Mitosis Meiosis How many chromosomes do people have?

This picture of the

human
chromosomes
lined up in pairs is
called a karyotype.

1. The chromosome number remains constant (46 total
chromosomes or 23 pairs of chromosomes).
2. The chromatids replicate during interphase to produce
a total of 92 chromatids, but they're only found in pairs
and remain connected at the center by the centromere.
3. After mitosis, the chromatid pairs separate, so each
daughter cell gets 46 chromatids
1. At first the cells have the same number of chromosomes as mitosis. DNA replication occurs, giving a total of 1. In humans, each cell normally contains 23 pairs of chromosomes, for a
46 chromosomes (or 23 chromosome pairs) and 92 chromatids (or 46 chromatid pairs).
2. Meiosis I: the homologous chromosomes separate. In this case, the pairs of sister chromatids are still
total of 46.
attached to each other. So at this stage, the daughter cells get 23 chromosomes each (of the pair of 2. Twenty-two of these pairs, called autosomes, look the same in both males
homologous chromosomes) and 46 chromatids in total (which are actually 23 pairs of sister chromatids and females. The 23rd pair, the sex chromosomes, differ between males
attached at the centromere). This is known as reductional division, as the total number of chromosomes is and females.
halved at this stage.
3. Meiosis II: follows the same division as mitosis, except that there are only half as many chromosomes. So 3. Females have two copies of the X chromosome, while males have one X
1
the 23 chromatid pairs from the previous cells (or 46 chromatids in total) split equally, so each daughter gets
2
and one Y chromosome. 3
23 chromatids exactly, which correspond to 23 chromosomes. Meiosis II is known as equational division.

Lecture 4 Modes of Reproduction Asexual Reproduction

• Fission: asexual
• Asexual reproduction involves the reproduction in
Reproduction and formation of individuals whose genes all which a parent
Developmental Biology come from one parent. separates into two
or more
approximately
• Sexual reproduction is the formation of equal sized
offspring by the fusion of haploid gametes. individuals.

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Asexual Reproduction Asexual Reproduction Asexual Reproduction

• Budding: asexual • Gemmules of • Fragmentation:
reproduction in sponges are an the breaking of
which new example of a type the body into
individuals split of asexual several pieces,
off from existing reproduction that some or all of
ones. involves the which develop
release of into complete
specialized cells adults.
that can grow into Gemmules of the freshwater sponge spongilla.
• Requires
new individuals. Image courtesy of J. Houseman
regeneration of
Hydra http://biology.about.com/library/weekly/aa090700a.htm
lost body parts.
Echinaster luzonicus (Pacific sea star)

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Parthenogenesis is the process by which an
unfertilized egg develops into (often) haploid adult.
• Parthenogenesis plays a role in the social organization of
species of bees, wasps, and ants.
- Male honeybees are haploid and female honeybees are diploid.
Hermaphroditism: one individual is functional as Sequential hermaphroditism: an individual
both a male and a female. reverses its sex during its lifetime.
• Some self-fertilize • Protogynous: female first sequential hermaphroditism
• Most mate with another member of the same species • Protandrous: male first sequential hermaphroditism

Thalassoma duperre (saddle wrasse) Sparus aurata (Gilthead seabream)

(protogynous) (protandrous)

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Advantages of asexual reproduction: Disadvantages of sexual reproduction: Why do so many animals reproduce sexually
• can reproduce without needing to • complicated rather than asexually?
find a mate • requires more time • Sexual reproduction, with its breakup
• can have numerous offspring in a and recombination of genetic material,
• uses much more energy than asexual keeps producing novel genotypes that
short period of time reproduction in times of environmental change may
• in stable environments, allows for survive and reproduce, whereas most
the perpetuation of successful other die.
genotypes

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• External fertilization requires a moist habitat – Parental care of offspring may occur regardless of
• Internal fertilization requires cooperative
that will protect a developing egg from whether fertilization is external or internal.
behavior that leads to copulation.
desiccation and heat stress.

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 Fig. 7.8

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Fertilization
Human gestation is divided into three trimesters.
Fig. 7.10 First trimester
• fertilization occurs in the oviduct
• 24 hours latter the zygote begins cleavage
• 3- 4 days after fertilization the zygote that reaches the
uterus the embryo is a ball of cells
• it takes about 1 week past fertilization for the blastocyst
to form
• after 5 more days it implants in the endometrium

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 Human Development Before Implantation
For the first 2 – 4 weeks of development the embryo
obtains nutrients from the endometrium.
• then the placenta provides for the diffusion of material
between maternal and embryonic circulations

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Organogenesis occurs during the first trimester. Second trimester Third trimester
• by week 4: the heart is beating • fetus grows rapidly and is very active • fetus grows rapidly
• by the end of week 8: all of the major structures of the • hormonal levels stabilize as HCG declines • fetal activity may decrease as the fetus fills the space
adult are present in rudimentary form • corpus luteum deteriorates available to it
• the rapidity of development makes this a time when • placenta secretes progesterone, which maintains the • maternal abdominal organs become compressed and
the embryo is especially sensitive to environmental pregnancy displaced
insult • terminates with parturition

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Rudy Santos
Parasitic twin Octoman
asymmetrical or
Fig. 7.19a unequal conjoined
twin
the pair does not
fully separate
one embryo
maintains dominant
development

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The Two-Headed Girl
 Animal cloning from an
adult cell is much more

Fig. 8.2 difficult than from an

embryonic cell.
To produce Dolly, scientists
used an udder cell from a
six-year-old Finn Dorset
white sheep.
Then they injected the cell
into an unfertilised egg cell
which had had its nucleus
removed, and made the
cells fuse by using
electrical pulses.
The unfertilised egg cell
came from a Scottish
Blackface ewe.
When the research team
had managed to fuse the
nucleus from the adult
white sheep cell with the
egg cell from the black-
faced sheep, they cultured
it for six or seven days to
see if it divided and
developed normally, before
implanting it into a
surrogate mother, another
Scottish Blackface ewe.
37 Dolly had a white face. 42 43
Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Dolly and her first-born lamb, Bonnie

Reproductive Health Reproductive Health

• state of physical, mental, and social well-
being in all matters relating to the
reproductive system, at all stages of life
• Good reproductive health implies ability
to have a satisfying and safe sex life, the
capability to reproduce and the freedom
to decide if, when, and how often to do so
- Reproductive Health (online journal)
45
• Men and women should be informed about
and have access to safe, effective,
affordable, and acceptable methods of
family planning of their choice, and the
right to appropriate health-care services
that enable women to safely go through
pregnancy and childbirth
- Reproductive Health (online journal)
46 47

Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs) Chlamydia

• also referred to as STI and VD • caused by Chlamydia trachomatis
• infections that are commonly spread by sex • women who have a chlamydial infection have an
inflamed cervix without symptoms
• non-sexual contact: contaminated blood,
• in men, infection can lead to inflammation of the
breastfeeding, during childbirth urethra causing a white discharge from the penis with
• caused by bacteria, viruses, and parasites or without a burning sensation during urination

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 Gonorrhea Syphilis Genital Herpes
• aka gonnococcal infection, and “the clap” • caused by Treponema pallidum • caused by the herpes simplex virus (HSV-1 and
• caused by Neisseria gonorrhoeae • primary stage: firm, painless, non-itchy skin HSV-2)
• symptoms in men: a burning sensation with ulceration • most individuals carrying herpes are unaware they
urination and penile discharge • secondary syphilis : a diffuse rash which frequently have been infected
• pus-like discharge from the genitals, which may be involves the palms of the hands and soles of the • many will never suffer an outbreak, which involves
foul-smelling feet blisters similar to cold sores
• in women: asymptomatic half the time or have • latent syphilis: with little to no symptoms • No cure; antiviral drugs can shorten outbreaks
vaginal discharge and pelvic pain • tertiary syphilis : with gummas, neurological, or
cardiac symptoms

Image credit: Charles Brinton / National Institutes of Health. http://www.webmd.com/genital-herpes/ss/slideshow-genital-herpes www.bio.davidson.edu

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http://imgkid.com/neisseria-gonorrhoeae-bacteria.shtml

HIV/AIDS HIV/AIDS HIV/AIDS

• a retrovirus that causes the acquired
immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS)
• progressive failure of the immune system results in
life-threatening opportunistic infections and for
cancers to thrive
• within bodily fluids, HIV is present as both free
virus particles and virus within infected immune
cells
• infects vital cells in the human immune system
such as helper T cells (specifically CD4+ T cells),
macrophages, and dendritic cells Photo Credit: C. Goldsmith
Content Providers: CDC/ C.
Goldsmith, P. Feorino, E. L. micro.magnet.fsu.edu
54 Palmer, W. R. McManus 57 58

Genital Warts Trichomoniasis Candidiasis

• caused by some types (6 and 11) of human • caused by the single-celled protozoan parasite
papillomavirus (HPV) Trichomonas vaginalis
• often asymptomatic at the early stage • symptoms: pain, burning or itching in the penis,
urethra (urethritis), or vagina (vaginitis)
• in women there may also be a yellow-green, itchy,
frothy, foul-smelling ("fishy" smell) vaginal
discharge
• fungal infection due to any types of Candida (a
type of yeast)
• symptoms include genital itching, burning, and
sometimes a white "cottage cheese-like" discharge
from the vaginal infections

http://medtreatment.blogspot.com/2014/08/genital-warts-symptoms-and-treatment.html
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pixshark.com 60 61
depts.washington.edu www.biotrans.uni.wroc.pl