Types of Sinkholes • Cover – collapse sinkholes

o It may develop abruptly (over a period of

Sinkhole
hour) and cause catastrophic damages.
• Definition: are common where the rock below the o They occur where the covering
land surface is limestone, carbonate rock, salt sediments contain a significant amount
beds, or rocks that can naturally be dissolved by of clay.
groundwater circulating through them. o Over time, surface drainage, erosion,
and supposition of sinkholes into a
Types: shallower bowl-shaped depression.
• Dissolution sinkholes
o Dissolution of the limestone or dolomite
is most intensive where the water first
contacts the rock surface.
o Aggressive dissolution also occurs where
flow is focused in preexisting openings in
the rock, such as along joints, fractures,
and bedding planes, and in the zone of
water-table fluctuation where
underground is in contact with the
atmosphere. Types of Landslide
Landslide
• Definition: movement of rock, earth, or debris
down a sloped section of land.
Types:
• Slides - a down-slope movement of material that
occurs along a distinctive surface.
• Cover – subsidence sinkholes
o 2 Types of Slides:
o Tend to develop gradually where the
▪ Rotational Slides
covering sediments are permeable and
➢ the surface of rupture is
contain sand.
curved concavely
o In areas where cover material is thicker
upward and the slide
or sediments contain more clay, cover
movement is roughly
subsidence sinkholes are relatively
rotational parallel to the
uncommon, are smaller, and may go
ground surface and
undetected for long periods.
transverse across the
slide.
▪ Translational Slides
➢ the landslide mass
moves a roughly planar
surface with little
rotation or background
tilting.
• Falls - are abrupt movements of masses of
geologic materials, such as rocks and boulders,
that become detached from steep slopes or cliffs.
 o separation occurs along discontinuities
such as fractures, joints, and bedding
planes and movement occurs by free-fall
bouncing, and rolling.
• Topples - distinguished by the forward rotation of
a unit or units about some pivotal point, below or
low in the unit, under the actions of gravity and
forces exerted by adjacent units or by fluids in
cracks.
• Flows - involve the movement of material down a
slope in the form of a fluid.
o 5 Categories of Flows:
▪ Debris Flow
➢ a form of rapid mass
movement in which a
combination of loose
soil, rock, organic
matter, air, and water
mobilize as a slurry that
flows downslope.
▪ Debris Avalanche
➢ a variety of very rapid to
extremely rapid debris
flow.
▪ Earth Flow
➢ has a characteristic of
an "hourglass."
➢ the slope material
liquefies and runs out,
forming a bowl or
depression at the head.
▪ Mud Flow
➢ consists of materials
that are wet enough to
flow rapidly and contains
at least 50 percent sand,
silt, and clay-sized
particles.
▪ Creep
➢ the imperceptibly slow,
steady downward
movement of slope-
forming soil or rock.
❖ Seasonal
❖ Continuous
❖ Progressive
➢ indicated by curved tree
trunks, bent fences or
retaining walls, tilted
poles or fences, and
small soil ripples or
ridges.
▪ Lateral Spread
➢ are distinctive because
they usually occur on
very gentle slopes or flat
terrain.
➢ The dominant mode of
movement is lateral
extension accompanied
by shear or tensile
fractures.
➢ failure is caused by
liquefaction.
 Kinds of Hazards o Rarely life-threatening because lava
usually moves slowly -- a few
Hazard
centimeters per hour [silicic flows] to
• Definition: a dangerous phenomenon, substance, several kilometers per hour [basaltic
human activity or condition that may cause loss flows].
of life, injury or other health impacts, property o can bury, crush, cover, burn and melt
damage, loss of livelihoods and services, social everything in their path.
and economic disruption, or environmental o It can render areas useless for years
change. • Ashfall
o Tephra fall
Kinds: o showers of airborne fine- to coarse-
• Slow Onset Hazards grained volcanic particles that fallout
o Easiest to predict and plan for from the plumes of a volcanic eruption
o Can have the biggest environmental o cause poor or low visibility
impact o Loss of agricultural lands (if burial by
o Precede by a number of early sign or ashfall is greater than 10 cm. depth)
indicators o Can cause clogging
• Rapid or Sudden Onset Hazards o Carries harmful gases, acids, salts, etc
o Strike without any or very little prior o Burial by tephra can collapse roofs of
warning buildings, break power and
o Mostly unpredictable communication lines.
o Proper planning can mitigate its effects • Pyroclastic Flows
o turbulent mass of ejected fragmented
Vulnerability, Hazard, Risk volcanic materials, mixed with hot gases
Interactions of hazards, vulnerability, and disaster risk: that flow downslope at very high speeds.
o Surges - more dilute, more mobile
𝑉𝑥𝐻 𝐹𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝐻 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉 derivatives or pyroclastic flows
• R= or R =
𝐶 𝐶 • Lahars
Where: o a violent type of mudflow -mixtures of
o R = Disaster Risk volcanic ash, blocks and water- formed
o V = Vulnerability on volcanoes.
o H = Hazard o Can destroy by direct impact
o C = Capacity o Can block tributary streams; can
submerge villages within the valley of the
Volcanic Hazards
tributary
Volcanic Hazards o Can bury valleys and communities
o Can lead to increased deposition of
• Definition: are phenomena arising from volcanic sediments along affected rivers and may
activity that pose potential threat to persons or result to long-term flooding problems
property in a given area within a given period of • Volcanic Gases
time. o gases and aerosols released into the
Different Types of Volcanic Hazards: atmosphere
▪ Sulfur Dioxide can lead to acid
• Lava Flows rain.
o Are stream-like flows of incandescent ▪ High concentrations of Carbon
molten rock erupted from a crater or Dioxide can be lethal to people,
fissure. animals and vegetation.
 ▪ Fluorine compounds can deform o Seismometer - used to detect the
and kill animals that grazed on occurrence of volcanic earthquakes
vegetation covered with volcanic
People living near volcanoes may observe premonitory
ash.
event before an eruption:
• Debris Avalanche
o also called volcanic landslide • Visual Observations
o the sudden catastrophic collapse from an o Intensified steaming activity
unstable side of a volcano [usually o White steam changes to gray to dark
triggered by an earthquake or volcanic (presence of ash)
eruption] o Drying up of vegetation, streams, water
o Can result to a massive destruction wells
o Leaves a hummocky topography (small o Crater glow at the summit area
hills all over) at the base of volcanoes o Increasing frequency of rolling rocks from
with debris avalanche event the summit; localized landslides
• Ballistic Projectiles • Auditory Observations
o volcanic materials directly ejected from o Rumbling sounds
the volcano's vent with force and • Olfactory Observations
trajectory o Smell of sulfur (rotten egg)
o Endanger life and property by the force • Tactile Observation
of impact of falling fragments o Ground movement / volcanic earthquake
• Tsunami increasingly becoming felt
o sea waves or wave trains that are
generated by sudden displacement of Volcano Hazard Maps
water [undersea eruptions or debris • Volcano Alert Levels
avalanches] o It is used to define the current status of
o If the pyroclastic materials (from an each volcano.
explosion near a body of water) enter the o The alert levels range from 0 to 5
body of water and cause it to be
disturbed and displaced, forming huge
waves
Signs of Volcanic Eruptions:
• Ground Deformation
o surface changes on a volcano such as
subsidence, tilting, or bulge formation
due to the movement of magma below
the surface.
• Geochemistry
o types and rate of emission
o Gases rise through vents called
fumaroles and other cracks.
• Seismic Activity
Permanent Danger Zone (PDZ)
o from earthquakes to swarms of
earthquakes • a delineated and identified area where no
o when magma makes its way up to the permanent habitation is recommended due to the
surface, it breaks the rocks along the possible impact of various hazards at any time.
way, and in doing so, earthquakes are
generated
Hazard Maps
• illustrate potential for ground-based volcanic
impacts- lava flows, pyroclastic flows, ashfall,
volcanic gases, far-reaching hazards in valleys
that drain the volcano.
Precautionary Safety Measures for Volcanic Eruptions:
• Before
o Consult available volcano hazard maps
that indicate areas declared as PDZs
and areas likely to be affected by
volcanic hazards.
o Be aware of the kinds of volcanic
hazards present in your area
o Determine the distance of your
residence, workplace and livelihood from
the volcano.
o Know the meaning of Alert Levels and
their recommended actions.
o Be aware of identified evacuation areas
and designated pick up points. Make
sure your whole family is aware of the
emergency plan.
o Prepare an emergency kit.
o Consider provisions for pet animals, etc.
o Always listen to the radio's latest
PHIVOLCS Alerts and information.
• During
o Stay inside the house / evacuation area.
o Listen to the radio for advisory and
information.
o If outside and very near the volcano,
leave the area and seek shelter
immediately.
o Seek care for burns right away.
o Do not drive.
o Check that your pet or livestock have
enough food.
o Do not try to clean or shovel the ashfall
during eruptions.
o Protect yourself from ashfall.
▪ Close all windows and doors.
▪ Turn off all electric fans and air
conditioning units.
▪ Wear dust-mask or cover your
face with clean wet towel or
cloth.
▪ Use bottled water.
• After
o Listen to latest updates about Alert
Levels from the radio.
o If family has evacuated, only the adult
member should be allowed to go home
to inspect house condition.
o Wait for the local authorities’
announcement before returning home.
How to clean-up an ashfall:
• Remove ash as soon as ashfall has stopped.
• Wear a dust mask before you start cleaning.
• Lightly damp the ash.
• Clean house roofs first.
• Do not dump ash in sewage systems.
• Inside the house, use damp cloth to remove ash.
• Avoid vigorous rubbing.
• To remove ash from your car, wash with plenty of
water.
Monsoon, Typhoon (Color codes, kph)
Monsoon
• Definition: seasonal change in winds, a wind
regime which reverse its direction twice a year
which brings different weather
Types of Monsoon:
• Northeast monsoon or “Amihan”
o From November to February, the Asiatic
Continent is snowbound and the high-
pressure cell over the China creating
northeasterly winds over the Philippines
giving us a cold temperature, a causing
rainfall
• Southwest monsoon or “Habagat”
o From June to September, in the northern
hemisphere, the Asiatic continent
becomes warmer than the surrounding
seas and allow pressure develop over
China mainland.
o It usually persists for a long-time causing
rain which may last for weeks during the
said months.
Hydrometeorological Hazard o Rain/Flood/Flash Flood
o Strong Winds
• Hazards pertaining to natural processes brought
o Storm Surge
by weather, water, and climate that bring havoc o Landslide
to life, property and livelihood.
TYRA ROSE A. PEREGRINO
Rainy Days
• Rain is the liquid form of precipitation.
• Clouds droplet coalesce or merge together to
form larger raindrops, and when these drops get
heavier, they fall to the ground as rain.
• If raindrops are quite small and the air is dry then
it may evaporate before reaching the ground.
Thunderstorm
• Thunderstorm is a localized (small-scaled) storm
associated with towering dark cumulonimbus
clouds which often bring heavy rain fall, hail,
severe gusty winds, and frequent lightning and
thunder.
• The typical thunderstorm is 5 kilometers in
diameter and many of these are short-lived,
lasting no longer than one hour.
Tropical Cyclone
• intense low-pressure system with minimum
sustained winds of 35 kph blowing in a
counterclockwise direction towards the center
called "eye".
• It is generally a large circular system in which the
atmospheric pressure decreases from the outer
periphery towards the center.
• A mature tropical cyclone may have a diameter of
1000kms.
• Structure of a Tropical cyclone:
o Eye
▪ center of the tropical cyclones
▪ It ranges from 10 - 100
kilometers in diameter
o Eye Wall
▪ the ring where very high winds
are at the heaviest.
o Rainbands
▪ the spiral rainband of showers
and thunderstorm surround the
eye
• Effects of a Tropical Cyclone:
o Heavy