealed that schools who applied
CMCD had “changes in the learning environment and particularly within the component of the
environment that focuses on classroom and instructional management… (also a) positive effect
on the improvement of student learning outcomes” (Jerome-Freiberg et al., p. 78). The CMCD
management program suggests teachers and students find success through cooperation,
prevention, organization and caring (Jerome-Freiberg et al., 2009). Teachers from this
study
were surveyed and asked to estimate how much time, on average, they saved and were able to
devote to instructional time once they began the CMCD management program. Jerome-
Freiberg
et al. (2009) report that "teachers saved, on average, 26 minutes per day, equaling 13 school
days (2.6 school weeks) per year of instructional time" (p. 77). CMCD is a cooperative
Cooperative Discipline.
responsibilities and held accountable for their actions. According to Charles (2005), Albert's
believes all students need to feel capable while connecting with others, and making
contributions
in the classroom, school and community. Charles (2005) states, "Albert's main focus is on
helping teachers meet student’s needs, thereby prompting students to cooperate with the
teacher
and each other" (p. 200). When students are active participants in their learning and feel their
contributions are valued in the classroom, it is more likely the students will have a positive
CMCD management program. For example, both management programs rely on teachers and
students to cooperate and work together in the classroom and school (Jerome-Freiberg et al.,
(2009), Huzinec, & Templeton, 2009; Charles, 2005). One specific characteristic of Cooperative
Discipline is ensuring students feel connected in the classroom (Charles, 2005). Jerome-
Freiberg
et al. (2009) would agree that helping students connect with their teacher and peers is an
essential component of a successful management system. A teacher who applied the CMCD
management program in her classroom states, "students want to know how much you care
before
they consider how much you know" (Jerome-Freiberg et al.,, 2009, p. 66). Pereira and Smith
Adcock (2011), agree by stating, “when students feel connected to their teacher and peers, as a
valued member of the classroom community, they are more prepared to actively engage in the
curriculum” (p. 257). Students who feel comfortable in the classroom will be more willing to
Both the Cooperative Discipline management program and CMCD management program
encourage students to contribute their individual ideas and opinions to improve the classroom
environment (Jerome-Freiberg, et al., Huzinec, & Templeton, 2009; Charles, 2005). Charles
(2005) indicates that with Cooperative Discipline it is important to, “ask students to state their
opinions and preferences about class requirements, routines, and other matters" (p. 207).
Similarly, Jerome-Freiberg et al. (2009), state with CMCD, "student opinions and perspectives
are heard. Students learn how to solve disputes, prevent problems, and work and learn in
groups,
all within a supportive, caring environment" (p. 66). When students and teachers are working
together to cooperatively manage the classroom, there is shared leadership and responsibility.
This type of cooperative management will minimize disruptions and create a more productive
learning environment.
Culturally Responsive Teaching
crucial that teachers develop the knowledge, skills, and predispositions to teach children from
diverse racial, ethnic, language, and social class backgrounds because classrooms today are
explain:
must learn, for example, about our students' family backgrounds, their previous
educational experiences, their cultural norms for interpersonal relationships, their parents'
expectations for discipline, and the ways their culture treat time and space. (p. 270)
Teachers set the tone for their classroom on the very first day with their welcome and continue
to
be role models for their students throughout the school year. The physical environment of a
classroom reflects the teacher’s respect for diversity. For example, while displaying pictures,
teachers need to make sure they avoid any stereotypical representations. Examples of a
(Weinstein, Curran, & Tomlinson-Clarke, 2003). Teachers need to educate themselves, or have
students educate them, about different cultural values and traditions. Albert's Cooperative
that teachers need to communicate, “that it is all right for each student to be as he or she is,
regardless of culture, abilities, disabilities, and personal style" (Charles, 2005, p. 206). Sobel and
Taylor (2006) write about Ms. Linda Hillmera, a third grade Caucasian teacher who comes from
a middle-class European American family, but engages her students each day in a Culturally
Responsive classroom. For example, all signs, cabinets and classroom materials are labeled in
English, Spanish, Russian, and American Sign Language. Even in a classroom that is made up
of the mainstream culture, it is important for teachers to educate themselves and their
students
about cultural values and traditions. Teachers must remember to encourage a positive,
culturally
responsive learning environment because students of all cultural backgrounds need to feel
Allowing time to share stories about life outside of school also helps build a classroom
community. Jerome-Freiberg, Huzinec, and Templeton (2009) explain with CMCD, students are
able to share personal stories and opinions comfortably during classroom meetings. Learning
about students’ families and working with families in and out of the classroom is essential, but
can cause conflicts when the home and school cultures collide. Teachers need to be aware of
the
cultural differences and accommodate the student and family needs (Bondy & Ross, 2006).
Bondy and Ross (2006) explain that, “gaining insight into cultural values and habits helps
teachers monitor their reactions to student behaviors that they might deem bad, but that are
considered normal or even valued in the student’s home culture” (p. 56). Teachers should be
educated about different cultures so they do not misinterpret certain behaviors. Being
accepting
and willing to learn from students is key for teachers in a culturally responsive classroom.
According to Sobel and Taylor (2006), “Responsive teaching encompasses much more than the
items displayed on a classroom wall… [it] calls for teachers to create respectful, inclusive,
responsive teachers respect cultural differences and communicate with all students and their
communication, patience, and education from all teachers and students, but is a necessity in a
student-centered classroom.
In order to build a classroom and school community, teachers must develop a strong
positive relationship with each student. Also, teachers must encourage strong student-peer
relationships. Dollard, Christensen, and Colucci (1996) state, “the positive connection formed
within a relationship between student and teacher becomes the foundation for all interaction in
the classroom” (p. 5). Students must feel safe and feel they are able to express their feelings in
a
classroom in order to excel academically. According to Bondy and Ross (2008), “what is
missing is not skill in lesson planning, but a teacher stance that communicates both warmth and
a
nonnegotiable demand for student effort and mutual respect” (p. 54). Teachers must make
time
to show students they care about them. When students know their teacher cares and respects
them, the students will be more likely to work to their full potential. Teachers need to be
consistent in communicating expectations for respect between teachers and students as well as
students and their peers. Dollard, Christensen, and Colucci (1996) would agree with Bondy and
Ross (2008) when stating there needs to be mutual respect amongst everyone in the classroom.
In student-centered classrooms, teachers need to give up some control and trust their students
to
manage and be teachers as well. For example, Soter and Rudge (2005), describe the most
productive classroom discussions are when the teacher has control, but there is room for
flexibility and elaboration from the students. Teachers are not the only teachers in a classroom.
Students can learn a lot from each other and student-centered classrooms have valuable
discussions throughout the day. Teachers need to facilitate, not control, conversations.
questions and more conversational turns than recitation, as teachers and students alike
contribute
their ideas to a discussion and the exchange of ideas are at the core” (p. 400). It is difficult for
teachers to give up control; however, the most productive conversations in classrooms are
facilitated by students.
Classroom Expectations
from all students, the teacher is the main facilitator who sets the tone. As Nystrand (2006)
states,
“what counts as knowledge and understanding in any given classroom is largely shaped by the
questions teachers ask, how they respond to their students, and how they structure small-
group
and other pedagogical activities” (p.400). In student-centered classrooms, teachers value all
students and view all students’ opinions and contributions as a chance to learn. Smith and
Lambert (2008) agree with Nystrand (2006) by stating in productive learning communities,
teachers must assume all students want to be in school each day, participate, and learn good
behavior, Lane, Wehby, and Cooley (2006), conducted a study during the 2001-2002 school year
in a large school district in Tennessee and asked teachers which social skills they believe are
necessary for success. A questionnaire was given to teachers in the district at the elementary,
middle, and high school levels. The questionnaire gathered information about the teachers
demographics and also asked them what social skills they think are essential for learning to be
General and special education teachers at the elementary and middle school levels shared
similar views regarding the importance of self-control skills, whereas high school special
education teachers viewed self-control skills as significantly more important than did
high school general education teachers. (Lane, Wehby & Cooley, 2006, p. 163)
because students will be responsible for engaging in individual, or group work assignments with
minimal teacher interaction and supervision. Smith and Lambert (2008) agree with Lane,
Wehby, and Cooley (2006) and suggest a few strategies for teachers to implement while
teachers believe they are showing students they care when they continually give one more
chance. Unfortunately, giving one more chance demonstrates that a teacher does not mean
what
he or she says” (p. 18). It is important for teachers to clearly explain directions and routines,
especially in a student-centered classroom because often times students will be required to use
self-control to complete tasks with minimal teacher interaction once it is expected all students
can complete tasks independently.
In student-centered classrooms, teachers must expect that each student in their classroom
will succeed. Bondy and Ross (2008) believe that day-to-day interactions with students are
essential. Each individual student in a classroom needs to feel appreciated. It is not enough for
teachers to give students a “get to know you” survey at the beginning of the year. Similarly to
Bondy and Ross (2008), Smith and Lambert (2008) suggest that teachers take time every day to
have a personal conversation with students about anything the student is interested in. For
example, “the use of a student’s name, or a question that shows you remember something the
student has mentioned- these small gestures build and nurture teacher-student relationships”
clear expectations from the beginning of the year. Teachers will need to be a role model for
how
certain routines should be completed; however, accepting new ideas from students is the key
to
success.