HUMAN GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

FACTORS OF DEVELOPMENT
 NATURE Heredity - the transmission of traits from parents to offspring through the genes
 NURTURE Environment
 An individual at any given stage of development is the product of interaction between heredity
and environment.
 Transcendence

Traits Most Influenced by Heredity:

 physical features – body built, eye color, hair texture and color
 predisposition to certain diseases
 intelligence
 sensory acuity
 mental disorders
 other fundamental abilities and capacities

Parenting
A Two-Dimensional Framework for Parenting Styles
adapted from the work of Slater (1962)/ Diana Baumrind

Permissive Restrictive
Cold IndifferentDemanding
Neglectful Authoritarian
Abusive
Warm Indulgent Democatic
Permissive Protective
Nonconformist Authoritative

ALFRED ADLER
 Striving for perfection – motivating force
 Inferiority complex – overwhelmed by the forces of inferiority
 Superiority complex – covering up your inferiority
 Striving for superiority – the will to power the basic motive of human life
 Striving through social interest – social concern (both inborn and unlearned)

Three Basic Childhood Situations that Most Contribute to a Faulty Lifestyle:

 organ inferiorities as well as early childhood diseases -> “overburdened”
- remain focused on themselves
- inferiority -> superiority complex
- encouragement of loved one
 pampering – children are taught, by the actions of others that they can take without giving
fails in two ways:
a. doesn’t learn to do for himself and discovers later that he is truly inferior
b. doesn’t learn any other way to deal with others than the giving of commands
society’s response – hatred
 neglect/ abuse -> inferiority because they are told and shown that they are of no value
-> selfishness because they are taught to trust no one
Birth order – heuristic
 only child – lives in a world of adults
- more likely than others to be pampered
 first child – begins life as an only child
- second child “dethrones” the first
- may battle for lost position or act like a baby
 second child – has the first child as sort of “pace-setter”
- tends to be quite competitive or submissive
 middle child – most discouraged, what number 1 isn’t
 youngest child – most pampered in a family with more than one child
- may feel incredible inferiority with everyone older and “superior”

Functions and Characteristics of Healthy Families (Callaghan, 1987)

 clearly identified hierarchy
 well-defined parental roles
 flexibility and adaptability
 consistent, clear rules and expectations
 consistent affection
 consistent limit-setting
 bi-directional, open-communication
 increased degree of support nurturance and acceptance of family members

Characteristics of Dysfunctional Families (Minuchian, 1978)

 rigidity
 lack of individuation
 extreme detachment
 scape-goating
 triangulation
 faulty-problem-solving skills
 conflict avoidance
 inconsistent application of affection/ discipline
 low levels of support/ nurturance/ acceptance
 increased degree of expressed hostility towards each other

Categories of Family Dysfunction (Johnson, K., 1989)

 inadequate families: lack physical or psychological resources for coping with normal stressors
 anti-social families: values encourage dishonesty or deceit
 discordant and disturbed families: have poor interpersonal contracts and disturbance
 disrupted families: inadequate adjustment to loss by death, divorce, or separation
 patterns of parental influence in children showing emotional disturbance:
o rejection
o overprotection
o unrealistic demands
o overpermissiveness
o faulty discipline
o inadequate and irrational communication
o undesirable parental modeling
o materialism
o quantity time without quality or no time at all
 THEORIES ON HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

MATURATIONAL MODEL
ARNOLD GESELL (1880-1961)
- was the best-known “Baby doctor” in the early 1940s, until Spock (partly influenced by Gesell)
published his famous book in 1945
 “the environment may temporarily affect the rate at which a child develops, but individual
biological factors ultimately control development”

Basic Principles of Development

1. Principle of Developmental Direction – development is not random; it proceeds in an ordered
fashion.
a. cephalocaudal (or head-to-tail) trend
b. proximo-distal (or near-to-far) trend, gross motor to fine motor
2. Principle of Reciprocal Interweaving - the development process by which two tendencies
gradually reach an effective organization
Example: in the development of handedness, includes visual behavior, crawling, and walking
MATURATION
Personality – integrating introverted and extroverted tendencies
- cycle begins in infancy and continue at least until age 16
- the organism temporarily loses its equilibrium as it expands into new inner and outer realms,
but it organizes
3. Principle of Functional Asymmetry – behaviors go through periods of asymmetric (unbalanced)
development that allow the organism to achieve a measure of maturity at later stages
- seen in tonic neck reflex (dominant during the first three months after birth), a reflex which
Gesell discovered in humans
4. Principle of Individuating Maturation – maturation is a process controlled by endogenous or
internal factors; it cannot be influenced on a basic level by exogenous or external factors
5. Principle of Self-Regulatory Fluctuation – every stage of disequilibrium or imbalance in
development is followed by a stage of equilibrium
- organism can regulate its own development
- babies an regulate their cycles of feeding, sleep, and wakefulness
- to preserve integrity and balance

Importance of Individual Differences

1. motor behavior (locomotion, coordination, specific motor skills)
2. adaptive behavior (alertness, intelligence, different forms of exploration)
3. language behavior (all forms of communication)
4. personal-social behavior (reactions to persons and to the environment)

Co-Twin Control Research Method

- early training, before a child is physically mature enough to make significant gains in given
behaviors, is of little consequence to the ultimate outcome
Skeels and Dye - sleeper effects (effects that show up much later in an individual’s life)
- too many elements of the research were not well controlled
Applications of Gesell’s Theory of Human Development
1. Children who are not learning are simply not ready to learn. Attempts to intervene before the
child is ready will be fruitless and frustrating and can create disharmony among parent,
teacher, and child. READINESS
2. Ames and Ilg – a child’s school readiness is best indicated by the child’s developmental or
behavioral age rather than chronological age alone
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
– gradual, orderly changes by which mental processes become more complex and sophisticated

JEAN PIAGET “Play is child’s work”

 schema – the primary unit of mental organization and the structure through which a person
adapts to the environment
o reflexes – schemes operating at birth
o quickly replaced with constructed schemes through the processes of organization and
adaptation
 adaptation – the individual’s adjustment to the environment, takes place simultaneously with
organization
intelligence – how an organism adapts to its environment
two processes used by the individual in its attempt to adapt
o assimilation – the individual incorporates new experiences into already existing
schemata, or structures
o accommodation – modifying existing schemata to satisfy the requirements of new
experiences
JEAN PIAGET JEROME BRUNER LEV SEMYONOVITCH
Stages of Cognitive VYGOTSKY (1896-1934)
1. sensorimotor stage 1. enactive stage – dominant SPEECH – LANGUAGE
(infancy – birth to 2 years) during infancy 1. social speech (or external
motor activity motor responses speech) – 3 years old
object permanence
2. pre-operational stage 2. iconic stage – 2-3 years 2. egocentric speech – 3-7
(toddler and early childhood old years old
– 2 to 7 years) visual images private speech
use of symbols
egocentrism
centered
3. concrete operational 3. symbolic stage – 7 years 3. inner speech – older
stage (elementary and old children and adults
early adolescence – 7 to 11 abstract reasoning logical memory
years)
7 types of conservation:
number, length, liquid,
mass, weight area, volume,
and reversibility
decentration
4. formal operational stage
(adolescence and
adulthood – 11 years to
adulthood)
abstract
Constructivism Discovery learning Scaffolding

The Importance of Social Interaction

 actual development level – all functions and activities that a child can perform on his own,
independently without the help of anyone else
 zone of proximal development (zpd) – level of development immediate above a person’s
present level

Dilemma: Dr. Johnson makes decisions about which patients have access to a kidney machine. Patients
who do not get access will die. There are far more people who need the machine than can be
accommodated by it, so there is a waiting list for those not yet on it. Dr. Johnson's young daughter is injured
in a car accident and has kidney damage. She needs access to the machine to live. Should Dr. Johnson
take another patient off the machine to put his daughter on? Why or why not?
MORAL DEVELOPMENT
Lawrence Carol Gilligan’s Robert Selman’s Eisenberg’s Levels Martin Hoffman’s
Kohlberg’s Stages Stages of Ethic of Levels of of Prosocial Development of
of Moral Care Perspective Behavior * Empathy
Reasoning Taking *

Level One: Pre- Level 1: Level 0: Level 1: Selfish 1. Global empathy

conventional Preconventional – Egocentric and self-centered 2. Egocentric
Morality (7-10 goal is individual perspective taking orientation empathy
years old) survival (most pre-school (most preschool
Stage 1: * transition is from and a few early and many early
Punishment- selfishness – to – elementary elementary
Obedience responsibility to students) students)
Orientation others

Stage 2: Level 1: Subjective Level 2:

Instrumental perspective taking Superficial “needs
Relativist (most early and of others”
Orientation middle elementary orientation
students) (some preschool
and many
elementary school
students)
Level Two: Level 2: Level 2: Second- Level 3: Approval
Conventional Conventional or person, reciprocal and stereotypic
Morality (10-13 social – self- perspective taking good boy/ girl
years old) sacrifice is (many upper orientation
Stage 3: Good goodness elementary school (some elementary
Boy- Nice Girl * transition is from students) and secondary
Orientation goodness – to – school students)
truth that she is a
person too
Stage 4: Law and Level 3: Third- Level 4: Empathic 3. Empathy for
Order Orientation person, mutual orientation another’s feelings
perspective taking (a few elementary
(many middle and many
school and junior secondary students)
high school
students)

Level 3: Post- Level 3: Post- Level 4: Societal, Level 5: 4. Empathy for

conventional conventional or symbolic Internalized values another’s life
Morality principled – perspective taking orientation conditions
Stage 5: Social principle of (some junior high (a few high school
Contract nonviolence; do not and many high students)
Orientation hurt others or self school students)
Stage 6: Universal act as they do.
Ethical Principle
Orientation

Hoffman’s Theory of Discipline

Three Categories of Discipline Techniques
1. power assertion
2. love withdrawal
3. induction

The Development of Perspective Taking and Prosocial Behavior

Selman’s Levels of Perspective Taking * Eisenberg’s Levels of Prosocial Behavior *
Level 0: Egocentric perspective taking Level 1: Selfish and self-centered orientation
(most pre-school and a few early elementary students) (most preschool and many early elementary students)
Students are incapable of taking anybody else’s Students show little interest in helping others apart from
perspective. They don’t realize that others have thoughts serving their own interests. They exhibit prosocial
and feelings different from their own. behavior primarily to benefit themselves
Level 1: Subjective perspective taking Level 2: Superficial “needs of others” orientation
(most early and middle elementary students) (some preschool and many elementary school students)
Students realize that others have thoughts and feelings Students show some concern for another’s physical and
different from their own but perceive these in a simplistic, emotional needs, but their concern is simplistic and lacks
one-dimensional fashion. true understanding of the other’s situation.
Level 2: Second-person, reciprocal perspective Level 3: Approval and stereotypic good boy/ girl
taking orientation
(many upper elementary school students) (some elementary and secondary school students)
Students realize that others may have mixed and possibly Students advocate prosocial behavior on the grounds that
contradictory feelings about a situation. They also it’s the “right” thing to do and that they will be liked or
understand that people may feel differently from what appreciated if they help. They hold stereotypical views of
their behaviors indicate and that they sometimes do what “good boys and girls” and “bad boys and girls” do.
things they didn’t intend to do.
Level 3: Third-person, mutual perspective taking Level 4: Empathic orientation
(many middle school and junior high school students) (a few elementary and many secondary students)
Students not only see things from their own and another’s Students have true empathy for another’s situation and a
perspective but also can take an “outside” perspective of desire to help a person in need. They seem genuinely
the two-person relationship. They appreciate the need to concerned with the well-being of others.
satisfy both oneself and another simultaneously and
therefore understand the advantages of cooperation,
compromise, and trust
Level 4: Societal, symbolic perspective taking Level 5: Internalized values orientation
(some junior high and many high school students) (a few high school students)
Students recognize that people are a product of their Students have internalized values about helping other
environment – that past events and present people – values that reflect a belief in the dignity, rights,
circumstances contribute to personality and behavior. and equality of all human beings. They express a strong
They begin to develop an understanding of the desire to help others in need and to improve the
unconscious – the idea that people are not always aware conditions of society as a whole.
of why they act as they do.
Erik Erikson's 8 Stages of Psychosocial/ SocioEmotional Development
Maladaptation
Psychosocial Significant Important Psychosocial Psychosocial
Stage (age) s&
crisis relations event modalities virtues
malignancies
sensory
I oral sensory trust vs to get, to give
mother Feeding hope, faith distortion –
(0-1) -- infant mistrust in return
withdrawal
Children develop a sense of trust when caregivers provide reliability, care, and affection. A lack of this will
lead to mistrust.
II muscular autonomy vs
to hold on, to will, impulsivity --
anal (2-3) -- shame and parents Toilet training
let go determination compulsion
toddler doubt
Children need to develop a sense of personal control over physical skills and a sense of independence.
Success leads to feelings of autonomy, failure results in feelings of shame and doubt.
III genital
locomotor or initiative vs Exploration/ to go after, to purpose, ruthlessness --
family
play age (3-6) guilt Independence play courage inhibition
-- preschooler
Children need to begin asserting control and power over the environment. Success in this stage leads to a
sense of purpose. Children who try to exert too much power experience disapproval, resulting in a sense of
guilt.
IV latency (7-
to complete, narrow
12 or so) -- industry vs neighborhood
School to make things competence virtuosity --
school-age inferiority and school
together inertia
child
Children need to cope with new social and academic demands. Success leads to a sense of competence,
while failure results in feelings of inferiority.
V (12-18 or to be oneself,
ego-identity vs peer groups, Peer/ Social fanaticism --
so) -- to share fidelity, loyalty
role-confusion role models relationships repudiation
adolescence oneself
Teens need to develop a sense of self in relationship to others and to own internal thoughts and desires
(Later work has shown two substages: a social identity focusing on which group a person will identify with
and a personal identity focusing on abilities, goals, possibilities, etc.) The teenager must achieve a sense of
identity in occupation, sexroles, politics, and religion.
To lose and
VI (the 20’s) -- intimacy vs partners, Love find oneself in promiscuity --
love
young adult isolation friends relationships a exclusivity
another
Young adults need to form intimate, loving relationships with other people. Success leads to strong
relationships, while failure results in loneliness and isolation.
generativity vs
VII (40’s to
self- household, Work and To make be, overextension
65’s) -- middle care
absorption/ workmates Parenthood to take care of -- rejectivity
adult
stagnation
Adults need to create or nurture things that will outlast them, often by having children or creating a positive
change that benefits other people. Success leads to feelings of usefulness and accomplishment, while
failure results in shallow involvement in the world.
VIII maturity Reflection on To be, through
(65’s and Ego integrity mankind or and having been, presumption --
wisdom
beyond) -- old vs despair “my kind” acceptance of to face not despair
adult one's life being
Older adults need to look back on life and feel a sense of fulfillment. Success at this stage leads to feelings
of wisdom, while failure results in regret, bitterness, and despair.
Chart adapted from Erikson's 1959 Identity and the Life Cycle (Psychological Issues vol 1, #1)
PSYCHOSOCIAL MATURITY
Some years ago Ellen Greenberger and A. Sorenson published a paper (Greenberger, E. &
Sorenson, A.N. 1974. Toward a concept of psychosocial maturity. Journal of youth and
adolescence, 3, 329-558) on the concept of psychosocial maturity

Three Areas of Psychosocial Maturity

1. Individual Adequacy
a. Self-reliance
i. absence of excessive need for social validation
ii. sense of control
iii. initiative
b. Identity
i. clarity of self-concept
ii. consideration of life goals
iii. self-esteem
iv. internalized values
c. Work orientation
i. standards of competence
ii. pleasure in work
iii. general work skills
2. Interpersonal Adequacy
a. Communication skills
i. ability to encode messages
ii. ability to decode messages
iii. empathy
b. Enlightened trust
i. rational dependence
ii. rejection of simplistic view of human nature
iii. awareness of constraints on trustworthiness
c. Knowledge of major roles
i. role-appropriate behavior
ii. management of role conflict
3. Social Adequacy
a. Social Commitment
i. feelings of community
ii. willingness to work for social goals
iii. readiness to form alliances
iv. interest in long-term social goals
b. Openness to sociopolitical change
i. general openness to change
ii. recognition of costs of status quo
iii. recognition of costs of change
c. Tolerance of individual and cultural differences
i. willingness to interact with people who differ from the norm
ii. sensitivity to the rights of people who differ from the norm
iii. awareness of costs and benefits of tolerance
SIGMUND FREUD
The stages
Sex drive - the most motivating force
- the primary motivating force not only for adults but for children and even infants
STAGE AGE FOCUS OF FAVORITE ACTIVITIES DIFFICULT STAGE FIXATION
PLEASURE
1. Oral Birth to Mouth Sucking and biting Weaning Oral-passive
about Nursing - eating, as well insufficient and Oral-
18 as mouth movement, forceful feeding aggressive
months including sucking, can result in
gumming, biting and fixation in this
swallowing. stage.

2. anal 18 Anus Holding it in and letting it Potty training Anal expulsive/

months go aggressive
to 3 or Anal retentive
4 years
old
3. 3 or 4 genitalia Masturbation Oedipal crisis Poor self worth
phallic to 5, 6, Oedipus complex Effeminism
or 7 yrs Electra complex Vanity, self-
old centeredness
4. 5, 6, or Sexual impulse is suppressed in the
latent 7 to service of learning
puberty
(12 yrs
old)
5. puberty genitalia Sexual intercourse Difficulties at this stage are due to
genital damages was done in earlier oral,
anal, and phallic stages.

Dabrowski’s Types of OE
1. psychomotor – an excess of energy manifesting in rapid talk, restlessness, preference for
violent games, sports, pressure for action, or delinquent behavior
2. sensual – a heightened ability to experience sensory pleasure manifesting in an increased need
to touch and be touched, hugged, kissed; early signs of sexual interest and development; interest
in food and food preparation; aesthetic interests; drama; need for comfort and luxury; need for
attention and company; dislike of loneliness
3. imaginational – internal, image-base information processing with a relative exclusion of sensual,
affective, and psychomotor spheres
- association of images and impressions, inventiveness, use of image and metaphor in verbal
expression, strong and sharp visualization
4. intellectual – processing information and decision making are localized in the cognitive sphere;
manifested as a drive to ask probing questions, quest for knowledge, theoretical thinking,
reverence for logic, preoccupation with theoretical problems, etc.; most frequently associated with
exceptional abilities children
5. emotional – a function of experiencing emotional relationships; manifests strong attachment to
persons, living things, or places; inhibition (timidity and shyness), excitation (enthusiasm), strong
affective memory, concern with death, fears, anxieties, depressions, feelings of loneliness, need
for security, concern for others, exclusive relationships, difficulties of adjustment in new
environments
POSITIVE CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT
Redl and Wattenberg’s Techniques for Group Management
Tripathi, O.D. (1981). A study of student activism in a university. Retrived from
http://hdl.handle.net/10603/59060

URI: http://hdl.handle.net/10603/59060

References[edit]
1. Jump up^ Fletcher, A. (2005) Guide to Social Change Led By and With Young
PeopleArchived 2011-09-29 at the Wayback Machine. Olympia, WA: CommonAction.
2. Jump up^ Fletcher, A. (2006)Washington Youth Voice Handbook Archived 2006-12-31 at
the Wayback Machine. Olympia, WA: CommonAction.
3. Jump up^ Boren, Mark Edelman (2013). Student Resistance: A History of the Unruly
Subject. p. 261. ISBN 1135206457.

A study of student activism in a university

Researcher: Tripathi,Om Datta
Guide(s): Joshi,D C
Keywords: Activism
Economic
Phenomenon
Psychological
Worldwide
University: Maharaja Sayajirao Univers
Completed Date: 31/07/1981
Abstract: Abstract not available
Pagination: xviii, 314p.
URI: http://hdl.handle.net/10603
crucial