Open Access

A Novel Proposal for All Optical

Analog-to-Digital Converter Based on Photonic
Crystal Structures
Volume 9, Number 2, April 2017

Farhad Mehdizadeh
Mohammad Soroosh
Hamed Alipour-Banaei
Ebrahim Farshidi

DOI: 10.1109/JPHOT.2017.2690362
1943-0655 © 2017 IEEE
IEEE Photonics Journal Novel Proposal for All Optical Analog-to-Digital

A Novel Proposal for All Optical

Analog-to-Digital Converter Based
on Photonic Crystal Structures
Farhad Mehdizadeh,1 Mohammad Soroosh,1
Hamed Alipour-Banaei,2 and Ebrahim Farshidi1

1 Departmentof Electrical Engineering, Shahid Chamran University of Ahvaz, Ahvaz

63461, Iran
2 Department of Electronics, Tabriz Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tabriz 51368, Iran

DOI:10.1109/JPHOT.2017.2690362
1943-0655  C 2017 IEEE. Translations and content mining are permitted for academic research only.

Personal use is also permitted, but republication/redistribution requires IEEE permission.

See http://www.ieee.org/publications_standards/publications/rights/index.html for more information.

Manuscript received March 3, 2017; revised March 27, 2017; accepted March 29, 2017. Date of
publication March 31, 2017; date of current version April 14, 2017. Corresponding author: M. Soroosh
(e-mail: m.soroosh@scu.ac.ir).

Abstract: In this paper, we proposed a novel all optical analog-to-digital (ADC) converter
based on photonic crystals. First of all, we designed a three port nonlinear demultiplexer,
for producing discrete levels of input optical intensity. Then, an optical coder was used to
generate a 2-bit standard binary code out of the discrete levels coming from the nonlinear
demultiplexer. The final structure was realized by combining the nonlinear demultiplexer
with the optical coder. The maximum sampling rate of the proposed structure obtained to
be about 200 GS/s, and the total footprint is about 806 μm2 .

Index Terms: Optical analog-to-digital converter (ADC), photonic crystal, Kerr effect,
resonant cavity.

1. Introduction
It has been thought that employing optical fiber technologies instead of electronics can revolutionize
the information and communication industry in future. High bit rate, high transmission efficiency,
high band width, immunity from electromagnetic noise, etc., are the most outstanding advantages of
optical communication systems over electronics based technologies [1]. In order to obtain complete
advantages of optical communication, the communication network should be completely optical and
all the communication process should be done in optical domain without any electronics. For this
purpose we need to have all optical devices.
The existence of photonic band gap (PBG) [2]–[4] in photonic crystal (PhC) gives them the
ability to confine and control the propagation of optical waves inside ultra-compact spaces and
waveguides, which results in optical devices such as optical filters [5]–[8], optical demultiplexers
[9]–[13], optical switches [14]–[17], optical decoders [18]–[20], and optical logic gates [21]–[25],
which are suitable for optical integrated circuits.
Although recently it has been shown that by using a dielectric meta-reflect-array, one can solve
some major drawbacks of optical devices in analog computing such as miniaturization, energy-
efficiency and complementary metal–oxide semiconductor (CMOS)-compatibility [26], [27] however
digital signal processing have many advantages, which make them more popular than analog com-
puting. Some examples of these advantages are flexibility, easily stored memory, higher accuracy
and linear phase [28].

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IEEE Photonics Journal Novel Proposal for All Optical Analog-to-Digital

Fig. 1. Block diagram representation of ADC.

Signal processing is a crucial stage in communication networks, which requires discrete digital
signals as the inputs of the process. Therefore, before performing signal processing we have
to convert analogue optical waves into discrete digital signals. Therefore all optical analog to
digital converters (ADCs) are of great importance for realization of completely optical networks. By
combining three beam splitting structures in a self-guiding PhC Mia et al. [29] proposed a 2-bit all
optical ADC. Another 2-bit PhC-based all optical ADC has been created by combining nonlinear
Kerr effect via channel drop filter [30]. Fasihi [31] proposed another 2-bit all optical PhC-based
ADC. He cascaded 3-dB splitters. He claimed that with the proposed technique one can design 2
and 3 bit PhC-based ADCs. Most recently a 4-bit all optical ADC was proposed by Tavousi et al.
[32]. The main drawback of this structure is that, it is based on rod type PhC which is not capable
of confining optical waves in 3-D. In [29], eight resonant rings were used that are not suitable for
optical integration. Also, increasing the number of input lines creates complexity of optical coupling
in the input lines. This structure is only suitable for creating discrete levels of input signals and the
generated digital numbers are not well-defined binary codes. The other drawback of the structure is
that they used four different refractive indices for the linear rods of the resonant ring, such that the
average difference between the refractive indices is about 0.02, realizing such a structure in real
world is too difficult and complicated. In this paper, we are going to cover these gaps and propose
an all optical ADC which is capable of generating standard binary codes from the input optical
analog signal. In this work we succeeded in designing a structure which can generate standard
binary codes like “00,” “01,” “10,” and “11.” Also, the proposed structure has one input line. We used
three resonant rings and hole type PhC in which the dielectric slab was created by sandwiching a Si
layer between two SiO2 layers therefore the proposed structure will have better optical confinement
in vertical direction.
The rest of the paper is organized as follows. In Section 2, we discuss the design procedure, in
Section 3, the result of the simulations will be presented, and finally, Section IV will be devoted to
the conclusion.

2. Design Procedure
In this paper we aim to design an all optical 2-bit all optical ADC based on PhCs. The block diagram
representation of a typical 2-bit optical ADC is shown in Fig. 1, which consists of two main blocks.
The first block is an optical level discretizer, whose task is to generate four discrete levels of the
input analog signal, equal to “0,” “1,” “2,” and “3.” The “0” level can be represented by all the output
ports being off, so three output ports for the first block is enough. This block has one input port.
The second block is an optical coder, whose task is to generate 2-bit binary standard codes
from the discretized levels coming from the first block. Therefore, this block has three input and two
output ports. At the followings we will discuss the design procedure of these blocks and then we
will combine them to realize the final ADC based on PhCs.

2.1 Optical Level Discretizer

As we mentioned earlier, the first block of the proposed optical ADC is a level discretizer whose
task is generating four discrete levels according to the optical intensity of the input analog signal.
This block has one input and three output ports. For realizing such a device we need a three-
channel optical demultiplexer, whose ports can be controlled with optical intensity. From designing
the required demultiplexer we employed a 70 ∗ 21 matrix of air holes with hexagonal lattice,

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Fig. 2. Band structure of the PhC.

Fig. 3. Proposed three-port demultiplexer.

created inside a three layered dielectric substrate. As discussed in [33], The dielectric substrate
was created by sandwiching Si material between two layers of SiO2 material. In which Si section
works as the core and SiO2 sections work as the cladding, the height of the Si and upper and
lower SiO2 layers are 255 nm, 200 nm and 1000 nm, respectively. For the obtained structure,
the refractive index and radius of air holes are n = 2.78 and r = 0.3 ∗ a (where “a” is the lattice
constant) respectively. Using plane wave expansion (PWE) method [34] the band structure of the
fundamental PhC structure was obtained and depicted in Fig. 2. One can see that the fundamental
PhC has two PBGs at TE modes. The first PBG at TE mode is at 0.22 < a/λ < 0.33 in TM mode.
Considering a = 460 nm PBG will be at 1390 nm < λ < 2010 nm, which shows that the fundamental
PhC is suitable for optical communication wavelengths.
The proposed three-port demultiplexer consists of an input waveguide, three output waveguides
and three resonant rings (as shown in Fig. 3). In order to create an structure whose behavior is
dependent of the optical intensity of input signal the adjacent holes between the input waveguide
and resonant ring, and the holes between the output waveguides and the resonant rings were filled
with Si nano-crystals, with.
linear refractive index of n0 = 1.5 and Kerr coefficient of n2 = 10−16 m2 /W [29]. This high Kerr
coefficient permits us to control the refractive index of the defects via optical intensity. The output
diagram for the proposed demultiplexer for different values of input optical intensity (Pin ) are shown
in Fig. 4, in which the amount of normalized power at the Ch1, Ch2 and Ch3 were shown with blue,
red and green curves respectively. Also the behavior of the structure for different values of input
optical intensity are shown in Fig. 5.
When the optical intensity of input signal is at 0 < Pin < 1 ∗ P0 (P0 = 4 W/mm2 ) due to wave-
length miss match between the optical signal and the resonators, none of them can couple
the optical waves to their output waveguides. Therefore, all of the output ports will be off and

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Fig. 4. Output diagram of the optical level discretizer for the optical intensity being at
(a) 0 < Pin < 1 ∗ P0 , (b) 1 ∗ P0 < Pin < 2 ∗ P0 , (c) 2 ∗ P0 < Pin < 3 ∗ P0 , and (d) 3 ∗ P0 < Pin < 4 ∗ P0 .

the normalized power at all the output ports are less than 5% (see Figs. 4(a) and 5(a)). When the
input optical intensity is at 1 ∗ P0 < Pin < 2 ∗ P0 , the first ring will couple the optical beam into its
corresponding output waveguide and Ch1 will be on, as shown in Fig. 4(b) the normalized power
for Ch1 is about 60%, and for other channels is about 0%. When the input optical intensity is at
2 ∗ P0 < Pin < 3 ∗ P0 , the second ring will couple the optical beam into its corresponding output
waveguide and Ch2 will be on, as shown in Fig. 4(c) the normalized power for Ch2 is about 70%, and
for other channels is about 3%. Finally, when the input optical intensity is at 3 ∗ P0 < Pin < 4 ∗ P0 ,
the third ring will couple the optical beam into its corresponding output waveguide and Ch3 will be
on, as shown in Fig. 4(d), the normalized power for Ch1 is about 70%, and for other channels is
about 5%. Distribution of optical field inside the structure for different values of input optical intensity
is shown in Fig. 5.

2.2 Optical Coder

The second block of the proposed optical ADC is an optical coder used for generating a 2-bit
standard code out of the discretized levels obtained from the first block. The coder should have
three input and two output ports. For realizing the coder we used a 40 ∗ 50 hexagonal lattice PhC
whose structural parameters and PBG regions are the same as the fundamental structure used for
the first block. The coder simply consists of nine waveguides. W1 , W2 , and W3 are input and W8 ,
and W9 are the output waveguides. W4 and W5 connect W1 and W3 to W8 , respectively. Similarly,
W6 and W7 connect W3 and W2 to W8 respectively. The optical coder is shown in Fig. 6, for which

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Fig. 5. Optical behavior of the optical level discretizer for the optical intensity being at
(a) 0 < Pin < 1 ∗ P0 , (b) 1 ∗ P0 < Pin < 2 ∗ P0 , (c) 2 ∗ P0 < Pin < 3 ∗ P0 , and (d) 3 ∗ P 0
< Pin < 4 ∗ P0 .

Fig. 6. Optical coder.

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Fig. 7. Output diagram of the optical coder when (a) I1 , (b) I2 , and (c) I3 is ON.

I1 , I2 and I3 are input and O1 and O2 are the output ports. When all the input ports are off, both
outputs will be off too and the produced code is “00.” When I1 is on, optical beam coming from I1
will travel toward O1 through W1 , W4 , and W8 however no optical beam reach O2 . Therefore, when
I1 = 1, we have O1 = 1 and O2 = 0, and the produced code will be “01.” When I2 is on, optical
beam coming from I2 will travel toward O2 through W2 , W7 , and W9 however no optical beam reach
O1 . Therefore when I2 = 1, we have O1 = 0 and O2 = 1, and the produced code will be “10”.
When I3 is on, the optical beam coming from I3 will be divided into two equal parts at joint point of
W3 , W5 , and W6 . One part will travel toward O1 through W5 , and W8 and the other part will travel
toward O2 through W6 and W9 . Therefore when I3 = 1, we have O1 = O2 = 1, and the produced
code will be “11.” These are shown in Figs. 7 and 8.

2.3 Optical ADC

Now by combining the level discretizer (nonlinear demultiplexer) and the coder we can realize the
final structure for the proposed 2-bit optical ADC. For this purpose a 70 ∗ 70 hexagonal lattice PhC
was used, whose structural parameters such as refractive index and radius of air holes and lattice
constant are the same as the aforementioned structures. For designing the proposed ADC first of
all we created the nonlinear demultiplexer and optical coder inside the fundamental PhC. Then the
output ports of the demultiplexer were connected to the input ports of the coder, such that Ch1,
Ch2 and Ch3 were connected to I1 , I2 , and I3 , respectively. The final sketch of the proposed ADC

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Fig. 8. Optical behavior of the optical coder when (a) I1 , (b) I2 , and (c) I3 is ON. (d) All inputs
are OFF.

Fig. 9. Final sketch of the proposed optical ADC.

is shown in Fig. 7, which has one input and two output ports. O1 is the least significant bit (LSB),
and O2 is the most significant bit (MSB) of the ADC.

3. Simulation and Results

As far as we know, optical ADCs are devices which can generate optical binary codes considering
the optical intensity of input signal. Therefore, in order to test the functionality of the proposed

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Fig. 10. Output diagram of the optical ADC for the optical intensity being at (a) 0 < Pin < 1 ∗ P0 ,
(b) 1 ∗ P0 < Pin < 2 ∗ P0 , (c) 2 ∗ P0 < Pin < 3 ∗ P0 , and (d) 3 ∗ P0 < Pin < 4 ∗ P0 .

device, we should test the proposed structure for different values of optical intensity. We tested
the structure for optical intensity from 0 to 16 W/μm2 . The obtained results showed that for optical
intensities less than 4 W/μm2 , none of the resonant rings can drop optical waves. By increasing
optical intensity the resonant mode of the resonant rings increase gradually, when optical intensity
is between 4 W/μm2 to 8 W/μm2 , the first ring will drop optical waves, for optical intensity between
8 W/μm2 to 12 W/μm2 , and 12 W/μm2 to 16 W/μm2 the second and third ring will drop optical
waves respectively. Therefore, we should calculate the output diagrams for these optical intensity
ranges.
When the input signal optical intensity is at 0 < Pin < 1 ∗ P0 (P0 = 4 W/mm2 ), none of the reso-
nant rings would couple the optical beam from input port to their corresponding output waveguides.
So both of the output ports will be off and the generated code will be “00.”
By increasing the input signal optical intensity to 1 ∗ P0 < Pin < 2 ∗ P0 , the first ring will couple
optical beam from W1 into W2 , and the optical beam will travel toward O1 through W2 and W5 , so O1
will be on, however there will be no optical beam in O2 . As a result, when 1 ∗ P0 < Pin < 2 ∗ P0 ,
the generated code will be “01.”
For the input signal optical intensity being at 2 ∗ P0 < Pin < 3 ∗ P0 , the optical beam will be
dropped from W1 into W3 , by the second ring, then will travel toward O2 through W3 and W6 , and
turn ON O2 ; however, there will be no optical beam in O1 . Consequently, for 2 ∗ P0 < Pin < 3 ∗ P0 ,
the obtained code will be “10.”

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Fig. 11. Optical behavior of the optical ADC for the optical intensity being at (a) 0 < Pin < 1 ∗ P0 ,
(b) 1 ∗ P0 < Pin < 2 ∗ P0 , (c) 2 ∗ P0 < Pin < 3 ∗ P0 , and (d) 3 ∗ P0 < Pin < 4 ∗ P0 .

TABLE 1
Working states of the proposed ADC

Input Output Power (%) Logic Level

O2 O1 O2 O1

0 < Pin < 1 ∗ P0 0 0 0 0

1 ∗ P0 < Pin < 2 ∗ P0 5 52 0 1
2 ∗ P0 < Pin < 3 ∗ P0 60 5 1 0
3 ∗ P0 < Pin < 4 ∗ P0 30 35 1 1

Finally, when the input signal optical intensity is at 3 ∗ P0 < Pin < 4 ∗ P0 , the third ring will couple
optical beam from W1 into W4 , and the optical beam will travel toward O1 and O2 through W4 , W5
and W6 , and therefore, O1 and O2 will be on. As a result, when 3 ∗ P0 < Pin < 4 ∗ P0 , the resulted
code will be “11.” These working sates are shown in Fig. 8 and listed in Table 1.

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Fig. 12. Amount of reflected power toward input port.

The amount of the back reflected power for the worst case is shown in Fig. 12, which shows that
the amount of normalized power back reflected toward the input port is less than 5%. As one can
see the proposed structure is capable of generating 2-bit standard binary codes out of the input
signal power intensity. The maximum time required for the output signal to reach its stable state is
for O2 port for generating “11” code, which is about to 5 ps. Therefore, the maximum sampling rate
will be about 200 GS/s. The proposed structure can be fabricated using photo-lithographic method.
It has been shown that by photo-lithographic method one can fabricate optical devices based on
hole-type photonic crystal structures with lattice constant as low as 413 nm [35], [36]. Another
method used for fabricating PhC-based optical devices is electron beam lithography, by which one
can fabricate PhC-based structures with lattice constant as low as 150 nm [37].

4. Conclusion
In this paper we proposed a novel optical ADC capable of generating 2-bit standard binary codes
out of the input signal optical intensity. The proposed structure is composed of two main parts: a
nonlinear demultiplexer as level discretizer and an optical coder. The nonlinear demultiplexer has
three output ports with very close resonant modes, which can be controlled by means of optical
intensity. The proposed structure can support sampling rate up to 200 GS/s and the total footprint
is about 806 μm2 .

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