Journal of Manufacturing Processes 37 (2019) 21–27

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Journal of Manufacturing Processes

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/manpro

Modeling of rotary friction welding process based on maximum entropy T

production principle
⁎
Xujing Nana,b, Jiangtao Xiongb, , Feng Jina,b, Xun Lia,b, Zhongxiang Liaoa,b, Fusheng Zhangb,
⁎
Jinglong Lib,
a
State Key Laboratory of Solidification Processing, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi’an, 710072, PR China
b
Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Friction Welding Technologies, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi’an, 710072, PR China

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The interfacial transition point isolated by maximum entropy production principle (MEPP) was used to construct
Rotary friction welding a two-dimensional (2D) finite element (FE) model of continuous-drive rotary friction welding (RFW) with
MEPP GH4169 superalloy. The transition point from sliding friction to shear friction was calculated based on the equal
Corona bond entropy of these two kinds of heat liberation mechanisms at this point. The FE model was shown valid by the
Axial shortening
consistency of comparison between simulation and experiment. The simulation issued an interfacial distribution
Welding time
of non-uniform heat intensity that determined the corona bond, which corresponded to higher temperature zone
over the transition temperature. The influences of linear speed and friction pressure on welding time were
examined, which showed that a shorter welding time could be acquired when the linear speed was about 1.96 m/
s and the friction pressure is larger.

1. Introduction
Rotary friction welding (RFW) is a solid state welding method that
one workpiece rotates at a constant speed while the other keeps sta-
tionary under an axial force. When sufficient temperature has arrived at
the friction interface, the viscoplastic metal is ejected from the weld
region and the coalescence of metal is produced by solid phase bonding
[1–4]. During the welding process, heat liberated by relative friction
motion contributes to softening the narrow region in the vicinity of the
interface and provides permanent bonding energy. Thus, the insight
into the mechanisms of heat liberation and evolution of temperature
field in welding joint becomes a stringent and significant requirement.
Considering the complicated thermal-mechanical coupling involved
in the welding process, it is difficult to explore the temperature field
evolution and plastic deformation in the internal weld joint [5]. Thus a
feasible and simplified way has been adopted by researchers to in-
vestigate the friction behavior on the welding region. At an earlier time,
Rykalin et al. [6] and Vill [1] established the thermal analytical model
by deeming the heat liberation as a constant sliding friction. It revealed
the inhomogeneity of interfacial heat intensity which has been adopted
by many investigators [7–10] However, the ignorance of shear friction
at high temperature constrained its applicability.
The experimental study provided a theoretical basis for the friction
behavior of the interface. Hasegawa et al. [11] and Kimura et al.
[12,13] demonstrated that the local dominated friction mechanism
gradually transferred from sliding friction to shear friction as the pro-
cess going on. The friction mechanism at different radial position was
determined by temperature and strain rate. Therefore, how to define
the local transition of these two friction mechanisms has become a
critical problem in the establishment of heat liberation modeling.
Originally, Moal and Massoni [14] [Moal, 1995 #520] proposed
that the evolution of shear stress was dependent on rotational speed,
which provided a new idea for the distinction of friction behavior.
Then, in 2008, Maalekian et al. [15] proposed a sliding-shear model to
describe the friction mechanism in orbital friction welding (OFW).
While the friction stress was smaller than the shear yield stress, pure
sliding friction according to Coulomb’s friction law was in dominant.
Otherwise, full plasticity at the interface was presented and the entire
heat liberation came from shear friction. Maalekian et al. [15] assumed
the transition temperature at about 0.6Tm (Tm is the melting tempera-
ture), which falls around the dynamic recrystallization temperature.
However, this criterion of transition temperature was only dependent
on the nature of the material and temperature, which ignored the in-
fluence of heat liberation inhomogeneity at the interface. To date, this
criterion was widely recognized as a reasonable theory and accepted by
many researchers [16–19]. Zhang et al. [16] built a three-dimensional

⁎
Corresponding authors at: School of Materials Science and Engineering, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi’an, 710072, Shaanxi, PR China.
E-mail addresses: xiongjiangtao@nwpu.edu.cn (J. Xiong), lijinglg@nwpu.edu.cn (J. Li).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmapro.2018.11.016
Received 13 April 2018; Received in revised form 29 September 2018; Accepted 16 November 2018
1526-6125/ © 2018 Published by Elsevier Ltd on behalf of The Society of Manufacturing Engineers.
X. Nan et al. Journal of Manufacturing Processes 37 (2019) 21–27

(3D) finite element (FE) model in which the heat liberation was kept
two different friction mechanisms. Li et al. [17] and Wang et al. [19]
constructed the heat flux boundary condition by considering the co-
existence stage of two friction mechanisms. More recently, Shailesh
et al. [18] presented a thermomechanical model of thixocast A356
aluminum alloy to predict temperature field and optimize the process
parameters. Yet, there was short of a method to characterize the tran-
sition point based upon comprehensive consideration of the process
parameters.
The transition point, which indicates the heat liberation mechanism
from sliding friction to shear friction, is resulted from the accumulation
of sliding friction process. As one may have noticed that RFW is a severe
deformation process, the friction mechanism was determined by pro-
cess parameters, which brought greater deviation in simulation. Thus
the state variable entropy is introduced in RFW to handle the com-
prehensive effect of strain rate, stress, temperature and so on [19]. The
second law of thermodynamics indicates that any irreversible process
develops always in the direction of increasing entropy. So Maximum
Entropy Production Principle (MEPP) is introduced into RFW process to
judge the thermodynamic state of friction welding joint at different
time and the evolution of the process in the next step [20,21].
This paper focused on developing an accurate FE model of GH4169
in RFW to simulate the thermal-mechanical coupling process using
DEFORM software, in which the interfacial transition point was cal-
culated based on the equal entropy of sliding friction and shear friction.
The validation of the model was conducted by comparing simulation
with experiment. Based on the simulation, the evolution of joint mor-
phology (i.e., corona bond [22]), which means the full plastic deformed
zone under thermal-mechanical coupling, was acquired according to Fig. 1. 2D axisymmetric model and meshing of the workpiece.
temperature field. The effects of linear speed and friction pressure on
welding time was also investigated. This study focuses on the con- where ρ is the material density, CP the specific heat, T the absolute
struction of more accurate FE model to provide an effective method for temperature, λ the thermal conductivity, u the axial shortening rate,
RFW research. Thus unlike other study [23,24], the evolution of mi- and xi represents both the axial and radial directions. Ṡ is the heat
crostructure and mechanical property are not discussed here. liberation by plastic deformation which is expressed as:

S˙ = ασε
¯ ¯˙ (2)
2. FE model constructed by MEPP
where σ̄ and ε̄˙ are the equivalent stress and strain rate, respectively. α is
thermal efficiency which is assumed as 0.9 [19].
2.1. Model and thermal analysis
During the welding process, the heat liberation is assigned to the
friction interface as a heat flux boundary that can be expressed as:
The two-dimensional (2D) rigid viscoplastic FE model with Von
Mises yield criterion during RFW process is built based on MEPP. The q (r , t ) = ητv (3)
nickel-based superalloy GH4169 is adopted as a typical material, which
where η is the thermal efficiency of friction heat, τ the shear stress and v
has been widely used in aero-engine for its highest yield strength below
the linear speed. The heat liberation mechanism is divided into two
650 °C [25]. The chemical composition of GH4169 is shown in Table 1.
stages. When the interface temperature is low, i.e. at the beginning of
Fig. 1 shows the workpiece that is machined into rod shape with a
the friction welding, the heat generated by sliding friction is dominant
radius of 12.5 mm and length of 100 mm. Since the severe deformation
where the stress is calculated by Coulomb’s friction law as:
happens near the interface, the FE quadrilateral mesh is designed into
two parts, the upper 92 mm part has a mesh size of 2 mm and the lower τf = μP (4)
part with a mesh size of 0.3 mm. In addition, the remeshing technique is
where P is the normal stress, μ is the nominal friction coefficient which
available in DEFORM to avoid excessive mesh distortion in the process.
could be set according to Moal and Massoni [14]. As the interface
In the friction welding, the temperature field is a result of the
temperature rises to a relatively high value, the shear friction law is
comprehensive effect of friction heat, plastic deformation heat and heat
adopted in which the stress is assumed as the following equation:
exchange with environment [15,16,26]. The relationship between them
is expressed by energy balance equation as follows: σs
τf = m
3 (5)
∂T ∂ ⎛ ∂T ⎞ ∂T
ρCP = λ ⎜ + ρCP u
⎟ + Ṡ where σs is the shear yield stress according to Von Mises yield criterion,
∂t ∂x i ⎝ ∂x i ⎠ ∂x i (1)
and m is the friction factor which is assumed to be 1.0 [16].
In order to acquire an accurate temperature field, MEPP is in-
Table 1 troduced to define the transition point of heat liberation mechanisms
Chemical compositions of GH4169 superalloy (wt %).
from sliding friction to shear friction. At the beginning of welding
Element C Ni Fe Cr Nb Mo process, the entropy of plastic deformation is almost negligible com-
pared with sliding friction entropy according to strain rate from the
Content ≤0.08 50.0–55.0 Balance 17.0–21.0 4.75–5.5 2.80–3.30
constitutive equation. Therefore, with the increase of temperature, the
Element Ti Al Mn Si S P
Content 0.75–1.15 0.30–0.70 ≤0.35 ≤0.35 ≤0.015 ≤0.015 plastic deformation entropy presents an increasing tendency as the
shear friction is gradually dominant, while the sliding friction

22
X. Nan et al.
decreases. According to Xiong et al. [20], the entropy at sliding friction
stage is calculated by the equation:
λ (ΔT )2 π q2
θf = 2
=
T 2q kt + π T0 λ
where k is thermal diffusion coefficient, T0 the initial interface tem-
perature, q the heat liberation power. As the temperature rises to a
certain degree, the interface is at shear friction stage and the entropy is
expressed as:
¯ ¯˙
σε
θp =
T (7)
The second law of thermodynamics indicates that any irreversible
process develops always in the direction of increasing entropy.
Therefore, the transition of these two heat liberation mechanisms takes
place when the entropy generations are equal. Therefore, according to
MEPP in thermodynamics, the transition takes place when the heat
liberation mechanisms of sliding friction and shear friction fall into the
same entropy state—that is to say:
θf = θP
Substituting Eqs. (5) and (6) into Eq. (7) and considering the con-
stitutive equation, the transition temperature is obtained, where q is
acquired by experiment, λ and k takes the corresponding value at
0.5Tm, T0 is 20 °C. The calculation result of these two kinds of entropy is
shown in Fig. 2. Consequently, the temperature of transition point for
GH4169 is at about 923 °C. According to Maalekian et al. [15], this
temperature is a little higher than the dynamic recrystallization tem-
perature 0.6Tm, which may be due to consideration of the severe plastic
deformation in the welding process. The transition temperature is as-
sociated with the welding process parameters, such as strain rate, stress
and temperature. Whereas, the temperature could be assumed to be
consistent with a little change in welding parameters. Then the simu-
lation is processed by the substitution of material properties of GH4169
including constitutive equation and material physical properties as
functions of temperature.
2.2. Material properties
RFW process exhibits severe deformation, in which hyperbolic sine
constitutive equation is suitable to describe the relationship between
material flow stress, strain, strain rate and temperature. Eq. (8) depicts
a function of strain rate with flow stress and temperature at strain equal
0.1 for GH4169 superalloy according to Yang et al. [27]:
−373927
ε˙ = 8.137 × 1013 [ sinh (0.00414σ )]4.5274 exp ⎛ ⎞ pressure and axial shortening are 1.57 m/s, 350 MPa, 525 MPa and
⎝ RT ⎠
Fig. 2. Evolution of different kinds of entropy during the process.
Journal of Manufacturing Processes 37 (2019) 21–27
(6)
Fig. 3. The temperature-dependent properties of GH4169 used in simulation
[19].
where σ is the flow stress, ε̇ the strain rate and R the gas constant. All
necessary material properties data are fully under consideration during
(8) the friction welding process, where the dependence of material prop-
erties (i.e. thermal conductivity, heat specific and Young’s modulus) on
temperature for GH4169 is shown in Fig. 3 [19].
2.3. Simulation parameters
The validation of the constructed FE model is carried out with linear
speed, friction pressure, forging pressure and axial shortening set re-
spectively as 1.57 m/s, 350 MPa, 525 MPa and 5 mm (the linear speed
value in this paper refers to the linear speed at the periphery of the
interface). Since it is technically difficult to obtain the internal tem-
perature history, the maximum temperature profile at the external in-
terface of joint acquired by infrared thermographic camera is used in-
stead. The curve of axial shortening is obtained by high-speed
photography. Furthermore, the welding time, as functions of linear
speed and friction pressure, will be separately studied using two sets of
parameters as in Table 2. Yet, the heat exchange with environment is
considered into simulation, which used a constant heat transfer coef-
ficient of 30 W m−2 K-1 given by Wang et al. [19].
3. Model validation
The preliminary experiment is carried out to validate the accuracy
of the model, in which the comparison between the simulation and
experiment is proceeded under linear speed, friction pressure, forging
(9)
5 mm, respectively. Fig. 4 shows the transient temperature fields that
evolved at different time. As one may notice the first figure, the joint
periphery presents a quick temperature increase and reaches to 783 °C
in 5 s, which shows a steep temperature gradient in both the axial di-
rection and radial direction. As the process going on, the temperature
distribution then develops uniformly around the faying interface owing
to heat conduction, and the highest temperature zone transfers towards
the center axis. At the 15 s, the temperature is basically consistent at the
faying interface and reaches quasi-steady state with the peak tem-
perature around 1140 °C, at which the flash is about to form. Moreover,
with the increase of welding time, a volume of the flash keeps enlarging
Table 2
The welding parameters for simulation during RFW.
Parameter Linear speed(m/s) Friction pressure Axial shortening
(MPa) (mm)
Group I 1.57,1.78,1.96,2.36,2.75,3.14 350 5
Group II 1.96 150, 250, 350, 5
450, 500
23
X. Nan et al. Journal of Manufacturing Processes 37 (2019) 21–27

Fig. 4. The joint temperature field at different welding time (5 s, 15 s, 25 s, 30 s, 37 s, 48 s).

accompanied by slight fluctuations of the temperature field. This is

possibly because the combination of internal heat liberation and the
heat consumption by flash extrusion approximately achieves a dynamic
balance. When the axial shortening comes to 5 mm as preset, the ex-
trusion speed of flash significantly increases owing to the forging
pressure, and the temperature decreases sharply.
Fig. 5 shows the comparison between the maximum interface tem-
perature profiles of simulation and experiment, which is acquired by
the infrared thermographic camera. Both curves fit well, at which the
early friction welding process presents that the experimental tempera-
ture falls around the simulation. After the quasi-steady stage (at 12 s),
the relative deviation between simulation and experiment is less than
1.2%. Although there is a little deviation at the beginning, this short
stage has little effect on the joint formation. Further comparison of
steady-state temperature under parameters of Group I is shown in
Fig. 6. In general, there is a good agreement between experiment and
simulation temperature profile. Fig. 7 presents the final joints geometry
of simulation and experiment in section view, whose morphologies are Fig. 6. Comparison of steady-state temperature under different linear speeds.
nearly identical. A quantitative characterization could be given by the
weld center diameter that deviates within 2%. Axial shortening is also
Group I is also carried out in Fig. 9. The results confirm the MEPP based
selected for comparison as shown in Fig. 8, which indicates a very small
2D model that could accurately deal with the process of RFW on
deviation of 2% on axial shortening and of 4.8% on axial shortening
GH4169.
rate. The comparison of axial shortening rate under parameters of

4. Results and discussion

4.1. Evolution of temperature field and corona bond

The evolution of corona bond morphology could be deduced based

Fig. 5. Comparison of the maximum interface temperature between simulation
and experiment.
on the temperature history. Since the corona bond is defined by the full
plastic deformed zone around the friction interface, which is char-
acterized by the dynamic recrystallization. Fig. 10 shows the yield
stress and variation rate of yield stress as a function of temperature
[28]. The differential issues a minus peak variation rate of yield stress
around 860 °C where the deformation resistance significantly reduces.
This phenomenon characterizes that the dynamic recrystallization
happens at the temperature higher than 860 °C. According to Fig. 7, it is
believed that corona bond is nearly equivalent to the high temperature
zone over 923 °C, which is the transition temperature from sliding
friction to shear friction based on MEPP. Therefore, the corona bond
morphology could be deduced solely on basis of the temperature field
with temperature contour of 923 °C.
Fig. 11(a) and (b) shows the radial distribution of internal tem-
perature in the welded joint obtains by simulation. They respectively

24
X. Nan et al.
Fig. 7. Comparison of the final joints geometry between (a) simulation and (b) experiment.
Fig. 8. Comparison of axial shortening between simulation and experiment.
Fig. 9. Comparison of axial shortening rate under different linear speeds.
indicate the temperature history lying at four different radial cross-
sectioned locations (center, 1/2R, 3/4R, and R) and radial temperature
distribution at different time. It is evident that the change of tem-
perature at center and 1/2 slightly lags behind 3/4R and R, and the
periphery of interface has the maximum temperature 649 °C while the
slowest 143 °C at the center. During friction process, the linear speed
linearly increases from center to the edge, and so as the strain rate,
which accounts for the highest temperature rise rate at periphery.
Whereas, due to the comprehensive effect of heat dissipation with the
environment and heat conduction, the highest temperature zone gra-
dually transfers towards 3/4R after 5.6 s. Afterwards, at 12.8 s, it is a
25
Journal of Manufacturing Processes 37 (2019) 21–27
Fig. 10. The variation of yield stress and variation rate of yield stress with
temperature [28].
tendency that the entire temperature distribution at the interface tends
to be more uniformly with reduction of temperature difference to
around 187 °C. The corresponding temperature fields on the cross sec-
tion at different time are shown in Fig. 12. It is assumed that the corona
bond morphology corresponds to the high temperature zone over
923 °C, the transition point by MEPP, as marked by a dotted line on
Fig. 12. This is attributed to the fact that the corona bond initially forms
at about 3/4R and expands to be a morphology of “double-ellipse
shape”, and when it covers the whole interface at about 12.8 s, the flash
is about to be extruded, which is consistent with Fig. 8.
Fig. 8 shows that the welding process mainly partitions into two
stages, which are preheat accumulation stage and uniform axial
shortening stage. At the preheat accumulation stage, the friction heat is
accumulated for the nucleation and propagation of corona bond, which
are primarily affected by the non-uniform distribution of temperature
field. The heat liberation concentrated area initiates the corona bond
and then the corona bond expands towards the normal direction of the
outer contour until the corona bond propagates the whole interface.
After that, the axial shortening begins with a constant axial shortening
rate.
The effect of welding parameters on the nucleation, evolution of
corona bond and final joint morphology can be acquired by analyzing
the internal high temperature zone according to the model constructed
by MEPP. It is generally believed that the formation of joint is achieved
when the corona bond spreads out of the fraction interface. Therefore,
the simulation result could be used in process parameter optimization.
X. Nan et al. Journal of Manufacturing Processes 37 (2019) 21–27

Fig. 11. (a) Temperature history at different radial cross-sectioned locations and (b) radial temperature distribution at different time.

Fig. 12. The evolution of temperature field at different time.

4.2. Effect of linear speed and friction pressure on welding time
Linear speed and friction pressure have a significant effect on the
quality and efficiency of welding joint. Fig. 13 shows the variation of
welding time with linear speed for the parameters in Group I (Table 2).
The picture exhibits that the relationship between welding time and
linear speed under the designated axial shortening presents a V-shape.
The valley point of “V” is acquired when the linear speed is about
1.96 m/s, which gives an 11.6% decrease compared with 3.14 m/s. The
picture also indicates that the preheat accumulation times decrease as
the linear speeds vary from 1.57 m/s to 3.14 m/s while uniform axial
shortening times gradually increase. This is because that higher heat
liberation rate is obtained as linear speed increasing. It is considered
that the extreme point (valley point) of “V” is the most economical
processing parameter, which means the highest heat liberation effi-
ciency. Therefore, the most economical processing parameters under
350 MPa is 1.96 m/s.
Fig. 14 shows the variation of welding time with friction pressure
for the parameters in Group II (Table 2). It can be seen that the welding
time apparently presents a downward trend as the friction pressure
increasing, which gives a 35% decrease from 150 MPa to 500 MPa.
When the friction pressure exceeds 450 MPa, it gradually reaches de-
creases slightly as shown in Fig. 14. However, in actual welding pro-
cess, excessive pressure has a corresponding higher requirement for
welding machine motor, for which the friction pressure should be
controlled in a suitable range. Thus the most economical processing

Fig. 13. The evolution of time at different stages with linear speed. Fig. 14. The evolution of time at different stages with friction pressure.

26
X. Nan et al.
parameters under 1.96 m/s is 450 MPa. The picture shows that the
preheat accumulation times decline clearly with the increase of friction
pressure, while the uniform axial shortening time is almost invariant.
This may be due to the fact that, under a higher friction pressure, the
viscoplastic material is easier to extrude out at lower temperature.
5. Conclusion
A 2D FE model of RFW on superalloy GH4169 was constructed using
DEFORM software, in which the critical interfacial transition point from
sliding friction to shear friction was identified by MEPP. Based on the
simulation, the effects of processing parameters on welding time were
investigated, and the conclusions were drawn as follows:
(1) The transition temperature based on MEPP for GH4169 is about
923 °C, which is a little higher than the dynamic recrystallization
temperature under consideration of the severe deformation during
the welding process. The validation of the FE model is conducted by
comparing the simulation with experiment, which is in a good
agreement.
(2) The corona bond resulted from the non-uniform heat intensity at
the interface nucleates at about 3/4R and shows a type of “double-
ellipse shape” morphology, which corresponds to the high tem-
perature zone over transition temperature.
(3) Linear speed and friction pressure have a significant effect on the
welding time. The variation of welding time with linear speed
presents a “V-shape”. With increasing friction pressure, the welding
time is in a downward trend.
Acknowledgement
This work was financially supported by the National Natural Science
Foundation of China (Grand No: 51575451, 51475376).
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