The Coptic Encyclopedia

.
OJ
,
 Editors and Consultants

Editor In Chief
Am. S. Adya
University oll/I(I),

EditOR
William Y. Adams
U"i"cl'Sily of Kentucky
Basilios IV
Archbishop of JuuSIl/cm
Picrn du Bourguel. SJ.
Lo.."n Mwcum, Paris
Rene.Georges Coquin
Colle~ 4e Frl:lnu:, Porn
W. H. C. F~d
Gltugow Unil:cnity
Mimi Bouuos Gbli
Society of Copti.c Arch,u'oIOO. Coiro
Bishop Grqorio$
Hilher I,utitwc of Coptic Swdw. Cairo
Peter Gl'O$Iirnann
Gillmuin JI1SliIUIC of Art:hllcolou. C"iro
Amoin.. Guillaumonl
CotltlC de Fu.ncc, Paris
Rodolphe " - r
Unillm" 0/ Gent""
MllI1in KnoUSoe
Wc$lf'tJ/ischc Wi/hclnu-U..ivusilw. Miinstl!f
Subhi Y. LaMb
Kit! University
Tito Orlandi
Uoti"usl/)' of R~
Marian R~nson
UUIII 5/"lc Uni"crsity
Khalil Samir
-fpnli/icllf Orlen/a! Institute. Rome

Co'mullanu
Lablb Habachi
Egypt/an DepartmcrJ( 0/ Antiquities, Cairo
J. M. Robinson
/nSI;twte of Antiquity and Christianity, Claremont, California
Magdi Wahba
Cairo VOlivers//)'

Edllorlal Ma_glng Committee

S. Kent Brown
BrigJtam YOllng University, Provo
Fu.ad Megally
Polyw:Jtl1ic of Central London
 The Coptic
Encyclopedia

Aziz S. Atiya
EDITOR IN CHIEF

Volume 4

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ISBN. 0-o2·897025·X (sel)
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 (continued)
ETHIOPIAN PRELATES (continued).
SAWIROS (0. late eleventh century)
Siiwiros was immediate suc(:e.. o~ to his maternal
unde, AbUlia Fiqlor, who had reared him ill Ethio-
pia, The episcopate of &iwiros was distinguished by
a series of events, which are recorded primarily in
the Hiswry of lhe Palria'ehs.
After Fiq\or's death (c. 1077), &iwiros went to
Egypt, where he was conseeTated as metropolitan
bishop by Patriarch CYRtL II (1078-1092), To aid
him in this undertaking, &iwiros had obtained pre-
liminary consent from the ,",werful amlr aHu}-ush
Badr al·Jamall, vizier (1074.,.1094) of the Fatimid
caliph al-Muslan~ir, by promising him gifts and im·
proved treatment of the Muslims living in Christian
Ethiopia. Immediately upon his return to Ethiopia
from Egypt, howe\'er, SAwirO!l was opposed as bish.
op by the Coptic monk 'AbdulI, who, under the
name of QOrll (Cyril). had earlier tried to USU,>, the
epi""opai throne from Abuna Fiq!or. &iwiros
emerged victorious, 'AbdOn being forced to flee
with whatever belongings he could collect. The fu·
giti>'e monk sought safety on the island of Dahlak
Kebr (Gff the coast of Mass,3wa), but was arrested
there by al·MuM...k (first of the archipelago sui.
1005
tans), who stripped him 01 all hi. good. and sent
him to Cairo, where the vizier ordered hi. execu·
tion in H'. 80l/A.D. 1085-1086.
SAwiros, h>'ing been pan of his unde's entou·
rage, knew Ethiopia well and enjo}ed considerable
prestige. Thus, he was able to undertake a number
of rdonn., distinguishing himself aboye all hy his
fight against polygamy. Even the king (unnamed in
the Hi.lOry of In" Patriarchs) renounced all his
women, s,3ye hi. wife and one concubine who had
borne him children.
In October 1088, &iwiros, via hi. brother, RijAl,
.ent a present to Badr al·Jamal!. But the yj~ier
""orned the gift and complained to Rijal-before
the patriarch and many Coplic bishops, who had
been urgently summoned-that &\",'il"05 had not
fulfilled his earl} promises, in panicular, his prom·
ise to build four mosque. for the Muslims of Ethio·
pia. But Rijal replied that, on Ihe conlrary, hi'
brolher had even been imprisoned by the king of
Ethiopia precl~ly because he had agreed to Ihe
construction of seven mosques-mosques lhat had
been rapidly demolished by the Elhiopians. There-
upon, the vi~ier commanded Patria~ch Cyril It to
wrile to the Ethiopian sovereign, urging him to re-
spect the Muslims. A delegation, led by two Coptic
bishops, carried the patriarch's lener to Ethiopia,
along with a letter from Badr al·Jamall, in which he
th<calened 10 destroy the Coptic churches of Eg)-pt
1006 ETHIOPIAN PRELATES
if the king did not sat;.ry hi. demand., The king.
ho__'et. ans_..,d m., viLier Wilh an e...,n harsher
~r. "'herein he- threalened all Idam. including
Mecca. wim .even repriuJs.
The HUiDry of w PDlri",d.. elves DO ru"her in·
fonnstion :>bool Abuna S40.,.iros. bul lhe E1hil>pian
Synaxarion relales thaI after len years. he kft Elhio-
pia to ""Iurn 10 Egypt. Howevet, lhis return was
probably" prudent recall. agreed upon bet'o<'«n the
Coptic pauiatcll and lhe Eahiopian king, as " result
01 deterionli", ..,blions bet","" Ecn>t and EtlUo-
pia. This could .1"" ~pbiD ....Ily eenain tr'lIlditional
liSl$ of Elhiopian melropolitan bishops !!late lhal
SAwiros was "...il«l by Alexandria," The Elhiopian
Syna.larion funher nOlel thai SAwiros died in Egypl
aDd was buried al lhe Monastery or Anbi. Macari""
(NYl ......&1 flW)l,R).
II is prolloable (t...t not ~enain) lhat Siwir06's 11K'
ceSlOr ...... Abuna Giyorgis I.
BI8UOCII.I\rHV
Budge. E. A. W., lrans. Tire Boot oflhe S/linlJ of rhe
£Ilriopitln Ch"",It, Vol. 4, p. 995. Cambridge,
1923.
Gukli, I. "u Ji",e dei me!l'OfI'OIiti di·Abissinia. Bes-
H RoWni. C. C. SIoriII "'£rlo,1;"" P. 289. 8cr'pmo,
s.......... 6, xr. I (1899):8, n. 2.
Renludot. E. Hi.,orio P"mo",11"'"m .4/£.O""drino-
rum }tlCOOiIO'"m, pp. 452-53, 462-64, Paris.
1713.
Ronlni. C. Storitl d·Eliopi... pp. 287-89. Be-rpmo.
1928.
Tadd=e Tam..,. CI...,d ""II Slllte i" EJlltopu.
1170-/527, pp. 41~SO. 116. 209. O>.foni. 1972.
Teckschi, S. "Note Sforiehe sulle isok Dahlak," Pro-
coemngs of Ille Thi,d Intern,,,i,,,,,,, Con/urn,e 01
£lhiopiQn Smdies /.4dd,'. Abobo 196tJ), Vol. I. p.
58 (n. 42 ref~rs 10 the dale of execution of ·Ab·
doln). Addis A~, 1%9.
Trimlngham, J, /w.m in Elhiopitt, JIP. 6)-65. Ox·
ford. 1952.
"
GIYORGIS I (It early twelrlh century)
It il proNbl~ Ihal Gi)'Orgis (Jirjil in Arabi~) was
lhe immediate suc.:tssor cl Ahun. sa,,,,iros, Th~
only inlormation concerning him is found in the
H ~ o{,lIe P.triudu (kenaudoc, 1713. pp. 475-
16).
During A..IOI. 'Ill/A.D. 110 I ~ 1102, the king of E!hio-
pia (unnamed in the Arabi<; lUI) ~nl a m~lISen8er
10 al,Af<!-,I. viUer of the fatimid callph al·'\mlr, ask.
ina a]·Afc,talto tLa..., a new metropolitan named for
Ihe ElhiopW> church. The rizier IIlmmoncd "1CH.'l.El.
IV (1092-1102) and asked him to act qulc:k1y in
regard 10 this request so thaI Ihe new bishop could
depan I'or Ethiopia wilh tM retumina mc»enger.
Michxl chose and <:<>rt:lKmed a monk by the
name 01 Jirjis .,..hoD c.amt frotn tun .u<M >UOU ill
w},pf ':'AlIa.
Ho.........e •• Ihe ne.... puble, who Idt for Elhiopia
immcdialeiy. remaine<! bul a .hon lime in Ihal
counlry, In facl. 11 i. &SId thaI aflet hi. arrival, he
Innsgresxd the.., in infamous .ffalrs and vile
d<:eds unbecominl 10 his nl.llk (~ .._ Hable Sd·
!&<sie. 1912, pp. 2SO~51). The kinl of Eahiopia.
sharply reactin. 10 Ih", seized all E1hiopian proper-
I;es acquired by Ciyorzj... senl him bfw:k 10 £c>-'JlI,
and aped thaI tM offendina bishop l>e punished. III
Cairo. thc "izier had Giyo'lli. CUI imo prison,
where he remaine<! for sc-veral years.
The Hwory o{/Ire Pt>lrilltdu &iva nll further io-
fonMtion about Ihis pn:laie. II is probable, but I'lOl
cenain, lhat IUs imanedi..e Sll<:C~ ....-as Abuna
Miknl I.
BIBUOCR"PHV
Reoaudol, E. HislDriII Pdlrituch"rum Alutln4rim>-
""" },u;om'"",,,,, pp. 475-76. Paris. 171).
19U.
Serge", Hable ~Ilassie. Ancien' ",nd .\kdin>IJl EIII~
pi"" History (0 1170, pp. 250-51. Addi. Ababa.
1972.
MlKA'£L I (8. early twelfth celltury)
It is ....ibk (Ihough DOl «ruin) WI be _ the
direcl succ~ of Abun;o GiJ;orsii I. Chrislened
l;Iablb al·AI[ihI, he ....umed lhe name Mikt'el
(Mlkht'll in ArlIbic) upon his elevallon to lhe Seat
of E1hiopia by N~RlIlS 1I (1102- 1128).
Accordi,,& 10 Ihe HiS/Of'}' of 'lie p"ITian:!Is, Mik-
i'tl's epCscopale ...... martrd by 1"'0 q>isodes im-
portanl ID the hislory of Elhtopia. The Ii... oeeurnd
durin, the ponti"'ale of GABRIEL II (IIlI_lIaS),
",·ben ,he kina of Elhiopla (unnamed in the Arabic
lex') asked the Metropolitan MiU'tl 10 consecrale
some bishops as coadjutorS in numbe'" 1.1'1:'" than
thai pertAined by anon I.... In lhe margin ol!he
Arabic .~.. a note of doublful val.... adds that II !he
time. 'he number allowed In the CopIk: cbur"Ch ......
",",-en. Ho_''et', Ihe melltlpolilan replied 10 the
king Ihat he did noI have Ihe power 10 aceede 10
Ihi. requesl wilhuut Ih. palriarch's aUlhori'.:llion,
....herrupon m., kina made his requesl directl)' booth
10 the palrian:h and 10 lhe falimid caliph al·l:U~
(1130- 1149), ....ho like"'..... In""'pled tll influence

tho palriarch in this mal1er. The laller adroitly de-
~ed hlmsoelf by "",-plaining 10 the a1liph ......1 if
tho number cl bishops in A~n" .su~ the
UI>Ol\kallimil. thft<' bishops could lJM,n el«llmir
_.., metropolitan on lile, whidt "'"QU1d risk remoY-
ine Cltristian EtltiopU &-om all influence eomine
&om fcypt:. ~ caliph acO<'pled !his ......menl and
did IlOl i/\list funJ.eo-. For his part, the patriareh
!<>Ok care 10 ...n,e 10 lhe E1hiopi.t.n rult-r, e>.honinc
ILim 10 deslA from his requ.esI_ Mean...ttile. linee
EIhiopUo had been Arud by diverse disaneR. such
as d.rou.ghl, !:amine, and epidemics, lhe kinl has-
tmed 10 rtI>OtInce his rtqUtSI, and .-.:,.,ed Itis
allegiance 10 the p.unar.:,h. Gabrill'l II then senl his
blesiins 10 the Ethiopian king.. and all talamities
ami! 10 an end.
MiU't! I conlinued his epi>.copal rto,n in £lhiQ-
pia during Ihe brief ponlifiult$ of bolh MICHAel V
(1145- 1146) and lOON v (1147 ~ I 1671.
Jl was during John's pontificate thaI Ihe second
""isodc: relaled in Ihe Hi,tory of Ih. Palriarchll oc·
curred. Th" king of Ethiopia (unnamed In lhe Ara·
bic lut) wrote a lener 10 Ihe powerful vizi"r al·
·Adi!. Ihat ;~. 'All ibn al·SalAr. vi'''''r 10 lhe f.timld
caliph al·~r (IJ49_1154). in Ihis letler. which
was nO doubl accompanied by an lrnponam Iill.
the k1nl qi<td Ihe vizier 10 order Palliarch John v
10 name a new metropolitan 10 replace lI."U·~1.
who Iw:l VOW" too old. H~, John ..... able 10
_emin lhe lrue nason for Ihis TeqUell: IJM, Elh~
pian kinl had iUeplly seized IJM, Ihrone, and be-
nuse MiU·tl continued 10 "oodemn the UiUrpe-
lion. !he killl wished 10 rid himself cl the wnentbk
prdate. Therefo:we, lite patriarch ",plied thai a new
_.-opoIitan could no! be named so Ion,g as Mik-
l'~ ..... ali,·e. Furious, 'AIl ibn alS.lir had John
c:aSl illto pri-....'ben: he rtmainecl ulllil !he rio
Der's death. 'A11 ibn al-&lir ..... assassinated in
liB, HiswricaIly. !his episode it difficuh 10 inler-
prtl. Accordilll 10 C. ~ni (19111, pp. 1119-90,
}OJ), !be II&IIrpation oppoo;ed by MiU'!1 ..... !he
one ~lra,.,.:1 by the first: 'li01-'e,,,,icn 01 the lir-'t
d)'JWIy. who lotUW power around IlJ7. This thesis
is basoed ()tl eeruin legendi, wttich claim thaI ,his
dynuIy remained in power for 133 yean btfo~
'elinqui~ing il5 rule in 1170 10 Yelwnno Amllk..
first ruler cllhe $O"CaliM Solomonk dynasty.
The dale of Abuna Mik,I'~I's death and lhe names
of his immediate .uccesso", art unknown, Neve..
lheleu, il i. certain Ihal Ihe", waS al leasl one
rn01ropoHlan who ruled after him and before AbUlia
MikA'tlll, for 11 i. known that Ihe lauer \Vall named
nUr Ihe beginning of Ihe thirteenlh century al lhe
ETHIOPIAN PRELATES 1007
Tt<l"""" of King U1ibalA 10 replace a meu-opoli\an
who had jusl died.
BlIIUQGRAI'HY
Budge, E. A. W.. IRRlI. The Book oI'lu Soinls of 1M
E,mol'it". C"~rdI, Vol. 3. pp. lIOO-801. Cam-
bridge, 1928.
Rmaudol. E. Hisluri. '.""re,",,,,,,.,
AIU'Ufdrino--
"".. J ~ pp, 510-511. 515~5U.. Pari..,
1713.
Rossini. C. Sum" tl'Enopitl, pp. 289-90,303. Berp
100, 1928.
Sergew Hable Sellusie. Ancient "rul MemnrQl E'hit:>-
pi... Hi3'ory 10 1170, p. 2<lJ. II. 117 (unpublished
documenl conceminl MiU'~1 I).
Tad<k.se TamraL Church ""d Slim in Elhiopfu
/170-1517, pp. 55-57. O~fon:l. 1971.
Trim;ngltam. J. S. Isl<lm in Eihiol'i., pp. 55-56.
lo<1doo, 1952.
MIKA'£L II (ft, early Ihlrleenth cenlury)
According to lhe His/()ty o! th~ Pa/.i«rch,. during
Ihe pontificale of JOH~ VI (1186-1216) and under
1M ",ign of the AyyO.bid sullan Abo Bah. also
known as al-Malik al··Adil. who had assumed power
in July 1199, ;Ul Ethiopian delegalion wu .«ei,..,d
in Cairo. rtqut$ling a n~"" metropolil:ln 10 replace
lhe one who had juSI died. Hi$ name is unknown.
bUI be was the .suCCl!'SoSOr 10 MiU'tl I. Sine" the
arrival ill Cairo of this delegalion was also rttor<Jo,d
by the Anob physician and ...Tit"r 'Ab<! al-lalif aI·
8a&hdaCL the date Is kno .." lhe lslamic IOOnlh of
S/uw....a1.uL 596!AualoA .o 1200. Unahle 10 lind a
monk suitable ro.- this dut)', John VI ....as oblir;ed to
desi&1IaoIe a certain K1l (abb..... ladon cl MiU'tl) ibn
al·MuIabba:s, bW>op of the city of Fuwa. Tra...,ling
with the Ethiopian ddeplion, JQ\, Abuna MiIr..
"~l II. came 10 ElhiopOa, ""M", he reui'u1
with geal po:mtp and Ii'V<:ll large eodowmelllS in
orde-r 10 mee1 his own needs and 1,-," of his. ""tou·
~. H"""",,,. h" years IllIer he "'''''; back in Cairo
with Deither rtIinue nOt means- He told Jolin VI
that ill Ethiopia he had run OOIInl",," 10 lhe lreacher-
ous intrigues ploued by the queen, ...·00 had a
brother nam~ JabrUn. If one admll5 a scribal <;or-
ruplion of tJM, Arabit ltAl, 1M nlUtle may also be
r<:ad lIS KhayrUn or f;lilrUn. She had thu. forced
MiU'tl 10 consec,."te J.bnln as bishop, who lhen
gradually ,,",urped many prerosall'e. of the aim".
Becau.e Jabrun and his cohorla had dared 10 attack
Ihe dwellings of Ihe mtlropollll<n snd make an at·
lempl on hi. life. Mik;lo'tl had been fQrced 10 tlee.
l!ncon,inced by Ihis story, the palliarch di~palched
1008 ETH IOP IAN PRELATES
10 Ethio pia a pries t name d Musi , ""ho had In.. rue·
lions to ""1m .. • leueT 10 lhe kin, and in''e5ligoole
tloc afiai •. an.. yar btu, acco m... .icd br an Edtio-
pi.lon ""lep tion , MUsi ~urned 10 ~l't with an
answ ,,' from the kinS and I~ nece ssary lnfen na·
tlon.
lhe INe reaso n for Mild i'tl·. Illlhl _ tltal h"
had <:aU!o'!d a dign iwy of Ihr Ethio pian chur ch 10
be bt:alen 10 dcalh , a man ...-no had bttll po5le d 10
......-d the tuas ure <Jl the archb ishop and whom
MiU 'tl had " ...pec l..d of ha,..'i"l ,101"" a bar of
lold, The ,..,Ia t;"« of Ihc dcad dillnilary had Ihe"
"'tac k"" Ihe =;de n", of the metr opoli lan. who
had Bed in fear. M for hbnl n, he had died two
mont hs meT MikA 'tl'. 81.nt .and lherr lore DO Iona·
er posed a threa l. funh crmo re. the king 01 Ethio pia
had senl rins wilh the del"p tioll for both lbe pat'; '
..oh and Ihe suit" ". and ,..,quested a new metr opol.
illln. In the absenc" of al·Malik al··Adil. the king' s
"'tier was li....11 10 the reg.", •. a1-M;r.lik·. son, al·
Malik aIoK imil. who wrho rizcd the palli arch 10 car·
ry out th" Ethio pian rcq...... L
Thus . on Sun<by, 9 Ramao:llln A.H. 606JA.D. 1
Ma.c h 1210, Mik, 'tl was remo ved from his dutie s
M melr opoli tan and from his rank as bisho p, Al the
u"'" .iJne. th" pIllriarch cons e<:nl ed in hi. pla" , a
monk from ;he MoDaSl"'Y of »inl Minn y. baac
(Arabic, IsJ:Iaq; Ethio pian, V~ , ...i>o then IefI
for E,hiopi.lo ...·i,b a ..<><her monk . hi. blOlh er. V(isif
(JO!iep/l). who had been lW'igI'led lIS coad jutor .
The History of Ihe Pa/riarch, ""dl the epi,c xl" 0"
an impo rta... nole. II saY' lhat lhe Ethio pian kin&
....... Ullba LL who in facl l'lJ1r<l from abou l 1190 10
1230, tb.at his wife "<'$ """"" d MMq al Kebrt., and
lhal Ihis """,. "ian had tWO 10m. one of ..-hom ...-as
nam<o<l VaMoral< (Ihis sho,l ld be read .. Y"'-barnk)
and the othe r Abilb (i.e.• La'ab or, more pred .dy,
Na·a!r.uto La'ab. ",hco. ""co rdins 10 Indlt io<t, _
Ihe nq>hew oJ Ulib aJi and occu pied tbe ,hron e
1Ih.". his und" .~ befor e his cous in Yflb Inol) . I.
adds lhat !he capit al of Ibis kinl was 'Ada&. (i.....
Ada13). locat ed near d.e prnc :n, elly of Ulib ali,
and thaI the origi nal coun tl)' of th. ru1in l Zigw e
dynasty was calle d al,Bu \;na. cOlTe$pOltdinll\IO the
~ric l of Bugn i. 10 lilt south of Usta . The e data
from the Arabic le~1 confi rm ohe histo rical bases
and impo nanc :e of this epIs o.k
BIBL IOGR APHY
PemJcl>on. J. "Ex".." de la vic d'Ab ba Jean . 14"
palri a... he d'AJ nand rie, re1al;{ i I·Abyssinle. Re-
N
vwe simif iqu.. 6 (Ucn );261 -1I, 366- 72: and 1
{1&99):16-811.
Ren.... dot. E. Hi$lori.. Palri. .re,",n<m AlU" .. Jri",,"
n<m J.. aJlnlan<m. pp. 559- 63. Paris . 1113.
RoI6tni. C. S~ 1i·E!WJvil<. pp. 301-308. Ber- pmo.
1928.
~,ew Habl e ~11as$ic. 04 ..<:1«>11 .... i Medi eval EII.io-
-
p;/ln ml/o ry /0 1170. pp. 268- 69. Addi , Ababa.
1972.
Taddessc- Tamr at. Chur ch (,.,.1 Slate i.. Edtio pi..
121()~1517. pp. 59-6 2. <>:'ford. 1972,
Whk e. J. Ahlio/Ulriplri Hisio nae A.c"P ri Compot"lii-
,..... habi ee <I Ldlin •. pp. 196~97. Odo rd, 1800 .
YES HAQ I (fl. earl y thirt eent h cenl ury)
He succ eede d Mild 'ell1...ito had been dism issed
from his posk ion. At lhe reque sl of the negus. Uli·
ball (c:. 1190 -123 0), John VI (115 9-12 16) chos e
I""l) brolb ers &om amo nglh e mon b at "'" Monas--
lery of saint Anthony. Y..sJ:1aq (1,,-,,,,, in Arabic) and
his old" , broth "" y,hu f (Jose ph), Ve,!:,aq Was
t1amed ""'l< opoli lan and hil broth er. coad julor .
The C<>nsecntion rook pia<:" in Cairo on Sund ay, 9
Ramadln AM. 606/1 Mard t 1210.
All otht r historical data are lackin.. The dir« t
succ essor to VesJ:aq I " ... Giyorgis II,
BIBU OGR AP'li Y
Pem. lcboo , J. "Exl nil .x b vic d'Ab l:- Jean , 14e
~rtr iarc he d·Ak ..lld rie, rdat if i ]'Ab yssl. le:'
Revu " sJ... iliq,.e 6 (189 3):37 t-12: and 1
(1899):14.
R"na udol. E. Hi<loria Patriar~ha",,,,, Alexandrincr
rum Ja~obita",,,,,. p. 563. Paris, 1113.
Rossini. C. SInru. d'EliopUi, p. 308. Ikrp mo, 1928.
Sr,, ", Hable: ~Uassic. Ande nt ..nd Akdit oral Elni<>-
pioon Hi.It(ory to 117(). p. 269. Add... Ababa. 1972.
GIY ORG IS II (fl. Irarly thirt eent h cent ury)
Near lhe end of the ",ign of th" negu s L:iJlbala.
Giyorgi5 beca me;h e direc t ....C«S$Or <Jl Abu" " V....
i}aq I: hi!. name Itas been lnutSmiJted onl, Ihrot llh
E1hiopia>t documen<s.
Giyorgis II il fi,.., menl ioned in a ~I acel dated
29 Mar d 1225 in conn eclio n ".,.ith a dona tion of
land mad. . by Ulib ali. He is also m"nl lon"d in the
colop hon 01 Krbr d N/lta st (Bez old, 1905. p. 1.38). a
Ill,," ,ry .....rk ronla ioins the wrln "n V'CnK>1I <Jl the
....llo nal I.".,. .d of Ethio pia. TIlis colop /lon stale s
I.... the work had fi~ be.,., tnonslat"CI from Copt ic
into Arnbic in the year 1211 of the Ethio pia" cal", ,·
dar (A,D. 1224~1225). durin g the .eign of Uliba lli
.and Ihe metr opoli taruu " of Ci)'Of"gi5 II.
As fur lhe History of lire Coptic- ,...tri tJuhs . al.
though II doa DOl list thr nalm <Jl lhe ITl<'tropoli·
Ian. it dor$ cons erve th" 5tOry of the circu msta nces

surrounding his election, Near the end of the pon-
tificate of the Coptic patriarch John VI (1189-
1216), the AyYUbid suhan al·Malik al.K;l.mil (1200-
1218) received a messenger in Cairo from the king
of Ethiopia (Ulibal;l.). This messenger had been
commanded to announce the death of Abuna Yes-
I>aq I to the sultan and ask him to send a new one.
""""ever. an ambitious Coptic priest named Diiwiid
ibn Laqlaq then went to al·Malik al·KAmil and. after
giving him 200 dinars, asked the sultan to intet>'ene
and have him (Dawiid) consecrated as metropolitan
of Ethiopia. (This same D;l.wiid later became the
COJIlic patriarch Cyril lit, 1235-1243.) AI-Malik al-
KAmiJ solll the messenger to John VI, who in turn
suggested to the messenger that he tell the .ultan
"that this one is not fit because his belief in God is
conup!"' and that sending him to Ethi<>pia could
distance the Ethiopians from the Coptic church and
consequently from the Egyptian authorities as welL
The messt:nger having followed these instructions,
the sultan dedded to leave the patriarch complete
freedom in making his choiee. Thus it was that
someone other than Diiwiid was consecrated as
metropolitan. Although the H;;IOry of the Patriarchs
omits both the name of the metropolitan and the
date of his consecration, it i. dear that this episode
",fen to Giyorgis 1], and thus. his election must be
placed around 1215.
The date when his metropolitanate ended is un·
knnwn. It i. possible (but not certain) that he was
the immediate p",decessor of Qerelos L
BIBUOGR"PHY
Bezold, C, Keb,t1 Nagas/: Die Herrlichkeit de, Kon;-
ge. p. 133. Munich. 1905.
Budge. Eo A. W. Th" Quun of Sheba and Her Onl)'
Son, Menyeld I, p. 228. London. 1922.
Rossini, C. "L'evangelo d'oro di Dab", Liban",."
Rend,""nt; ddl.. Reale Afcademia de; Lincei JO,
ser. 5 (1901):189-91. ~,
_ _ , "Aethiopica: S"lI"a"l1ore e .ulla data del
Kebra Nagast." Rivista dqli $t~di o>ien/ali 10
(1925):506-503, . metropolitans. According to one hypothesis (Weit.
_ _. 5/0'-;" d'E';opia. pp. 309-310. Bergamo.
1923.
Taddesse Tamrat. Church and Stale in Ethiopia
1170-/527. p. 64. Oxford. 1972.
Q£RELOS 1 (fl. end thlrteenIh cenIury)
It is probable (but not certain) that Qhel", I "'"as
the direct successor to Abuna Giyorgis II, The prin·
cipal dala concerning this metropolitan comes
from the Life of Abuna Takla H;l.ym;l.not (Budge.
ETHIOPIAN PRELATES 1009
19(6). lhe Ethi<>pian saint (d. c, 1313) 10 whom is
attributed both the founding in Shewa of Dab",
Asbo (later called Dabra UMnos) and the establish·
ment of one of the two great monaslie orders of
Elhiopia.
This Life reports thaI at fifteen years of age Takla
Haymanot was led bl' his falher ll> Abu,,~ G~,.cl05
(i.e .. (}trel", or C)'ril), who ordained him a deacon.
The text describes Q~relos as "bishop of Amhara at
the time of the lAgw~ kings" and .tates that Abuna
Takla H;l.ymlnot's ordination took place "when
Benjamin was Archbishop of Alexandria;' a sUt.,.
ment based on a misunderstanding, since the", was
no successor 10 SainI Mark named Benjamin during
the lhineenth cent,,')'_ Ac(ording 10 this same Life.
oerel05 then conferred the priesthood upon Abuna
Takla Haymanot and eventually named him ;;qa
kdhniJ.t (chief of the priests), However. according to
Cerulli (1943, pp. 230-31), the office of ;;qa kMm~/.
which consisted in choming the candida Ie. to be
presented to the metropolitan for ordination as
priests. was in fact esublished only in the four·
teenlh centu')' by Abuna Y;l'qob and assigned to
Filel;'J;'OS' third abbot of Dabra Asbo.
The name of this abu" is often missing in the
traditional lists of tM melropolilans of the Ethiopi·
an church. but there is !1{l doubt as to his exi.tence.
He is mentioned ",.tably in an act concerning a gift
of land made in 1210 by the negus Yekunno AmIM:
soon after Itis accession to the throne. an act regis·
tered in the Golden Gospel of Dabra Lib;lnos in
Shim<'lzana.
The date when the metropolitanate of Qe",lrn; I
ended is unknown, He seems to have died near the
beginning of Yekunno Aml;lk's Teign. for according
to lhe Egyptian historian al·M~ott!zl. in a letter writ·
ten to the Mamluk sultan Baybars (1260-1277) lhat
was recei,'ed in ~.H_ 673!A.f>. 1274-1275, the negus
Yekunno Amlak requested a new metropolitan. It
would appear. according 10 certain Arabic docu·
ments, that oe",lo. I had as hi. succes.or a Syrian
metropolitan (unnamed) or even several S)'Iian
1938, pp. 117-21), these Syrian metropolilans were
Melchile, hul aecording 10 another (Taddesse Tam-
rat. 1972). the)' were Jacobite; however. tlte "'.-abic
document.s are not .t all .,.plieit on this .ubject.
According to tlte Life. the Abuna Yo!)ann.. II
wished to consecrale Abuna Takla Haymanot "bislt·
op over half of Ethiopia." Although the reality of
lhis eonsecration i. questionable. the episode is im-
portant from a chronological point of view. for it
conllnns that Abuna Yol)annes II was the direct
successor of Qe",los I.
1010 ETHIOPIAN PRELATES
BIBLIOGRAPHY
i\lmeida, M, de. HislOria de Ethiopia a alta ou Aba,'
$ia, Vol. 5 of Rerum Aethiopicarum Scrip/ores
Occidentales Inedili, pp. 18t-87. Rome. 1'Xl7;,..,·
printed as Hisloria Aethiopiae. Brussels, 1969.
Budge, E. A. W. The Ufo of Takla Hdym&"or i" th.
V",SiOM of Dabra Ubtmos, pp. 52-54, 68-70. 206-
208. London. 1906.
___ The Book of rh. S"i"ls of the Erhiop;a~
Church, Vol. 4 p. 1242. Cambridge. 1928.
Cerulli. E. "Gli abbali di Dabra Lihanoo. capi del
mona~hismo eliopico. secondo la 'lista rimala'
(sec. XIV-XVIH)."· Orientali" 12 (1943):230-31.
Guidi, I. "i.e liste <lei metropoliti d'Abissinia," Be,,·
sario". 6. ser, I (1899):9 (lisl 2, no. 24).
M"qrlzl, al-. Kitilb al'Sulljk, .d. Mu~rafa Ziy1dah.
Cairo, 1956.
Paez. P. Historia d. Elhlopia. pp. 546-74. Rerum
Aethiopicarum Scriplores Occidentales Ineruti 2.
Rome, 1905,
Qtlat,..,me,.." E. Mbnorie, g~ographiq"e$ d hlstori-
que$ ,ur I"Egypte ei s"r quelq"u c,mlreos voi,;·
>les, Vol. 2. pp. 267-73. Paris, 1811.
Renaudol. E. Hi.</oria Patriarcharum Alna>ldri>lo-
mm Jacobi/amm, pp. 170-71. Paris, 1713.
Rossini, C. C. "Appunti cd osservazioni f>Ui re zague
e Takla H:iym.mol." Rendlcomi ddla Real. Ac-
cadem;" dei Uncei 4. ,er, 5 (1895):445-58.
___. "L'evangelo d'oro di Dabra LibAnos."' Rendl·
comi d.lla RCllle Accademlll d..- Unce' 10, ser, 5
0%1):195-96,
___. Siona d'Elwpla, p. 321. Bcrgamo, 1928.
Sergew Hable SCllassie. Andem and Medieval Ethio·
pian History 10 1270, pp. 282. Addis Ababa, 1972.
Taddessc Tamrat, Church ,,~d Siale in Ethiopia,
1270-/527, pp. 70-72, 11>0. O~ford, 1972.
Weil, G. "l.es Relations egyplO·abyssines sous les
suhans mamlouks."' Bull.rin de fa Sod'ii d'ar-
ch~ologie COpl< 4 (1938):117-21.
YOHANNES II (fl. early fourteenth century)
The date of Yohotnnes' anival in Ethiopia is un·
known, but in th. Ufe of Takla HAym:inol, the Ethi-
opian saint who fo~nded one of the two great mo·
nastic orders of Ethlopia (Budge, 1906-1e~I, p. 84
and tmn•. , pp. 206-207), it is reported that loward
the end of the saim's life there arrived in Elhiopia a
metropolitan called Abuna Yol:umnes, This metro-
politan wished 10 ordain Takla HAymAnot a bishop
and give him half of the country; bur the saint
declined the offer. In genemlthis episode is ~onsid·
ered only as an imitation of a similar episode-lhe
supposed assignment of the position of bishop 10
File{'J;'Os, third abbot of Dabra Lib:inos. Howe,'er, il
is important from a chronological point of view, for
it shows that Yohannes II was the successor (proba·
bly direct) of Abuna Q~relos rand lhat he arrived
in Ethiopia just before lhe death of Abuna Takla
H:,ym:inot (c. 1313).
YoJ:lannes' prelacy is confinned by another Le'l.
the Ufe of B¥lOla Mik:.'~1 (ROS$ini, 1962, pp, 22-
23; and 1961. pp. 20-21), abbot of Dabro Gol in
Amhara during the firsl half of lhe fourteenlh cen-
lury. Here it is stated Ihat B!~lota Mik:.'~I, having
1l0ted that AbUlia YaJ:lannes was collecting contri·
butions for administering th. sacraments and, in
particular, for ordaining pri""lS, did nol hesitate to
reproach him, all of which the metropolitan ig·
no,..,d. Thereupon, the abbot dared 10 make his
complaints known to the negus (unnamed in lhe
Ethiopian 'e,', but doubtless 'Amda ~yon), who,
howevcr, instead of giving credence to the abl:>ol,
exiled him 10 Tigre, This aceusalion of simony
seem, unU$ual, far il is well known thaI in Ethiopia
the metropolitans ha\'e always been accorded reve·
nues and lhat lhey collecled a conlribulicm from
each candidate to lhe priesthood at the time of his
ordination. This episode should lhus be interpreted
in the sense lhat probably this particular metropoli·
tan levied 100 large a contribution upon each can·
didale, which would constilule an impediment 10
the increase of priesls just at a time ""hen th. Ethio'
piao church was ha\'ing to fight in a ~ountry still
rife with paganism.
The date of Yohannes [I's dealh is unknown, bur
it may be presumed thaI his metropolitanate un b.
placed hetween 1310 and 1330, His ,ucceswr was
Abuna YA'qob.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Almeida, M. de. Hisloria de Elhiopia a alit! ou Abas·
,ia, p. 184. Rerum Aethiopicarum ScriplO""S De·
cidentales !nediti 5. Rome, 1907.
Budge, E- A. W. The Ufe of Takla Haymimot i~ the
Vers;"n of Dabra Ub<!nos, pp. 69-70, 206-208,
London, 1906,
Cerulli, E. SlOria delia lelleralUra etioplca, Pl'. 79-
80. Milan, 1956; 3rd ed., pp. 62-63. Milan, 1968,
Kur, S. Aetes de Samuel d< Dilbra Wagng. In CSCD
288, pp. vii, 39, Louvain, 1968.
P:iez, p, HI,lorill de Ethiopia, p. 573. Rerum Aethio·
picarum Scriplores Occidentales !nedil; 2. Rome,
1905.
Rossini, C. ViMe Sa"clOr"m Indige"amm, Vol. I,
Acta S. ~lota-Mik:i'~1 el S. Anortw~. [n CSCO
28, S~riptore. Aerhiopid 11. Louvain, 1962. Trans,
in CSCO 29, ScriplOres Aelhiop'cl 12. Louvain,
1961.

Tadd,sse Tamrat. Church and SiaM in Ethiopia.
1270-1527. pp, 114-15,178, Odord, 1972.
yA'QOB (0. mid-Fourteenth century)
The nan" of this rn'tropoJitan is lisled in five
IexlS in Ethiopian literature Ihal comprise the "Cy·
cle of the Holy Monb in ConAicl Against the King."'
These monks we", B"'J"Ilota Miki'el, abbot of Dabra
Gol in Amhara; Fil,ppos, abbot of Dabra Asbo (sub-
sequ,ntly known as [jabra lJb.§.nos) in Shew;>.; Ano...
twos. founder (>f Dabra ~egAg;I in Shewa; Aron.
abbot (>f Dabra DMtt in Bagemdir; and Sarnu'el,
founder of Dabra Wagag in the southeast of Shewa.
Despite tho differences and anachronisms. a com-
parison of the five texts furnishes a sketch of Ihe
principal ",..,nts of n'qob's episcopate.
Having arrived in Elhiopia toward Ihe end of Ihe
long reign of 'Amda $eyon, Y~'qob was expelled
and .sent back to Egypt soon after the emhronemem
of $;<ayfa A,--';kl, According to the Life of Abbot Filep_
!?"S. n:qoo's expulsion occurred belwun the ac-
cession of the king (1344) and File~!?"s' Own expul·
sion (1346); Ihus. il may be deduced that Ya'qob
was sem back to Egypt around 1345. Funher, this
same text states that upon his return to Egypt.
"Ya'qob found the cinde!"S still wann on the hearth
in Ih, home he had Idl seven years before."' There·
fore, he must have aniv.d in Ethiopia around 1338.
Upon his arrival, YA'qob met f:woslatewos, found-
er of one of Ihe greal monastic oroers of Ethiopia.
but he maintained dose relations with the monks of
another or<kr. that of Abuna Takla H~ymanot.
whom he supported in their conAicl with the mono
archy.
After his accession to the throne. Sayfa Ar'Ad
promised 10 have no more Ihan one wife. but SOme
time later, following the example of his predeces·
SO!"S, he married three .. Ya'qob supporte<l Ihe
mnnks in Iheir revolt a!lflin51 this concubinage,
whereupon the negus simply hastened to uile the
most aggressive monks 10 the south of the kingdom
and dispatched VA'qob to Eg)pl.
During his metropolitanate VA',!ob divided the
tenitory of central Ethiopia into Iwelve religious
districts, and over each district he appointed an
abbot of a monastery, almost in imitation of the
twrlve apostlt$ of Christ. Thereby. the woO; of this
metropolitan had considerable impact on the life of
the church in Ethiopia, despite the brevily of his
tenure.
His successor 10 the See of Ethiopia was Abuna
Salama 11.
ETHIOPIAN PRELATES 1011
BtBt.lOGRAPHY
Cerulli, E, "Gli abbati di Dabra Libanos. capi del
monachesimo eliopico, secondo la "lista rimata"'
(sec. XIV-XVlIl)."· Orien/alia 12 (1943);239.
Guidi.!. "I.e liste dei melropoliti d'Abissinia."' Bes·
sarion" S. se<. I (1899}:8.
Kur, S. Aeres de Samuel de Dahra Wagag, In CSCO
288, PI', vii, ix, 7-9, 39. lam'ain, 1968,
Rossini. C. Vila" SanclOrum Indigena",m, VoL I,
Acla S. Ba~alola Mild'il tl S. Ano''''vos. In CSCO
29, Scriprores Aelhiopici 12. Louvain. 1961.
Taddesse Tamrat. "The Abbots of Dabtii Hayq, 1248-
1535."' Journal of Elhiopion Studies 8. no. 1
(1970):98-100.
___. Church and Slare In Elhlopia 1270-1527,
Pl'· 117_18. 174_79. O~ford. 1972.
Turaie". B. Vita" Sarleto",m lrldig"rlarum; Aela S,
Aarorlls el S. Philippi. In cseo 31, pp. 114-19,
t74_79, 201-205. Louvain. 1955.
___ Vit"e SarlclO,«m Indigen"",m: AclO S. Eu-
'1OIhil". In CSCO 32, Pl'. 28-29. Louvain. 1955.
Zotenberg. H. CQla[og«, do> manu.crilS 'thiopie~,
(ghee1 et amharique) de la Bibliolheque naliorlale,
p. 263. Paris, 1877.
SALAMA II (d. 1388)
SalAmi n was Ihe successor of Abuna YA'qob and
served as metropolitan during the reigns of Negus
Sayfa Ar'Ad (1344-1372), Negus Newaya M~ryAm
(1372-1382), and Negus Da"'it I (1382-1412). The
Libu A~umae indicates thaI he arrived in Ethiopia
in 1341 of the Ethiopian calendar (A.t}, 1348-1349)
and died in 1380 (A.t}, 1387-1388). According to the
Ethiopian Synaxarion, he died on 20 Nal:ias~ (1380)
(A.D. 13 August 1388).
SalAma II necupies an important place in the
hislory of ETHIoPIAN CHRISTrA1< UTF-AATlJR.E, having
heen the promoter of a vast literary movement
based on the translation from Ambic into Elhiopic
(Ge'ez) of a considemble number of lexlS derived
from the religious Iiteralure of Ihe Capts. 11 wa~
doubtless the intention of th. metropolitan and his
coliabomlo!"S to strengthen the lies binding Chris-
lian Ethiopia to the Alexandrian palriarchate, but it
is certain Ihat Ihi. great work of tmnslalion also
.ought to counteracl, on the Spol. the menace cre-
ated by the dissidenl ideas and movements then
current among the Ethiopian clergy.
Because of his prolific literary activity, Salama
was gi,'en tile epilhet Ma1a~...e", (tmnslator). Al-
though he is often .imilarly honored a. "Translator
of lhe Holy &riptures," it is not known whether he
was aClually inwl"ed in the lranslation of the Bible
into Ethiopic.
1012 ETHIOPIAN PRELATES
There Is considerable documenwion for the nu·
merous lite",1}' l",nsIations dfecle<! b)' S.l.lml n.
principally in lhe donIlOins of N3lopaphy and
pilI0s1i<;s. On !he other hand. ahhou&h his long
episcopale """"fled lOur important deada in
Elhiopian hislory. there are not SlIfliclent daq
conu.ni... his ",ligious politics. The Ufe of
F~. third ahbol. of Dabra &00. wl>o had been
"'lqated 10 the south of the counll}' b,. the- king
around 1346. dunAg the reqn of Abuna n·qob.
,...~ ",me in!Ormation. Upon his arri~-.l in EthJo.
pG.. Salimi I[ was ablt to sec"", from the kinl the
liberation of Fil"J;'l.'O$ and his companions.. but a
new quarrd IOOll (TUple<! between File!l(105 and
lhe king about faslin&- The Elhiopians faaI on
Wedntsday and friday' (Ihe days of lhe condemna·
tion and duth of Jesul), ... wdl as duril>l!he fony
days precedin! Chri.lmas, Howe\'er, they do not
fast on Chrislmas. ev.,n if this day fallt on Wwnos'
day or friday. Following the advice of cenain
prlesls at coun. the negus Sayfa ,\r'Ad decl~d Ihat
;l was also unnecessary to fMt on Chrlslmas Eve,
tven if II fdl on WooneMlay or Friday. Dllrinl the
same yur lhat Sallml 11 arrived in Ethiopia. Chri$t·
mas Eve (28 nkhsb 1341/",,-D. U Dccem~r I)~I)
kll on a Wedncsdo.y. The ACiP'S asked both the
metropolitan and Abbot FJ1Cl'!"'" 10 ...tify his decl·
sion. Salimi ...... not ngidly 0J'Pll'fC'd 10 this f"O)-.l
requesl. but FiI'1'fOS and Ihr: other abbots cYi.
~nced a clear hoslility. Once ..ain they were CJ<.
iled 10 a diltanl region. This episode confinns tbat
Sal~ II arrived in Ethiopia 1O'01Iird the end of
I}<II and lhat, from a political \oj,..,.-poinl, ......_
less ROO than lite r~ clergy in its allit\lde 10
~lty.
These flow his-lori<:21 daui SO spane tNt ~
an!!
iM)' wotMkr if Saarna the t«:lesiaso:ic simply 5Cood
in the ~ c=>ted by his brilliatlu 8IS a ITW1 of
leuen. In panicubr. one may ask what _ his
altitude in the areal ~ I around 1)30 whC'l'rin
the tWO SOns of $;0)+.0 ~ ~ each OIher ro..-
,he posvnion of the throne and at lhe end of
which Diwil eliminated his older brother, N~s
N,..,."iya ~Urytim. Did Salimj, II a1i1n himself with
lhe mon .... of Dabrn 1Lsbo. who condemned D6wil.
or with Ihe mon .... of nobra J:IaYQ, wl>o supponed
the new ""I"'?
Salimi l1's successor was Abuna Banalom!wos,
who arri,·e<;j in Ethiopia in 1)91 of Ihe ElhlGpian
calendar (A.D. 1391-1399). S. Kur has recentl~ Su ....
ml".,d lhat between the dealh of Salama II and the
arrival of Banalomt,,'OS Ihere ma~ have been an·
Olher metropolitan. Ab.",a FiQ!or. Fiq!or is men·
tioned In ceruin Imitional lis15. btll in lhe Ulhl of
do:>ctun£nu available at pr~M. his existence oeelll$
doubtful-
81 BLlOGRAI'tIT
BudBe. E. A. W., I~ TIle 8t>oJt. of Ihe s.inu of Ihe
hhiop;- ChiIJ"Clt, • ¥01s. Cambridge, 1928.
Ccru.lli, E. 51""" della lel/mllU,. eliopic". pp. 68-
69. Mil..... 19S6.
Chai"". M. "La Date de la man du metropo!ile
Ahba SaIama.~ AelltiopS 1 (1922):33-36.
Guidi, I. s-i4 kIt. let/e,IlI",. uiopic... PI'- 30-32.
Rome. 1932.
Kur. S. Acl.... de s.m..el de Dtlb,. Wag<It. In CSCO
288. pp. vii. wi. 33, 39. Lou... in. 1%$.
Lantsehool. A. ' ..... ""bbi S.lima, moOiropolile
d'Ethit>pic (1343-1)11), CI son role de uaduc·
tcur." In Alii del Convcli1O irrumation"le dj stud;
el;opici (Rom" 19j~l. pp. 397-<Wl. Rome. 1%0.
Ricd. L "lA:neralul1I! dell'Etlopia." In Slori" d.Ue
ICIt.raw'e d'Orie"'it:, pp, 817-19. Milan. 1%9.
_ DocumentQ Ild 1I/"~lf.nd"m HiSlo,i"rn. Vol.
I. Ubu Ax",,,.e. In cseo 58, p. 81- Lou.....in.
1954.
Rossini. C. "Sui metropolita Salama d·Eliopia."
Zcil$Chrifl f{i, AS$yriologi. 27 (1912):368-71.
Taddcs5C Tamral, "The Abbott of Dabra l:Iayq,
12~1-1535." Jo" .....1 of Elhiopia." SI"d;eo I, ..,r.
(1970): 102-103.
Tedeschi, S. "a- Fils du ~gus Sayfa·Add d'apt"k
un documenl antbo<htfllen." .tjrictJ Z9
(1974):576_80.
TuraieY, B. ViI"" Sa~lOn<m 'rtd!zen"",m, VoL 2.
Acta S. Aaronis et I'tlillppi. 11\ CSCO 31, pp. 211-
13.218-19.221. Lou....;n, 1955.
BARTALOM£WOS (d. c. 14J.!I)
Information about the epi$C'opate of BanaJo.
~ (BartAo1onew) is SC""t.....'Cn tf>oougtI it co.--
e~ the !enpy period from lhe end of !he .--rign of
Negus Dawit I (I380-1~12) though 11M: entire .--ri8n
of Negus y ~ (1.13-100). Successor to Salim,.
II. Banalomtwos a ~ in Ethiopia in 1191 of the
Ethiopian calendar (A,D. 1393-1399). "",cording 10
Ihe dale lislw in a local chronicle (.4"".,10 of Add;'
NeamirtJ. TIt.. was al a lime when Chrislian Ethio-
pia Wa5 undCf"ioinl a delkate crisis. DIlwit, ....vin.
..,izcd power by eliminatinl his older brother. Ne-
8us Newlya Mlrylm, wilh 11M: help of h .. sister, Del
Stfli. had to face the opposltloo of ceTta;n e1emen15
of Ihe mililary and the monasleries of Shewa thaI
come.ted hi, actions, Therdore. il was a dm<:n
yeal"5 after the duth of "buna Salimi 11 before Ihe
king wal able to have tOe patriarch ",nd a new
metropolitan 10 Ethiopia.
Bartalomhvot lILTived in EthiGpia with imponanl

inlomlalion for ~ nf&US: an atmosphe~ of ~ace
~ n Christians and Muslim5 IuId exls.ed lor
_ thirty years ;n the Medi.e"",,, n, Ind Ihis
was a<:«>mpanied by a ~msdabl .. tn I.. Imonl
the >vlow Chriuian communiUu (Copts. CaIOO-
lies, Ind Credt OnloodoKl. Upon !he ..thic~ of 8u-
Wom!!.- and "'hh the .... istance of the Coptic
patriarch ~TTHEW I (1.l78-1409), the ""IUS soml
~ misslons 10 wr"OJ>" in S<"lU"Ch of relipo..s rdics
supptllCti 10 atlesteli..,,,,, fa....... oward D6wi1 and
consolida~ his Ihmne thereby, The first mimon
reached Venice in 1402, and ~ otbtr arrived at
Rome i.. 1404, II was the firs. mission, ....hOJ,e
spo~n "'as" certain F1or<"ntin.... AnlOnio Bano>
Ii, that broupl from Venice the ~Iics desired by
lhe ..... gus.
Howe~r, inside Ethiopia. BartaJomtwos became
embroiled In • religious quarTeL eerUin monasle!"
iei in the north of Ethiopia maintained thaI Salu!"
da~ should be observ... d as the Sabbath. according
to Holy Scripture, whereas olher monasteries, sup·
port... d by Ihe metropolilan, defended the obse...
Vllnce of Sunday, in confonnity wilh Coplic lradi·
tion. Thos.. favoring Saturday ....'cre the monks of
the order of tWOf!AtewO$ and, in panicular, FII.. p.
pol. abbot of D<IIhra Biun_ The mdropolitan'l po';.
~ipal ally _ Sarooqa Berh:on. abboc of Dabn. l;layq
and cou.nwlor to the negus. BanaIomtwos won the
Iirll round. In 1400 he con"ok...d .. cou.--l dotrin,
which Fileppm _ relained at Dab... l:\ayq under
..... pard 'Of ~ lkrftaD.....hile his partisans
~ ~I ,.~ far from their mona.gerilOS. Howev-
er. In 1404, 1)Ii";1 decided to rnerse his IWId. He
freed th.. punished prelates and ,.uthorized lhe oJb.
serra.nce of "the I..... Sa"balhs." Accordinl!lo Tad·
dnse Tan".I, the altirude of the OnIer 01 t _
~ ""'" dkl.loUd more by .... tionalislic
!ieTIIim....1S ,han by ...1ip:Jus "OOsidt-rations, and
this ~ "'-ei&hed '-'iIY..pi.... Ibnalom&wos
and his immediat.. SUC:ce"'f~ fw a Ion& tim.. to
00_.
Durilll'he ... ip! of Negus Vesl;Laq, IIanalornl-wof.
had .0 suffer AnOther dlllicu:ll ptriod. ~'ed or
sympuhWns ....·;,h th~ ZamiU'~li~ ~rnent (a
Ioereticlll curren, initiated. by a monk named lami"·
l·tI), th.. metropolitan had to defend himself before
• board of inquiry and finally was forced to con-
demn formally th~ Zamik;nlit~ doctrine. Soon af·
terward, there aro~e the h~retical mo" .. menl of the
Elyifino';tes (named after a monk called Es,lfinoi,
or Stephan). which "refused to "ene",t.. Miry and
the C1"O$I," but which was also inspired by political
considerations. Th~ E'.s!if3nositn wer.. condemned
Ind ~ne<:utoed during the fifteenth Century, but
ETHIOPIAN PRELATES 1013
BanaIome..--os. who """ presoml al th..;r bC'g;n-
ni"l5, docs nOi seem to havoc played ,. ...... in their
persecution (sec El1iJOI'IAPI HEltlS.ES "SO ntEOUlGl-
CAL CONIllOVERSI£S).
It .t-.ld be noted .hat an IICI W\IS drawn up
concn-nilll a dorwion of land (Arabic. """'1f) from
Neop;us Dlwit 110 the Bethlehem Church (Btl MIJ)'"
Am) olUiliba.li in ~ Wriu.... ;n ~k. this xt
carTiC'S an addoC'ndum for >-...rification and lqaIiza-
,;0" wrinen iII Coptic and u,ned. by Aburla Barulo-
rnn._; il is dated A.M... Paoni (Coptic:, Ba'unah;
Ethiopian, Sant) 112/0 (l.D. 29 May 1110).
ThO' edC' <Ial.. 01. the end of Bartaloml:wos' epis-
copate is not kllO>'oll. H.. '"'as stilll;"inll when Zar'a
YIi'qob ascended the throne (June 14J4). lOr h.. is
fTW'ntioned in a ro)'llJ document 01. Ihis period.
Howe>'n", li",n Ih~ fae' thai he i, not dted in the
documents of 143/0. it may be p .... surned that be
died around 1435. His succenors we... MiU'l\1 III
and Gabr'tl, who ,.rrived In Ethiopia together.
B1BLlOGIt~I'HY
Cerulli, E. Jlllbw uiopieo del MiMeol, di Maria, pp.
114-20. Rome, 1943.
Kolmodin, J. T,,,diri01ls de TUlZUI" et H"v.ega: An·
nale, el doc"menls, pp. "'23, A3O. Uppsoola, 1914.
lantseht>Ol, .... "an. "AbbA Salj~. mttropolite
d'Elhiopie (I J..48- 138&), ..I son role dO' I",due--
'eur:' In Alii d~1 C""""f"O inlt",,,jonaf~ di ",,,tli
erit>pU:i (Rom" 19S,). p, 398. Rome, 191\0.
Monli della Cone. A. A. L<JUkI", pp. 136-39_
Ronlt, 1940.
RoMini. C. C. ¥ll Cadla Filpos • il CadIa Yoha.......
eli l);ol,Q Biun. ,41~ d...1hI Re"l... AendemUi
H
dei ~i 8, wr. 5 {1901~65.
_ _ ViI.e s.n.clOnlm Indite""""'" Ael" S. Ah<il·
«l'ZUII. In <:seO 57. pp. 6. 12. tou:vain. 19504.
-;-cc ~P .. rpmel'lll' di Debra Dammllo. RirisU! dq.
H
Ii JI"di orient.1i 19 (1940);52,
Tade' e Tam...t. '1loe ...bbo\$ of Oah... Hayq,
1243 1535" Ioun"il uf EJJiiopi"n $ludic> 8. no. I
(1910): 193- 105.
-':::-0 Clt;'rclt (Jlld Slale. in Elltiopia 1270-1517,
I'P. 213-19. 225-23. Oxford, J97Z.
Tedeschi, S. "Lea Fils du n.. gus Sayfa·Ar'ild d'apti:I;
un docume'" aralJo.c:hrili..n." Alri." 29
{1974);5BO-83.
MIKA.'D. III (d. c,1450.)
Contrary to the tradition which hdd that there
could b<' only one metropolitan In Ethiopia, MiU'l!!
(Michel) held thi. post simultaneO\lsly with Abuna
Gabr'tl. Suecttding "'buna Sanalomewos. these
two metropoliUms arri"ed in Ethiopia logether.
With the cwodjulOr bishop Yo~anllC$. thC'y fermed a
1014 ETHIOPIAN PRELATES
small group of Coptic prelates whe>, according to
the Lib" A.<umae, had com~ to th~ country in 1431
of the Ethiopian nlendar (A.D. 1438-1439). Thus,
th~y had ~en consecrat~d by the Coptic patriarch
JOHN XI (1427-1452).
Upon their arrival in Ethiopia in February 1439,
during the reign of Zar'a n'qob (1434_14/>8), the
negus d~manded that they condemn th~ heretical
trinitarian doctrin~ of th~ Zamika'elites (initiat~d by
a monk named Zamilcl.'~l). This was probably ~.
cause the negus remembered that Abuna Bartak,·
mewo, had ~~n suspected of favoring thi, here,y.
Cons~qu~ntly Mik.1'el and Gabr'~1 wer~ required to
proclaim, "W~ ~Ii~v~ in thre~ p~rsons, hut one
sole divinity."
Likewise, in August 1449, at the request of the
negus, both metropolitans suhscri~d to the verdiCI
that Zar'a y,,'qob once again declared in the old
disput~ of th~ celebration of t~ Sabbath on Satur-
day. In dfecl, th~ two metropolitans agre~d to the
observ:ance of "the two Sabbaths," in conformance
with Ihe decision adopted during Ihe reign of Abu-
na Banalom~wo •. Afterward, during the sovereign',
residency at Dabra Berhan (1454-14l>8), the three
EID'Ptian p,..,late. participated in Ihe tribunal that
judged and condemned the Zamik.1'Hite.,
The exact circumstances f"r the joint reign of
Mika'~1 III and Gabr'~l ... metropolitans are un-
known, Probably when they were consecrate<l and
sent to Ethiopia, the Coptic patriarch intende<l that
they go"em in succession (I.e., one after the death
of the other, as often happened subsequently). How-
ever, once on Ethiopian .oil and probably al Ihe
orders of the negus, the two divided their territorial
jurisdiction. As a result, there were documents is,
,ued with bolh men holding the same rank wherein
Mika'~l governed Amhara and Gabr'~1 ruled Over
Shewa. Each one proceeded to ordain deacans and
priests within his oVin territory. AI first this arrange-
ment did not inclu~ Tigre. where the clergy re-
fused to accept any m~tropolitan at all. for they fell
thaI Ihe quarrel of me Sabbath had not }'el ~en
definitively resolved. !he negus then convoked a
.ynod in 1450 Ihat confinne<l the observance of the
t..... o Sabbaths.
Only approximate deductions can l>e made ;IS 10
Ihe dates of the deaths of these two metropolilan•.
The Life of 'Ezr;l, a contemporary Es\ifanosite
monk. states that in 1475 'Ez"'; decided to go to
EID'Pt in an attempt to have himself ordained a
priest, "for, since the dealh of Abuna Gabr'el. Ihere
was no longer a bishop in Ethiopia with the author-
ity to consecrate priests" (Caquot, 1961, p. 95). This
story is al.o confirmed by a traditionalli.t of metro-
politans found in an Ethiopian document, which
.tates that Mik~'~l and Gabr'tl arrived together and
that when Mikl'tl die<l, Gabr'N carried out the duo
ties alone. Elsewhere, Francisco Alvare. (l9/> I, Vol.
2, Pr. 35/>-57), tlte chaplain of the first Ponuguese
mission to arri,,,, in Ethiopia (1520), reponed tbat
Abuna Marqos I told him that during the reign of
Zar'a Yl'qob, the church in Ethiopia had been witb-
out a mrtropolitan for twenty,three years-that is,
unti1the arrival of Abuna Yeshaq 11 t".....ard the end
of 1481. From these data, il may be deduce<l that
Gabr'l:l succeeded Mikl'l:l and lhat he died in 1458.
As to MiU'el's death, it must ha,'e preceded thi~
dale by a shon while,
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Alvares, F. The Pr~ster John 01 the lndies, Vol. 2, ed,
C, F. Beckingham and G. W. B. Huntingford, PI',
35/>-57. Cambridge, 1961.
CeqUO!, A. "le. Actes d'Ezn de Gu",la·Gund~." An·
nair. d'Ethiop;r (19/>1),95.
Cerulli, E. r; libm ~thiopico dei M;racoli di Mari",
pp. 109-120. Rome, 1943.
Getatehew Haile. "The Letter of Archbishops Mi·
ka'el and Glibra'el Concerning the Oooervance of
Saturday," Journal 01 Semitic Studies 26, no, I
(1981):73-78.
Guidi, 1. "I.e liste dei metropoliti d'Abissinia. ' B...·
."rione 6 ser. 1 (1899):9.
Rossini, C. "L'omi!ia di Yo~anne., vescovo d'Ak·
sum, in onOre di Garill\l\," In Aaes du Xie Con·
grt< inurnal;mtal des orie!1lalist<s, p. 142. Paris,
1897.
Documenta ad mus/randam Histor;am, Vol.
l. Liber Ammae. In cseo, 58, p. 82. Leu"a;n,
1954.
Rossini, C. C.. and L. Ricci. // iibro della Luce del
Negu. Zar'a Yl1'qoh (Mashala Buha,,;, Vol. 2. In
CSCO 261, pp. 153-55. !.ou"ain, 19/>5. •
Taddesse Tamral. Church and Stale in Ethiopia
1270-/527, pp, 228-30, 235-3/>. O~ford, 1972.
GABR'£L (d, c. 14.58)
Gabr'tl (Gabriel) arrived in Ethiopia in 1431 of
the Ethiopian calendar (U). 1438-1439) with anoth·
er metropolitan, Ahuna MikA'~1 Ill. They had both
b~n consecrated together by the Coplic palriarch
JOHN XI (1427-1452) and were the successors of
Abuna Bartaloml: .....os,
According to tradition, only one bisoop could be
appointed metropolitan of Ethiopia. Consequently,
it is probable that Gabr'N and MiU'N III were
supposed to ""ereise this duty in successi"n (i.e.,
one after the death of the other). In reality, Ihey
reigned jointly by dividing their territorial jurisdic·

lion. By ordu of the negus, Gabr'tl look cha'"i~ of
S/le\Q and Mi.k1'tl of Amhara..
for Ih~ MO$I part, th" inf<>nnoltion aYlliJabI" is Ih"
_ cone"",i,,, these two metropolitans ("'" th"
biot"'phy of MlU'tl Ill. aboo...,). il mwt he added
thai: it: was Abuna Gabr'tl ",ho conf.,on<! ~ priesl.
hood upon .he II>()Ilk Abaker;t;<un, di3ciplt and IOC·
CeMO. 10 .he MOnk h\jfj-. head oilhe h"r"dcaJ
and poillical E5!ibna!.i~ lI>O>'emenl l!w shook 1M
E1h;..,pian church durinJl: the fiftftnth nn"'ry.
AW:. lhe death of Aburaa MiU'tl 1II. Gabr'tl _
•he sol" moelropolitan unlil his death around 1458.
The church of Ethiopia lhe:n remained wilhoul an
.bun for appmxima~ly ~nIy-Lbrce)'UJ'5, unlil 1M
ani ....1 of Abuna y"s.\Iaq II in thai cQUnuy.
BIBI,.IOCIIAPHY
C"'lUOl, A. "Les Aetts d'Emi. de Gunda-Gundt." An·
It"l.s d'Elhiopi. 4 (1961):95.
C"rulli, E. 1/ Ubro OI;opico do; mir..coli di Marla, pp,
109-120. Rome. 1943.
Cotalchew !-laUe, "The It'lter of Mchblshops MI·
ka',,1 and C~bra'ol Concemini lhe Obs"n.'anc" of
Saturday." Journ.. ! of Somitic SI"di~s 26, ser. 1
(1981):73-78.
Cuidi. l. "Le Ii",,, d"i mtlropoliti d·Abissi"I.," B~s·
$ .. r;"n" t. ",r. I (1899):9.
Rossini, C. "L'omiha di YoIpi"n.., vescovo d'Ak·
sum. In OltOre di OlIn....." in kIlOS <I.. XI, Con'
_
ph in",rn"liorfll1 des Ori""",lis/u, p. 142, Paris,
1897.
Yil.e S"...,lOrum '"digen"""..: ACI" S. AbA.\:·
r.<>tJ<It. In CSCO 57. p. 14. Lou"';n. 1954.
Taddesse. Tamral. "Some Notes on the Fifteenlh-
Ct:nrury Ste-pfta.ni", ·Hn.".,.. in me Ethiopian
Chllrch. ~ RUSLP" di tlMdi rlitJpi<;i 12 {I966):lll-
OS.
_ Church .>Id Suue in Elhiopia /210-1527,
\>p. 228-)0, 235-}('. OUord. 1972.
YESHAQ II (d. c. 1500)
Aft~ the dauh ci Abuna;;Gabr'~ in 1453, neilb.,..
Nqus br'a yt,.qob (1434-14611) not" his lIOn 8;l'roa
Mlryim (1468-1478) asked "'" Coptic patriarch In
Aleundria 10 smd a new metropoli..... 10 Elhlopla,
The nat't .... lt$(ln< fo.. tl>is are unkno",n. bul such
an altitude lndic.. ~ lhe: ronnaliofl of an autono·
mous current at th" hean <>f lhe Ethiopian churth.
AccOrt!inlto ttw. We of Marro Kr.,-sIOS (Kur. CSCO
lll, pp, vii, 76-61), nimh abbot of Dabra L1bAnos.
during the ninth year "f Ba'e<!;t Mlrylm's reign
(1477), the ...,gus wnv"n,,<i a great ')'T100 atlended
by • larg" numher of prelales. The subjeCt WI5 to
~cide about lh"i. rdatlons wilh th. Coptic church,
accused by one pan of Ihe Ethiopian dergy of "dis-
ETHIOPIAN PRElATES 1015
11Irbing I"" Coptic faith and 01 "a.ing food pro-
Knhcd by Iaw_" The llC'C\lSCrs asktd lhal Ih" p....a-
aICS proceed to Ihe Imme<llal" "I«tion of a
melropolilall "chosen by the people of Ethiopia"
and th... -.-., asl<in, ......1 the- Ethiopian church
"'P8l'aIe itself from "'" church of ~'pI. Mari:'a
Krestoo opj><>3iCd this request, eonsiderin, i. to be
COltlr.lr}· 10 tradition and eanonic:al Ia",'. He pro-
po:K'd sending an eooplonlOl)' m~ to Egypt with
the autborily. sJto.,.ld jt prove feasibk, 10 ask ioor a
new metropoHlan. The ISSmlbly approved th" th....
m of oepam.i<m by fou.. hundred VOles 10 th~
hllndred; bul the nqus ~ ",Ih Marl)a Kreslos,
110 .here was no sch~. Hown..,•• Ihe <kalh of
Ba'eda W<).-bt in 1418 pre'..,nl th" delcgBIlon
from being oeltt 10 fc)'PI. Only an the btainning
of Eskender's rcign (1418-1"94) wn it JI'OSSible ror
an Ethiopian mission to "'a,,, the count!)' and be·
gin negotialions witl> lhe Coplic patriarch.
Aware of some dang"r, the Coplic patriarch
show"d his ,kill by sending '''veral Coptic prelates
to Elhiopla, The first 8rouP comprised four p,,,.,,on,,
Bishop Yeshaq (the new metropolilan), Bishop
Mlirqos (destin"d to succ""d Yesl:laq), the coadjutor
bishops Mil<l'el and Y~nn"" and Oummus Yostf.
Uler, cenaln o.he:r Coptic -prelates- also arrived in
Ethiopia, among "'hom was • lHshop yt,'""b, who
was suppo&ed 10 IUCCeed M1r~ as melropolilan.
Ho""",,er. his death bdo", that or Marqos pn:w:nl~
"".
Acco<dinlllO Ihe LiItu Aut,.,,,,,. 'I'oesJ:Iaq arrived in
Ethiopia in 14H of Ihe Ethiopiar> calendar (A-Do
14M-lotS!). Other documents swe thai he urn"""
n""" the end of lql. bu.t inl'ornwion abouI his
"J'iscopoue to fntpnenlar)', He S«'IIU 10 ha.." pb.yw
a pan e"en on a litenuy Inti. for 10 him is aun'but·
eel :an Ethiopian redac..... oI.he Ufe of Saint ~!.
alewon (on" of th" Nine Saints ;n the EUrlopiall
lradition) and a h)mn in honor 01 the Vi~n Mary.
According 10 the ute of Marl)a J{rutus, Abu""
YcsI)aq accompanied the n"JUS EskendeT 10 Dabra
"'lwIos upon his visit t.o Ihi, mo.....ery. At this
.ime. YcsI)aq Ofdainfll H',,,ral priests and prnettd-
"'" 10 the solemn ~oronatlon of Abbot Mart:>a Kre$--
1011. Further, according to lhe Uf" of the Es!ifinoo--
i", monk .~, Ye$Qaq ret<acl.... the lona:·....nding
.,.;communication of the heretical Es!it),nosites,
.....hich would indical~ an ","en",alion of tM preju-
die'" against tl>is movem"nt.
The date of Yesl)",q', de"'lh is unknown. bUI it can
b.. approximaled. Kur has proposed Ihal he must
ha,'e died before Negus Eskender (149") becau$<\ in
Ihe Uk of Mart:>a Kre5106, Yul)aq " no longer
menlionw after the accCMion of Ni'OO 101M
1016 ETHIOPIAN PRELATES
thrtl~_ Howe-.:r. then: ;,; .lonnaIlUllhat diomiss·
es this ...... moenL In bet. ICco...li.. 10 the Life of
"Ezri. ''while th.. monk reside<! aI the coun of
Nt'od, ~lropolilan VesI:uoq died. and Al:a.ona M:orq.
0$ 5UCCe-eded him in Ih;,; dUlY." Since other info"
malion $U.I/:lI thol 'EzI;l, lived at Ni'od', coun 'or
nine yeal'll, unlH lhe dealn ollhis kina; in July I ~Q8,
it is easy 10 condude thaI YCl~ll<l died during lhe
£rst yeal'S ol Ihe .i~leenlh century. Hi, 'uccessor
W3.5 Mll.rQ<» I, who had come wilh him 10 Edtiop'"
BtBUOCRAl1fY
A1.....es. F. The halu John 0{ floe Indiu, Vol. 2. td.
C. F. B«k.intJ-n and G. W. 8. Huntin,;!""..d. 1'1'.
356-57. c.m~, 1961.
eaq...., It. '"Us ""les d'EDfo doe Gund.a-Gundl.'· ht-
_Ies J"Elhiopilt • {l96I):I06-I07. liS.
CeNIJi. E. Enopi in 1'"lesrin... Vol. I, pp. 386-88.
Rome. 1~3.
Guidi, I, "le lillie dei melropolili d·Abissinia.'· Bu-
,arion. 6, se•. 2 (1899):9-10.
Kur. S. ACIU d. MaF~a Krtslos. In CSCO 3)1. pp,
vii. 76-81. Lou,'ain. 1972.
Rossini. C. "Perpmmenc di Debra Dammo," Riv;'.
la de,li Slud; Orienla/; 19 (19~1:51-52_
_ "SuI mdropolita Y ~ d'Etiopi,o..'· Rend;·
COIlli d.lta lUale Acc"dcmi<l de; Lincei L >cr. 8
(1946):7-17.
Yi.-Ge s.."...-..m Anliquionom. Vol. I, Act"
n,cJ el 1'.",,,I",,,,n. h. CSCO 27. pp. 37. SO.
I..<Jo.rnin, 1955.
T:oddnse Tam... Clwtclr a"d Suue in Etlliopia
1270_1527, p. 290. Oxford, 1972.
MARQOS I (d. 1530)
He bclunaed 10 a group of Coptic prdale. Ihal
had come to Elhiopia in 1481 wilh Abuna Yes!)aq II
and \"as Sllppo$C'd 10 assume lhe dulie, of melro-
poliTan after Yesl"l;>q:s dealh. since he "''as his prln·
cipal coadjulor.l1ats.f"hcn Yesl:*lll died near doc
bqjnnina of Iht sW!'""'th Cn>lllry. rhcn was no
YaCaOCY ;n Iht SC'e', for MUqos 1 ~ him
imrtlf'dioldy. For a \one wtlile. h!slIorianl; did . -
underw.n<1 Ihls ..rocr 01 SUC«SSion. mainly be-
cause francisco Al....res. cbaplain of the lim POI1...
gIlcse miuion in Ethiopia (1520-1526). did not u-
plain Ihill mallu clearly in hi> Kcounl. of which
one phra$l' was lmn<1al~d inlO Engli$h as follOW$O
"Whil" w~ wer~ here Ih~ Abuna Yi'qob died, 10
",hom lhi, one who i. now IMng .ucceeded." Ros·
sini, however. h... shown lhal Ihls phn>se .should In
bel be UndeNlood 10 mean lhal during Alv,,~'
sojoum in Ethiopia. the Coptie bW>op Yi'qob died,
who was coadju"'r to M:irqo5 and "''lIl5 .... ~d 10
succeed MJ.rctcx, bul d>d not do SO because be dif'd
,="Tbe-n: is litde informalion aboulthis mr:lropOlillln
in the EJhqNn document$. Accordinalo lhe ljf~ of
Mari).a Kn5tOll (d, 1497). nind'l abbol of Dabra lj.
bAnos, Mlrqos was p=enl al the tran.fen:nce of
lh~ relics of Saint Takla HaymanOi. founder of lhi,
rnon/l$tery, but lhi. occurred before Marqos acced.
ed 10 the supreme throne. According 10 Ihe Libu
Am"",e, M:orqOl' I died in 15H of !he E1hiopian
c.alendar (&.0. 1529-1530). Th..., he liYed in Ethio-
pia half a Century and held the posinon of mcu-o-
poIilan lor approximalely three decades. 10 a ~
advanced ace. In bel, he C<l<>$ickred hi~lf 00 be
more lhan a hundred yean old.
Then: is, h-..er. man: information aboul MM-
'105 1 in Ihe account of Alvares. who Iw:I many
meetin&" wilh him. While nOlin.lhe Inconvenienc·
es caused by the facl that in all Elhlopia Ihe mdro-
poIitan alone had lh. righl 10 ordain deacon. and
priests, Akares described Ih. ceremony durina
...·hieh Mlorqos i ordained 1.537 pri..lt all al the
same lime .nd in which be was lhu, obligate<! 10
limil himself 10 a very shan alloculion .....ming the
priesthood apin$C !be sins of bipmy and concubi·
nage.. Funher, Mhqos I n:counled to Alvares thaI
in 1508 he had COlllrin.&le<! 10 !be ",cc:es.s of ~Il
E.l~ni. widow of Negus Zar'a n·qob. in having lbe
deven·~ar-oId IOn of N~. Na'od. ~na Dcncel,
decud 10 the roy.>l throne. Thit ,he achieved by
",""",inll all olhe.. who bad. claim lhe_o. On 11
January 1521, AI",r.. ",-w Marqos I althe ceremo-
ny of Ihe tnns(en:nce of Ihe benet of Nli'oo. On
Ihi. occasion lhe m~lropolilan seemed 10 be 50 old
Ihat lWO men had 10 ,uslain him by hi$ ann., Mar-
qos i aho lold Alvares lhal before Ihe arrival of
Abuna y .. t.aq II in 1481. Ihe church in Ethiopia
bad remained wilhoul " metropolitan fur ""me
I",,,,nly-Ihree yoeart. Alvareo. "'as acquainled ",ilh the
~ lhe titIc rescn"ed lor Iht abbol of Dabn
liblnM, head of all th~ Ethiopian monks.. who re-
bled thaI be was a con""ned Muslim and had been
O<lbined by Ahoma M1rQol.....-no ~ kim as
his ov.... loOI1. ~ This hiah preble ...., 'EnbIqom,
elennlh abboc of Dabn Ubli_. ......U known in
Ethiopian litervy hisl<lr)l for hi. lnons1aliom from
the Arabic.
Finally, lhree dtlicate que01ioons remain c""cern·
ing thi. m~lropolitan. Firsl. in 1509. Queen FJI~nl,
the guardian of lebna Dengel. had wrilte" a lellcr
10 Manuel 1. king of Portulal, in which die pn.>-
posed an alliance agairl5f lhe Mamluk power in lhe

Red Sea. The leuer stated that this o.'enure had
been made with the blessings of MArqos 1, and cer-
tain authors (e,g.. Jean Aubin) f,nd in this statement
proof that Marqos I thought thaI he could resolve
the problems besetting the church in Ethiopia by
joining with the church of Rome. However, this
view seems excessi'·e. for the metropolitan must
have known of the doctrinal differences separating
the two churches. It is therefore difficult 10 believe
lhat in 1509. with no concrele threat present, Marq'
os I was thinking of allying himself with the Catho·
lic church.
Second, in l535. Jooo Bennudez, the physician of
the first Portuguese mission to Ethiopia. appeared
in Rome, Ten years earlier, when the mission had
returned to Europe. Bennudez had chosen to reo
main in Ethiopia at the request of Lcbna Dengel.
Now Bennude:;r. related that Lebna Dengel had
asked Miirqos I, who was then on his deathbed, 10
name Bermode. "patriarch" (I.e .. metropolitan of
Ethiopia). Marqos I complied with this request and
even conferred all the holy orden; opon Bennudcz.
who accep.cd the investiture, providlng thai the
pope in Rome confinn it. lebna Dengellhen direct'
cd Bermudez lQ go to Rome to make "an act of
obedience" to the pope. According to Bermudez.
Pope Paul III 0534-1549) .hen conGnned him as
metropolitan of the church in Ethiopia. The subse·
quent vicissitudes of Bermudez in Ethiopia concern
the bishopric of Yo.ab t. but nonetheless it must be
remembered thai .he supposed elevatioo of Ber·
mudez by Marqos I is considered a fabrication.
The third question involves Ah'ares' claim that
Marqos I, a_fe of the vagaries of the church in
Ethiopia. admired the faith of the Portuguese mi..
sion to Ihe point that he declared that, thanks 10 the
Portuguese. the Ethiopians would not miss "return·
ing to .he .ruth of the Gospel." From this, certain
writel'5 have dedoced that M!i.rqos I had at Icast
wished to have his own succession governed by Ihe
Roman church. Howev'er~flas Lanfranco Ricci has
ob~rved. while there are: Ponuguese texIS fav'or-
able 10 .he Catholic position. sucn as Alvares' ac·
count, there are also E.hiopian texts opposing it,
SIIch as the Jjk of 'EnMqom. according 10 which
this abbot argued with i\.lvares and "converted him
to the onhodox failh of the Jacnbile~." which most
be read wilh great care.
Thus. the successor to Marqos I was not Joan
Bennude. hut ralher YosAb I, Ihe Coptic bishop
who arrived in E,hiopia after the end of Ihe great
Islamic invasion led by Gnli'iil. "the Left·Handed
One."'
ETHIOPIAN PRELATES 1017
BIBLlOGR.4.PffY
Alvares, F, The PreSler Jo~n of I~e !"dies, ed, C, F.
Beckingbam and G. W. B. Honlingford, pp. 120.
243. 262, 348-51. 3S6-59, 361. 367-61\. Cam·
bridge, 1961.
Aubin, J. "L'Ambassade du p";m, Jean a D. Maou·
e1," MQre Luso·l"dicum 3 (1976)'9-21.
Caquot. A. "Les Actes d'Ezra de Gunda·Gunde,'· An-
nales d"El~lopie 4 (1961),115.
'Enb1qom, A"q.1~Q Qmin (LQ porle de /0 loil, ed.
E, J. van Donzel. pp. 20, 21, 26. 28, 29, Leiden,
1969.
Goes. D. de, Lega/io mag"i 'ndo""m imperolons
Preslr;'leri loho""is ad Ema"uelem L"sitanioe reg-
em An,w Domi"i MDXIJ!. Antwerp, i532.
Guidi. I. "I.e liSle dei melropolili d'Abissinia," Bes·
sorio"e 6. set. I (1899):10, n. $.
Kur. S. "Actes de Ma~ Kresto.," In eSeQ 331.
pp, vii. $0, 82. 94-95. wuwin, i972.
Ricci, L "I.e v'i.e di 'Enhaqom e di YoJ:lannes di
Dabra Ublinos di Scioa," Rosteguo di studi ellopl-
ci 14 (l955-1958):81~82; and 22 (1966):75-76.
83~85, n, 152.
Rossini. C. "Sol metropolita YesJ:laq d'Etiopia,"
Rend/coni; della Reale Accademio del Lincel I.
ser. 8 (1946):7-17.
___. Doc,,"',"'o ad lIIuslrondom Hlsloria",. Vol.
I. Libu Ax"",ae, In CSCO 58, pp. 38. 39. 40. 82.
Louvain. 1954.
Tamral Taddese. Church and Stale I" ElhioplQ /270-
1527, pp. 290-91. Oxford. i972.
Thomas, H. T~e Discovery of Abyssi"ia by rhe Porlu·
guese i" /520. London, 1938.
YOSAB I (d. c. 1559)
Yos;\.b I must be considered the successor of Mel·
ropolitan Marqos t although this succession took
place after a long v'aeaney of the Ethiopian episco-
pal throne because of complex circomstances. At
Ihe death of Abuna M:lrqos I (1530). Ethiopia
passed through a ""vere crisis that had begun in
1527 with Ihe Islamic invasion commanded by tbe
imam AJ:lmad ibn Ibrahim. called al·GhilI (.he War-
rior Champion) by the Muslims and Grliofii'i (the
left-Handed One) by the Ethiopians. In 1525. Joao
Bermodez. lhe physician of the first Ponuguese
mission to Ethiopia. had chosen 10 stay in Ethiopia
at the request of Negus I.ebna Dengel when Ihe
mission re.urned 10 Europe. Ten years later in
Rome. Ikrmudez recounted that Lehna Dengel had
asked Mlirqos I, who "''''' Ihen on his deathbed, to
name Bennudez as "patriarch" (i.e.. metropoiitan
of Ethiopia. Mlirqos I acceded to this request by
confening all .he holy orders upon Bennudez, who
IOlg ETHIOPIAN PRELATES
,"cce"ted doe inveslitun:, providing thai lhe pope in
Rome «Infirm it. Leb"" Dengel then dir«led Be...
mudn. 10 go finl to Rome 10 .......e an acl of obedi-
enee 10 doe popt and then II;) l"onupJ. a counny
wllh which Elhiopia had relalions. AceCJl'djn, 10
8cnrludcz, Pope l'aullll (1514-1549) did confirm
him II!! n>e!mpol;tan of Elhiopia. The majoril)' of
hiss0rian5 rrjttt Bermudn' 5101)-. firsc, b«;ous.e no
Edool'"an mnmpolilan ew.- had the ~r to ~
his successor and. second. beca, .... no doc......,nt
has CYn" been discovered 10 pro"" "'is ",pp<:IOICd
el"':lllon of Bermlldo by Pope h ... Ill. Hawn..".
INt may lit. Bermudez did 10 from Rome 10 u..
bon. wbtre bt $Olicill:d Poougue!e aid for Elklol'i.
in ils fighl ..pltStlhe M..... ims. Th..... In 1540. 8er'-
Imldez joined "'ith the famous Pon..CU_ military
e~pedition 10 Ethio""".......ich was to brine <kath to
GrAM (11 Feb"",ry 1541) and put an end 10 the
Mllsllm in,·as;on. After 1M departu ... of Ihe Portu·
guese troops, Bermudez rema;n..d in Elhiopia an<l
uke<l Lebna ~ngel's succeswr, Negus Gallwd·
l:wos. 10 join the Catholk church, Far from acqui-
ej<:lnllo Ihi. request. the negus hastene<l to a.k the
Coptic patriarchate for a new melropolitan. whom
BermU<kz sought in vall' 10 oppose until 1556.
wh..n he ....... forced to relum to Ponupl ......here he
died founun yun later.
The ","w metropolitan was ....med Vodb. His ar·
rival is r«orded by two documenu of th.. L.iber
Alu",.e, .. occouTing in 1539 of the Eihiopian cal·
endar (A.D_ 1S46-IS47). H",,~-er. informalion
aboul Ih.. mClrupolitan is nother Kaf"Ce In the Elhi.
<>pian doc..m.....15.. The so-<:aIled Abridged Chronicle
don O(lll menlion him :II all, whereM the chronicle
of GalA~ ........ tions him bul once. _io, thaI
loward Easlf'r in the eislnh year cI this roesus's
rei&n (1$01.8). Yosib I blessed GaliwdlwooI. ""loa was
doepaninr; 10 lead a miliuJ)' expedition . ~ the
pllp" peeples living in the _ 01 the country,
near lhe fronl;"rs cI Damn!. As fw the Ubu hOI·
",.... il ,eco,dsYd5 n;unco in III confim-.tion aet
of a fief, donaled in 1546 01 the Elhiopto.n calendar
("-0. 1553-1554).
The f.,i1N, Atuma.. iIso record$ one other impoc-
lant fact. In 1551-1552, a Coptic bis/lop by Ihe
narne of i;'~(OS arri."d in Elhiopia. A Portu'......e
source confirms and add. thi. Infotmallon' i;'l:!ros
,...as. sUl'f'05'"d to be Y~b·. coadjutor and succeed
him upon hi. dealh. The chronicle of Negus Min"!
(1559-1563) In faci conlirms Ihat i;'~!rtlS did mc·
ceed Yoslb I. However, the date of Ihl. succe.slon
bI not kno.....n and can only be appru~lmaldy <lele ...
mined. In the Libe' A",m".., the last document
in which Y~'I name Is menlinned is daled A.D.
1S5J-15S4. "'hilc the first documenl naming Metro-
polilan fttros II datel from 1551 of lhe &bio~
calendar (A.D ISS9-156O). It may be deduced IMR'-
by that Yos;\b I died near lhe end of. Neg115 Gala <l-
e->s' reign and dial lhe episcopal throne ""as I....
mediately occupied by fl:!rof II.
FW"ther. il mUll. be noted that Ye>s*b I .. ,.]so
cited in the chronicle 01 Nqu. Sarp. Dengel (I~3­
1597), who cOflsidered him as Ihe ~ of
IIlC1ropo1iwl ~Urqos II. This. howe-....... is pmb.bly
the J"C'IUII of. an error on the par1 of ohe chronicler.
"i>o seems 10 ""w confused Y"""b 1 wilh i;'epus n.
818L1OGRAPHY
Bermude1. J. Br.. ~.. rela(ao dll ..mbtr.WdIl 'lUe 0
Pmriarclta D. 1040 & ...."d..l ' ......... do /mpulldar
do Elhiop;ll. pp. 92-%. U!OOn. Ig75.
Conzelman. W. E. Chron;qu.. d.. Gllldwdiwos (C!ou·
dius) roi d·E!n;Opi~. pp. 1~4. 153. Paris. 1895.
Esleves Perda, F. M. llis!oria d~ Minds (A.d,mds
Sagad), JYP. 44. 65. n. 64. Li.lxm. 1888.
Guidi. I. .ole liSle del melropolili d'Abissini" Bes·
sarione 6, ser, 1 (1899)'10, n, 7.
Rossini, C. "1""0 Bermudez e la sua relazione
.uIl"Etlopia," In Terce;'o cont"s:u> do ...undo
Porluguis. Vol. 4. pt. 2. Pl'. 285-305. IJsbon,
1940.
-,---,- Doc..",..n/a ad I/lus/randa... Hwona"" Vol.
I. Libe, hu",,,... In CSCO 58, JYP. 51 -52. g2. Lou·
,-ain. 195".
-,--:; Hwon. ,..~
Sa'f" De,,~eI (Mil/ill Slll"d).
In CSCO 21. pp. 41-68. Louvain. 1955.
F£TROS II (d. 1570)
fttros was thc succeuor of Abtrna Yosib 1. after
having been his coadjulO1. The Uh..-~ A<a<rrroe noIes
the arriv.aI in &b>opill of • Coptic bishop named
fttms in 15S4 oIlhe Elhiopian caleodar (A.o. 1551-
1552). This information is confirmed by a Port,,·
guese soun:e, ""hkh SUItes thai the Coptic ",<'!ale
who a..m-ed. in Ethiopia in ISSI wu ... pp<:IOICd 10 be
lhe coadjulor of Abuna Ye>s*b I and ohould succeed
him upon his dealh. The ....act dare of this SUCCC!<'
stan is unknown. but it mUll Ita,,,,OCCUlTed near
..... end of Negus Gallwdl:wos' ,..,ign (d. 1559). for
in the Libor humae the last document to mention
Yosab is date<! A.D, 1553-155., ""hereas Ihe lim
document 10 menlion i;'elro. as metropolilan i. dat·
ed 1559~1560. From the.... dala il may be deduced
that ~t!ros Wl>5 n;ome<l and consecraled by the Cop'
tic patriarch CAe"'IEL ~II (1525-1568),
There i. little infQ..malion about this metropolitan

in Ethiopian documents. The chronicle of Gal~wd·
twos states that it was Bishop J:'t!ros (not yet met-
ropolitan) who consecrated the ark (lclbOl) of the
famous Church of Tadbaba Mal}'am during the
twclfth year of Gal~wdtwos' reign (1551-1552),
Moreover, the chronicle of Negus Minas states that
it was AbuM J:'e!r<ls II who celebrated the religious
marriage of this king.
There is no other information about this metro·
politan, and even the date 01 his death can only be
deduced from the documents anilable. According
10 the chronicle of Negus ~~ Dengel, after the
death of Abuna Yosab I, which occurred in the
eighth year of Sa""'- Dengel's reign (15701, the ne·
gus received a new metropolitan nam"d Marqos
(II), who arrived in Ethiopia during the fourteenth
year of his reign (1576), Howe"er, this text obvious·
ly contains an error, which must be correcloo. The
pre<lecessor of Marqos II was J:'t!TOS n (not Yos:!b
I, who died around 1559). But from this text it can
be deduced that ~",ros II died in 1570 and that his
successor was Marqos II.
BIBUOGRAPHY
Almeida, M. de. HislO'ilJ- de EthiopilJ- a aiM 01< Abas.
sia, p. 39(1. Rerum Aethiopicarum &riptor.,. Oc·
cidental.,. Inediti 5, Rome, 1907.
Conzelman, W. E, Chmn;que de Galclwdf-wos (Cltw.
dius) '0; d'Eth;opie, p. 153. Paris, 1895.
Esteves Pereira, F. M. Historia de Minas (Ademas
Sogod), roi de EthiopilJ-, pp. 44, 65 (n. 64). Li,lxm,
1888.
Guidi, I. "Le Iiste dei metropoliti d'Abissinia." Bes-
sanone 6, ser. 1 (1899):10, n. 7.
raez, P. His/om, Aethiopiae, p. 54. Rerum Aethiopi-
carum &riptoe.,,; O<;<:identales Inediti 3. Rome,
"'"
Rossini, C. Documenta od l/IuslrlJ-ndom H;slOriam,
VoL 1. Llb~,Ax"mlJ-e, In C$CO 58, pp, 51,52,82.
Lo""ain, 1954.
___ His/oria Regis S"fl'a.Dengd (MIJ-Iak SlJ-glJ-d).
In csca 21. pp. 41, 68, touvain, 1955.
MARQOS II (d. c. l58ili
There is linle infonnalion about lhis succ=r to
Abuna t:'t!r", 1I in lhe Elhiopian document" but
Ihe date of his arrival in the country is known. The
chronicle of ~rsa Dengel reports that after tlte
death of Abuna Yos:!b I, which occurred in the
eighth year of Sa~ Dengel's eeign (1570), lhe ne·
gus succeeded in having the Coptic patriarch John
XIV (1570-1585) send a new metropolitan named
MArqos (U), who arri"ed dueing the fourteenth }'ear
ETHIOPIAN PRElA.TES 1019
of his reign (1576). The chronicleT adds that this
was a very happy year, for Ihe negus had just con·
quered Mul:tammad, king of Adal, a date confinned
in Arabic soure"", and that after .eizing power in
A.H. 980/AO 1572-1573, MuJ:l.ammad ibn N",~it ibn
'Ulhman, .ultan of Adat undertook a military expe·
dition against ~~ Dengel in which he was con·
quetcd and killed near the end of 1575 or the be·
ginning of 1576. The date of Marqos' arrival is also
confinned by an Elhiopiall codex ill lhe National
Ubrary, Paris, whose fuplicl/ announc"" that the
manuscript was eompleted during the seventh year
of Ihe episcopate of Ahuna MA,,:tOs n and the twen-
tieth year of Sa~ Dengei', reign (1582). Th~ arriv·
al of this metropolitan in 1516 must titus be consid·
ered as cenain.
Although Marqos II is likewise mentioned in a
document from the Liber Axwna~, there is no infor-
mation extant ~onceming his episcopale, an omis-
sion probably due to the rather dishonorabi~ tenni·
nation of his episcopate, Around 1624, afteT N~gus
Susenyos decided to join the Roman church, he
i.-ued a manifesto in which he set forth not only
his reason, for joining thi.~ church but also re·
proaches con~eming the deplorable ~onduet 01 cer·
tain metropolitans. In particular, Susenyos de·
clared: "The Negus Malak-5agad {i.e.. Sarya Dengel]
has shown Ihat Marqos [!I] became guilty of sexual
delights that neither the ears dare hear nor the
mouth pronounce, deljghts of such a natur~ as to
make God rain fire from beaven, Therefore, Malak·
Sagad sUipped this metropolitan of his episcopal
dignity, deprived him of his holdings, and sent him
to lhe island of Daqq in Lake pni, where he died
an evil death."
There is no document indicating tbe date of this
di.mis.<al, which, however, must have occurred I>c-
twee" 1582 (the date contained in the aoo"e-men-
tioned manuSCriPI in the National Library, Paris)
and 1588 (the approximate date when the position
of metropolitan was filled by another Coptic prel·
ate).
The sucee.." ,r of M~rqos 11 was Krestodolu I.
BIBLIOGRi\PHY
Almeida, M. de. Historia de Ethiopia a alia ou Abos-
sia, p. 390. Rerum Aethiopicarum &riplOres 0<;.
cidental", Inediti 5. Rome, \907.
Guidi, 1. "Le ii.te dei metropoliti d'Abissinia." Bes-
sariane 6, ser. I (1899):11, n, I.
LuOOlf, I. Ad mam H;s/oriam A~thiop;cam amehuc
eai/am Commen/arius, p. 510. Frankfurt am Main,
Ib91.
1020 ETHIOPIAN PRElATES
Paez, P. Hi'toria Aelh;opia~, p. 54. Re",m Aethiopi-
~~",m Scriptores Occidentales Inediti 3. Rome,
,"".
Rossini, C. Doc"m~M1a ad l/IuJlra"dam H;'/Qr;am,
Vol. I, Liber Axumae. In CSCO 58. p. 68. Louvain.
1954.
___ His/aria R~gis Sar~a Dengel (Malak Sagad).
In CSCO 21. p. 68. Louvain, 1955.
2otent>erg. H, Ca/alog"e des man"s(;rlts ethiopie>ts
(ghu, eI amharique) de la mbliotheque na/ionale,
p, 106, Pari•. 1877.
KRESTODOLU I (fl. late sIxteenth century)
There is lillie hi.tori~al infonnation a"aHable
ab-out the sll~~essor to Abuna Marqos II. probably
because of the bre,'ity of his episcopate as well ""
ac~usations of deplorable ~ondll~t made against
him. Krestooolu I i. not mentioned in the Abridged
Chronicle of the rule", of Ethiopia nor in the
~hronicl~ of Sa,¥ Dengel. However. he i. cited by
the Libcr Ax"mae in the texts of two act.s of conces-
sion of fiefs donated by this negu'. In the first <><:t.
K,..,.tooolll·s name is mentioned with that of the
negus' mother, Queen Sell"s KhaylA, widow of Ne-
gus Minas. wllo lIpon Iler marriage had taken the
name of Admils Mogasa. This furnishes an impor-
tant chronological landmark, for, according to the
Abridged Chronicle, tllIs queen mother died on 21
J:lamM 1586 of tbe Ethiopian calendar (A.D. 25 July
15~)_ ln the second feudal act. Krestodolu's name
is cited with that of Tomas, ".bura .d (chief) of
Axum, who is known to have held this post around
1588.
TheTe is absolutely nO infonnation about his tpis-
copate in Ethiopia, if on. excludes the accusations
against him made by Negus Susenyos (Sellan Sag-
ad) in th. manifesto that he isslled around 1624 to
announce his reasons for joining the Catholic
church. Among the reproaches dir""ted against cer-
tain metropolitans. Si:.enyos wrote as follows: "As
for Abuna Krestooolu 1, succe",or of Marqos II.
contrary to the customs of a metropolitan, he ktpt
""veral concubines. a faet thaI was well known by
all those living at the time. of whom some are st;}[
ali"e," It is not known. howe>'er. if this accusation
caused Krestodolu's dismissal or whether his epis-
copate came to an end with his natural death.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Almeida. M. de. His/oria de Elhwpla a alta 0" Aba,-
sia, p. 399. Rerum Aethiopicarum Scriptores Oc-
cidentale. Inediti 6. Rome, 1907,
BeguinOl. F. La cronaea abbreviata d'Abissi"ia, pp.
38-39. Rome. 1901.
Guidi, I. ··Le liste dei metropo!iti d'Abissinia." Bes_
sarion, 6. ser. I (1899): II. n. I.
Ludolf, l. Ad s"am Ristor;am A'ihiopicam am~hac
edi'am CommenMril<s. p. 510. Frankfurt am Main.
1691,
Ros.ini, C. Docl<m,ma ad lllus/randam His/oriam,
Vol, 1. Lib•• Axuma,. In CSCO 58. pp. 55-56.
Louvain. 1954.
~£TROS III (d. 1607)
J:'~!TOswas certainly .he successor of Kre.tod"lu
I. but in Ethiopian documents. information about
his epi.copate is fragmentar;. and ,"~nt. perhaps
explain"d by the fact that the annal. of the sO>'er-
eigns of his time do not sU!'live. Only the manifesto
issued around 1624 by Negus Susen)'os (1607-
1632) in an e\fon «) explain his joining the Catholic
church gives a summary view of this episcopate.
Denouncing the conduct of cenain metropolitans
in Ethiopia. this negus wrote:
Abuna J:'~!ros [1Il], who succeeded this metro-
politan (Krestodolu I]. had relations with the wife
of a Mekhite, and when this fact became publi~.
he paid the fine levied against any adulterer who
corrupts the wife of another; ceTta;n wilne...,s
having knowledge of this aT<~ .till [i,'ing. such as
Joseph and Marino. who are foreigne", not Ethio-
pians. Moreover, «) lhis sin the metTOpolitan add-
ed other misdeeds. In the seventh year of Negus
n·qob's reign, J:'~\ros [Ill] issued a general ex-
communication which caused the people to de-
pose n'qob, exile him «) Ennarya, and replace
him with Za-DengeL Later, he [J:'t'Jros JII] issued
a second general excommunication in order to
persuade the Ethiopians to get rid of NegllS Za·
Dengel, who was in fact killed [and replaced by
Ya·qob]. And as if that were not enough. when
we [Susenyos] decided to fight against Negus
Ya'qob, the metropolitan [I;'e\ro. III] went to war
with him and fell with him on the battlefield.
The ...sential facts referred to in this passage
from Susen)'os' manif"Slo mllst be summarized.
Sa'¥ Dengel had had no male offspring hy hi, wife
MAI)iAm $ena, but at hi. death he did lea"e some
illegitimate sons. During his life he had de.ignated
his nephew Zadengel (hi, brother's son) to he his
,"cce,,,,,r. bUI aft"r his death the coun decided
instcad upon Ya'qob, who was Sarsa Dengel'. ille-
gitimate son and only seven years old at the time.
Guided by a regency council, YA'qob <eigned until
Easter 1596 in the Ethiopian calendar (HI, 16(4).
But becallse he showed a ceTtain independent spir-
it, Ya'qob ",a.s deposed and sent to Ennal)ia. and
Zadengel was enthroned in his pl""e. It is (0 this

dethroM'lllenl 01 yt;'QOb thai {'tin.. lim eJ;com.......
nieallon mentioned by Su5enyOl rden.. A fC'lO'
months !Mer. ZadeIJ!CI. in tum, found hirruelf In
dil6cuhy. He was .wpecled of wWl.ing 10 introduce
lOCilol ",form and of 1eanitll lO",..rd the Calholic
failh then bftnl preached by the Jauil$. This pro-
¥<IUd a ruclion amon~ the c...-~ 01 dIC
COW'l, 10 I'~,.". III the~ e<communlcaled za..
deOld. who ..... depooed aod killed. A ll,hl lor 1M
IhrorIe lhef, emued beIween n'QOb and S<uenyos.
!he aon of NeJUI ~~ Dengel', cou"n. In this fi&ht
the metropolitan sided with Ya'qob and aceompa-
nied him on hif; military campaipt. 1'be firsl on-
Ibushl occurred on 18 Miyizya 1598 of the Ethiopi-
an aolendar (... .D B April 16(6) al (:ao¢aho. ,..here
"~r<» III was slightly wounded. SUSCt1)'06 Ihen won
lhe decish'e banI" thai 1001< pia", II Gol (In Go·
jam). on 4 MaWbil 1599 of Ihe Elhiopian calendar
(....0, 10 M.rch 1601). During Ih;" C<lrnb'I, both Ne·
gus YJ'qob and Abu"" "'*05 III died on Ihe banle·
field, According 10 an Elhiopian source, lhe melJ"O"
polilan Wall killed by a ""ldier whu did nOI
....cugniu him btcause he was not wearing his
,_.
There a", no olher data concerning thil met""
politan, wJ>oo;e .uecessor was Abuna Scm'on.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Almelda, M. de. Histori.. de Bhiopi.. .. AI,,, 0" "/>os-
si... Po 399. hrum AethiopicaJUm Scripto,," Qc.
cido1>tale:s Inedili 6. R.ome, 1907.
1WKt, R. "Eludes ....r I'hisloi", d'Elhiopie." lou,·
""l.u.dq.." 18, MY. 1 (1881):120.
squinat. F. L4 ct<>n"". llbbre.....". d·AbUsbr.... pp.
41-42. Ro....., 1901.
Elte>'eS Peren, F. M. Chrrmic.. de S.......,..., rei d.
Elhio~, Vol. 2, pp. 63-~, 70-12. 359-60, L,S.
bon, 1900.
Cu.>dl, I, "Le liste dei metropoliti d'AbisliniL Buo
R
Ja~ 6. $tI". 1 (1899):11, n. 2.
LudoIf, I. Ad SIl"'" Hi.IOiIfi", hlJu·o~ ..'" ,,,,,do,,..
.du.... ConI"""'"rius, pp. 510-11. Fnlnkfun am
Main, 1691.
PXz.. P. Hist"..;- Aemiopfue, p. 325. Rerum Aethlo-
plcaru", ScriptOtfl Occidentales Inedili 1. Rom..,
'''''.
SEM'ON ld. 1617)
The exact date of the 'arriVllI in Elhlopla of the
~uccessor to Ahuna p~!ros 1II is nOt recorded In
Elhloplan documents, but from Ihe lnformalion
av.tilable, il appea", lhal SweAy,," (Selpn Saga(!;
1601-1632) had him $tnl from Cairo, J10 doubt to
fill tile vacancy left by the dealh of Pl\r<:" III.
ETHIOPIAN PRElATES 1021
Sem'on probably arrivlC!d in Elhiopia around 1608, a
dale thai senn. to be eonfinnod by lhe mel that-
aocowdingto lhe Jesuil Pero Nez. ",flo wu !hen in
the coumry-Sem"oo _ the metr<JpOlitall ",-bo
proceeded ",ith the solemn eoronalion of Susen}_
in lhe eathednl of Allum on 23 March tOO9. Thus,
Sem'on mUS! ha'"e been choocn IlIld <:on!i«f2led by
the CopIi< palriarch Marl. V (1602_1618).
According to PXz.. in 161S the ~...fl Zawangll.
riahleenth abbot of Dabl':ll UW- and head of all
lhe regulaJ" clergy, asked Su... nyos 10 prodaim thai
lhe power 10 ordain deacoRl and prio:$U be graoled
to the C!~"V. whil. the ~ to CORst:el'llle lhe
holy chrism (qedd"s ml'rott) ",main ",ith the mC!u'l>-
politan. aut this request could lun"e led '0 the sepa.
mion of the Ethiopian church from the Ef.ypIian
church, f<>t", aCC<lroina 10 tMilion, thC! power to
confer holy ord<:.... belong.d only 10 lhe metropoli-
Ian. ",hile thaI of conll'Cl1lling the holy chrism be-
longed only to the Coptic palriarch. The",fore,
Abuna Sem'on opposed ZawangHI requesl, which
was Ihen denied b)' Ihe n"iu" As a rC!sult Ih.. r.. was
no schism.
In 1603 the J... uia had unde"aken their work in
Elhiopia, and their influence-which was favorC!d
by Ihe prudenl and cl.ver conducl of Pan-soon
sp",ad. abo,·e all in Ihe cou" cird... When Sem'on
percened 1M kinl'S inclination loward Calholicism
(as "'"ell as dial of some metnben of 1M royal
household), he lried 10 thwan il. In J""uil ",Tilings
Sem'OJt if; ~ acC!\lMd 01 being lhe "_I of the
rebellion," but il i5 J10I difficult 10 undersund thai
!his melropOlitan was C!IldeaYOrin& to suppon those
Ethiopian group figluinl to mainlain lhe b.irh of
th..ir lraditional church. ThaI is ""h)', ""...... Yo!yos,
SusC!nyos' $OlI-ir>-Iaw, IT>'OIled apinsl the king and
hif; ",liplous politiel. Scm'on allied hi""",lf ""ith
Yol~ joined "',Ih lhe rebel lr00p5. whom he
blessed and u~ 10 IiIhl, Ind issued an .....,hema
apin.. the roy.al army. However, 'iclory WC!nl 10
Sustnyos, for on 6 GenOOI 1609 of. lhe Ethiopian
calendaT (.o..u II May 1617), b<Mh Scm'on and Vol·
)'OS died on the booulefield al ~ Acconlinl 10
lhe chronicl.. 01 Susenyos.. Ihe nei'U .inc......ly
grieVC!d ov..r th.. m"lropoIitan·. dealh and orderC!d
lhal hC! be buried in Ihe chureh wilh all honors du..
his. rank. Hov.'C!ver, in lhe rnanifC!5lo issued by Su-
scnyos around 1624. lhe negus crillciled Sem'on',
..mir.. conducl, blamin8 him nOI only for ha"ing
inciled Volyos to revolt hUI also for havin8 led a
d"plol':llble pri,'ale life beca..... he had kepI ""vernl
concubines,
According 10 a l'C!pon wrluen by lhe Jesuil Aloysi.
us do AzevC!do from Fremona in Til'" and dal.d 8

1022 ETHIOPlAN PRELATES
July 1619, after Sem'on's death, Su""nyos hastened
10 ask the Coptk patriarch-doubdess John XV
(1619-1634)-10 send a new melropolitan to Ethio-
pia. De Azevedo added mat the new metropolitan, a
man of "a certain age" wilh grimed hair, left Egypl
for Ethiapia but died en route. Since this Coplk
bishop. whose \'ery name is unkno"m. never was
able to exercise his duties, it is logical nat 10 in·
c1ude him among the metropolitans of Ihe Ethiapi·
an chun;h.
After this initial request. Susenyos no longer ad·
dressed the Coptic patrian;hate, In 1622 he publicl)'
embracoo Catholicism and in 1626 he received Ihe
Jesuit Alphonso Mendez as successor 10 Paez and
.olemnly gave him the title patriarch of Ethiopia.
It was only after the abdication of Susen)'os, fol.
lowed by Elhiopia's official return to the faith of the
church of Alexandria (1632), thaI the new negus,
FA;;ilada•. son of Susenyos, could think of asking
Ihe Coptic patriarchate to ""nd a new metropolitan.
Thus. tile successor of Abuna Sem'on was Aoona
MArqos 1II.
BIBI.lOGRAPHY
Almeida, M. de. HislOIia de Ethiop;a a alta OU Abns·
,;a, pp. 217-2[, 279-91, 296-303, 317-19, 399-
400. Rerum Aethiopkarum Scriptores Occiden.
tales Inediti 6. Rome. 1907.
Basset. R. "Eludes sur l'historie d'Ethiopie," Jour-
nal ",;a';que 18, ser. 7 (1881):123.
lMguinot, F. l.<l cronnen abbreviata d'Ab;,,;nia, p.
45. Rome. i901
Cerulli, E. "Gli abbali di Dabra Libanos, capi del
monachismo etiopico, ""condo la 'lista rimata:"
Orientalia 13 (1944):160-61.
Esteves Pereira. F. M. Chrtm;ra de Susenyos, rei de
ethiopia. Vol. 2, pp. 127-28. 454-55. Lisbon.
'''''.
Guidi. L "Le liste dei metropoliti d'Abissinia." Bes·
saria"e 6, ser. I (1899):11. n. 3.
Kalmodin, J, Tradit* de T.a=ga "t Haaega: An-
nales eI documents, :Vol. 3, p. A35. Uppsala, 1914.
Le Grand, J. RelMion histori9ue d'Abyssinie du R. P.
Lobo, pp. 253, 501. ,Paris, 1728.
Ludolf. ]. Historia Ae,hiopira sive brevis el surcinrta
dMrriptio regni Habess;norurn. Val. 3, caput 7,
UI7-22, and caput 10, §§37-63. Frankfurt am
Main, 1681-
___. Ad suarn His10riam Ae1Mopicam anlehac edi·
lam Commenlan'us, p. 51 L Frankfurt am Main,
1691-
pae<. P. Histor!a AetMopiae, Vol. 2. pp. 126,370-80.
384-87. 393-94. 396-400. and Vol. 3, pp. 336,
355-58.495-%. Rerum Aethiopicarum ScriplOI"'
es Occidentale< Inediti 2-3. Rome, 1905-1906.
•
Rossini. C. Documenta ad Jl/ustrandom HiStoriom,
Vol. 1. Lib"r Atom"e, In CSCO 58, pp. 56-57,
90-91. Lou"ain, 1954.
MARQOS III (d. c. 1648)
Marqos was the Ii"'t metropolitan to arrive '"
Ethiopia after the abdication of Negus Susenyos and
the subsequent restoration in Ethiopia of Ihe faith
of Ihe churCh of Alexandria: thus he is to be consid-
ered the immediate successor of Abuna Sem'on,
despite the hiatus ""parating his episcopate from
that of his preduessor. He was designated and con-
secrated by the Coptic patriarch MATIHEW III (1631-
1(56)-
AI the beginning of his reign (1632 - I 6(7). Fasila·
<las requested a new metropolitan from Cair<>, bUI
according to the account af Peter Heyling, a Luth·
eran ....ho resided in Egypt at the time and who was
preparing 10 go to Ethiopia, Ihis first mission "came
to nought be<:ause of the infidelitl of the emissar-
ies." No details are given about Ihe infideiity, but
Heyling's al1usian can probabl)' be related 10 the
passage from the Abridged Chronicle (Beguinot,
1901. pp. 48-49) that states that toward the begin-
ning of Fasiladas' reign. a false metropolilan named
Rizqallah arrived in Ethiopia. where. however. he
was discO\'ered and removed from office. Follawing
a new request from the negus, Ihe Coptk patriarch
consecrated a monk from Ihe Monastery of Saint
Antony (DAn ANM ANTUN1Ylrs) named Ariminios,
who {aok the name of M1rqos HI. The new abun
left Cairo before the end of 1634 with Peter Heyling
among his retinu•. Near Easter 1635 he reached
Sawalin, a Red Sea port that. along with the port of
Massawa, was governed by a Turkish pasha. Here
he met the Jesuit Alfonso Mendez, fonner "patri·
arch of Ethiopia," who had bet'n e~pelled with his
fellow Jesuits bJ.' Fasiladas. Delivered into Ihe hands
of the Turks. Mendez "..as waiting in Saw.1kin 10 be
ransomed and to lind a ship for Goa. the Jesuits'
headquaners in India. Since M1rqos 111 was awa;t-
ing a ship to Massawa, he met Mendez and friendly
relations were established bet""",n the lWO prel-
ate,. The melropolitan p<omised the Jesuit to do his
utmost to help the Calholics in Ethiopia. who were
exposed to persecution by the new regime, Marqos,
moreo"er. presented to Mendez a leller wrinen al
Manial"!. Egypt, on 15 October 1634 by Father Ag-
athange of Vendrime, a subordinate atth.. Capuchin
mission ;n Upper Eg)']>t. In this letter Ihe Capuchin
introduce<l the Coptic prelate to the Jesuits. who.
he thought. still had influence at the Ethiopian

COlIn, and warned them againsl the propr.pnda
plans 01 tIM: Lulhel3n PetCt" HeyJing.
Near th~ ~nd of 1635, Mjrq<ll$ III ~n~~d <iondel-,
"'hk:h had just b«n founded by lhe nqus. and
upon his anival he iMued certain mon1izinl edicu
to Ethiopian wcicly. In particular. he object«I to
thoo n>sIOtn of h:..ping sn-..r:o.l c~blnu. which
.... 00lll1\lOtl, Mf>I'cial.Iy an>o<Ji tIM: nobillI)', H~
also tried 10 help the Catholics. who WfflI: suWenn.
under .serious difficllllics, bill ptrccnin, the Etltio-
pivls' newtlun"nt against thoo",. MirQOS "-as
obliged 10 k«p his sil~nc~. Fi5ilalLu lhen Ihoushl
of U5~lnl the meln:>p>litan the task of preachln,
the <:a~ apinst the JC5Uit bi>hop Apollhuris d~
Almeida. former coadiuwr of Men~ who had not
<Jbq<ed lhe ....1"5·s order to lca'tt Ethiopia and was
hidd~n In Ihe counlty$id<!. MArql» "'U able 10 reo
fuse this llSJignment. howe\'ct", but the Jesuit was
put 10 death in 1638. That same year, the F~nch
prici-ls "pthange of Vend6me and Cassien of Nan·
te" from the Capuchin mission in Upr<>r Egypt,
~nter~d Ethiopia. where Ihey were discovered and
condemned 10 death (Jllne (638). M~r<j05 Ill, who
had known them well in Egypt, waS powerle$ll 10
sa,e tlM:ir li,~s.
ChicAy b-eealne of II.. ~rained lempcl3ment,
this metropolitan was often in difficulty with the
clergy as well as wilh lhe coun. II appears lhat with
the idea of p'ni"ll the negus's hn"Or, Mirqos III
.... ~alO'd to F~ilada. tlte plol hatclMNl by his brolh.
~r. Gal~ (Claudius) to...,itt po_r. Gabwd·
twos ....as, in fact. "PPI""'MnMd and ~ in ...,d....
sion (NQVflnbe!" 1646), but il appcan lhat MArqos
III nc->er pined the king's <:onfidcnc:e. Mor>eo.>er.
in the theoloJical dl.pulcs that """re tMlI belinnin,
w nxk the de'lJ'. this tndrOp<>I.iWl avoidoecltakin,
al»' dear aand and. as a result. was disliked by all
bcllons concerned- EvcnncaJly he _ openly at·
taCked by the eff..rt of ~ra IJbanOl and head of
tlte rquLar c1eID.....ho ~hed him for I~n.
a licflliious life. It il; pO$sibl~. bov.~·cr, 1Iw this
accusatioo> concealed other compbinta. He was dis·
missed by .n ....embly of c<:<:lcsiastics, and Ihe ne-
gus CIliled him 10 a high mounlJlin. Accordin. to.n
Etlliopian source. this occurrod in 1640 of In.: Ethi·
op;an calendar ("-D. 1647-1(48). It is prnumed
tll.t h~ di~d during this uile. Hi. "'CC~lSOr was
Abuna MiU'tl IV,
BIBLIOGRAPHY
lJ~t. R. "Etud"" sur I'hi$t(lir~ d·Ethj(lpi~." }(lu",
~al aJ;aliJ;u~ 18, ...,r. 7 (1881):2ll'i-87.
ETHIOPIAN PRElATES 1023
BeguinOl, F. LII .,..,.,"c.. abbo'nitll.. d·AbUs;";,,. pp.
48_49. Rome, 1901.
Em.........,I. R. P. AhTiti H '" ~;e Ii dll .....nyr d~s
RR. PP, ApthllnlC d~ V~"o:bn~ ~I CG.Uie" d~
Nlmla. ed. A. d'Abbadic. pp. n-30. IOS-126.
1]3-<10. Paris. 1882.
Guidi, I. wDi due fnmmcnti rtwi.-; alb. sloria di
Abminia:' R~"dtconti lidl" R~..J~ Ace"""",i" d~'
Li"c~i 3. loC'r. 5 (1893):596.
_ _ -U Ur.te dci meuopoliti d'Abiwnia-" /ks.
SGrione 6, sc:r. I (1199):11. n, 4-S.
Kolmodin. J_ n"dillo<ls d~ T...::.tp .1 H.. u~,.; All-
" ../fi el lioc.. ",~nIS. Vol. 3, p . .06. IJppsa1a. 1914.
LudoIf. I. Histori" Aeslliopic.. sive ,,",vis el SULCincl..
dC3Criptio r~~i HduJirroru..., Vol 3, C:llplll 14.
fU-IO. Frankfun am Mo.in, lUI.
___ Ad ......'" HiJlori"", Alflliopic<UJt ""Iehac eli;'
I..... Comme"l"riUJ, pp. SSI-S3. Frankfurt am
~in. 1691.
Mendez, A. &p~dilioni, A~rhi"Pi<: .. e libri Ires. PJ'.
206-209, 244, 279-80. 382, 428-30. Rerum A,,-
thiop;carum Scriptores Occ:id"male. lntditi 9.
Rome, 1909.
Mendez, A.. el al. R.lalio~~5 " epislola~ vario,um,
pp. 48. 97, 108, 114. 28S, 337, 381_82. Rerum
Aethiopicarum Scripl(>/"" Occidentale. lnedili 13.
Rom", 1913.
Perruchon. J. "Le R~8ne de Fasllad... (Alam-&gad),
d" 1632 ... 1667." Re~u~ sb"i/ique 6 (1898):84-86.
MIKA'£L IV (8, mkl-sn~nle~"Ih century)
MiU'tl_ the SUOC_ 10 Mlr"", III and musl
h...e bttn comec...ud by lhe Coptic patriarch MAT·
TIlEW m (1631-1~). Altilouih I,""re is no doubt
about this mClropoliuln's exlst:eI\C". lhere is little
infomwion aboul his epi-.:a,..e, because there are
no royal unall rI Fbil"'" nile. Only lhe
Ahridgftl Chmllicl~ of Ethiopia (Bi'Juinol, 1901, pp.
51-53) .--ecords the foll0'Will8 lor lhe sew:-nttenth
»Ca' of his rcip (164&-1649): "AI the ti~ t"''O
biohops arrivtd. Abb. MiU,'tl and Abba YoI]ann....
0""' by way of Danbli and the Olher by "''''y of
$tnnAr. Abba YoI:wlneo, ",110 look ,ht ti..... rou'~,
waco !itl1t 10 sarti because h~ had comt at lhe
l"C<IUC5I of Abotto (Prince] Gali.."<Ilwos...·100 did
wrong in this. When Abba MiU'tl .rrivcd by way of
$tnnlr. he ..... .,.tabliohcd as biJltop because he
had ;""'n ordered by the king." From lbi. texl it
may be IInderstood that Gallwdtwo., who was
brotb,,< of lhe negus and who had plou"d to ""i,..,
power and been denounced by Abuna M~rqo. Ill.
b.d ..ked the Cop'ic p3triar<:hate to send a ''''''In)·
politan. Meanwhile, Fois!l.das had like....isc request·
td a new mClropolitan to replace MArqD!l 111, who
1024 ETHIOPIAN PRELATES
had just bu:n deposed. Thus. under these ~ircum­
stances, the details of which are unknown. it hap·
pened that the Coptic patriarch appoinled two met·
ropolitans, The first, requested by Gal.1wdewQS.
arri""d in Ethiopia by way of the """'rt region
Dankali, on the coast of the Red Sea. The other,
Mik.1'el, requested by the negus, alTh'ed by the land
route from the west. Sut the negus. reacting
prompdy. sent YoI)annes to SArk:!.. on the frontier
(Of Sennar, where he probably elected to return to
Egypt, Consequenlly, only MiU'tl (IV) should be
included in the list of the melTopolitans of Ethiopia,
There is no information about his episcopate, the
terminal date of which can only be appro~imated
Since the Abridged Chronicle records the arn,'.l of
Abuna Kreslodolu Il during Ihe thirty·second year
of F.1siladas' reign (1063-1664), it may be pre-
sumed the episcopate of Mik.1'el IV lasted until
about 161>0.
During this episcopate, a Chri'IOJogical dispule
arose in Ethiopia, one destined 10 divide the dergy
for more than two cenluries. This was the question
of union and unction, According to the thesis of
those favoring union, supported primarily by the
monks of Ihe order of Takla H.1ym.1nol, whose lead·
er was the e~~agl, the abbot of Oabra UbAnos, the
union between the Word and the Oesh made JesWl
consuhstantial with the Father, while the Holy
Ghost repre...nted Divine Grace, which restored to
the Oesh the dignity lost following Adam's original
sin. Conversely, according 10 the thesis of the Un~·
tionists, supported mainly by tbe monks of the ot'
der of £.wost.1ltwos, coming mainly from the mono
asteries of Gojam and Tigre, Jesus did not become
consubstantial with the Father by the mere union of
th~ Word ",ith the /lesh but rather by virtue of the
un~tion of th~ Holy Ghost. In a synod held during
the twenty·second year of Fasiladao' reign (1653-
1654), the Unctioni.t. seem 10 ha,'e prevailed, but
in anotber synod, p"'ided o,er by the negus dur-
ing the thirty-third year of his reign (1664-1665),
the Unionists were able to have their doctrine ac-
knowledged. With tbis·.tate of affairs, it is penni"i.
ble to wonder iJ Abuna Mika'~l IV played any role
in the first phases of thi. great controversy and if
the end of his episcopate had any' connection with
it, However, given the present lack of available
data, these questions must remain unanswered,
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Basset, R. "Etudes sur i'histoire d'Ethiopie:' Jour·
nala,;at;que 18, ser. 7 (1881):288-91.
B~guinot, F. U1 eronaca abbrevjata d'Abissin;a, pp.
51-53. Rome, 1901.
Guidi, L "Le liste dei metropoliti d'Abissinia." 8es·
,arione 6, ser. I, (1899):12, n, I.
__ . "Uno squardo di .toria ecde,iastica di Ab-
issinia," 8essamm. 8, ser. I (1900)'15-17.
Kolmodin, J. Trad;l;o,,, de T'Jav.ega el Hauega: An-
nales el do<;umenls, p. A36. Uppsala, 1914.
PelTUchon, J, "Le Regne de Fasiladas (Alam-&gad)
de 1632 a 1677," Revue 'Jimi/ique 6 (1898):88, n.
2: 91.
KRESTODOLU II (d. 1679_1680)
Successor of Abuna MiU'1'I IV, this metropolitan
was the second to bear the name Krestodolu, which
is the equh'alent of tbe Ethiopian name Gabra Kres-
lOS (Servant of Christ), An Ethiopian source, the
Annals of Addi Neammin, provides as the date of the
metropolitan's arrival in Ethiopia the year 1656 of
the Ethiopian calendar (~.[l. 1663-1664). This da,"
is confirmed hy the Abridged Chronicle of Ethiopia,
which records it as the thirty·second year of Fasila'
das' reign (1663-1664). Thus, it seems evident thai
this melropolitan was designated and consecrated
by the Coptic patriarcb MATTHEW IV (161)0-1675).
Some information about Krestodolu's episcopate
has been conserved in the chronicle of Negus Yo·
I)annes L During the month of MiyAzya 1661 of tbe
Ethiopian calendar (April-May 1669), Krestodolu
was called to participate in tbe assembly tltat decid·
ed upon the e~pulsion into Sennar of the "Fnmks,"
the last descendants of lhe small Portuguese Catho-
lic community that had been established in Ethio-
pia. One year later (April 1670), this metropolitan
also took part in tbe council that had been con-
"oked to ""amine the questions raised b)' a throng
of warrior-monks who had invaded the streels of
Gonder. Wit bout doubt. it was still a matter of the
disputes between the Unionists and Unclionist. that
had arisen during the episcopate of Abuna MiU'.:1
IV, but this time, the difference. were aggra,'ated
by the fact that the opposing factions anathematized
each other and e~communicated all those who did
not share their doctrine, indudlng both the negus
and the metropolitan.
Shortly thereafte., the metropolitan's situation
did indeed become difficult, Negus Yohanne. I,
who favored tbe Unctioni.ts, suspected Krestooolu
II of leaning toward Ihe Unionists, Thus, he decided
to get rid of the prelate and asked the Coptic patri-
arch Matthew IV to send a new metropolitan to
Ethiopia. Matthew IV sent AbuM Sinorla, who ar·
rived at Gonder on 9 Teqcmt 1664 of the Ethiopian

calenda. (A.o. 17 Cklober 1671). a dale dw un-
doubtedly marb the dismissal cl KrestO<Iolu II.
Since the royal chronkle alk>h only a f""" prudenl
-..k 10 Ihill dismissal. iI may he presumed lhat
lCrQlodoN 11 ....,rived proper It_menl lor lhe:
r~ cl his lif~ A ~e ....,ension cl the Abridced
Chronicle of Ethi<J¢a noles lNt he died durina u.e
uuneenlh )""lIr oflhe rripI 01 yobannes I (1679-
16801, by "'hich lime 1m ouan5<>/", Sioodi. had
alread)' OC(Up~ the epi<c:osW throne For eichI
,...,.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Basael. fl.. "Etudes sur I'hi'lloire d'Ethiopie:' Jo«,..
,...I ..sI'''ique 13, SeT. 7 (U81):291-92.
BegIIinOl. f. l.<J, ('0"""" «bbre"'/I'/1 d'AItini"I... "".
S3-S'. Rome. 1901.
Guidi, l. "t.e liSle dei metropolili d'Abi5llinia:' tks-
..."·o,,e 6, sec. I (1899)'12, n. 2.
_ _, "Uno squarcio di i10ria e.:c1esiaslka di Abo
iuinia," Bus.. ,;.."", 8, .er. I (l900},17.
_ . A""..I",. Y..h.. ""i, I. Iyflsu J el B.. Jr.~ffll. [n
CSCO 23. pp. 10. 12-14. Louvaln. 1955.
Kolrnodin, J. Tr«dilkm. d. TS«=la " I/«=g«: A,,·
"ales "'I documem•. p. A 36. Upp..la, 1914.
Ludolf. I. Hi>Jori" Aelhi"pic" u"" bre~i. "'I s"ccincl..
ducripfio re,,,; H/lbeuinorum, Vol. 3, Capul 7.
125. fn.nkfurt am Main. 1631.
p"'lTUChon. J. "t.e ~ de yon..nl\ft; 'e.,
d·Ethiopie de 1667 i 1682:' Ik.,... sbniliqu", 7
roi
(1899):166, 173. 175.
SINODA (d. 1699)
The annab of Ntgus Yo~ I 11667-1632) and
Squ.s I~ I (I682-170t» reeord much hlslorical
informalion aboul Sinoda (SbenU~l, who ass..med
his dulies lIpOII the dismissal 01 hill prmecepor.
Abuna KralOdolu II. a. m.miss.al WI resulted &om
lht conlnhe"j 0 ..... unil?n and UftClioft. Negus Yo-
J:lanr>es I. ""110 r...vrw tt.jdoxlrine 01 the Uncllon-
isu (Ihe monks oflhe ordeo" of £~lt_), sus-
p«IW Abuna KresIOOolu JI of Inning Io",....d lhe
Unlonoo (Ihe monks of the o""'r of TUb ""ym·
bol); Ihus. he Jl'qUeslt'd the Cepcic p"lrlal't'h MAT·
TIlEW IV (1660-1675) Ie send a ~w metropolilan 10
Ethiopia.
Sino<u arrived in Elhiopia via Sennar, bUI did net
go Immediately 10 Gonder. He w""' forced 10 reo
main II few monlh5 al Celll:! nellr the fronller be·
cause of unrest in Ihe capital ...,hid had bet=n In·
..ded bj warrio"monh engaged in ~iolenl
polemie •. When Gonder became calm, the ~w
metropolitan ..ntered. the cily on 9 '!e'!"'ml 1664 of
ETHIOPIAN PRELATES 1025
Ihe EIhOopian calendar (UI. 17 Oclober 1671 l- Kroes-
IOOolu II WIllI quietly dismissed and lhe ne'" rnelro-
politan immedia<ely enlhroned.
Sino<\;) ...... II "is.- and able metropolita.n. for he
succeeded in avoidina makinC any incill;.... deci.
sions in the dicct..ions Ihlll _re rocking lhe EUri·
opian clergy. Near Eaoslet" 1678 he: convokw a.
council 10 eumi~ disciplinary quations. btU ""me
<:Jf the assembly i..ww upon d~"I the "prol>-
lems of faith" before IOUChinC tho<le 01 diM:,pline_
M a re$tIt. the council had 10 be -..ended. In
~mb.-T of the sam.. year, Sinodl convoked an-
01...... .,,,,,ncil to discuss the: validny of the negus's
marriage 10 Sabia. Wana!!. daug.hlet" of the: ruler's
palernal aunl. a marriage thai pal1 of Ihe cle'l)/
considered conuary 10 Canon Ia.... A k-w monb.
howev..r, affirmed !hal the Coptic palriarch Mal·
thew [V had already pronounced in £avO\'" of Ihis
marriage'. "alidity, ...her.-upon Abuna Sinod:l. de-
clared Ihal lhey should abide by the patriarch'. de-
cision.
During ,hi. same year. an Armenian bishop
named HO"annel (John) arri,oed in Ethiopia. He
broughl a letter of inlroduclion from Ihe Coptic
palriarch JOHN XVI (1676_1718). along with a relic.
a bone from lhe: hand of £wosl!t!\OOS. lhe Ethiopi.
an saini who died in Armenia dulinalhe fuu"e<:mh
c.-ntury and ..~ founder of lhe order 5Upp011ing
lhe unclion doclrine. He.'annes .... an ambitious
man who ..... hoping 10 make hill career in &hi(>-
pia. bu, his oojoum in ,hal coonlry ...... blief- None-
thele$s. by a deci$ion of lhe MJtUS and ..i1h the
""",obation cl.he melropollWl, lhe relic was 10 he
kepi in th.. Chureh of the Sarioo" at Gonder. This
action aroused wnemenl proce51S from the Union...
mollb of the order of Tub Hfi,-wnOl, ..-ho "'en:
difficult I<> appease.
In)'UJ' 1672 oflhe Ethiopian calendar (A.Il. 1679-
16lIO), t.,. order of the: nqus. Sinodi con.vked :an-
other council for ,he purpose of examining an "im-
pure" le"er addres.sed 10 lhe ki"8 from the clergy
of LasIa, wllo v.iJhcd to "",intain lhal "the father
had been incarnaled in lhe Vi'lin Mary:· The coun-
ci] condemned Ihis Ihesis, and Sinodfi th.ealenoed 10
.."communica'e all lhose who aCCepled il.
Sinorti all-O had '0 Ime....ene In the conflicl be·
Iween Yo!)annes [ and his son, Ihe future Negus
Iyyi!lu I, SUSpeclinlllhal his father wished 10 appre-
hend and place him in seclusion. 1l'Y~u fled. find·
ing asylum in Ih.. ,.. rrilory of the Oromo (who are
also called GAlli). He refused 10 l'elllm 10 Gonder
urnil his father 1Il.'e him certain gWlrant...... The
negus had 10 promise nO! 10 dl-ny his $On fr-e<:dom.
1026 ETHIOPIAN PREL\TES
un<kr pulall)' of e~communication. ~ agail\JI
IJw, 5O\'errisn by me eITo-~, ...., head of lhe regldar
elercY, Howeyer, .. nee the merropo!itan OO\lld ab-
..olw all excommunications, Sinodi had to promR
noc to absolw this om, under ""nail)' of his own
ucemmunkation by a priest clI.o.s..n by In'isoo,
(The royal chronkler added. ~r, ,hat lhe u·
c.....municlltion isRK<I against the' me,ropolltan ..-as
~conlrl.ry to the ........:J eustOln.' Finally, on 10
Te:qenll 167J (olD. 17 OcIObn- 1(31). Sinocb panici·
paud in a ninth cou.nc:il that concluded ";th a rd,
linnatlon of the Unctions dooctrine and the UC:Ofn·
municatlon of tJw, adJw,rents of the Unionist
doctrine.
Howner. the sitWilion <:hanged with the dealh of
Negus Yo~annes I and the accession to lhe throne
of his son tyybu I on 15 E;lamlt 1674 (A.O, 19 July
11>82). I~ byored the monks of 'he order of
Talda IUymllnot (Unionists), and from the lint
yeal1l of his rule he thought of reque~tina aDOther
(eplk metropolitan. Because he liked Sinod', the
negus (old him <.>f hi$ plans and explained that with
(h15 request he hoped not only to fadlitate the
throne', ecclesiastkal politics but also (0 protect
the metropolitan himself, y,.ho had Men pressured
by the Ul'IC'tioni$U and invited to "light and die" for
the dlxtrine lhat he hW helped to Mye proclaimed
during ,he reign of Negus Yot:oannes I. The new
Coptic bishop, named Mirqoo, ani,'ed at Gonder
during the eiJhth year 01 In"isu's reiJn and _
introdllCed by Sinodf, hililSl:lf to the cml and eul~
siasllcal di3n1taries on ill Masbram IMI US s..-p.
I(moo 1689). The "hfOfliocle tn lhat "Sinodi
"'as not dismiso.ed. and M:lnros sent '0 SirkA.
..·......e he was inscaJled with all tI"", honon due him.
lor two metropolitans could not reside in lhe ..me
city.- In Olh.-r words, the nqus decided, for (he
lime brins. to !«at MJ.rqo$ as if ..., "'ere the c~
jutOf' bisllop 10 Sinoda...ion thel'eby oolltint>ed '0
occupy his IUprcme posjr 10.- a £e yean.
Durina the elew:nth year of his re l)'Ybu I
visi,ed Ttgn' and was rtteiW>d ... ith ,",al pomp on
6 V.kkilil lOSS ("'.0- 10 February 1(93). Accompa-
nied by Abul\lll Sinod;i.. he spenl ,he day in ,he
ntbed...l of the holy dty, near tbe ··Ark of Zion"
(i.e .. lhe most famous liibo/ of all the Ethiopi'"
churches. .Noio to be the tme Ark of the Co"ell~nt.
containing the Tablets of the law. described in the
Old Testament). This was probably the last grand
funclinn in which the old metropolitan panitiJl'lt·
cd. In fact. Upotl his ,..,turn to Gonder, the neMus
convoked an assembly of dignitaries and prelates
bd"ore whom he had ~ leuer publicly read In ...hieh
the Coptic Jl'ItrialTh John XVI ordoel'ed tNot Wrq...
M enthroned in SinodJ.'J plate. nus OCCUlTed ...
the I...... day of AbbA SaIimA, the lim bishop of
Ethiopia. ~6 J:lamll 168S (A.D. JO July 1693). The
ele\'alion of Marqos IV occurnd i........diately.
Sinodi must have li,'ed • lew years IonCft in
aeneral <:$Iftm. "-"con:ling 1O the AbridBed Chroni-
cle of Ethiopia, he died durl(lJ: the month of
IQ>cdN in the eiaht~ year fIl the l"I:iV' of 1»"3su
I (November 1(99). This death is confirmed by the
..,.,.,..nl of the Frenc:h physic;"'n beque< Charle$
I'on<:fl (1113. pp. g2-84),"'ho ..-u then in Conder
and "'he>, at the request of Ihe negus. .... ited lhe
dying Sinod;j,. Pon<:C1 added one Interesting detail:
Iyyisu Ioid him thai he ad creal .ffection 10.-
S;nodi beca..... SinodJ. ha;;l bftn his I,""ch,....
I)ll'lUOGRAPHl'
Basset, R. "Etudes sur l'histo<r-e d'Elhiopie:' Jour-
nal a$;a/;que 18, se', I (1881):292, 295-96, 298,
301,30.4.313.
B/:guinot, F. La crm,aco .b!",y;ata d'Abiisinia. pp.
54. 51-Sg, 60. 63. />6-61, 7S, Rome, 1901.
Canard. M. "u, Voyage de I'archeveque Hoyannes
en Abyssinie."· In GuirlDnd. po"r Abba Jhome,
ed. J. Tubiana, pp. 179-94. Pans, 1893.
Cerulli. E. ''Cli abhali dl Dab... Lobanos. capi dd
rnonacltismo C1lopKo, te<:<XIOO la 'Iisla rima",.""
Oriemal",- 13 (1944);178-79.
Donzel, E. ....... Fouig" lUlDtiom of EdtWp"'-, 1641-
1700, pp. S3, 171-84, 216. n. 68-6\1. lstanbul.
1\119.
FOSler, W. The Red ~a and Adjan", C....ntrics aE
rh~ Clost: of the Seve"'ee.tlit Ce..,.,.,.. pp. 123-24.
london, 1949.
Guidi, I. "u, lisle del mnrnpolhi d·Abi"'nia."· Be..
~ , 6. ..,r. I (1399):12, II. 3_4,
_ _ "UDo squarcio di ~ ecclesiaKia di Abo
issinia.- s.uu"'N1e 8, ter, I (l900):II-ZO.
_ _ A",...In 1Diu>".<1s I. /f/ll" t et~' (1ranS-
Lation), Vol. I. In CSCO U. Seriplons AuJtiopici
6, pp. 13-1', 2S,lIi, 39-40. 41. 43. S3, and 56.
lo"vain, 1\161. VoL 2 In CSCO ~, Scriptotes
tUlhiDpici g. pp. 61, 6S·66. 31-86. 90-92. \18,
105-106, 113, liS, 121-22, 126. 143-44. 162.
110, and 114_1S. lou""ln, 1961.
rc""C1. J. C. VOYDge d'Elhiop~. pp. 82-84. Paris,
11H.
MARQOS IV (d, 1716)
Because MArqos was abun not only during the
last years of the reign of Negus 1111.u I (1682-
17(6) but also during a turbulent period compri.·
ing the reigns nf Takla HiyminOl: (1706-1108),

nwoflo& (1708-1711), YOOI!<'S (1711-1716), and
DlwillV (1716-1721), fur "'horn there are no royal
"h....,ides. w,e is much information about the
~rly run of hi$ melropo!iWlaI... ~d.ll)' in the
chronicle of 1yyb.J I, but few ~ about 1M filial
..-.
MirqolI IV ....., the sue<:essor 10 AlluM Sinoodt..
~ "Un"_ ",throne<! during the rrip of Y~nr>el
1 (lon-I6ll2), kad at lint bttn Fol'C'~ 10 Kqu:ill$CC
10 !he ,clip:....s politico of lbi. ruler. "'M openly
kaMd l0W3rd the thesis of lhe Unctionisu (monks
of the order of £ ~ ) in the Christolop;:a1
comroveTS)' f)W'r union and \lnd""'. a qualTel \hal
had lOriM:n durini .he time of "buna Mlkl'll IV.
N..... 1)')'iW t contrary 10 his father Yol:oannes.
bvo~ the Unionists (monks of m.. onkr 01 Tub
Hlymloot). and ",hu the negus d«:ided to r e _
his f.I~"'. ecde.iastical politics, SinodJ was
placW in • difficuh position. Wilh Sinodl!'l concur-
....""e. lY)'l$U I thought il wi.., to ask the Coptic
patriall'h JOliN XVI (1676-1718) 10 ..,nd *' new bish·
op to Ethiopia. Thi. bishop, named Mirqot, arrived
In Ethiopia via Senna. and was introduced by Sino-
dA himself to lhe civil and clerical dignlta~ duro
in, an auembly held at Gonder on 18 Mukal'llm
1681 of 1M Ethiopian cal~ndar (A.D. 25 September
1689). BullM ~hronicl~ .ual'"5 Ihal "Sinodi was nOi
dismissed, and MArqos """" on>t 10 SlrU. WM~ he
was Installed willi all Ihe bon<JT!I du~ him. for 1_
metropoliuons could nol reside in Ihe sam~ elly:· h
may be deduced Ih~rrlrom lhal the n.. gus d«ided
not 10 enlhrone M1rqos al chis lime. bullO consider
him as Stnodi's coadjutor. Thus. he senl MMqo!lIO
SkU. a .. ily near m.. fronliet- oJ SenN-r.....here lh..
,,",we had 10 ..-..side. ""conlinl 10 one -.n:e.
Mirqos JiYed there ;n cornpaD)' with his bthe••
mother, and bmthtr. He _ not ....... al Gondoe1"
Joc- tome years. WhnI the neg..as risited d... calh...
dral ofAxum on 6 Yallant 16l!5 (A.D. 10 febn.wy
1693). he ..... accompan'9! by lhe aged Abuna Si-
nodi. Upon II.. R:lum 10 -&nder. on !he ie~ <:by
of Abuna Se.lAml I. lim 'bishop oJ Ethiopia (26
l:Iaml~ 1685/1l.0. JO July 1693). lhe ReI"S had a
Iener read befor.. a large' .... emOly in whkh lhe
Coplic pa.riareh John XVI, a( Ill.. nqus', ~Uftl.
declared lha. he W3.'I deposing SinodA and ~I ...... tinl
Mlrqos in his pl...,e. MArQ<:>S ]V wu emhroned im·
medialely. 50 this date also marb hi. accenton 10
Ih ••uprem. thron•.
In 169S, Abuna Mlrqos had to assill at. council
wherein the Que.tion of union and unction was
discussed an~w. Onc~ again I"" lhesis of lhe Unc·
lioni,,,, wu rejecI..d. and il. adh..,..,n.. excommuni·
ETHIOPIAN PRELATES 1027
<:aled. by M1rqos IV. Durinl hk to;oum in Gondf'r
(July 1699-May 1700), the french physician Jac-
QUes Charles Pone... abo had an intern..,..· with
Abuou. MirQo$. ",'1>0 retti~ed him wilh unl coune-
.y. AI chat Ii""" the physician I'l':Iled the prestigf:
accorded this m..tropOiluon by lhe kin, and c1"ru.
In 1706, Iyytsu I had 10 le-ne lhe throne 10 his
son Takb. lUyminoC and 10 the l/DctionisU, ""ho
had been hoping for Ihis change. lnunMial<"ly ihe)'
reopened eM conlroversy ...i1h lhe Unionists. but in
March 1707 the <>boo.. reosponded as he bad before.
H"",noer. in 1703 .hey ..... re wc«:ssful aft"r the
.......won 10 lhe Ihron.. of Nqus T~, who "';11$
Ih.. prote<:lor of th.. order to which Ihey belonged
Withoul con,'OIt.in, a coundl, T~woAos 'Ifl.,.".cd
by proclamation the doclrine oJ unction. Dri,..,n by
political con.idenuions. th" ncgus h.op<!d chat by
adopting this doctri"", he could apPeaSe Go;am,
who.<: clergy w'"" devOled 10 lhe Unctioni.t Ihesis.
It app"ars lhat Mirqos IV ...... then oblig..d 10 lop-
prov" thi, doctrine. bul lhere i, liul .. docu"",nta·
tion for this period of h;, episcopate. Nor 1< th",..,
any informalion aboul the foHowins period, that of
lhe reign of YOS!OS the Usurper, SO called because
he d"",..nded only from • Female line of the Solo-
monic dynasty. However, from Ihe Abridged Chron·
icl.. il tlI.ll)' be deduced thai Abuna M:l.rqos IV .up-
poned the political pliny IM,I 0()pCI<5ed Y~ ... and
succeeded in replacing him by Di.... it IV, who as-
""med power on 5 YBlUlh 1708 (1l.lI. II ~rua'Y
1716) and favo~ the Unetionists, and SO;I is p<>5M-
bit: tIw M4rqos IV approved lhis decision.
Ah weeks Illter there occtU't"e<l an ..•.."nl that
had reperewsions in Europe. This was eM trial of
the C3puc1tiD monks Libento .....ets!.. Michele- Pic da
umo, and s.murle de Beano. who had enl.. red
Ethiopia ~r the Pf'Ot"IioII of Nezus Y"",... and
"'....... ,,",,>dine m Wa\q1)1. a """'('m di<tricl far roe-
_,,-ed from the capital. lMy ""...... bfOtl&ht 10
Gonder, cond"lflned and stoned 10 death on 27
'Ya!tUtil 1708 (.0..0, 4 March 1716). Ho"""'·..... it does
nol follow that MfIrqos IV played a roloe in this trial,
as has oft.... been claimed. Moreo.er. his da~ .....,,..,
coming 10 an t:nd. for he died on JO Sanl 1708 (,\D.
3 July 1716).
Hi, succ~ was Abuna K,..,$I0d0lu III.
BIBLIOCRAJ'IIY
Basset. R. "ElUd.., IU. I'hi'loire d'Elhiopie:' Jou,-
"al a$ialiq". 18.I~r. 7 (1881):304-.\03, 31'>, 325.
3.>6,338.
Beguinot, F. L" crO""C<l IIhbrev;lIt" d'A!>"$!";", pp.
66-68,73.87. 'fl, 9'9. ROlfle. 1901.
1028 ETHIOPIAN PRElATES
Donze!. E. ...... Fouign R~lations of ElhiopM, 1642-
1100, pp. 95, 226-27, n. 69. Wanbul, 1979.
FOSl~r. W. TJu R~d &a aruJ Adj<Jc~nI C",,"/na al
rlt~ Ciou of 1Jr.~ SnDf'~DUIt C~"I"ry. pp. Ill-n.
London, 1949.
(;eu,lChe--' Haik. M"1;IJeria\$ on <he 'Theology of
Qab'at or lJn«ion. ~ In ErltJopion Sl"d~s .. 1'rf>.
«~dmrs 0( th~ Sinh lmn=/ioflfll C_fe.-.u. pp.
229-32. Roo~rd;un. 1986.
Guidi. I. Ml,e lisk dri mttmp<>I.ili d·Abissin.... Iks'
urion~ 6. $U. I (1899):13 .... 2.
_ _ "Uno squardo eli 510"'" cectes;asrica di At>-
IM.Inla." Jksurion~ 8. ser. I (1900):19,
_ A.....l/u YoIoa".." I. 111Jjfl 1 ~I &ltIJg•. In
CSCO 2J and 25. pp. 143-44, 174-76, 199.242.
Louvaln, 1955.
"011<<'1, J. C. V""",," d'Et"jopi~. pp. 79-82. "a.u.
1713.
KRESTODOLU III (d. 1735)
Th~ Immediat. successor to Abuna Mirq(l$ IV,
Krestodolu 1Il w ... requeSled by Negus Dtwil IV
(1716-1721), protector of the monks of £wos·
111!wo$ (Unctionists) in Ihe long conlroversy Over
l1nion and unclion, According 10 11'1. Abridged
Chronicle of Ethiopia. Krestodolu III arrived in lhe
Elhloplan capital during the firlb year of Dilwil's
relgn, on ~ KhedM 1713 oflhe Elhloplan caolendar
(A.D. 14 Novem~r 1710). Th.... he was comecraled
by the Coptic patriarch P'EIER VI (17IS-1726).
Upon tlis arrival In Gooder. Abu-na Krntodolu III
"'*' forced b,< W,wil to take an officl-J su.nd in lhe
ChrislOlogkal disp"..e. After uyina i" ,.. In 10 elude
tho: necus'. request. KTcsIodoIu Ill. under pressure
from a group of coun dignitaries. finally iNued lhc
fol1oloi"g d«~n. dated 2 Miyjlyll1711 of ~
Elhklpian calendar (A.v. 8 April 1121): wBy unclion
Jesus Is the nalun1 $On of God." This sre&l1y
ptea...d !he Uncoonists. bul the Unioniw protcsled
loudly, ....n.-nupon thc mftrOpOlilan iAued another
dedanotion hOfHng t<i,...wY them.: "8)' union Jesus
is the only _ . and b:f unction He is Ihe Mes6iah:'
The norpI$'$ rcactioD 'was immediale and terrible.
After a ,.eal massacre by the roy.oI l<oops of lh
monks In lhc oro'" of Ta"la HI)ma.nOl (lhllonists).
Obil tv had Kreslodolu III b-roughl 10 him by
force. In lh.. mclropolilan'. p,~nce. lilt nelUS
publicly proclaimed the Unclionisl dOC'trine. Ihu.
gMn. it an official characler. Kreslodolu III could
only sland by .ilently befo,e lhe sovereign's decla·
ralion. bUI Ihi• •ilence alienaled him from lbc
monks of Ihe oroer or Tak.b. HiymlnOl. who crased
tlls name from lbe lilurgic. celebrated in ttltir
mo"uTeries. Only five yean later. following an
agreement reached bet.......... K.rcsIrxHu 111 and lho:
z....-.Ida Marybl. llw head of the monb of lho:
order of Takb fU)'min01. _ his name again in·
cluded in their liIU'l)'.
Krestodolu III c .....'T>IL'Il and bICS!Otd lbe new ~.
gus. ~ma ~ called BakUla, aft.... his ","ces-
..... 10 lbe Utroee on 12 Gtnbol 1713 (olD. III May
1721). Likewisoe.......... lt11s ~p died on II Mas-
karam 1723 (A.o. 19 September 1730). iT .._ Kres-
to6olu III who adminis~ absolUTion 10 the rul·
er'. collin and then blessed his suc<:euor. Nq;w;
In""" II.
In 1723 lhen "'*' a plot in Gonder 10 overthrow
1)'J'bu II and nopbc~ him ..ilb OM of his relaTives.
The i.....f#n.. seiw:l Abuna Kreslodolu III and the
.l?41I1~ Talda "Iymhol. and lon:ed lhem to ."com·
municale lbe n.gus. WII~n lt1e rebellion was ....1'"
prused. lho: lWO prelates tlad 10 justify Ttle;r acTion.
They "'plained lhal "01 only were they imprisoned
bUI al", they "'ere loid Iltat Calholic priests were
hidden in The palace and lha! Iyylsu II intended lO
favor lh. church or Rome. Thereupon. the negus. in
a show of clemency, pardoned lhem.
According 10 lbe ctlmnlcle of Iyy;bu ll. KreSlodo-
lu 111 died On Salurday. 9 Nai)~ 1717 (A.D. IJ
Augu'l 1735). His Immediate SU<:<:C5S(>r ""'S Yo-
hannn 111.
BI9UOGAA'"Y
8as5IL'I. R. "Eludes loUr I'hislolre d'£lhlopic:' 10llr·
...11 asidtiq.... 18. seT. 7 (1881):340-42, 345, 356.
~. F. LlI CrottllCII 1Ibr-evUl141 d·Abis.sini<l. pp.
101-103. lOS, 114. Rome. 1901-
c..ruDI. F.. -Gli abba!i eli Dabra U~, capi del
monacftismo 1L'Iiopioco. second.. Ie liste lft'~n.i
(sec. XVIII-XX):' DmntlllUl I" (1945):151.
Guidi. I. "u liste del menopoliti d'Abissinia." Bu-
sano"" 6, ...... 1 (IS!9):Il. n. 3.
"Annaln rqum lytiu 11 el 11O'as:' I..
CSCO 06, pp. 32. 40-"1, 53. 5'-59. 73. 110, 1111.
Lou~.,.In, 1954.
WricJd.. W. CII'41I",..~ of ,he ElnitJpk Manwcnpn in
1M Bnti'" U ..uum .tcquired SirtC~ IJu Y~a, 1841.
p. 139, col. 2. London, 1877.
YOHANNES III (d. 1761)
Most informati"" abour Yol,tanne, comes from
tho chronicle. of Negus Iyylsu 11 (1730-1755) and
Negus Iyyo'as I (17.55-1769). According To the
chronicles. six and a tlaU ye<1rs after the deaTh of
lhe Abuna Kre~Todolu 111 (d, 1735). h..nce Toward
I~ beginnin~ of lhe ~lr 1742. Iyyo·... II funned a
delegalion cons;,!!ng of lWO Ethiopian prelaTe. aC'

companied by ihrft M",""im .......chants. prori6ed
IMrn with 450 ounca of &Old. and 'em IMm 10
EBl..... in quest of a new melropolitan. Bul the pre.
t;p, of Ethiopia in the Red Sn ana .... IMn in
de<:line. SO much SO Ihal Ihe mi$Slon IUllered $(','er·
al misadventures on the outward and ..,tum jour-
neys, II wa$ fint of all delayed at Musawa by th.
",1',b, a local chief nominally depend"nt on th.
Turkish aUlhoritles of the Red ~a. who hefore au·
looriDng io. embarkalion rel;",'ed il of haif the
a:old. On arriving al Jidda. the mission Found th'"
lhe IasI .ship bound for Ec"JIl had already left.
which compelled i1 10 spend len months in th..
port. MoTftl'ter, dunng this forced sc;oum in Ara·
~ one of tho 1_ Elhiopi:a.n p..,1atn be<=Y a
MusJim; it was thus !he other p..,ble. Abba n..oo.
ros. who rcxMd Cairo and ...bmilled the request
from the negus to the CopIic patria«'h JOHS" XVII
(1127-1745). On 22 M<askaram 1736 (A.II. I (k100tt
1743, a Cep,ic synod designaled lhe new metTopol~
\.iI.n of Elhiopia. who w"" consecraled by the patn.
arch and whose nam. was Yol)annel III. Accompa'
nio<! by Abhi nwodros. tho melropolitan landed at
Massa_ on 12 Miylzyi 1736 (A.fI,. 18 April 1744),
·w
lxi' on.:e again Ihe ... delayed Ihem with the aim
of e1lO<1ing money from lhem; it appean lhal in his
doing> the ..,·w enjoyed Ihe coven SlIPJ10n of Mil;-
ni ~l}ul. a11'l'O"""'rfullord 01 T,...", and ambitious
,--.I of I.... ")(.ina: of Kiftp." AI the <!nd of 6""
months. tIw: ItWlropolitan ...-as able lO eKape from
M;t;s.oa_.wnu monu
10 the aid of the of Dab",
Bizan....i.e.., 1M: also found a .efu,e and was .e-
joined by Abbi nwod..... aft.... the buer was able
10 buy his m-edom, It was in Si.e Ih.at tM mel....
polilan mel Negus lyy1.su II, and nnally. on 23 Terr
1738/A,D. 23 Jlnuary 1745, Yo!)anne. relUrned 10
Gonder. wh.,re he Wa5 able Ie assume all hi. func-
lion•.
So..... months laler. in Ihe coune of a campaign
in Tigre, 1yy6su II laid twld of a prelale ...i.o lOr
dghlctll _tits had passed himself oIJ .. the met·
ropoIitan of Ethiopia. ~"* \he protection of
Mill'e! Sel}u1, lhis ......per had """" 0ttUpted Addi
Abun. near Ad...... a lief of th<! metropol:iull in
Ttgre. He -.. a S,'rian priesl who declared he had
rttei,'ed lhe cha.ra., of metropolitan of Ethiopia
from th.. hatlds oIlhe palriarch of Antioch, and Ihis
although tM lauer had ne"er had jurisdklion over
Ethiopian lenilOry. Taken 10 Gonder. Ihis usu'l"'r
wa5 judged in Ih" pTesence of Abuna Yob"nne. III
and condemned to the amputation of hi. righl hand
(lbe hand, lhe chronkler specifies, will. which "he
had dared 10 conse<:l'Ite in Tig.., the llhot of so
ETHIOPIAN PRELATES 1029
many churches and 10 ordain so many priests,; but
the Nt'gUS remined Ibis penally. limiti.., himself 10
eIpelling him from 1M country (l'ebruar)- 1747).
in 1750. Nqus l)')"bu II.•ogethe. wilh Quttn
MeOiewwab. his mOlher and COre,enl oIlhe kinl'
c\o .... decided to summon from abl'Olld some Cad,.,.
lie missionaries. The e..ol purpose of this i. nO!
known, only lbal Ihe negus asked for missionaries
equipped wilb cenain qualities (Ihey had 10 be
skillo<! arnlWlS, ha~ medical knowledle, and be
1000:1 lhoeolo«ianl), It was Ihus lluol In March 1752
three Fnnciscan missionaries arriwd al Ihe COUll
of GondeT-lwo Cuch•• R"medius Pnotltyand M....
tin WIg. ace<>mpUlloed 1»' Anlony of Al~... Syri·
an who serwd AI their inte~•. Natun>lly u.e
Fr.ano::tseans nourished the hope of r«onciling the
coun of Ethiopia with the Roman church.. bul Abu-
na Yo/:Iannes III, supported by the Ethiopian clergy.
inlerveno<! vil_ly befor'" the negus and had Ihe
Calholic missionaries eIpelled from Ihe counlry.
On 24 SaM 1747 (~.D. 25 June 1755). lmmedialely
aher Ihe death of lyylsu n, Ihe m"'lropolitan pro·
ceeded to Ihe coronalion of his son, NellIS 1)')'0'"
I. wbo acceded 10 the throne at an early age under
the guardianship of hi. gnndmolher Menlewwti>.
On 2" Mi)'*z}'1I 1750 (AD. 30 April 1758). YoI)annes
Ill. accompanied by lhe ~?agt H~ok, abbot of the
monu of .he ordtr founded 1»' Abuna Takb.
Hi)"IIdnol;• ....w. present al Gonde. al the tnMJation
of the bones of Nep Ballilfi and Neaus 1)Ybl1l.
orde~ by Quee-n Menlewwib; 1M remalm d 1M
1_ ~..,iP'S _~ l1'aJUferTed from lhe church 01
Abuna Tub HJiymlnol lO lhat of o.b", ~. m
Ihe presence. and whh 1M ble$Sinlo of 1M met....
politan.
In Ihe last months of hi. life, Yol)lnnes III had 10
lntel"o'ene in evenlS important for the ....ligious hi.·
lOry of Ethiopia. A monk named E!ale formulated a
new docl";"", lhal provoked "iok"l reactions
among the ....... br derv (see ~low); the melro-
politan condemned this leachinl at; helerodo>. and
ocommunicaled Batt. a10,,& wilh his panisans.
Those excommunicated look refuge in WiJ<ld>llQ,
when tbrir l<!'achinl ..,...,..s ""f'idly. ~nding
from there 10 other tenilories. Sin~ lh.. sequel '0
~ evenlS unfolded after the death of Yol)annes
III bul bdon: lhe arrival of his successor in Ethio-
pia and since il had wide upercusoions. II is appro-
priate 10 gi,.., I summary here: having rallied to the
new t.aching. lhe e~~",t H~nok was analrn,malized
by a pan of lhe Elhiopian d.rg:,'. He appealed Ie
lhe Coplic palnareh NARK Vll (1745-1769). who in
his leller 01 "'Ply could only connnn lhe doclrinal
1030 ETHIOPIAN PRELATES
pasition of the Coptic ehurch and eondemn the
new teaehing. H~nol: was then deposed by the der-
gy, but peace did not return to the eountry, where
the new doetrine was to be the subjed of diseus-
sion for a long time.
The doetrine condemned by Yohannes III is that
of Ya-faggd lei (Son by Grace). aeeording to which.
sinee the IncaTTlation of Jesu. took plaee by \'irtue
of the grace of the Holy Spirit, it would be right to
say that Jesus is Son by Grace. Later there aro..,
another do<:trine often considered as derived from
the first-the doetrine of sosl ledal (three bil1h.),
according to which Jesus had three bil1hs: 6rst of
all the eternal one, which eame from the Father;
then the human birth, which occurred through the
Virgin Mary: and finally that which the grace of the
Holy Spirit conferred upon him. As for the teaching
recalled by the Coptic patriarch, it received in Ethi-
"pia the name of kMra (knife) for reasons that are
not clear, perhaps because of the trenchant tcrms
used by the patriarch Mark VII in his letter. The
te~t of this leiter .eems lo.t, but one presumes that
the Coptic patriarch then confirmed the traditional
doctrine of the Ale""ndrian church, specifying that
one could attribute to Jesus only two birth" the
eternal one and that received from the Holy Virgin.
Yo~annes III was pre,ent only at the beginning
of these religiou.< controversies, for he died on 10
KhedAr 1754 (A.n. 15 No"ember ;761): in giving Ihis
date, the chronicle of Negus Ino'as add. that this
metropolitan was buried in the Quddu. Gabr'tl
church al Gonder, He had as successor Abuna Yo-
sAb II, who arrived in Ethiopia eighl years later.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Bruce, J. Trav~ls to Diseovu lhe SOl<ra of the Nile
i~ the Yea's 1768, /769, 177fJ. /771,1772 aMd
1773, V<>I. 2, pp. 642-47. Edinburgh, 1790
Cerulli, E, "Gli Abba4 di Dabra Libano" capi del
monachismo etiopi<;o, ..,condo Ie Ii"e recenti
(sec, XVIII-XX)," Orlmwlia 14 (1945):153.
Crummey. D. P,ies!S and Polilic;ans: PrOltSIOMI oMd
Calholic Missions I" Orlhodax Elhiapia, 1830-
1868, pp, 20-24. Odord, 1972.
Guidi, L "Le liste de; m.lropolit; d'Abissillia," Bes-
saria"e 6, ser. 1 (1899);13, n. 4.
_ _. "Uno squarcio di storia eeclesiastica di Al>-
i"inia." Beuario"e 8, ser. 1 (1900):20-24.
___. Annales R~gum ly4sl< ff ellyo'oJ, In cseo
66, pp. 126-30, 147-50, 181-82, 195-96,207-
209. Lottvain, 1912.
Kolmodin, J, TYadllio~. de Tsaa,ega el Haa,eg.: An-
~ales 21 d".:umOMI, 3, p. A44. Uppsaia, 1914.
Maly, Z, "The \'isit of Mal1in Lang, C,-ech Fr~~cis,
can, in Gondar in 1752." JOl<mal af EIIliopia"
Siudies 10, no, 2 (1972):17-25.
Raineri, O. "La breve rel""ione del '''"ggi" in Etiop-
ia di R.medio Protk)' ~rilta il 15,12,1756." Q"o_
da'" d, 'Iud; ellopic! 3-4 (1982-1983):189-90,
vosAn II (d_ 1803)
Yos~b'. metropolitanate included lhe first part of
the period called the Age of the Princes (Zoma"a
Ma,alenl, 1769-1855). During this period the Ethio-
pian state declined to ils lowest level. The kingdom
was from this time infiltrated al every poinl by the
people of Oromo (or G~II~), Quarrelsome and plun-
d"ring regional chiefs disputed the wreckage of
power, ",hile the negus b<:longing to Ihe so-called
SoIomonic d}'nasly declined 10 the rank of nominal
so.ereign, a puppet king maintaining himself on thc
Ihrone only with the suppon of a regent prOleetor.
In this anarchy, and for want of the suppott of the
Ihro~e, the exerdse of the duties of the metropoli·
tan became arduous, and YosAb 11 had to suffer the
consequences of this SIale of affairs.
Yosllb arri.'ed in Ethiopia 10ward the beginning
of 1770, in the reign of Negus Takla H~ymanol 11
(1769-1777), when the "Protector of the Throne"
was the .,ls MiU'~1 Schul, <:hid of Tigre and effe<:-
tive masler of the kingdom. At the time of Yosab
II's ani."I, the ras MiU'tl tried 10 induce him to
fi~ his seal in Tigre, but after some time, Ihe metro-
politan decided to go to Gonder, which he entered
on 13 Sanf 1762 in Ihe Ethiopian calendar (A,D, 18
June 1770). From then on, during more than thitty·
three years, Yo",b 1l was in,'olwd in the even" of
the religious and political life of n state in decom-
position, s.,.eral items of informatio~ about his
episcopate survive, but the}' give only a fragmel11ary
picture, for they come aoove all from the ropl
chronicle of this period, an incoherent text wrinen
by several different hands. Thus, there is a deal1h of
information aboul the first part of his episcopale,
which unfolded during the reign of Negus Salomon
II (1777-1779) and the first reign of Takia Giyorgis
I (1779-1784), a sovereign whom eircumsta~"'es
were to bring 10 the occupancy of the throne of
Ethiopia si, times owr. It is known only that the
m.tropolitan took part in the CHemOn} that
mark.d Ih. aece..ion to the throne of Negus Iy}",su
III (l784-1788).
In 1792, during the reign of Negus He"ley~s
(1789-1794), YosAb II, suppol100 by the e\'qQg<
Walda Iyyasu,. aboot of the monks forming the or-

cItr of Takla HlymlnOl. and by certain notables.
took lbe lead In a mo._en' of <tact>on aplnsl .M
inllumce oJ Ihe Oromo. "too lad In'lIralN even
inoo .IM: lillie ...hninislra.ion. This movemenl de-
mandf<I dw nwerial sepandion oJ the Chrislians
from the On:>mo. who -..., blamicized or onen
..U potpnS: bou !he lIIO"'emenl came 10 nothin,
"'"""'..... 01 !he lack of cohes>on among its pmtTtO'l·
en.. The inddenl ""as 10 end with a ruondliation
bttwttn Chrislian. and Ommo.
Toward the hqi"nin,l of 1795. during 11M: .him
mp. of Tula GIyorp I (1794-1795), Walda Ca~
r'~. chief of Tilre and 50n of the ,4s MiU·t! Se~ul,
anacked Ihc nCJUS i" his "cry palace: at COftder:
peace could only be p",,"",n-ed by !he inle~nlion
of !he mctropolilan. Shonl)' alierwan!. on 12 Gen·
boo 1187 (.... 0. 18 May 1795) al CondeT. YosAb 11
crown~ Neaus Ba·e<J.a M~rylm II. ",ho how<:,..r
reigned only a fe.... monlm (May 179S-De<:em~r
1195).
When Negu~ Yon<\.< w~ deposed al lhe end of a
very .hon re;fn (August 1797-January 1798), he
look refugc in the house of lh.. metropolitan. a
place .. njo)'ing th.. right of asylum ..... hlle N..gu.
Tullo Giyorgls 1 r..occupied lite lhrone for lhe Gllh
11m.. (January 1798-May 1799). Shonly ahcrward.
lhis negus was Ihreatencd~' a rebel named W.~d,,:
a1lhoo.ah ..~communkal~ ~. Ihe metropolitan Yo-
s.lb II and by Ih.. JII:W ..~~..J:C'. Walda Yon;\. WlI)du
~ to bnak in.o .ltc 111Clropo~lan·. 1'Iowoe to
possess himKlf of NeEU5 YaNs. whom he coun~
on rqllacinl on I"" lhrone at his own d.isposal. He
..... """"ewr. 5llrprised 10 dJ$o,o,~ Uu.l Tub Go.
yo,p I had pn'CM..d hi",: he had taken pon=;"n
of !he penon of YaNs 00 lr.UtSpOr1 him e~.
This vioIat.ion of I"" right of asylum. an in~o;:a.ion
of I.... dn:adtnce of !he d}"na<>y and of oM decline
in lite presliJe atlaching 10 th.. c~ of melmpoli-
&an. For his pan. ~ . Y~ II did all On h.
powe-r to arresl .hat decline. and h;,. lOCuan ~
ICred oome$Ucc-. T~ the tndof 1799. dul'
i... 1he finl rei&" of Nep·ne"'ejro. (Jun~ 119'9-
~h l&CIOt """,iii: Q_~. chief of a pagan Oro-
mo u;~. adoia...,ed '''''.... d'COnder al .he head of
his l~; In th.. g.. nenl disaml.Y. Yos.ib II Yen·
lured 10 10 OUI to meet Amadt and addr~ 10
him a finn and very dlgnlfi~ spttch. ilS a resull of
...-hich Amadt rellOlJ""~ lhe plu~derinll of Ih~ c.p·
lllll and ....lthdrew his lroops,
Toward Ihe beginni~g of Ihe reign of NelUI Ea'
dla $cyan. called Gwalu, a nominal s(,"crelan in.
veited wilh lh" 1111.. King of Kinl' from Jun .. 1801
to Jun.. 1118. th.. Chrl~tological quanel blued up
ETHIOPIAN PRElATES 1031
anew. The ~~.fI Walda Yona adhered 10 lhe doc·
lrine of sr>Sl "'d~1 (.hR:e birthe). and Y""'b II. failh-
lUI 10 the prindpl.Q of Ih~ CopIk chun::h. did not
hesi""" to "U:O"'munical" him: .htn. in the hope
of ..ndinC lhe quarrel, which cGnlinued to lear the
E1hiopian ckrzy apart. the me.mpoIitan Iried. to
impos.e the doclrin" of I".b kdlll (."", binhs) by
IaunchinC a lC""ra1 "_m,,nication """'1
those ",+>0 sh:a.>ld nol ha,~ adopIed it. But a I~
all
pan of the c1erJy rebelle.l and caulled Ihe l1>Clro-
poIitan to ~ WIed 10 an island on Lake T..... 0kI
and weary, and n'COI"irins thai it ...... impossible
for him to hrinll.l"nua1 reconcili3tion in,O d1CC1.
Yodh II ended by .... lrac.inC lh.. e~communin.tion:
"Sinc.. an .he world admbs In JeiUS • unique na·
I"..... ..,. I admit m~lf. Ie. ~ach one remain in hi.
"'•..., belief:' His episcopal ....1 ......,. Ihen restored.o
him.
According to Ihe royal chronicle. Abuna Yosa.b II
di..d on I M..,karam 1796 (.... 0. II September 1803)
and"""" buried at Conder In lite Ouddu. Gabr'tl
church. According 10 some tradlllons. a w.... k after
his death. towan! mldnighl. a h..av..nly light de-
scended on hi. lomb. as If to confirm the sanctity of
his long episcopale. As for lhe e?~~it Walda Yon;\.
immediale1y aftor Yosib'. dealh h" in hi. lurn im·
pose<! excommunicalion on all lhote who had noc
followed lite doclrine of the .hree binn., hul the
doclrinal quarrel ..... deslin~ 10 con,inue for a
lonllime after.
II may be noled .....1 a few days after !he de,"h of
YosAb II dlli~fl~ (1.leT r4s) ~ an Drama
from Y,q;., 0 in !hal am" year became ··PrtMec-
lor of lite Thron..... wok p<lfHsslon of the m.. tro-
polltan's ll"""is on !h.. p..... a l .hat lhey ""ere 10
""tn to CO\'er the ~ of obtainin, from !he Cop-
lic patriarchale a ....... metropolitan. This ac60n
_ scarcdy p1.ewin,l to I"" chid of TI~. the nb
Walda $.ollW...'no decided .0 march on Gonder
with hil; IroOpS. Caughl una res. Gugd made
haste 10 pay t»"CT 10 him 6, hun~ ounus or
gold in the &Wse of compensalion for "'.. metropol·
itan's goods conliocaled by him. In 1805. Walda
$.oIIW related .0 lhe Bri.ish ....,...I"r Hen!)' Salt
lhat 10 Ihis ""m he had adde<l ITom hil; own funds a
COftsidernble amounl and lhal he had sent the
....hol.. M the Coplic palriarcha.e "';th I"" obje<:t of
obtaining the ne.... melropolitan. This story of Wal·
da Sell~se probably conllin~ lhe explanalion of a
hisMrical problem: SOme lradltional lisls 01 the
metropolitans of Ethiopia Indteale as suce.....or 10
YosJib n a prelale called Maq.ryos (Ma.carius). of
whom tlw,>re i. no lra<:e In olller docum ..." .., One of
1032 ETHIOPIAN PREUTES
th<:!of; lists ..tds thai "Maqityoo: died en 1"O.."e, alie~
his disernbarking. bdore he had beaun 1o orcbin
the prieots.. .. This is probably ~ metropoliun reo
quesled by Walda Senw aboo, 180S, In any caw,
$ince ~ neve~ bf.gu1 10 nereiw: his fum:liOflS,
Maq1r)oo5 Cannell ~ counted :ornon,&he metropoli·
u.ns of 1M chun:.h of Elhiopia..
The su"",...,... of Yosib II ...., Abo.>Illl atrelos II,
.....
..i>O "'as likewi>e ~ed by rm Tb WaJd.I Set·
81I:1UOGaAPHY
Abi~, M. Elmop",: The t::... 01 flte Pri.. ces-The
CI.afle"ge oll,{"", a"d ,he Re.omi(k.tfo" of Ihe
eh";'I,.." Empire. 17rSlJ_I~55, pp.. 31-32, 40-41.
London, 19611.
Blundell. H. W. The RO}'./ Chr,micle of Abynin""
/7rSlJ-/8>W, pp. 226, 275, 277. 303, 342, 357, 397,
421-22.431. 433. 448_54, 458. 460, 464, 466.
474_75.480. Carnbridge, 1922.
Cerulli. E. "Gli abbali di Dabra LlbanOl, capi del
rnonachismo eliopico. secondo Ie lIste re<:enti
(sec, XVlII-XXj."' Onelllo/i. 14 (1945):155-56.
Crummey, D. Prie.l. ana Polilidons: P",'es'anl .. "a
C"lholic Mission. in Orlhodox £Ih",pio, /830-
/868, Pl'· 23-25. Oxford. 1972-
Guidi, I. "1£ li....e d",i metropoliti di AbifSin"'"' Bu·
.orione 6,""" I (1899):lJ-14.
Ross.inl. C. C. "La cro~ ,..,.Ie ablsslna cbl1'anr>o
1800 :dl'anno 1S40."' RePldiconri dell.. Real, Ae-
,..
('IIde",ia <hi lineei 25, M:~. 5 (1916):862-63, 872-
Takla·JUpnar.ol do Menuih, A. "Vicer>ck deWEl~
opilI e dtll.. missioni olloliche ai lempi di ....
Ali, depc ....... e re Teodo<o." Inns. C. Rossini
Rmdiconfi della Re..k AccadernNl del u..eei 25,
MOr. 5 (19Iii):443.
Valentia, G. V."..,u ,,,,,J
T,,,,'~I. ,., Indi., Ceykm,
lite IUd Sea, Abyssi"i<l alld EOp. iPI th YUTS
l8iJl. /8iJJ, 1BD4. /805 .TUIIItJ6, Vol. J. pp. f2~
Q£ULOS II (d. 1828)
.
O,209-210.4>ndon, lS09,
at,...."" be<:~ rne<ropoliLan durin, the AM" of
!he Princes (Z../llana Mas4./e'", 1796- 1855), a peri.
od during .....hkh Ihe Ethiopian scate sank Imo ana~·
chy. Powerless to conlrol Ih.. V1IriOU' ~Bional
chim. the sove",igns of lhe Solomonk dyn3$ly
~i8ned 0Il1)' nominally, Ihe counlry being in facI al
the me'9 of a "PrOleclO~ of Ihe Throne," Ihe mili·
Iary chid mosl powerlul among lhose who di.puled
for Sl.'l'llp$ of power.
Infonnation aboul Otrdos II and hi. epi.-:opale
comes primarily from the roy.l chronlcl .. of Ethio-
pia fo~ the yean; 1800- 1840. But .ince 11 il m.g.
menrary. this information Ii""" only an incOinplel"
pklure. A new rnc1ropolitan had bc:c:n requesled by
me r40 WaJ<b SaIIJost. lord d n&",. who "'as mak·
ml h~ S'"Cond request 10 this ...-.d. for 1= }"f:aO
earlier (a linle before 1805) his fiBt allemp! 10 fill
!he W>id kft b)' I~ c1eath of ..... Abu.... Y<llIib II had
J>(It suuHded. This loeCond anempl ha.d a &.w>~r
resuh: in !he 00l.U'SC 0{ the )'UT 1815. !he Coptic
patriarch I"£TU VI (1809-1852) named and oon5'"
cralN fo~ Edtiopia a monk callilit': him... lf Qhdoo•
..-110 rmclled W-.... in NoYCn>b..r of the same
yea,- and rJ'l&de his mIry to ta!aQot, ..... residence
of Ihe,4o walda SelJAst, On J YaUlriI 1808 in .....
Ethiopian calendar 1"-0. 10 february 1816), or a
Jilll", ~fore lhe death of the old Tils, .....hich wok
pl::lce on 24 Genbot (JI May) of rm same year.
0tTekn. 11 bepn by reskli"ll in Tigre for about
Ihree ~a1S. but withoul winning lhe hearts of hif,
flock. Meanwhile. al Con<ler I""'re gr.ew a need for
the alll"', for .ine. the d""lh of Yosab II, there had
nol httn in Ihe capital any ordinalions of priests or
eonsecralions of new ~ .. II<lt (slabs). (In lhe Elh·
iopian church the felili. placed in Ihe Mhot, i. the
movable .hdf of th.. ahar with Ih.. len command·
ments inscribed on il. and its con",cl"ation by the
bishop nu.k... a holy pIa.... of lhe n.. w church in
..-h.kh this shelf is plilCed.) Summonod hy Nrgus
Iyyo'u II (1818-11U1) and hy !he rois Gugsi, who
"'as ProleclOr of ..... Throne, ~~elos II wenl lO
Gonder. where he made his corry on 17 Sant 1811
(A.o. 2J June 1811J). and b.-pn by onbinillt': many
priests and oomeaadnl5e>'enollllho<. But his co....
iJIg launched al Cionde~ a revival of the ChrisloJosi'-
cal quarrel: the ~ y olthe monks of ..... capilal
foIlOW'fd lhe doctrin. 0{ Ya-f'lUf kj (Son by
Gnce) and &he doctrine of >CUI ledQl (lh...... births),
bul when it ...., demanded of Qt",los; 11 thai he
make knowu his ........ On rm sub;ea, be could not
avoid. l'Oj«lin, these doctrines and ucommunicat·
iIll Ihnse ..ito followed th.-m. Since !he c1erJY of
~ capiuJ pI'Otwed vigorously apinsr. th.. me<ro-
pollun's decioionJ:, it ..-as dec>ded 10 submil the
questions 10 a synod held u Gonde~ in the p .......nce
of Nr-gus Iyy<:>'u II, toward ..... !>epninB of 1820.
"The defende~ 0{ Ihe lheses con<kmned by Ih.. met·
ropoIitan ..... tho .bboI 0{ Ihe monasllc order
founded by TaU, HAymAnOl, th.. r~? ..gt Walda
Yon:;, lhe fo.nner ~erce adversary of lhe Abuna Yo-
sAb II. Before lhe Iynod. tn., metropolitan could
only cC>n~nn the doctrine of 1;4m1 (knife), whkh
was Ihal prescribed by Ihe Coptic !",triarchate and
had be.. n defended by his lwo p~ede<;e..or'l>. Harsh·
ly attacked by the ad.'ersaries, the me<ropolilan llSl:;.
ed for a d..lay to amwe,. all ..... objections, He was

then asked to begin by ret""'ting the gene",1 «.
communication he had launched, but as won as he
had pronounced this retraction, he was himsdf ex-
communicated by Walda YonA and expelled from
Gonder by order of the negus and the Protector of
the Throne, Qhelos II retired again to Tigre, where
from that time he resided until his death.
In TIgre, the period of confusion that had fol-
lowed the death of the r~s Walda Sellast came to
an end when one of his lieutenants, the doii~Vf'IU:
SabflgAdis, was able to seile the power. The majori-
ly of the clergy of Tigre then .upponed the doctrine
of unction, bm Sabagadis, acting abo~e all On politi-
cal consideralions, decided to adhere to the princi-
ples defended by the metropolitan, that is, the doc-
trine of karT", This friendly underslanding proved
advanugeous for both pani",,; immedialely most of
the clergy of Tigre followed the example of SabAg-
Itdis, The religious who did not allow themselves to
be con~inced were expelled and took refuge at
Gonder, On his side, the metropolitan obtained sev-
eral material advantag"" from his suppon of Sabag,
adis, But some time later, relations between the
two men deleriorated, so much so that when the
metropolitan suddenly disappeared, the rumor
spread lhat he was dead and that his death was due
to poisoning ordered by SaMgadis, The grounds for
this rumor s""m questionable, Abba Takla HAym'
1001 of Memsah, a priest who, after ha~ing adhered
to Catholicism, wrote a kind of history of this peri·
od, recorded another version of the metropolitan's
death, Qtrdos II is said 10 ha~c been poisoned by
the awlt Taklu, a local chief and vassal of SabAg,
ldis, because he co\'eted certain lando of the village
of Addi Abun, a traditional fief of the metropolitans,
and had experienced violenl disputes with the met·
ropolitac,
The e'act date of his death is not known, but
since the royal chronicle ~tates thaI his episcopate
lasted for ahout thineen ~,one may deduce lhat
Qtrelos 11 died toward the,end of 1828. After his
death, Elhiopia remained on'ce more without a met'
ropolitan for about thineen,'years, until the arrival
in 1841 of Abuna SalAm1 Ill,
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Abir, M, Elhiopia: The Era 01 Ihe Princes-The
Challenge of fslam a'la Ihe Re,uni{ical;on of Ihe
Chris/ian Empire, /769_1855, pp, 32, 35, 41-41,
london, 1968,
CelUlli, E. "Gli abbati di Dabra Libanos, capi del
monachismo eliopico, secondo Ie liste recenti
(,ec, XVlll-XX)," Orienlafia IS (1945):155-56,
ETHIOPIAN PRELATES 1033
Crummey, D. Priests and Politicians: PrOleS/aM! and
C"rhofic Missions in Orlhodor Erhiopia, 1830-
1868, pp, 26, 34, 83, Oxford, 1972,
wbat, S, Journal af a Three Yo",,' Residence in
Ah"S$in;a, p. 349. london, \934.
Guidi, I. "Lo liste dei metropoli\i d'Abi..inia." Bes·
sarim" 6, ser, 1 (1899):14,
_ _~. "La chiesa abissina." Orimle Moderno 1
(1922)'189-90,
,,,,d
Halls, J. J.. ed, Tho Life Adwnlures of Nalht",!el
PieFce Writ/en by Himself During a Residena in
Abys>inia fmm Ihe Yeo'S /8;0 10 18i9, Vol. 2, pp,
53-78,129-32, 135-36, 148-49, 156-58, 166-69,
199-210,217,220-22,231-35,263-66. London,
1831.
Rochet d'H/:ricoun, C. F, X, Second Voyage .,'ur les
deux ..i ves de 10 mer Rouge, dans Ie pays des Adels
el/e royaume du Chotl, pp. 222-23. Paris, 1846,
Rossini, C. DtK:umenlO ad /IIuslrandam Hisw..iam,
Vol, 2, Liber ,humae, In CSCO 58, p, 66, lou~ain,
1954,
_ _~, "La cronaca reale abissina dall'anno 1800
a1l'.nno 1840:' Rendicom; della Reale !tccadem;o
del Lincei 25, seT. 5 (1916):889-93, 8%,
_ _~. "Nuovi documenti per la Slona d'Abis.inia
nel secolo XIX:' Rend!conl; dei/a Reaf. Accodem'
ia de! Lined 2, ser. 8 (1947):362-65,
TaUa-Htorulnot da Memsah, A. "Vicende dell'Etiop,
ia e delle missioni cauoliche ai tempi di !'as Ali,
deggiac Ubi/: e re Teodoro:' trans, C. Rossini.
Rend!canl! della Reale Ace4dem;a de; Unce! 25,
ser, 5 (1916):444-45, 460-61.
SALAMA III (d, 1867)
SaI~m1 served as metropolilan loward the end 01
the period of anarchy called Zom~n~ Mosdfenl, or
Age of the Princes (1769-1855), and during the
reign of Negus Uwodros II (1855-1868). "'ftor the
death of Abuna O~relos II in 1828, Ethiopia re,
mained without a metropolitan for nearly thineen
years. The political power was then parceled out
among various pretenders: in nonhero Ethiopia the
dnjjJVf'Jc SabAg.idis, chief of Tigre, h.d entere<l
into confliCI against the daiia<.mM We~ Khayla
MA')'Am, chief of Semen, but had been defeated and
killed in February 1831: having become lord of the
united Tigre and s.;,m~n, Wel* nourished great am'
bitions: knowing that the Protector of the Throne at
Gonder, the ,<Is Ali II, an Oromo originating from
Yajju and nominally a Chri,tian, was in no hurry to
r\'<luest a new rnetTopoliuon frorn Cairo because the
Christological doctrines of the clergy of Gonder dif,
fered from those of the Coptic palriarchate, Webe
himself sent to Egypl a requesl for a new metropoli-
tan, In facI, since the dOClrine of the clergy of Tigre
....-as in confonnily with that of the p.triarchale,
1034 ETHIOPIAN PRElATES
Web.': counted on availing himself of Ihe pr",lige
atUlChed to the metropolitanate to supplant the he·
gemony of the T<lS Ali II and prepare for his own
ascent toward the supreme throne. Web.':'s delega·
tion to Egypt was accompanied by a Catholic priest,
Monsignor Giustino de Jacobis, a lazarisl.
The Coptic patriarch rETEll Vll (1809-1852) con·
sec rated fOT Ethiopia a >'cry young monk named
AndraWlls, who had frequented the Protestant
school opened in Cairo in 1826 by the Church Mis'
sionary Society of England, which explains the in·
clination thi. prelate later had for the Protestant
missionaries in Ethiopia. Barely a scOre of year:< in
age, the new metropolitan took the name Sal;!.m;!.
1Il in honor of the first bishop of the Ethiopian
church, Se,'eral Europeans were present at the first
steps of this metropolitan in Ethiopia and have left
accounts of the period, Sal~m;!. reached AdwA, the
principal seat of Web{" on 19 November 184l; he
was there receh'ed with pomp, but this first phase
of his episcopate was ,'ery shon, in Febmary 1842,
Web.':, accompanied by the abun, invaded the
Bag~mder and marched on Dabra TAbor, seal of the
r<ls Ali, where he was defeated.
SalAmA fen into the hands of the vicwr, who de-
cided to use him at Gonde" where the metropoli·
tan made his entry on 25 February. But there the
metropolitan ran into grave difficulties, for the ma-
jority of the clergy of the capital followed Christo·
logical doctrines contrary to those of the patriar·
chate. (n panicula" the most prestigious of the
monastic orders, that founded by the sainted Takla
HayrnAr>ot, followed the doctrine of Ya'~aU<l Ie;
(Son by Grace). Salama III "'as not long in ,ebel·
ling against this situation, and excommunicated
both the e~~ag~ MAh'f"ntu and his chief panisan,
the king SAhla Sel1W, lord of $hewa. the ,egion in
which was .ituated Dabra LibAnos, the principal
mon"'tery of the order.
The crisis reacl\yJ its h.ight in 1846 when the
almn was summoned 10 revoke the excommunica-
tions he had launched. SalamA refused, and so the
monks ma""hed o~ the metropolitan's house and
,'iolated its Inditional right of asylum. Salama was
then al'rested and exiled to Tigre (3 June 1846) by
o_de, of the eltg' (qu.en, or wife of a king) Manan,
who was anxious to presen'e order. Manan was Ihe
mother of the ras Ali II and govemw the capital
after having espoused in a second marriage the ne·
gus Yol)annes Ill, nominal sovereign of Gender,
In Tigre, the metropolitan ",as once again fa,'ora-
bly ,,'eleomed by We~, who, encouraged by his
presence, reopened hostilities against tile r<ls Ali.
But Web<! was once again defeated, and hi. rela·
tions with SalamA. were not slow to deteriorate. [n
fact, Webt tended to favor tbe CathoHc missiona...
ies (the lazarislS), in the hope that by so doing,
France would suppon his designs on the sup""me
throne. SaiAmA nourished so profound an aversion
for the Catholic missions that he ended by main·
taining ,elations with Webt's adversaries. In 1847
the metropolitan prudently retired to Dab.... Damo,
a monastery hewn out of rock, with a very difficult
access, and excommunicated Web~. In reprisal,
Webt seized the goods and the fief. of the metro·
politan, but toward the end of 1848, recognizing the
impossibility of realizing his ambitions without the
metropolitan'S support, Webt went 10 Dabra DAmo,
where he succeeded in effecting a reconciliation
with SalAmA, Webt then had to fulfil the condition
thai SaiAmA had imposed on him: the expulsion
from Tigre of the Calholic missionaries.
Meanwhile, there rose the star of Klisa Khaylu
(the future King of Kings nwodros 11), who passed
rapidly from ,uccess to success, SO mucn so tnat by
1850 ne ranked as the principal ad,'ersary of the ras
Aii, One may deduce from the documents available
tnat from l$49 KAs! lehaylu had allied himself with
tne metropolitan and passed fo, a panisan of the
Christological doctrine defended by SalAmA. Eacn
of the two allies drew from this understanding the
anticipated prof"s, After eliminating one aft.r an-
Olher almost all his adwrsaries, including Ihe rds
Ali n, K:i~ summoned SalAmA, who returned to
Gender on I June 1854. Shonly aft."",,,,rd, under
Ka~'s auspices, the new e«age became reconciled
with the metropolitan, Finally, KAsli convened at
AmbA (':An\, not far from Gonder, a council of th.
representatives of the ""rious d(>Ctrinal tendencies.
The councH confinned the Unionist d(>Ctrine, which
"'as the one defended by the metropolitan, and ,e·
jected the comrary Ihesis. In conclusion, on 19 Au·
gust 1854, KAsA proclaimed as official the doctrine
adopted by the council. while SalAmA. ,olemnly
anathematized all the contra\)' doctrines. Having
thus restored unity to the bosom of Ihe clergy, KAsa
prepared 10 combat his 13.<t adversary, Webt. He
imaded Semen, we1x's traditional fief, and the Iat-
Ie, hastened from Tigre. At the confrontalion that
took place at Darasge on 9 February 1855. Web<!
was dedsively defeated, and the victo, had himself
anointed King of Kings by SaIAm.li in the church of
Da=gt M~ryam, nea~ the held of banlc. The new
sovereign of Ethiopia then took the royal name of
nwodros II.
[n return for the suppon furnished 10 !Usa at th.

tilllt of his ....inning Ihe throne, Salimi ~ ob,
tained from him the promise that he would suppon
him in his Slrugde against h .. two pril\eipal ~,.,.
sarles: the Ir<lUJI5 of monks ...·ho conlinued 10 de·
fnId the """'Ihematittd doctrines and lhe Catholic
~ II ....... lhus thai Sal1mi lim accompa·
rtitd T",'Ol!roo 10 Sbewa ...-here 1M Kin, of Kinp,
hm......bjected thai rcpon. imJ"'l'5ed .... an the
local dOl"l)' 1M 08ic0al CltrisroIopeal Oo<;lrine. In
Iddilion, Sal~ had lhe L:a>arist bishop Glust:ino
de JKoOls eJlpellcd from Gonder, lOI<I'Ihu .... i!h Ihe
<.>tMr Catholic missionaries; funher, he JUCc-.kd
in pon,gdin, Tboiod.... to ~lcome ..'ilh good.... ill
Klme l'rol:eslant missionarin. Bill Sallmf,'s hoslility
10 RomIon Calholic..", ....Iy rendered .none con·
cr<1e 1M suppon furn"hed by F""nce to 1M Calho-
lic missionaries and indirecli)" intensified Ihe !Ill>"
pon fumfshed by Crt~'al Britain 10 Ihe Protestant
missionaries and 10 SaIAm~. ThLl~, from Ihe hegin·
ning of lhe reign of nwodTo~ II. Ihere arose a
climate of lenslon between the negus and Ihe mel-
ropolilan.
The relations between SalAmA and nwodros.
""'ich had never bee" perfecl, were nOI long in
detenorallng because Ihe sovereiln's ,real polhical
pLon COnlrtiled with the interest! of the Elhlopian
church: nwodros, "..bo never concea.led hi. con·
lemp4 for the cle'lD', dnamed o£ creal in, a p<.O"""1'"
ful empiu, equipped wilh a llll"g<' ""'Iional army,
....hich would h..-e allowed him to subdue any ad-
nrury and 10 repel Isbm once and loT all. He
counted on ralizin& this plan by ulilizin, lhe
raotITCti of Ihe church and T<:<Lei", its influence
on the Ethiopian J'O'OPk.. This desi&n could not be
acceped by SaIlml. The rioknl and ~to.>s
Chanoclt<' of nwud.... contn"bul<'d 10 the creallon
of a rupture bec...-een lhe negus and the mt:lropoll·
caD. lhil rupcure became evidenl al the end of IIS6
III the lime of the visil "? Ethiopia by Ihe Coptic
palriuch c·,aa. tv (lSS4~ 1.\61)-
This ..'as a visit 0111 of the ordinary on IWO
I"""nds: fi~, because th~ was the 6.~ lirnOl thaI a
Copt.., piluiarch had ~OOK" ~ E'.1hiopi:a and, second.
because CyrIl IV already knew Ethiopia, for he !wi
JOI>e lhere in 18SO when he was called only Dfowiid
and WlllI no more lhan lhe superi", of Ihe Monas-
I..y of SlIinl Anlony (IMn ANM ANTtlNI'lilI5). On thaI
earlier occasIon. he had been senl 10 Ethiopia by
lhe palrlarch PtTER Vll (1809-1852) with Ihe aim of
rc'ening Ihe effecls of a doclrinal order thaI had
sel Sal'm' III in opposition 10 pan o£ lhe clerc
and of askinS the n\'jUs 10 contribute 10 the e~pens'
es that the pa,niarchate had 10 bear at Jenllalem to
ETHIOPIAN PRELATES 1035
help !he Elhiopilln pilgrims. The de~b allhis first
mission are 001 knO"Wlt, bul aPl»-renlly it ..... un-
fruitfuL
The high Coptic prelate',..econd mission 10 Ethi·
opia proved full of incident. The ~menl$ a\'llil-
able llTl' silenl in ... prd to Ihe prec:o.e aims of the
mission, but !he hiw>ry of lhe Copes pennies some
deduclions. The vkeroy of Ei)pt, So.1d Pasha (l&54~
IllblJ. was inclined not 10 ?"l'We in the south 1M
policy of expansion adopted by his father, Mui}am-
mad 'Ali. He had IherefOre downp3ded the Egyp-
tilln adminislralion 0V1!" Sudanese lenitory and ,..,..
duce:d his army in IhOl Sudan 10 the levd of a
lem;bnn<:'rie. 1M$ policy presupposed a frif:ndly
policy on Ihe part of Emperor Tlwodros II, who,
bown-er, did nOl cease 1(> proclaim himsellihe ene-
my d lilam. Hence, Sa'id IhwJhI to send Cyril IV
10 TtwOOros wilh an oII"er of friendship.
The Coptic palriarch accepted Ih;,s mi.osion. for
he, too. Iuld II plan. In January 1856, wilh the aim
of forming a nDlionai army. Sa'ld had decl'C'ed thaI
all young CoplS, like younl Muslims, were 10 do
military service. The Copts, who for centuries had
been exempl from any milltary obligation. were
gready disturbed by Ihls decree. In which they '"'w
only an indirect ...·ay al pene<:uting lhem. Hence.
Cyril IV acCepled lhe mission In Ihe hope also of
inducing Tewodros to int"...... ne with Sa'id and ~I
hUn to ..,.... k<: the decree,
The t...'O objects of the mission were not altained:
indeed. il had lUUhs opposite 10 IhOK hoped fur.
FJOtn the lime of his iIlm.-aI in Ethiopia in Decem-
ber 1&56, the palriarch, in asree:menl with Aboma
Safmui ill, dMed ill 1£(ler in ",'bich Ttwodros. ac·
cep'lin& Sa'ld'. friendship, in\iled !lim 10""1easoe the
younc Copts enrolkd by bee in the E,;yptian army
and declared !limself disposed l<l receive fro",
EelJl a Clmain number of eMI and military "'wort-
en" (Ioday called "consultants"). Suspec:linlI that
C)'ril WM in the ...,.... ice ofS.id as a lop)' and nen a
secret agent 01 Islam, Ttwcdros ..,fused 10 sip;n the
letler. His rage became fully manifesl .....en Cyril
e~pressed Ihe de:'!i,.., 10 soee lhe neJUO'S lroops: <:<>n-
vinced of the justice of his _pidons.. Ttwodms
had Cyril IV and Salim! III impriooned. Then he
had Ihe patriarch'. bagglge soearched and plun·
dered. Five days laler. on 16 January IS57. folic ....,
ing Ihe inte....enlion althe Ethiopian cieri)', the,e
w;IS a public Dnd S<)lcmn reconcllialion. Recogni~.
ing thaI he had been too impulske, n ....odros libel'
ated the t .....o prelales Md allowed Cyril IV 10 bless
him, but Ihe pa,triarch ..... il$ K.rcely authorized 10
leave Elhiopia. In October of tIM: same year, f"Uo....-
1036 ETHIOPIAN PRELATES
ing a new di&P\ll~ wilh n ...'Odros. &limi publidy
","commllnicated all 1~ ...... had followed the
negus ,n his aclionJ conlrary 10 tM interests of lhe
d~rp. h ........ C)'t'il IV wbo pill an end 10 IhiJ new
crisis by raising lhe ~comm..nicalion, and litis. ;1
Is ~id. despil~ SallmA'J advice to lh~ conlrary.
Sho"ly ahe ......ard, the negus _horUcd the patri.
arch'l dcpa"u", (No~mber 18ST). and in bc:1 he
rr:lumed 10 ECYP' in ISSS.
SalIml'1 preslige con1inucd gnodually to d~d;n".
Tewodros influibly pIll'SUed the ~lizalion of his
gBnd ~ and especially his pbn aimed at re·
duting lhe p~ige of the church 10 male it an
insttumenl locally subject 10 lh~ JIak. Sioc~ SalmnI
and Ih~ cktzy had long JII1ven aplmR the proceed·
inp of tho: fWJUS. lhey -...ere accused of bcing !he
oriJin d all rniIl:anc:~ 10 T ~ ' authoriwian
rqime. Tbey "'Flied by often accl.lSinglhe " " p of
acling "like a MuJlfm.~ This lension reached iI5
hi&heJt poinl i.. 1864: kl'K»'oing thaI Sallml ........
maintaini.., nl:Wionl with his ll<!ftnarieo (no1abIy
Mendik. king of snn.... and Coba".lord of Wig).
Ttwod'06 had lhe m"'ropoli~ imprisooed (lCI lhe
..... (l'tKI\lnwn lop) of 1>bqdaU., me fl><>U.nl;tin on
wtUch 1M Klnl of Klnp was preJNri"110 entrcrK:h
himsdf 10 .ellsl incrusinl difficuh.iel in bodt So,.
eipl ami domestic: albin.. As for tho: clerzy of Gon·
der. ic had to sund by powrrleos al lite plundering
of !he capical (1164) and ils ~tiooo (1966) by
ooW' of lho: negus himwlf.
n.e drcumJla1'ICeo of the encl 01 Tho""'"", II,
...... eommllled suicide al Maqdali (lCI 13 April
1368 in !hoe fa.ce of a BritWt u.peditionary corps
commanded by General Robnl Napier, ..... well
known. 801 SalAmA III wa> not prcswi al mil
evenl, lOr he had died In his prison al MaqdaJa (lCI
2S Oct<>ber 1S67 al aboul the. of foMy-lix yean.,
sorely lried by lhe privaliom und~l'I"oe duriog hi.
imp~meol. Salimi III ...mainl one of the mO$!
conlro~rsIa.1 ~'eI In lhe hlltory of El~iopia in
lite oine~enlh ~~IU'Y.
The i!UCCCl$Or' of Ihis mli'lropolilan was Abuna
AlnAt~.
8IBLI()(;lIAfflY
Abbadie. A, d'. Do.. tt Ans d~ siiour d",,. [" Ha .. I~·
Elh;opi~ (Abynlm·~). Vol. 2. pp. 36-39. 42-44. 48,
54, S6, S8, 62-64. 90-92, 167. and Vol, 3. pp.
54-S7, S9-()(l. 63, 67, 80-83. 89-92. Valic"n City.
1980-1983.
Abir. M. Elhlopi,,: Th~ Era of Ih~ Prince.,_The
C""II~",. of Islam and Ill. R...."i/ic"llo.. of Ihe
Christian Emp;r~, 1769-18S5. pp. 109-112, 123-
29. 134-36, 140-42, IS1-59. 180-84. London.
1968.
Blanc. H. A Namulv. 0/ Captivity In Abyulnl", pp,
48-49.273-18. London. 1S68.
Cerulli. E. Ellnpi in PaIUlirt", Slo,;a d.1I1l COotl.. nll~
eliop",,, dl &r"s<llemm., Vol. 2, pp. 2~-303.
R<>ItK'.1943-1947.
Crummey. D. ,,.twod«K .. R~fonn~. and Mod~ml·
~r:' Joo<rntJ of AfriC<ln Hiswry 10 (I969);4S7-69.
_~_ Pries," <lnd PoIiricUtno: ProftSIQn/ Ilnd C<llh(>o
lie llJusiofls in Onhodox Eflriopi<l. /830-1868, pp.
S2-s-t. 85-91, 141. o,;lOrd, 1972.
"Doclrine and Authority: Aoona Sallfni,
1841-18s.4." In QU<lrlO Conf"USO inl~ ....<tVo-r<l/e
iii stud; ciopici (RDm. 1972" 2 vols., pp. 567-
S18. Rome. 1914.
Ferrrt, P. V., and J. G. Galinln. Voyorp ,n "tryui-
".." d<ln. lu prrwi"cu d.. Ticri, d.. s......... •,
de
rA""""., Vol. I, pp. 63-80. Paris, 1847.
Hams, W. C. ~ Hith1ilnds of A.lhiopi., 2nd ed.,
Vol. 1. pp. 194_95, 291.92. London, 1344.
LefdoVR', T., el aI. VO)'<lr<' , .. ,u,......... ukuli pe...
Ii...., lu _,,~u 1839. 1840. /If!. /841. 1843,
Vol. I. pp. Z91-102, lll-14. Paris, lIlotS-IS49.
Lqean. G. Tlriotior. II, k ..o..w/ _pire d'Ab]ssi"K
u les mlbiu ~Iris dllnl Ie Sud d. l#. "'....
~ •• pp. 41-«, 69-70, 82-115, 191-92. Paris.,
I86S.
Mondo&-V"w:l.UIhe<. C. CIrronI".... tk 11lldorcH II, roi
des nXs d'Ellri~ (J8SJ-I868). lIP. 10-13, 22.
41. 49, 50-S2, S9. Paris, 1904,
RosIini. C. C. ~NUOYi documenli per b slona d'Ao.
islinia net se<:oIo XIX." R~..aic(WOli 1k11'Ace.dc.
"'... N",*""d~ dei LbK~i 2 ler. (1941):lSO-II'7.
396.409-411.
Rube.....,... S. Kin, of Kin,s T~rol of Elhiopi<l,
pp. 44-.5. 57-59, 10-12. Add-is Ababl. 1966.
Su:m. H. A. Wllntk.....Q Am(I"l rhe F../"Jh"s in ,u..
yssini". pp. 71-80,112-14,1)4-)7. 171-78.253·
55. London, 11162.
Talda.HlymJnOl cia M~mslh, A. "Vlc~~~ ddl'ElI·
opia e d~Ue millioni calloliche ai lempi di ~
Ali. deggiaC Ubie e re Teodoro." l"'oS. C. Ros.sini.
R~"lijco",i J~IIQ R~.tI. AccQd~mio d.1 Lintel 25,
se •. S (1916):44S~47. 4SS·70. 476·87. 497-S00.
S08-S14, S37-JII.
ATNAT£WOS (d. 1876)
Alnll~ ...as Ihe immediale IUoCccuor of Ihe
A1>u~a SallmJi III, ",Ito died in 1867. On Ihe death
of N~gus Ttwodros II Qn 13 April 1868. al Ihe ~nd
of a military campaign conduCled against him by
British troop". Ihe lwo principal riv.ls lOr Ihe
Ihrone of Elhiopia w~re Gob""", Gab", Madkhen.
WigSum (or lor<! of Wig), and his brolh~r·ln·law
J(Asj Mer?!, master ,,[Tigre. Eaclt of lhem was well
aware Ihal 10 ha,'e any chanc~ of 8C<:cding 10 lhe
supreme tltrone. it "':OS necessary 10 s~nd a delega·

IioIl to Cairo 10 obIain from Ihe Coptic pmiarch
Dm>ctrius II (1862-1810) Ihe election of a new
8WIropoliWt who could consecrale and "anoinl"
tile new "I(ina: of Kin~" of Ethiopia. The delep-
tlolt formed '" Gol>az,e "'. .. II()( able 10 lcaw Ihe
eounlll". for it was inlemcpt:cd and blockaded by
Uot. In wulion. (;,r,I,"* had himself prodaimed
Iin& of Kines by his anT»' ancI look !he crown
_ Takb GiyOlp II.
The 6cleplion formed by KJsi ...... able 10 reach
Cairo. where iI handed (>Ocr I(> the Coptic pallial'-
chall! lhe ... m of si. thOU5aJKl Ilwcn in silver and
~cd the ~ding of the metropolitan. In Ihe
cOUfW of September 1868, K..to.I rccciftd the i*ri·
arch's ~ly by ICl:ler from his principal dcleple.
Th.. re,lly was supposed 10 remain sccrel. but
c.....ce all<1Wcd Ihe French I",,,der Aluandre Ci-
tvd 10 look inlO il. The palriarchale demanded lhe
\*ymem of a ...pplemenlary sum and a peomise
from KAsI lhal he w<luld ",nergelically eom~l lhe
penelration of Ihe CalbQlic missionaries (French
laDrislS) inlO northern Ethiopia. K1s1 made haste
10 accept IhC$C conditions and. after Colleclinll a
sum of lwenty thousand thalers (oblained by an
nlraordinary t.... of two thal",rs for each adllit man
in Tigre). he senl i, 10 lhe Coptic palriarchale,
which decided 10 ..,cwe in his reque>b.
The new mCl:ropo!itan. who "'... called Amil!W06
(At.ll.analius). arrived in TIgre in Jllne 1869. and
~ tool: care 10 endow him with ri<:h lie&. The
prelate began by ])b)i"" for tim",. probably ' - _
he had InsuuCtions ""'" 10 proceed 10 the cOf1JOK...•
IiOfl of a Kins of Kings ~ the .trugk for pow-
... bet"""""n C<:>ba?+ and Kis:o had been KIlled. Two
J""l'"' !aler. fecline sure: of his '1rength. <:ob-rl in·
wooded n,rc .. the head of a larJe anny boll "....
clccio.iYCly defealed on II July U71 by 0sI. who
immedialely proclain>cd hi",""lf Kin& of Kinp of
ElItiopia: finally. """"" m<H!W laler. on 21 January
1872. in lhe ca,hedral of ~m. the Abuna Alnil~
- . ..... able '0 crown and :anoint !CW. who lhen
_limed Ihe roy:al name of Yol:oanncs IV.
The Ethiopian SOllrces ~ .ilntl on lhe C',,;.c.,..
pat~ of Alnillwos after the ~Iion, but il Is
knowrl lhal the prela,e·. relation. wilh lhe flC'3Ili
.....re difficult. The income from ""'e",1 tiel's as-
si&fle<110 Aln1ttwQ. had belonged 10 lhe local sc<:u·
lar clergy. who fell into edreme po~erty; Ihl. pr0-
voked liliSalion belween the formor beneficiaries
and Ihe pre laiC. It appears Ihat in Ihe.e lawsuhs the
neps often made dedsion. contrary 10 Ihe inler-
..,.15 of Ihe melropolitan. which crealed a rift be·
tween the two men. The final "orm broke al the
lime of the EIYVI...Elhiopi.an conflkl. which In
ETHIOPIAN PRELATES 1037
11175 and 1871> p rise 10 two mililary cxpC'diI1<>Il5
of Ihe Khedin I nl in Ethiopia. both victl>l"iomly
R"pIbcd by YoI;oantW5 IV. It SCem! dial in the
COlIne of this eonftiCt Amlltwof. had leaning! to-
",...rd his land of onlin .nd $lb1i5hed contae15
",ilb MC'oelik II. ",-t.o ""'" kin8 of Sloe",... and vassal
of YoI:oan""" IV and "'M emerulncd ~ret ambi-
ti""" ",ith reprd 10 lhe Ihrone 01 lhe Kina: of
Kings. "",,cordinl '0 Gu&lidmo MMn'a the repon
ran through the counlry lhat Yol:>anncs IV, at the
time of hi! 5eCO<ld ,;cIOry 0Vff ,he EcYP'ian! (II
Gura. on 7 March. 11116). had .... rned from Eg)l"ian
prisoners that AInl.1hIln ..... in IOUCh with Mcnelik
II and had ~n tried 10 llee 10 join him, bu, had
been porcvenlcd. It ".... added lhal ,he nqus had
evcn seized leuers thaI COlTIf>romi5ed dIC mCl:ropoli·
lan. After his milllar)' campaign, YoI}ann... IV re-
turned to Ad"" on 7 Juoe 11176 and ~n. it i.
said. by getting rid of the fe.... pet'5Onage5 fonning
the entour;lge of Abuna Atnit!W05; lhen il ",as thc
....etropolililn him.e1f who dl ..ppeared. and the ru-
mor .prcad that he had been suppressed by order
of the negus. The.... i. no formal proof of thi. reo
pon. and late. cerlain autho.. even maintained lhal
the "b,m died of the consequences of a wound
suffered al Ihe lime of Ihe bailie of Gu",. The local
llOurccs confine ,heIIl5eNe' 10 repo"ins laconically
lhat Aln:.t:ewos died at Miy Gwil""i. nea. ""urn. on
B Sant 1868 in the Ethiopian cakndar (A.D. 29
June 1876) and tha, he ....... buried a, AdwA. appar-
enlly ",'ilh""l pomp or any partkul uremony.
The 5U<:eCS!lOl' of lhis melropolitan Abuna
P~r05 IV.
B1BUCJCL.\rHY
Bairu Tall.a. "- C"ronicf~ 01Emperor YoI!"''''u IY
(lB12-~91. pp. 17. 95. 97. 127. YI"oest-lcn, 19n.
Chaine. M. "Hi!roi.e 6u rtJne de Yokanncs IV. roi
d'Ethiopie (116l1_1889).M R.ev,,~ sbttiJiqu~ 21
(1913); 178-91.
COU....c. J. de. u Repe de Y"",,",",,'s (tl'"prtS lu
p"pien <k At. d~ s..ruc/. p. 92. Rornam-su~·lsCre.
1926.
Dimolheos, R. P. 1H,,% "-,,s de sJjt)..r ",n Abyssin;",
(/868-/869/. VoL l. pJI. 15"-64. kn>salem. 181l.
flouin, C. Jiiswi,e d.. r~pe d~ K"Uj~e Ismail, Vol .
I. pl. 2. PI'. 299-307. 31(, Cairo. 1938.
CiUU'd. A. So.."e,,;rs d'"" "Orate~" "'byui"i. (1868-
1869;. pp. 136-45. ~Iro, 1813.
Guidi, L "Le 1i.1. dei mctropolili d'Abissinla." B.s·
sadone 6, .or. I (1899),14. n, 3.
M8SSIlia, C. ! miei t,cn!ad"que an"j d; m;,,;one
"eWAlla Et;op;a, Vol. 9, chap. 9. til; chap. 10.
1"6-11; chap. IS. U5. Rome and Milan, 1885-
1895.
1038 ETHIOPIAN PRELATES
Ricci. L "Un. cronaao b~ in arNlriro ...1 ~o
di Yo/.>anne$ IV. '" d·Etiopia." Ri>iSl~ d~g/; l1"dl
orl~nllJli 22 (1947):.7-59.
Twe.chi. S. "Les Debuts. de 1.0. polltique religieuse
de Yo!la"nt:s IV: 1868-1876:' Alii dd Co",ruso
i"urJI"Von"/~ di Sl..di ..!rIt:"ni: L'A!rlt:d al Urn";
iii DlJnll:l~ Comboni {Rom". 19_21 Nawmb<~
IWJIJ. pp. 161-78. Rome. In3.
Z"",dt: Gab"'·StIl~. Yo;Ju"'nu TV 0/ EIJI. ., A
PoliJirlJ1 8>Opdplry. pp. B-~. ~. Oxford. 1975.
P£TROS IV (d. 1921)
Ane. the dealh of Abuna Alnallwos In 1876. Ne·
I'" Yo!.tanne5 IV (1871-1889). ailelllnl thai OM
bi5hop "'as insufficient for h.. whole e.... pke. ~ed
the Coplic ~triarch CYRI~ V (1875-1927) 10 send
Ellliopia fo\ar bW>ops. Thus• .0.1 MJoqaIf. in We fall
1881. Yol:iannes r«rived • __ me1ropolita:n bello
op. Abun. !'tlros IV. ,...1\0 was to sgy ..ilh him •
rove. and Ih•..., coadjulO' bishops: Ml'fwoo. "'ho
was '0 become bishop of Shewa and all tenilorles
governtd by Mendik. n"lus of Shew. (l865-1889):
Marq06. des'ined for l~ bishopric of Bagfmd.-r
• nd St.... ln. but who died SOOn after hiJ arrival al
Dab.... Tlibor; and Luqis. who ...as assigned 10 all
the I~ under N~ Takia Hi,-.NnoI and 10
G<>;am. wht:re he died around 1'l'O1.
~ IV :lei up .esu.wroce in the lradilional f;d
of the bishops of Till"'. a' Addi Abun. near Aid.,....
He earned OUI his du'les lO. some e;gln yea... He
accompanied Yo!.tannes IV in the E,hioplan e,pcdl·
tion imo lhe Sudan allainl! lhe Mahdi~1S and was
present when Ihe negus died from • WQund sulf"red
during the banle d "'..... mlNo on 10 March 1889.
I.lenelik. wboo lhen be<:a~ supreme rule. of all
Ethiopia (lll8'9-1913). prompdy requested tllal
"'alewoa he promoted 10 lhe rank d rnelropoliuln
in place of !'l!ros IV. The bner tried in ,.. in to
prewn. Ihis. but Menelik $UCC~ in <>b.... ininl
• ppro" ..1 from ,he Copilc p;ltriarch In ~'Pt and
~e!ms IV was rep~ed. A' the .....me lime, Menelik
repani.ioned the lerritories of lhese two prelaln,
with mllwos re.:eivinll nOt only the grea••• p;>n of
Shewa but ..Iso """;y 011.... imprKtall1 I....... such as
Yaju. Battmder. and Dambra. al>d ~"'" beinl
p,,,,n the nonhem pat! of the counlf)' rr>ve, Wi&.
"ICo) and cenain cen"'lIl1 ,ern,o';"'"
Aner ,he ballle of Matamma. Menelil conlined
1'e!ms 10 Shewa to prevenl him from consec"llin8
Il$ emperor lhe prince of Tigre, Rlb Mangotsha • .0.1·
leged son of Yo!.>annu IV, and pretender 10 Ihe
Imperial lhrone_ Howe."". once Mang;tSha w;ll5 de·
lealed in 1899 and oiled 10 Shewa. 1'~''''' ...as
allowed 10 'e,,,rn '0 T'llre and to the .esidence a,
Addl Abun. Afle, len )'e.... he len fO<" DllMif....h.....,
he had been inviled to conseCr1lte Rlb Mik,'e) as
nellus ofW.. J1o (31 May 1914). an offic" lhal Mi1<J:tl
had <>b... ined Ihroogb his lIOn and "'lenelik'.
suecessor. Lej 1))'Isu. When Lej Iyyisu was ....e.
deposoed al Addis Ababa (27 Sepcember 1916).
MiU'fl lOOk arms in his ""ppon. H" beued the
axed ('l!ros 10 at:company him lnlo baul.. When
MiU·fl "'.... d~,ed al Sagall On 26 OcIOber 1916.
he and ~t1ros were .... k"n prisoner. ~e!f'O$ was
granted his freedom soon thereaher. bUI only on
condition tha, he remain in Bulg! (Shew.o.). where
he died in 1921.
Amonl lhe four COplle pn::lal~ .eceivtd by Yo-
!}amteS In 1881. only f~ and his .-:cOQSOr.
M2.tlwos. ..uained lhe di&nil)' of m~ropolitan.
MIrqos was dead al o..bra T " ;" ISB1. ,,'hile
Luqls died in GojIlm around 1901 aher • rather
insilnil>cant tpiscopo'".
BIBliOGRAPHY
Ann.... 'one. C. In Abi,.i"w. Rome. 1914.
B.1iru Tafla. A Cltronicle of Em~TO< Y~annu IV
(I$7J-&9). p. 153. W~n. 1977.
Fusdla. L "Abissinla e Metemnta In uno Krino de
Bel.", He.uy:' 1n R<Lue-,.... iii studi etiopici J
{1'MJ):210.
Gufbri: Sellassie. Ch.....iq"" du '4nt dt Minl-lik 11.
rt>i du ",is d·£tJriopi~. tr.lons. Testa Sellassi#.. ed.
M. tie Coppe', Vol. l. pp. 190. JOJ-306. and Vol.
2. pp, 627, 630. Paris. 1930-1931.
Pollera. A. W $lato ttiopico .. la $Ua C~;Ud. pp.
165-~. Rome .nd Milan. 1926.
Simon. C. """ore en AJ,y,.ini... L'F.Jhiopit. $#~
""",,,n. $#S lrU<iitlo<lf. I.. "icoun lolt.nnlu. I...
ic/i.us mo..oIilh~1 de l.41ib#.I•• pp. J4.4-.9. P .
""
Zewde Gabn::-Sellassle. VoIuuvoes IV of Elhiopi.... A
Polilk.1 BiDgra.pJry. pp. lIla-I09. Oxford. 1975.
M,\T£wos (1843_1926)
M~I~"OI ....... melropoli",n durinll a $Iormy peri-
od in modem E1hiopian hi51ory. which co.ered (he
rei8ns of Mt:ndik II (1889-1913). Lej InUl (1913-
1916). and Em"""", hwdi,u (1916-1930). Aherlhe
death of Abwta A,n*I_ (1376). Emperor Yo-
J.t.allMS IV. •Ilq:inll ,hat one bWtop "'as I'IOl suffi-
cient for his whole e",pi.e. asked the Cop(ic palri-
areb Cyril V (1873-1927) 10 send Ethiopia four
bishops. Thw, al Maqalt. in ,he lale fall of 1881.
the E1hlopian 5OV<'",isn recen~ a new m~lropol"
Wl bishop. Abuna fflros IV. who "u lO reside i..

~ province. Thr« coadjUlor bishop" came with
him, MAttwos, who was to become bishop of Shewa
and all lerritOnes g()verned by Menelik. negus ()f
Shewa (1865-1889); Mark. who was to become
bishop of Bagtmder and Semen. but "'ho died soon
after his arrival at Dabra Tabor; and luqas, who
.... to become bishop of Gojam, wbere he died in
1901. MIit!wos, who was received with great pomp
and ceremony in his diocese. rapidly gained Mene-
lik's confidence, and even officiated at the negus'.
marriage 10 Taym at Ankobarr, in April 1883.
Born in 1843 at Bani KhaJid, in the Upper Egyp·
tian governorate of AsyU!. Matewos took his monas·
tic vows in OAYR AL-MUl:IAIlRAQ at QOsql1im and came
to Ethiopia from the Monastery of Saint Anton)'
(DAYR I<NBA A~NIYiJs). At the beginning 01 his ten·
ure in this coumry, knowing none of the many
wngll<!$ spoken in Ethiopia. he had to make use of
an interpreter. But unlike his predecessors. he
quickly learned not only Amharic but also Ge'ez.
the litu'llical language of Ihe chuTch,
After Yoi)annes IV was killed in the battle of Ma·
wnma (10 March 1889), Menelik ascended the
throne and promptly requ....ted thaI M.attwos be
promoted to the mnk of metmpolitan bishop in
place of fe!ros IV. The lauer tried in vain lO pre-
vent this; bUl Menelik succeeded in obtaining ap-
proval from the Coptic patriarch in Egypt, and thus
MAltw05 replaced "'!\rQ$ IV. At this same time.
Menelik repartitioned the territori.... of these two
prelates, M;;tewos obtaining nol only the greater
part of Shews bul also many other important lands.
such as Vajju, Bagemder, and Damb}'a.
As metropolitan bishop, Mattwos crov,med Men·
elik II King of Kings on 3 November 1889 at En-
!"!!o. Hencefonh, he became deepiy in,'olved in the
political life of the empiTe. Along,ide the imperial
troops, he even followed lhe entire military cam-
paign of Ad"", against the Italians (1895-1896).
In 1902, MAltwos jour"$'ed to Cairo, Jerusalem,
Constantinople. and St, Petersburg. This was ~n ex·
traordinary trip, for no acling metTOpolilan bishop
had eveT before been permined to leave Ethiopia. h
was official I)' juslified b)I "family reasons," but ac-
cording to Maurice de Coppel, it was aCluall~' an
unsuccessful attempt to resolve the problem of {}AYR
AJ..SIJLTAN, the Coptic monastery al Jerusalem near
the Holy Sepukher, whose possession has been dis-
puted o\'er the years by the Egyptian and Ethiopian
chu.-ches.
In 1907, when Mene1ik decided to establish pub-
lic school. in Ethiopia, Maltwos asked lhat the
schools remain under church control, for b~ tradi-
ETHIOPIAN PRELATES 1039
tion the church had alway, been re.ponsible fOT
education in the land; and indeed, the first gm·ern·
ment school founded b~ the emperor did ha,'e a
corps of teachers <onsisling mainl~' of Egyptian
Copts. MAt",,'oo' concern w<lS based on a fear of
possible Catholic or Protestant influence upon the
~omh "f the country, which might have resulted,
had foreign instructors been re<:mited, In fact, he
was generally hostile to any Ethiopians su,pected of
adopting a "foreign" religion, and because of Ihis,
certain imellectual groups often considered him to
be too conservative and opposed to the spread of
knowledge. Nonetheless, he enjoyed great pre'tige
among the Ethiopian clergy.
His in8uence gT""'" even greater after M<nelik
was stricken with paralysis in 1909. On 18 May of
that year, the ailing emperor publicly proclaimed
his grandson, Lei lyy","u, inheritor of the imperial
throne, and on this same occasion, a declaration
was also read announcing that MM~wos would
summarily excommunicate anyone oppo.ed to the
emperoT" proclamation. Following this, Matewos
supported Lej Iyyasu and even backed the nobility
in efforts to prevent Empress TAytu from me<ldling
in any aff~irs of state (Pro"..nC;Qmenlo P(1cifico, 21
March 1910)_
However, some years later after a long and pm·
dem silence, Mattwos reversed hi. posilion, for Lej
l)'Yisu w<lS increasingly leaning toward lslam and
the Muslims, a fact thaI alarmed nobility and clergy
alike. Finally, On 27 September 1916, conspirators
approached Matewo., demanding that he proclaim
the dethronement of Lej l)'Yisu, and the emhrone·
ment of Menelik's daughter. Zawditu, wilh R;h Taf-
ari Makonnen (the future Emperor Haile Scl,,""ie 1)
being de.ignated heir to the throne. After some he.·
italion, MAtt....os accede<! to these demands, and the
abortive reign of Lej lyya.u thus came to an end.
The bishop officially crowned Zawditu empTess on
11 FebmaI)' 1917,
In 1923, Matewos, gravel)' ill, wem back to Egypt.
He returned to Ethiopia a few month. later, bUI
neve< again completely regained his strength. Al
this time, problems concerning his .uceession be-
gan to arise, and he became the subj""t of .......ral
attacks in articles published in Berhdn-e>lnd Soldm,
the newspaper founded by Rfts Talari Makonnen,
After a bout ,,"'ith pneumonia, he died in Addis Aba-
ba on 4 December 192~, at eighly·three yeaTS "f
age, having Tesided in Ethiopia for forty-five }'ears
and having officiated as metropolitan for thirty·sev-
en. Hi< dealh "ut an end to the biller accusations
against him, but in widening the debate about his
1040 ETHIOPIAN PRELATES
SUCCessoT, it also op<!ned a very delicate phase in
the relations between the Egyptian and Ethiopian
chur<:he.,
His successor, Ohelos Ill, did not arrive in Ethi,
opia until SOme three years later (1929),
BIBUOGRAI'HY
Baint Tafla, ed A Chronicle 01 Emperor Yo!}annu
lV (/872-89), p, 153. Wiesbaden, 1977_
Cipolla, A. Ndl'impem di Menelik, pp. 272-77. Mi-
lan, 1911.
Grunlield, R. Ethiopia: A New Po!irical Hisrory, pp,
138-39. London, 1965.
Gu~bre Sellasie. Chmnique d" reg"e de MinMlk fl,
wi de. mls d'Ethiopie, lrans. Tesfa Sellasie, ed. M.
de COppel. VoL I. pp. 190-92,268-72,276-78,
303-306, and Vol. 2, pp. 440-42, 501 (n. 3), 530,
540-42,622,629, and pi. 16. containing a large
portrait of Abuna M1tewos. Paris, 1930-1931.
MAhtama $cHasst Walda Masqal. Zekra Nagar. Ad·
dis Ababa. 1942 Eth, (1949-1950); 2nd ed., 1962
Eth, (1969-1970).
Tedeschi, S. "Pro61o storico di Dayr ....Sultan:·
)O"r"nO/ of Ethiopian Studiu 2, ser. 2 (1964):147.
Zewde Gabre&J1assie. Yohannes IV <4 Erhiopia, A
Politi<:a/Biography. pp. 108-109. Oxford, 1975.
Q£RELOS III (d. 1950)
The metropolitaRate of Otrelos covered the
reigns of EmpTess Zawditu (1916-1930) and Em-
peror Haile Selassie (1930- 1974), Ihe lasl sovereign
of lhe Solomonic dynasty. This prelate is often
called Otrelos V. but since the history of Ethiopia
knows only two other metropolitans who bore this
name (Qtrelos I. in the thirteenth century, and
Otrelos II, in the nineteenth), it seemS p<eferable
10 call him Oe<e1os III.
RAs Tafari Makonnen (lhe future emperor Haile
Selassie), in 1916 named deputy 10 the empress and
heir 10 lh" thron",,(but often called regent), had
launched a policy <>f reforms: on the ecclesiastical
level, he wished tt:.. Ethio~ian church 10 b..come
mo.e independent' of the Coptic patriarchate,
Hence, he allowed some individuals to raise in an
Ethiopian journal founded by Tafari in 1925 and
called Berhlm-enna Sa/am (Light and Peace) the
queSlion both of the privileges enjoyed by Abuna
M~~ and of Ihe tradilional principle according
10 which the spiritual head of the Ethiopian church
had 10 be a Copt. It was clear that nothing could be
chang"d ""hile Matewos was alive. but on his death,
which look place al Addis Ababa on 4 DecembeT
1926, the question b..came a live issue and Ihe de-
bale won o\'er lhe ranb of the Ethiopian clergy.
Bul lhe failing heallh of the aged Coptic patriarch
Cyril V delayed the Openinll of the question for
some momhs: the Ethiopian church, whose tmdi·
tional secular head was styled "King of Kings:'
could only lhink of opening negotiations with the
Coptic church after the death of Cyril (7 August
1927) and the election of JOH" Xl;< (1928- 1942), at
first designated as locum lenens and later as patri·
arch of the Coptic church (enthron"d 16 December
1928).
Meanwhik on 7 October 1928, Tafari had been
l<lisc:d to the dignity of negus, or king, by the Oueen
of Queens (I.e.. Empress Zawditu). The locum
lenens in lhe patriarchate had then addressed felici·
talions to him, and Tafuri, in his lener of lhanks,
had raise<l the qu"slion of the regulation of the
Ethiopian chuTch. The regem requested the patri·
arch to name a n"w metropolitan, traditionally a
Copt, btl1 to provide him with the power to name
Ethiopian bishops. In panicular, he asked that lhe
episcopal dignity mighl be conferred on lhe eNagi,
abbol of Dabra Lil>!nos_ John XIX replied thaI, in
confmmity with tradition, both the new m"tropoli·
Ian and the bishops dependent on him could only
be Copts from Egypl.
Tafuri repealed his request in a dispalch in which
he added, "Our desire coincides with tha. of our
people." This telegram was followed by the sending
10 Cairo of an Ethiopian delegale, who was able to
reach a preliminary agreemenl at the end of March
1929. According to this agreemenlthe palriarchate,
while con6nning lhal the ab"n had 10 be a Copt,
agreed to consecrate five bishops to be chosen from
among the Elhiopian prelaies. Four Ethiopian prel·
ales were then sent 10 Egyp!. They were accompa·
nied by an importanl delegation, which arrived in
Cairo on 21 May 1929. On 31 May', after discussion
with the Ethiopian delegation, the Coplic synod is·
sued a decree 6xing in detailed fashion the powel"S
of the fulure metropoiitan, as ",'ell as lbose of his
bishops. This document specified that neither the
archbishop nor his bishops. alone or united in as·
sembly, had the po""er 10 name other bishops,
whose consecration thus remained the exclusive
province of the Coptic palriarchate.
The nominal ion of the metropolitan was then
proceeded .....ith. and the choice fell upon th" HEGU·
MENnS (archpriest) Sidan:;s al-An!iinl. who was born
at NagMmish (Upper Egypt) around 1880 and was
the deputy of the metropolitan of Jhja. John XIX
consecrated him on 2 June 1929, and al lhe mo-
ment of the laying on of hands call"d him Klrollos

(Cyril, or in Eihiopic, Qcrelos). On the same day
were consecrated Ihe four other bishops, who, si •.
t""n centuries after the evangelization of their
country, were the first Ethiopian. to be invested
with episcopal authorily,
The consecration of the fifth Ethiopian bishop,
the etii;agt, who had not been able to leave the
country, was deferred until later. The metropolitan
and the four bishops went 10 Jerusalem on pilgrim-
qe before leaving for Ethiopia. Finally, On 21 ~.
•ember 1929, John XIX himself left Cairo 10 carry
out a pIltriarchal visit to Ethiopia. He was received
wilh pomp at Addis Ababa, where on 9 January
1930 he proceeded to the consecration of the
ei;;;agi, the finh Elhiopian bishop.
On 2 April 1930, Empress Zawditu died, and on
the following day RU Tarari Makonnen proclaimed
himself King of Kings. His coronation took place at
Addis Ababa on 2 November of the same year, with
greal enemony; on this day he was blessed, anoint·
ed, and crowned by (}trelos Ill. But some time
later the metropolitan returned to Egypt for two
apparent re"",n.: the health of the metropolitan
(who, it was said, found the altitude of Addis Ababa
hard to bear) and the renewal of the holy {'HRlSllt
(the holy oil prescribed for the admini.tration of
sacraments prepared in Egypt by the Coptic patri-
arch). It appears, however, that this joum")l had
another reason: after lhe arrival of the metropolitan
in Elhiopia, provision had been made for hi. mate·
rial need.< and tho,"" of hi••uite by assigning 10 him
6ve important fier. (including SaHa !)engay and
Mannigasha Marqos) and granting him a sum of
one thousand thalers per month; bUl Otrelos had
also asked that the property of his predec""""r,
Abuntl. Mattwos (who, it was said, had amassed a
~ fortune) .hould be handed o"er 10 him. Since
this demand had been rejecled (it was added, more-
over, that John XIX him~lf had judged that he did
not have to intervene in litis question), Q<;relos 111
took offense and relurned ;to Cairo, He was to re-
rum to Addis Ababa only in 1933, following a
personal intercession from lhe pious Manan, wife 01
Emperor Haile Selas,ie.
The war of 1935~1936, which ended in the occu·
pation of Addis Ababa (S May 1936) by lhe armed
forces of Fasci.t Italy, profoundly altered the gener·
aI situalion in Ethiopia: the prestige of the metro-
politan declined, and the position of tbe Ethiopian
church became ....eaker. Certainly Marshal Rodolfo
Graziani, viceroy of Ethiopia, began by proclaiming
respect for all religions, bul in fact, fur reason, of
imperial and international policy, italy fa.'ored the
ETHIOPIAN PRELATES 1041
Muslims in Ethiopia Over Ihe Christians_ Uke the
majority of notables, oerel", also hastened to pay
allegiance, in his own name and Ihat of the Eth·
iopian clergy, to the italian government (14 May
1936), while leUing it be understood thaI he e~pect·
ed that Italy would recognize him publicly and offi·
cially as the ,upreme head of the Ethiopian church.
The problem was a delicate one: by tradition he
was the spiritual head of his church, but until 1936
it was the emperor who was the aClual head .
The italian government hesitated to take a posi·
tion on Ihe i"ue, and in the meantime a difficulty
arose: in the hope of inducing John XIX not to join
the pro-Ethiopian wing of the Coptic patriarchate,
the !lalian government invited Qerelos HI to write
to tbe patriarch a letter 10 inform him of Ihe good
disposition of Italy with regard to the Ethiopian
church. The metropolitan declared himself read)' t<>
do so, on condition that he did not ha"e to submit
10 the viceroy the text of the leller, The Italian
authoritie, rejecled thi, condilion and hence aban·
doned their overtures. Taking up his original re-
quest, O~relos wrote to Ihe italian government in
July 1936 demanding that the Ethiopian church be
exempted from any interlerence by the italian au·
thorities and that official reCognilion be given to
the right of the metropolitan to manage the affairs
of his church and to carry out all the necessary
nominations. The Italian government con,idered
that in this leiter Qerelos was claiming wider rights
than those that belonged to him in the time of the
King of Kings, and chose to make no reply.
A serious incident look place shortly afterward.
Because of armed attacks by the Ethiopian resist·
ance, the capital had been placed at the center of a
vasl defensive enclosure, within which it was for·
bidden to introduce or hold arm" but a group of
armed "rebels" was captured on 29 July 1936 at
Addis Ababa. Among the member,; 01 this group
was found Abuna !,~!ros, bishop of Wallo (with his
,eat at Dassi~), In the course of the trial that took
place the following day, Ihe bishop did not explain
the reason for ","'hieh he had introduced himself
into the capital, limiting himself to saying that he
was defending his country. The military tribunal
condemned him to be ,hOI, and the judgment was
executed immediately. I.'~tros died a hero, aher
blessing his judges. Graziani, who was later re-
proached for being unable to pardon the prelate,
declared publidy that "this execution did not alter
in any way Ihe respect borne by the Italian govern·
ment for the Elhiopian church,"
An incident just as serious occurred some months
1042 ETHIOPIAN PRELATES
hlltr. On 19 nbruary 1937 al Addis Abab.>, in the
COUI"$t of an official ceremony. nine bombs we..,
Ihro..... .o.' die viceroy. The.., wt'f'e ~eral WO\Indt'd.
indudinl Graziani and Qlrd.. III (the fonner St'ri·
ously hit by St'Ve.... >plinlet3. the Iat_ .Iip,dy
","ol.u,,;kd in the riVlt Iund). Tht' Italian polk.. de-
cl.o.red WI il ...... a C3ISC al a pul cOllSf'iracy. b...
could t'$labli<h only lh.aI the 0.....1lets al Ihe at-
tempi Nod pn:>bobly ""lIN! wilh the s.uppon al Ce~·
lain monks ol Dabno I..iblItow. By order ollhe ,it...
1'01. the _ e r y was lIIltaeklNl.. and tm monks
..'ho li,'flI!htn:, killed. From this rnonlot'nt. Gramni
cOMidt.... d u... dergy u... soul of the nosiluonce. He
the.....o.., propootd 10 u... JO'"emmenl in Rome to
delepte to Qtrd.. III the widest poIO'en over the
..'hole Ethiopian clet'gy and 10 break .11 liou be-
llOI«n lhe Ethiopi3n church and lhe Coptic palriar.
chale. This was 10 demand St'1£'1",-emmenl for Ihe
Ethiopian church. under the aulhorily of Of'relos,
bUI Rome replied lhat "il ,,'as filling nO! 10 gel
ahrad of the times."'
Sh(lrtly afterward Qtrd"" a,ked permission 10 go
10 Egypl "for ~easons of health."' The ",vernm..nl
in Rome Tefu..,d him permi5Sion. SU8~Slin8 Ihat he
come to have himsdf anended to In h.o.ly. He left
Addis Ababa on 21 May 1937. after entrusting Ihe
interim care of Ihe archcpiscopate to Abuna Abra-
ham, bi<hop of Gonder. He embarl<1N! 1\ Massa"..
Ih ....e days later. eom~nced thoot "" was ,oine to
discuss with the Italian go....rnment Ihe new .... gu...
don of the Ethiopian chuKh. During ,he ~
Ihrough the Suez Canal. m rccei.-N a ddtplion
from lhe pMriarcbate. 10 whom 1M: dKl.o.red !hat if
the [uolian pemment inlended to ~ the q~
lion of the ........ "'SUblion of lhe Ethiopian church,
he proposed 10 reply thal this probICfI\ .... the
"",dl,l$/"" eonc..m oJ the Copcic pMriare""'e.
In R_. ()&-eloJ paid ,isil$ to the kine. 10 Mus-
tolini. and 10 lhe _ministn for lhe «>&onin. A. Lcs-
IlOflL His health "!J then attended to. bu' tIM: ques-
,ion of !he regulation of the Ethiopian church was
carefully avoided MuuoIini had j<ut uoken the deci·
sion. in his inne~ CO\lncil. to pIKe at the hnd of
the Ethiopian church a metropo!;\.aIl who was ~an
Italian stJl,jecl"-tbal i•• an Ethiopian prelale.
Si""e this elevation had 10 be prepared for carefully
and sec,."t1y, 0-',.,,105 was lnviled 10 go 10 Egypt.
lea,'lng him to understand thai before Ihcre could
be any further discussion, il would be appropriale
for him to examine the problem as a "'hole with
John XIX. H ,,"'/IS only aft"r Ol!ndO$' departure for
EiYPt that Graziani was called upon to prepa,." in
se,"et the new regulalion for Ihe Elhiopian church.
On 7 Stplemb<:r 1937, ",elng no signal 'rom Ihe
Italian ,ide, Otrelos wen' 10 lhe Italian leption in
I'.mJll.1O which 1M: p.a.enled hi. requesas. whi(:h ...,
had m.e>nwhile ditauscd with lhe patriarch. He
. . . . lbat IDe Ethiopian cbun:h be exempl from all
Italian control and thac the mttropOlilan should
ba,.., tI\e p:>\O_ to manAIt' and to dis+><- freel, of
all ecclesiastical property. Aft.... a retreal spenl in
Upper Egypc. Qtrelos presented himself afreo;h lU
the itaJian Iqation on 26 No,nnbcr. He "",e""ed
an e,....rve rrpl, WI his rcquesu .."fft' -unck~ .....
ami""tion."' In reality, Italy had already decided 10
sepanlle the ElhJopWt m,m the Eg)p1ian chun:h.
and bad !oCt its choice on Abuna Abr.lbam. After
Abraham had ""eeptlN!, a St'rico of nominaIions a.nd
e1CYlllioM amona; Ihe Ethklpi.o.n del'lY ...... p""'ttd·
ed ..-ith. Then a S)nod was orpniud; it declared
the independence of the Ethiopian church. elccted
Abraham as melropolltan with the rank of archbish·
op (!iq e(te~Jdt). and named .is new bishop",
This maneuver look Ihe Coptic palriarchate un·
awares, but when Rome attemptcd te> induce John
XIX to accept the fait accompli, it met ...ith a r.,n,.
...1. Even Ihe Egyptian government protested. bUI
Ihe halian legalion In Cairo rtplie<l that it was a
"queslion internal to Ihe halian empire:' which did
DOl admil oJ discussion. It was Ihen that the .ynod
of the Coptic church. in III meeting "n 28 Dtcem-
bcr 1937. pronouncHl lhe .olemn ucommun~
lion of Abr.iliam. lhe bi.hops named by him. and
any person ....ho had rccogniud or came to rccos-
nile the powcn. or Ihote eiCQrnmunicatcd. Abr.
bam died on 21 July 19J9. and on 11 Sqnnnber he
...... rq>I~ by Abun. Yo!:-nnes. ..t.o in his tum
COllXCr.ued £OUr titub.< bWoopo and two assistant
bishops. Finally. on 10 July 1940. the Italian ......
emm..nl annlcd t" the Ethiopian ch u"'" a detailed
constilUlional c~. confinninl tint and fore.
mo!Il il$ autocepha}ous charxln-!hat n, il$ com·
pkte indepc:ndence of any OIher church.
Some m<>nths bIer. lhe Italian cnpirc collapoed.
and on 5 Ma, 1941. Haile StWsie. esconed by
Britioh ITVOpS. made his ..,tum to Addis Ababa. He
had pl"e"iousJy rccel''t'd at Kbanoum a lelegram In
which John XIX asklN! that ~rel,," be allowed 10
accompany Ihe emperor at the time of his return to
Ethiopia, bul lhe emperor had n:plic<l lhat it wu
not appropriale to let ahead of evenl$. Hc therefore
returned to Addi, Ababa accompanied by Ihe
e~~a~t. wh u had snar.-d his .,.ile, and it was upon
this prdale Ihat the charge fell of reo~ganizing the
Elhiopian church.
A year later. John XIX sent to Ethiopia a delega·
tion headed by QI,..,loa, accompanied by three lay-
men. It arrived in Add;, Ah:>ba on l June 1941, and

Ohelos was able to occupy ooce agai" his old re,i·
dence. He could .Iso lake up agai" his place i" lhe
religious ceremonies, but no olher power was ac-
corded to him. ~relos did nOI follow the Coplic
delegation when it retumed to Egypl wilh the Ethi·
opian l"C<luests thaI (I) on lhe dealh of (}erel"", he
be given an Elhiopian successor; (2) the new Elhie>-
pian melropolitan be empowered to conSC<'r:lte
Ethiopian bishops; a"d (3) the excommunicalion
IaInclled agaiosl Ihe Ethiopian clergy he lifted,
.kIhn XIX died on 22 June 1942, and so it was the
locum tenens in the Coptic patriarchate, AnM
YOsAb (the future palriarch. 1946-1956) who, on 26
June, pronounced the lifting of the excommunica·
tion "with regard to the prete"ded archbishop" and
bishops, with the return of each of them'" the post
which he previously occupied." But since this ded-
lion did nol answer all the Ethiopian request., it
reeeived no publiCity in Addis Ababa. On the con·
trary, the Ethiopian church declared that the power
to OTdain pri~ls was the exclush'e province of the
r~~~g~, so that oerel"" was io fact set aside. Any
funh.er discussion had to he delayed because of the
~ry urious difficulties that thwarted the electio" of
the new Coplic patriarch, so much so lhalthe patri·
archalthrone remained "acant until the ele<:tion of
lIIAUllltlPS til on 12 February 1944.
After this election lhe Ethiopian clergy increased
it:s pressure, It began by abstaining from in>oking
!he name of the new Coptic patriarch in religious
functions, as lradition required. In June 1944 a
Coptic mission went to Ethiopia and returned with
a document containing lhe requests of the Ethiopi-
an church, the prindpal of which were the nomina-
tion of an Ethiopian archbishop and the creation of
an Ethiopian synod matching the Coplic synod and
having the power to choose the Ethiopian bishops,
who wt:re to b. consec""ed by the said archbi,hop.
On 29 January 1945. Macarius III convened the
synod of the Coptic church,~IWlieh formed a special
commiltee to study the EthiOpian requests. On 16
June the synod approved the' ....]>Ort of Ihis commit·
~, which, while welcoming several Ethiopian fC·
quests. explidtly refu.-ed to assign to the melropoli·
Ian of the Ethiopian church the right to name
bishops and refused to name an E1hiopian metro·
politan. The response was very badly recei"ed in
Ethiopia. In addition, Ihe negotiations were inter·
rupte<! afresh by the death of Macariu, III on 31
AuSUSt 1945.
In December 19451he representative, oflbe Ethi-
opian clergy asscmbled at Addis Ababa. This ,,·as a
stonny assembly. the majorily of Ihe speakers pro·
claiming that from the moment the Coptic churcb
ETHIOPIAN PRELATES 1043
refused to "'lisly lhe demands of Ihe Elhiopian
church, nothing remained but to proceed to the
separalion of the two churches. The emperor opted
for a more flexible approach and so, on 9 January,
sent to Egypt a delegation a!TIled with a lener in
which he earnestly requested a new examination of
the problem. On 31 January the Coptic s)'nod con-
vened under the presidency of AnM A.hanasius,
locum lenens in the patriarchale, and accepted lhe
principle that after the death of Qfrel"" III the
archbishop of Ihe Ethiopian church was to be cho-
sen from among the Ethiopian prelate•. The synod
also accepted Ihe principle of i"creasi"8 the num·
ber of Elhiopian bishops who were to be consecral·
ed by the Coplic patriarch. The demand for the
power of the future Ethiopian archbishop to name
bishops directly was rejected on the ground that in
the church of Sai"l Mark Ihis power belonged only
10 the patriarch,
The Ethiopia" church then sent to Egypl five
prelales who were to be consecrated bishop. and it
was during Ibeir presence in Cairo that the new
patriarch YOS~!I JI was elected; he was enthroncd on
27 May 1946. On 20 June Yusalt II reconvened the
s)'''od, which confirmed the refusal 10 g"'''1 the
future archbishop of Ihe Ethiopian church the pow·
er of naming bishops directly. In consequence, lhe
patriarch attached a condition to Ihe consecration
of the five Ethiopian prelates: Ihey must formally
pledge themselves not '0 consecrate either an arch·
bishop or a bishop. This resulted in an impasse, for
Ihe Ethiopian prelates refuse<llo accepl thi, condi:
tion. They were then summoned 10 Addis Ababa. 10
which they <eturned 00 4 AugUSt 1946.
In June 1947 Ihe emperor made known directly
to the Coplic patriarch his desire to resolve the
problem. YilSllb II formed a special committee. thc
final report of which was approved hy dccree of
Ihe Coptic ,ynod on 24 July. This decree provided
for the possibility of delegating to the metro]>Olitan
of Ihe Ethiopian church, in each case separately,
Ihe power of consecrating an Ethiopian bishop, on
condition lhat each candidature should be submit-
ted for the prior approval of the Coptic palriar-
chale. Upon the announcement of this decisinn.
~reios III finally left Ethiopia and returned to
""',
The Ethiopian clergy having approved the decree,
YilsAb IJ ratified Ihis entente on 29 March 1948.
and the agreement between the two churches was
finally signed in Cairo on 13 July 1948.
A subsequent agreement, which came about in
Cairo on 25 June 1959. completed this very exten·
sive process of achieving autonomy for the Ethiopi·
1044 ETHIOPIAN SAINTS
an church wilhin d>e framcwoo1< of "I~ ~ of
S.inl Mark.·' bul this Ia5I "Ireen>em Cllnnol be Do
cribed 101M q>iscopllic of O&"des III, for M died
in Calro on 22 OcllJblor 1950. This dalt Ihus marks
lhc end of the cpiscopaIe 01 1M ItiI EcYiKbn mel·
ropIl<IiWt (Ilbo<.., 01 the church of Ethiopia.
BIBUOGaAPHY
A.lIuJna Nnanu. ''The Elhq,ian Orthodox Church
Becomo Aut<xtphalous," pp. 8-33. 8. A. diss.
AdcIis Ababa Un"n'Sity, 1969.
&occ., M. "Oualc £II I'mone iraJiana ncll'impcro
por r",uO«'6dia del.... Ch.ico$a e1iopk.... RMsi..
,.,....".6 (1959):1>0. &, 25-26: no. 'I, 28-31; no.
II, 28-30.
Ee~ d'om." 26 (1921):458-59: 28 (1929):360-62:
29 (1930);360-62; 37 (19]8):179_83.
"LeI Elapcs <k I'cmancipalion <k !'qlist d·Ethio-
pie," Prcx:he·Orient ~hriti'" 10 (1960):42-55,
Maktabat Madh.ri. al·AJ.>ad, cd, 51'''1 al QlddlJ "I·belr
"I·;l.nbd KI,,,,II,,,s "1·Khd,,,ls RoO'u Mdqi/ar "I
KllnfJa ,,/·Alhi"biyya. Cairo, 1951.
Mara. Y. Thc Church of Eth/opl": Th. N,,';on,,1
Church in Ihe M"king. pp. 27-36, Asmanlo, 1972.
Marongui Buonaiute. C. PolitiC" • religlonl ne/ colo·
nl"/l...." it"li""o (1882_194/), pp. 293-333.
Rome. 1982.
Meinardus, O. "A Brid" H410!)' of lho Abu..-e or
Ethiopia.... WicnCT Zcluehrifl fU' dil: Kund. des
MO'V,d""dos 58 (1962):59-61.
MoIiIey, L H..1lc Scu.sm. ,Ioc Conq.oeri.., Uo... pp_
,....
141-42.150-51.160--61,169,246,2&5. London.
Murk! lamil. "La Df:ntien. phast dn rdatiom hi·
51oriql.on enl,.., I'.;g!ist eople d'fcyple lOt ,,,.n.
d'E!hiopic (jusqu'en 1952)." But/ell" de I. S<>cW~
d'A,dtl~ic copIe 14 (1950-1957):1-22.
Orimle Jdodenw 1 (1927):37_38, 182-90, 244-50,
292-94; & (192&):48&, 589; 9 (1929):.24-25. 95,
141-42. 194-96, 134-86. 493-94, 57&-79: 10
(1930):3&, 94 ~ of Ec't'PtiaA and Ethiopian
newap>Pft'$ c0"!fming the el«lion of Abuna
OtrelOll ILl). • Cloislers. rich monlu and n1lltS may llay in lheir
Perham. M. 11K Government of E,hiopi<l. pp, 10&-
130. London, 1948.
Trimingham, J. S. Christ"''' Ch",rch .",J Mi~~;..
Ethlopi<J. pp. 17-11. London, I';SO.
Zucco, J. "La chi..... copca abiNina cd i 4uoi abu·
~.'. Rivi.1<l delle co/=Io iI"U" ... J (1929):894-
90 •.
S~WATOkl! TEDESCHI
ETHIOPIAN SAINTS. The Ethiopian Orthodox
Church recognizes mosl of the sainll of the Univer·
",I Church before II><! Council of CIW.CWON (451)
and all Ihe saints of Ihe Copek: Onhodcu; Church or
Alnandria.. about ,"'hom It has kn.....·kdge th..-ough
the SYNAXllJOH. a«oWll$ of lheir acIS (giJd/; Arabic,
sUM), OT Ihrough Olher mnns. 1'I>t Synaxarion of
lhe Coplic chunh, which is the major source for
the In..,. of "';1Il$ of the Ethiopian chun:h, ........
tru.slated into lA'a (mosl p~y for the second
li~l in the ,h",«nlh cml"!)'. T1w Synaxarion,
",'hieh contains enlnes a1Jo ro.- ainu lTom lhc
other non-Chalceclonian churcbcs, i:'I the Oflly
5OUIU' ahoul lhe lives of many $aiots. Howe,..,r.
"nee'~ "K5IOO'1ltion" of Ihe So!Qmonic dynasty in
Ino. I~ bmous _erles. such as J:l.ayq Es.!if·
Inos in Wollo, _re aclively enpged in tnnS!aling
""'15 of sainu and manyrs from che A...hie hagio-
graphical lilerature of the Copcic cburch. The
SOUrCf$ cr~il particularly AbI1na SalAma II (1344-
H/lS) for .he lmportallon of Ihis genre of literat",..,
to Elhiopia.
In the courst of time, the tran.laled Synaxarion
assumed an Ethiopilln chameler by being enriched
",ilh enlries for indigenou$ ""inu and for olher
saints from lho lmnsJaltd hagiogr:>.phical Iileralure.
A. a fe.ult. Iht Coptic and Ethiopian Syn;».aria dif,
fer, at lell5l in deuoils in entri.. dealing ,"'ilh Ihe
...me saints.
The Elhiopian church <Ioes nOI have a formal
]><OC1edu,.., for canonizing indtaen<>u<; holy men and
women, bul the roads taken by lhese de""'" """'*'
10 sainlhood a,.., more or leu clear, although fol.
.....·iOK them in any measure of Slricm... may 001
a1...,.}'S lead one 10 auaininl: sainthood. Thr fim
Sit!' 10 $ainthood is aceeplinl: 1M monastic life. It
can be safely cOOKIuded lhal. with the etteplion of
the kings and queen•• especially cho5e of the l.if'W
dynaol:y (1137-1270). the chun:h docs nol bYe in-
diI;c.-.. $ainu ...ho died leao:linl a family life. In
1M Ethioopian church unmarried a$ .....,11 ... married
men a ..d _ e n eatI uoke lhe mo<'ll<Slic habil. AI·
though monks; and nuns a,.., Cl<pected to live in
houses ..... h lheir (\.anded) proporti... doing charita-
ble <keels, such as feeding Ihe hunl;JY and reccivinl
SI...ngen and providinl Ihem lodging and I>oard.
Such eharilable deeds could gain fame and r""ogni.
tion for Ihe monks and nunS from Ihe church, Iheir
fame beginning in the mon..tcry or nunnery 10
...hich lhey adhered. Following Ihe Coptic lradilion,
members or a monaSllc community are commonly
referred 10 as salms or holy men (qeddujllfl) and
women (q.dd"slll),
A monk deeply devOIl~d 10 Cod in pra}~.,; and
"'ol"$hip and 10 the words of Cod in kaming and
reading is soon .""ogniud by tht manast:1e com·
 ETHIOPIAN SAlNTS 1045

munil)' and its head . His know ledge of the li.~ uBA NOS OR MATIA'
~ could reach a stand ard thai mabo $ his inler pre-
1..ibirM>s is Ihe- eart~ for~n sainI (prgb ably af·
gIion oi p-rob!elDlOUo; bibli nl paMOl&ltS di>in ely
.er Yoha nnl. abou l ....· hom ''Cf)' liule u; know n) ip
Inspi~d. In Ihe couJ R of .ime, admi rers. especl.ally
reco rd;d hi!to ry who laugh ., died. and was burie d
_ipl es, slarl telling SIOries C>f rema rkabl e or mi·
in Elhiopia. UndefSU,ndabl)", Ihe exacI da.es In his
....,..anus deeds: perfo rmed by such a perso n durin g
life ",ma in udce nain . He 1I0u..w.ed durina: the
his liftlirM. Onth a' the ~nds of non-<:hrisdans
reisn <Ii Ella Gabaz. whoM : datn ...., IlQI know,:"
(ie.• M..... ill1S or paglllIS ..t.o suno unde d Ihe Chris-
and lhe mctr opoli lanat e of £Iyas (Elijah), "'00 ..
tian kinBdom and were cons undy aI w...- ...i!h me
not e-vC'n lisl~d in ,he- Ii .. of Ethio pian metr opoli ·
ChrislianS) while preac hing Ihe Gospel or defen ding
the B\Ol\ll5teries again st aMaullS could be Ihe nUl lan'.
Acco nlinl l .0 a homi ly alleee-dly comp nsed by Ihe
md final step 10 .saimhood. l1Ien . perh aps a younll
metr opol iWl £Iyis. Ubo\nas came from a very
child or an dtkr ly perso n rcsp eciN in his com .....·
..._lt lly family <Ii Abraham .nd Nca dt {pt'obabIy a
lIily mijh . sc>c a vision lhal lel1:l him .haI a new or
Goo'a ,~ n of the n.me Regi na), On .he night of
an old fountain. usually in 1M neigh borh ood ....her e
Lib1nos' wedd ing. Ihe archa ngel Gabr iel calle d him
!he monk spenl hi!< life, is a holy sprin g flowing in
and comm ande d him 10 go 10 nabr a lay! (perh aps
Ihe name of lhe saini 10 heal .he skk. In a coun try
Mou n. Olive Or 1m Mon as.er y of OIiw :). lhere .0 be
..tocrc the faithful are taeh l 10 t>e-lie,"" tha. all dOlh ed wilh mo......tic pro. H~ imme diate ly rul-
1)PS of ailmenla ...., CMl$M by dem0rt5 and ",her e
1_'C d the are~ ,~1 and ...."<:ft. 10 me mona stery .
Ihe pl1lClM:e and use of mf:dicine is disco urage d by
""her e he beca me a monk .
the teachers of the failh. Ihe heali ng powe r of Ihe
The ord~r 10 go to Elhio pia is said 10 have: come
boly spring is crod al In Ihe winn ing of fame and in
'0 him from PACHOMIUS hims elf. He wenl 10 EthiO
pinin c nalio nal n:coc nilio n for a salOL Funh er- -
pia and immedia.e1y $IaI'led work inc alTOOll& the
.....-e. all founders of _er iItS and nunn eries
peop le. Whft I ",-.:> poIit ;u> £Iy;\s heard abou t him.
an salr..s of .... ryins o.Ve e5 of re<:o pilio n in the M in'ile d him 10 hif res>do:nc:e in MUm . Hh: lime
urion . whem er or not lhey have hoI)' $pringJ.
in Ihe cily "'ail nIX long, howe,..,r. The king asked
Saints are norm ally commen'I()"l.Ied on Ihe day of
him to lea,'e when he heard Ihat he had .ecus ed
llteir dealh. for a very few salnlS, such as Abu....
the m~po lila n of simo ny.
Takla HJ,ymAnOl. daY' coll\JlWmoratinc othe r occa· A monk by the name Adhe nnan i or Adhani finall)'
lions (e.g.• binh or IDm latio a of relics ) are abo
.....e ftde d in brinc inc peac e bet.......en Ihe .wo ",II-
ceIeb.. ud. Un.il .he in.ro ducli on of mode rnlly in.o
ginus leade rs after UbI",," had spen t .hree years in
Ethiopia in .he Iwen deth cemu ry, mem orial days of
a ca,'e in seelu sion. Subs eque nlly, the tWO mon ls
the highly celeb raled saint s were nalio nal holidays.
UbJ.nt)l; and Adk:benanni beca me assoc iales in lu,d·
Ilut mosl nf Ihe ...inla are slill r~cred and com·
in, their spiri lual liVft.. They foun ded a mona slery
dlCmorated in the rqio ru ..~ they li,-e<l and
in Ha -" (in rtg'C ) and buill a chur ch lhal lhey
,..,,,'ed. dedk aled in Ihe nlIntoC of lbe Holy Cross, ~ Mas-
The acts and mirx les of !he:5<' Ainu , comp iled
qal. Ubio os lived sever al yean after Ihe dealh of
by imme diale or seco nd· or Ihird -gene rluio n follow-
hi. associale, heal ins the Sick and prayi ng for the
en. have beco me impo rtanl sourc es of the h;,lo ry
peac e.and safely of lhe chur ch and perha ps playing
md socioJo&y of Ethio pta.- ¥anr rqio nals ynau ria
50me role in lhe lransIa.Oon of Ihe Gosp els from
bavc ~nuies of vary in,lc ngth , 'hou&h \l$U..lllly shan ,
frII" saints who 1IouI"i:shtd locally. Since over lhc
Gnd 10 Goo'cz or Elhio pic.
Befo re he died, LJ"blnos strue k a rock and
COUl 'K of time t:"I~ry day of lhe year in the Syna ur·
brou@ht fonh a holy sprin g by .... hich his heali ng
ion has been Laden with enlri es of &e¥e,."J pints .
powe r eonli nued .
the saints <Ii Ihe <:b)' ar~ eomr nemo raled only by
He ito comm emor aled un ,; Ten (Tiib ah).

.....
ra<!i PI the cnlli es for the cbty durin g office ser-

Mo5l of !he saint s who maO. a Iasli n, con.r ibu·

tion 10 Ih~ cbur ch or Ethiopia arc menl ioned unde r
IlTHto",.N MON.osrJClSM, How ever, special enlri ts for
a ~ IftIly be in orde r. Jrtnowled&e of .be Nine
Saints. abo men. ioned in lhe enlry !or Ethio pian
_ic ism . Is in its infancy. 'lbcy will be lisiN
he'" wi!h dales <Ii their commelPQT1l.ion.
mE NIN E SAIN TS
The 5O-<:ll1l~d Nine Saln '" We're monk s who "'.... nl
to Ethiopia in the earl)" hi~lory of Ihe Elhio pian
chur ch. The- eucl dale omd reaso n for their gnin ,
10 EthiopU. from lhe Hdle nisti c world . inclu dinl
Eto'pl and Syria, art' not knm m. n.e Ethio pian
",ler at thai lime ..."M Al·amb:\i. 50n of g.,·.ldobbto.
1046 ETHIOPIAN SAINTS
"''''0 was succeeded by nun!. f.lI~r or Kaleb.
When Kilf'b. 1M EthiopiJon kin,. M1 oul 10 cam-
pIlign in An>bia. in 527 '0 rescue .~ Christians
there from the pcnecu1ion of their J"".-is.h ruin-. be
JoOlicilfillht pra)'er of Abb. fan.... le-won. one of the
Nine Saints. Hislorian< J'I'OPOIW' lila! thc am.... of
the Nine Saints in Ed',;opia "''liIIS related 10 the
sc:h"m and disturbance in the uni\'efUI church
~ tIM: nab.lre of divinity and humanity in Chris,
., and ann !he Coundl of tlt.ltCEOOS in 4$1. Thi$
'"KW.rose in a considenlioro of ,his da,,~ and ocher
drcumSGnccs, such as \be •• rugle for Nubia (now
Sood;on"'" """lhem ~'JlC) between !he Chalcedon'
laos. led by ."" emperor of lhe Ea4t. and I.hc non-
Chalc«!onians, led by his """prns.1HEOO(IllA.
The .....umplion is thaI il . . . non-Cru.lccdonian
monu who rus~ 10 Ethiopia 10 protcc, ,he Iota!
ch ..",h from the ,eachinll of ,!>os<! who ICCOpied
the dt'Cuion "r eh,lee<lon. Even lhoullh oomc of
the wun:cs insist lila! !hei«' monU arrived al Elhjo.
pla.s a group via the rnonll$lcry of Ap;o Pathomiu.
in Ejm>t, il i. plau,ible that II ICalil some of them
came separately at different timel.
A"Clwl or Zamlkl'tl. His nanl" arl! Ce'"". the
fir"Sl meaning "The Elder" and thc ~und "of Mi-
cll:ael," an indication that his nati~ n:>...... h_ nc>t
been Pf'CS'On-ed. Ac<:ording '0 ,radillon. Ar;opwi
..... the leader of ,he croup durinl ,he j<><>mey
from f.&ypt Il> EthJ0pi3, a JIO$i,ion ,ha, bcfill; his
name. n.e founding of Ihe cdebrat~ Dab... DAmo
is allribut~ 10 !his Wn•. It was at Ihis monastery
1M 1)')'a'lU5 Mo'a of 1;\:a)"Cl f.s!ifl",.os in Amba... and
Abu"" Tak1a Karmil101 of Dlob.. Ubinos in Shn....
~ ck>thcd ...ith ..-...1><: habits al the hands of
Y~nni, a spiritual dtsc.-ndanl rJ. An&lwi Thc
laint ...... s.aid 10 Ita.... US«! a lone serpen' to ~
the lmp~hle summit of Mount Dimo, where M'
buill his m<>rU:Slery. T<><by people . - rope 10 reach
iL It if; :ilia rtpOn~ that the talnl's mother, ~,
loUo,,~ the ~ 10 Eth;op~ and abbli.hed
lhe..., a nunnery:ft-" "'rains. A. .wi is commemo-
"'I~ on 14 Teqeml (Wbah).
~D!-I'ItWOCl (holaleon). fan!"I!won is mOS! ...,.
nwmbered for the role of his prayers in the IoU<:CCSS
of KAI/liis campaign in A",bia. Before k:a...ing h..
African realm for the campaisn, UI!b visited the
gint at hi! cell and re<:eived his blessinll and en-
cO!J"'llement to fight Zu Nuu (or Flnnehas, accord·
inl to local tradition). tIM: Jewish ruler of Anohia
who had intlicted serious perkcutlon On his Clllis·
lian subjcCls. Pan!"ltwon is abo famous for the
ascetic life he led. It is ,..,ported Ihat the cell with
which he is identified-he is sometlmel knuwn ..
l'an!"ltwno of the Cell-was Kl narrow that he
ItCW'r slq>l or sal in i', C\'eIt Ibou.gh he ne\",r lell i.
aft.... he entered i1 fot1r-he years before his dealh.
His cell. which was nonh 01 ""urn and was known
irs! b,- the name of o.bn ..w.o, later deYeloped
mil> a famous mollMtery carryi"i his namr, Dabra
J;"a.nta1f...-.::m.. r-o?l~ io cornn>em<>ralM on 6
Teqemt (JW.h).
Yes"'" (laaac) 01" CarlmL Both names sa non·
f.thiqMan. (';\"C11 lhoup his hajpographer attemplC<f
10 derive Garimi from an Elhiopic word meaning
WOIIdcrfUf. Yest,aq joinM lhe UOUP only afl"'T i,
had anived in Elhiopia. II Is reportM that he kli.
his parents' royal palxe in response 10 :an m~ila'
tion by !'an",~. When the group decided 10
Iea~e their center at lhe king" palace in ""urn,
YesJ.oaq moved 10 Madart. nOi br from Ad..-,,;. He
,,_ bmed for perfonning many &Slol.",din@ mira·
des. A mon.. tery bearing ,he nalT\C Abba Cariml'i
.,ill ..xist. today at anOlher place in Tigre and i. an
inlportant religious center. His feast is ctlehnotl!d
on 17 Sanf (Sa'Onah).
Ailf or Ar~h", The gadl of this sainI offers very
little historical information abou' him. except ,hat
he made Yeha, .n important archaeological site for
pre-i:htislian E1hiopia. his c",ol"" of aetiviti<:!. Th..
n'un<: i, ckarly roon·E,hiopian. The nlonk is be·
1i",~ed to have ascended 10 hea~en lile Elijah. The
r",as1 of Af?t ill celebra(M on 29 Gen.bol (BasIoalU),
GubW. His ,.41 reponedIy "",is~ bu. ha. n<)(
been studied by sehob ...., nOr Is his name listed in
an imponanl fillecnth-cc:ntul}' calendar. Acconline
10 tradilion, he founded his hermitage wnI of Ma·
dani. nno far from It... oripnal hermitage of Abba
Galiml. The facl that nrither of the5e twO hermit.
ages sunived may indicale resenlm.-nt and ram·
"""'" 10 Chris!:ianily a1 Ihe heart ofAxumite pagan-
ism. 11 is intet"CSlina to nOle thai: _ of the pboes
" ........, these saints CSIabIisbed their ....""gelieaf ac·
(ivilla were een,,~", of papn worship. The feast oJ.
Gubbi is celebnotcd wilh thai 01 Af:!!C on 29 (;cnbol
(Bashans). It <:ould be that I""" names, Gul>bi
and ~, belonS 10 One 1.
Aloof£. His It'dl repeatS ",hal has been ""riuen
about .h.e resl of his colleagues-lhat lhey came
locether '0 Ethiopla, seltled temporarily in tht pal.
ace, and di.pene<! to establish cemen of relilinus
activities. like that of Cubbi, Altfs name is not
found listed with lhose of hil colleagues in the fifo
leenth"'enl"')' palace <:alendar of saints. How""er.
Ihe fam(>Us monastery Oabra H~Il~ Luya is bdieved
tu have been founded by him. His name may be
related to the name of the first leuer in the alpha·
bet. The feall of A1ff is celebrtllM on II Maggibi!
(Ba....mhalJ.

V_'ali.. Sornot "d",1ar$, including Dillmann
(1880. pp. I-Sll.• '""~ Ihat h~ is aho called M..!.Ii'.
This could be .. conli.o5ion ..ith anocher gim. Abbe
"-!!i', who flourished in J:UWZIeII many )'Un be-
Jou I~ comins of the Nint Saints. ibe f~ of
Ycm·" is celebrat"<:l on 28 T~.. ml (Blbah).
~ _ n... "';nl·" g"dJ. thousb mo.."1l 10 ulsI..
. . lMlC rached the Iund!I of ""hol.lus. Al lhe lime
01 the dispemon of the saints. Uqinoo ...... ed 10
IIOrth of hum and found...! a moUSIei)', Oabn
~t k _... by its Iour>def'" .... me 10 this da,.
His Iuol is celtbnted on l8 Khedar (Matdr) and 4
TnT (Tllbah).
fd!aI. Abba ~ma i. bdie\'ed 10 ba,~ .-etlled
IIOUllleasl of Ad,,·.Ii. Uk" many of his colll"al"ft, no
p& for him h.. yC"t corne 10 light. Nor is lhc-re any
m ~ center carrying his name. l1>ere it, ho_w·
C"t". a ITgion of Tigre named E~ Abba !;ic~ma. The
mosl of Abba $eJ:>mA i. cdebrat.d on 16 Terr (Tob-
'"~ or ~ Thi. is mOM probably another name
eilher AI<!f Qr !;ic~mA,
of
vAa£D (JARED)
Yir<!d i. on. of the ".ry few early Ethiopian
uinlS known 10 h ....ory. and no copy of hi. origl....1
aoeu hal ~n diKovered; Ihus. imponant faels
aboul Mm an uncenain. His second MgIographer
lh'fod. mosl probably in the liftttnth century. H.,....
~r, the tradilion is firm Ihar. .... Ethiopian church
- . the composition of its anliphonary. 1hC" Dq-
I""l. ltsl'nl>fic:: .. wdl as the IJal pan of its hymns.
III this JU:SI sainI.
Yi1td Rouris~ during the ""... or Qlbn Ma$'"
~ (e. SS3-SSS). ~ ""'5 a IIOI'I of an Mumile
pictl:1y rami!)· of Yes/:Iaq and Kr..,nini (Isaac and
OuiRina). ",hen his rather died ..ftilc the ton .....
Itill a C'hild. iii. mother "?Ok him 10 ~'On (Gid-
fOlI). a bmOUl' hiblical ""\tf:br or .... liml" who abo
ll.ppened 10 be a ""laJi,..._ ,II soon l>ccamC" clear 10
.... child and thl" leachcr lhat Ylir<!d did nol Iu"...
.... wl"nl for leamin&- Frus1nued alier ,".·erallrialo
..... uMble 10 funtler endure his master's bealinp.
Ylrtd considcrc<l abandoning ""hool. He leh his
_ll"r and ran away into .... woods. Whil~ sining
rhC"rc resllng. he wa.lched a ca.le'l'illar trying 10
climb a. IrC"C". When he ""w Ihat it .ucceeded aller
wory many anempl'. he went back to hil tl"acher 10
Iry lunher. With persistence and pray.., .., Ydred
....ceeedl"d in becoming a great .chol..r.
Yir<!d grew up sc .... ing as a deacon al the church
of Aleum .•itl" 01 the "Ark of Zion:· Ihl" tabol (ark)
that was btlie."Cd 10 house Mosco· lablell oilhe Ten
ETIlIOP!AN SAINTS 1047
Commandments. When he I"CKhcd Ihe age <>f mao
luril)'. he married and became both a rather and an
Kcamplish.cd pries<. His marriaJc was, tto.........,r.
not withoul "",blems. When hI" diacawrcd !hat his
wife ~ a lover. he planned 10 ambush and "ill
him. He abandoncd m.. plan only when lhe mCSIICn·
&<,r of God ~ 10 him in m.. fonn of three bmls
:llId """,inded him thai JMo lhwld ralhcr .~ his
priesthood.
II seems thai III this litnC" YArUI left Allum (or
c ....... EdOOpia) and ~bly wmllO IJMo Holy u.nd
and lhc nc-.ghborins coumri... whc-re Cbrislian wor-
ship had dc>"Clopcd. Acoordins 10 his hagiographer.
s'nsing in church;n a loud ¥Oicc ,,~ nol "n"",,, in
lhe Ethiopian chun:h al IMlliml". BUI in Jerusalem
he hean:! song'S <>f praise- to God in a loud "oicC".
One or lhe birds appearc<l apin and lausht him lhe
Ihree I)'pCS or modCl of mClodiet lhal ,.,-e still in
we in the Ethiopian church.
As nOled. tndilion &5"ribes 10 nrtd lhe compo·
.ition of the volumino"s antiphonary for the year,
Ihe Dl"ggw/!:. Therl" is nO !"Cason to doubt Ihat n~
""'S ITsponsi!>le for the compoihlon of lhe nudeus
of the D~ggwa, Ihe texl Ll well IS lhe melody. But
the DeUwa w... sreally cnl"'1ed by the inclu.ion of
hymns for Ih~ sainll ... ho li"ed a1ier Ihe duth of
YArl<!. II ind"')"., for I"umple. hymo" of Ihe rna·
;only 01 saintS who Aourishcd from d>c- libeenlh 10
.....cnlttmh centuries.
Af1cr sen·inl al the chun:h in "-~um for several
ytan. YAdd d,..,ided 10 abandon his homl"bnd and
80 "'1"$1 10 SC"m<!n. 11M' rcason is nOl clear. hut be
tpC"nl the re:s1 of his li~ leaching Ihc"". His conceal-
ed tomb is belIewd 10 be !here.
YM6:! is cOrrunemonl.cd on 11 Genhot (&.hans).
LAuB,uA OR GABRA MASOAL
U1ibal;}, is 0..., oi the aimly kings of thl" ~
d)"TIaSI}. thai rulc-d Ethiopia from 1137 10 Ino.
SJnc~ its contribulion and dedicalion w !he EUtj.,.
pian chun:h has no equal in the hi,,",1')' Qf lhe cOlIn·
lIy, it i. IUber curious IMI lhe cle'iY collahontcd
,,'ilh a rebel. Yekunno Amltk (1270-1285). 10 re-
place it with a ne... dynaillY. Tribal polilics may
haw~ bor:n a factor. Tl1~ wnSlt'1Ktlon <>f th~ mont>-
m~ntal rock-l'l~wn chun:hc-s of UJtl is ascribed lo
thi. dynast)". and specifically 10 UlibalA. In fact, the
name of Ihe capilal dty. Roha. and its .urmundingl
where Ihese cht>rchl"s are loc81ed hu been changed
W Ulibalii.
Ulibalii w... born alVUnd 1150 10 a princely
Ustii family of l;ln (or );In or Z;lhn) Sen-urn and
his ...ifl". whose name .. nol menlioned in Ihc :,,<11
•
1048 ETHIOPIAN SAINTS
of !he sainI. Ii .. reponed that when !he child ...
born. bets nu;irded him, fore~lIm, U>a' he "'OO.dd
become kin, and M QCOfted by the national army.
n.e pnlpheqr ... not ""..,komtd ~ hi, bl'Olher.
Hatboy, who _ ruler of.m conn,,)' aI !hal lime.
In &ct, Harboy allemplcd 10 ba.., U1ibaIJ poi.-
~'"
E...,n bdore Ullba~ tool power. the aniI'I of
God appeared to him in a Tmon and lransponed
him to the :<eo'en,h ~a,'en. whe..., the Lord was
enthroned. There. the Lord said to him, "~n the
ears of your mind and comprehend what I Shall
show you, ;n order Ihat you may build my temple
on ranh whe..., I $hall dwell with people Bnd where
I shall be sanelifil'd by the mouth of my ptOple,"
Ha'ing said Ihls. the Lord describtd for him W
"",hitecture and Sf)eCifications of Ih., ICti nxk·he"..,
churches. Today n><><km schoI""" do not ha,.., a
booUtr npbnalion of the uislcnce of Iha<! brellb-
aakingly ;m~ UlibaUi churches in the middle
of a cultural clewn. 1l>t' archit<:aUf'I! dQQ not rt-
Kn1ble any of the churcheoo or- otbtr buildings in
neighborinl countries, " ..hieb mian! be e:o.pecled 10
ha...., wielded cult.. ",] inRuence.
Apparently ~2Ji", tht "'ling monarch. LlIibala
ldt Ihr: city and livf<! in Ihe wooo:Is unlll lhe lime
-s rithl for his relum. In the wildemra he dt"VOl-
ed him..,lf 10 God In prayer and fasllng. His lrue
dev<>tion 10 God in his own way comes lhrough
dearl}' in his gQdl. For example. amonl Ihuse who
resent.d his e>'emual reign was one who gave this
reason: "If thl$ man reigned, h. would exchange
me ror incen~ (or Ulle in the church," His judg·
menl ",as not IOlally wrong: Ihere is a Il'2dition IMI
U1iball indeed 50Id his own ""'" ",hen he had noth·
ing to &i>'e 10 lhe poor. Whil. in hiding. U1ibl1lj.
married Maoqal Kebri, who is abo commemoraled
u a!MlinL His baa>oIBpher clainu lhal UJibloli had
risited ~JlI anll the Holy Land before he -=ended
the thmne. He "",pc:owdIy rttri>'ed hi$ other~.
Gabr.o ~t:as4al (Sef,.--ant of the Crou), in a revelaliOC'l
while he .... in lhe Holy UIld. P'il,nmage to Iheoe
places Is "n atpi'-'lion of ...."er)' ...,lip,us EthOilpian.
There are cues wheft hagiographeR lake the liber-
Iy of indu.dinl pil,rimage $Iories in the xu of lheir
....inu. regardless of the Klual facts.
According 10 his hapovaph.",. the end of Ulib</l·
la's reign and lile coincided with the end of Ih.
conslruclion of th~ rock·hewn churchu. for It was
for this imponant mi.sion of building lasting tern·
pie. thai the lord l'2i$Cd him. La!ih;,lli is commem·
orated on 12 San~ {8a't1nahj. AlthQtlgh the month
i1 the beginninl of the nliny season, pilgrims from
all oYer Ihe COuntry flock 10 U1ibali iJI Sanl ~ry
year 10 panlclpale in the celd>ndon.
IYYASUS MO'A
Iyyssus Mo'. is the founder of the famous monas-
te.,. DIlbra l:'ll)'ll, abo called [)aIm Es!il'i.... be·
ca.... of the chuKh buill in the mon.te')' in the
name of Saini b!ilat>m (Slephen) lhe Prolomanyr.
Hi. life was composed centuri.. after his dealh. As
a ' ..ull. It offers ~.ry liule of hislorical imponance.
Iyyasus Mo'a Came from a religious family of Za·
kre.t{)$ and Ep.i' Kebrl. (In fact, one of hi. Iwo
brothetl'. Gab... ~on, died from harsh asceticism.)
He received hi$ call 10 monastic life when he ""'"
thirty )'<'ars old while Ih'inS in celibacy Wilh hi.
pa...,n... After spending an allJUishrd n.... in
praytr, he tel 011 the lIC3It monlina: .... th another
man 10 Dab.. Dlmo 10 devote himself 10 God un·
del' ilS abbo1. Abba Yo/uonni. Abba YoI:w1nl, ....·be
left !he ~ e of tht palace and his ..ife, the
daup.te. of lhe king, eamr<l his fame from the
wid ascetic life he led. He bel>eved ,hat ooly mOSt
....ho can ",dune physical ... lferings sIloukl be :ad-
mil~ (0 monasticism. He .. best remembered kl.
his being lhe spiril,,",1 father or Abuna Iyyuus Mo'"
and Abuna Takla Hayminot. He c10lhed 1JYl'SU"
Mo'a in monaslic plb aher tM latter completed
se...,n years of hard work and rigorous fas'ing.
Afte. a ""hill'. around 1248. lyya.us Mo'a '001:
leave of his spIritual father and returned to his
homeland. AI !:laY'!. he .taMed as one of the under·
lings servin, at the local chuKh dedlc.led 10 Saint.
Peter and Paul. The original cOOKh that Sl'rved lhe
enlire community. men as wdl 16 women, was
buill II1(IIOt probably in Ihe ninlh celllury on a site
whe..., sorrprnts "'..,..., ....,nhiped. As soon • lhe
oommunily di!<'O<'e.ed the g-ealn_ of lhe monk. it
requested ""'1 tht king appoinl him lhen' abboc
It .... dunns the time 1n-->5 Mo'a .... abbot or
IbbI'2 I:laY"l lhal Yelwnno Amllk. the founder or
the SoK>monic dynasty in 1270, cant<: 10 lhe monas-
!try '0 study under the abbot. The ""... made ..,ver·
a! peelS lhal Yekunno lunlak aveed 10 observe if
he bf:(:ame klnllhlO\Jgh lhe pr:Il)'en and $upporl of
Abuna l))'tills Mo'.... On. of the promises Yekunno
Amllk made ,,"'as to fulfilllhe wish of l)Y3SuS Mo'a
that women should leave lhe island and lhe place
be de$ignaled.o. monastery for men only. The worn·
en W"e obviously disappointed when lhcy had 10
leave ,he Island, even though the new kinll had
in>'iled lhem 10 live at his coun. "We brough' lhis
monk in." lhey complained ....'hen lhey left in lean,

"holdi", his hand. and he look us oul holding our
..........
The monaslery Oouri~td dwing 1M Iony ynors
of his leadership. Many important monastk lea<krs
were clolhed with monastic garb by his hands.
These include Abuna Talda Haym~nOl of Dabra
Asbo (0' I.Jbinos) in Shew Abuna BAfoI-Iou. Mi·
ka'tl of l>;Ibn Gol in Amh ; Abuna Gab.... Ender-
cyi$ of Qou., in Shtwa: Abuna Gab,.. NIzrl...-i in
r.,.e: and 1M ~ Aton of Diril In Amhara.
Since the hip priesthood d the church, the o~
of '&qqIIW sa'." was promisM 10 th., followtn of
~ 1010'. by Ihc ntw king. lhe monastery main·
Din.cd cloiSe Ii.,. with the ""r..ce fur """.,ral cemu,..
ia. For this and OIher reMons, the moRtitery "''"
richly en<!owed with land grants by the kings and
many dignl~ries of the empire. The monulery used
the wealth 10 pron>Qle rellgiou. educalion at lhe
monutcry and, apparently, III dau&hler moltllle,..
ics. Many Ecl>tian monks ",,100 hdpocd in I...... SW·
iD& Ecpl_n rdig;ous books. especially acts of
....15 and H'rv1cc booU, 1i..N &I Dahra l;b.yq ",iIh
thrir ElhOopion broIhcn, Although iu e ~
.....p d ,old and pr«ious cloth.,. was plundered by
the fon:cs of Grtoflti in lhe sixleclllh nnlury and i15
libr.o.ry -.. Iooled at dlfferem Ii",", Dab.... Hayq
(or Dabra Nag...... dg.o.'id) is "ill 0...., of the ,cry re.....
impo"ant cenlers lhat hss a library of rare manu·
scripts. 1)')'ll5U5 Mo'a's Own copy of the Gospels i.
Rill prcsotl"'od !here.
I~ Mo'a himH'lf Spt'1l1 Ihc \asI years of his
Iifr in sijcnt seclusion. He is comn>l'moralcd on 26
kMdiT (H1I\ir).
TAKLA HA,VMA,NOT
Abu"" Takla H~y"""01 is the greate", Ethiopian
saint and Is r~ognized 115 lUch ameng all Christians
of the COUntry. He was born in i?clalesh, in Shew.,
under the Ugwe dyna5.l1: (1137-1270). The people
in the area of his binh .Jere <:<lnvened 10 Christian·
ity by his ance5lOn, whO migraled From the nonh
in sean:h of a new home. Accordin, to .nodilion,
they carne w the south w ......"",liu the am..
which was popuLated by papns and Musli"",_ A~
...,.emly wilh ~ support from Ihc <central admi...
isID1ion. these ntw inUlli"",n"" seem to have been
$lloCcC5$fur ill "'king ,he leadeBhip cI the communi·
ties in Wagda. Kalat~. Qawal. ~1;\I.,.h, SannAl, Fa!.
. r , and Da"",,,~ro. The!r most Important SOurce of
power. however, ""as in their roles as teachers,
They ~rcad Chri"Wtity in thaI region. endured
"""",roe peIWC'Ulioll. and ""enluaU)' OllCCeeded in be-
ETHIOPIAN SAINTS 1049
coming "",Iisious and poIi,ical leaden.. In bet, be--
fore Tak.Ia HJiymlnol'. binh. his ITIOIher Sari (Sar·
all) or £il:i' Kharaya, .... M taken captive by
Motalom;, the ruler of Darnol, who fiercely opposed
the spread of Christianity in his realm. By the help
of the archangel Michael, she was rni ...culously
brou.ght b.ael, to her husband, the pries! ~gp
za·ab...nile he .... cdebnting the mas:s in lhe
church of hi, vitiate.
As a boy, Fdkl)a ~ (Taitla Hlyminot', name
at binh) sen..,d in Ihc church _ a deacon, COtlSC-
erated for the office II,- Mctropo!ilan 0tmc05. When
he reached !he &ie cI maluriry, hi, parcnu ....me<!
him to a <!allghter of one of the communilY leaders,
but she d;cd within two or three years. The ""II 10
lelVe God Came to FeSkl}a !J>I!yon ",h.,,, he W;l$ On
a huming trip with his seIVanl" "Fear nOlo my be·
1o'ood one; as of now Ih<>u s.halt nOt be hunter of
animak bul fisher of soul$ of many 'innet$. Lellhy
name be Talc.. Htpn&nol [i.e... PIanl of Faith]. for I
have chosen thee from the _I> of oy maiM and
sanctified thee like Jtremi.ah !he Prophn and John
the BapWl:. Behold. I have giveon th« lhe aulhoriry
to heal. Ihc sick and w ~ .\011)' evil "Pirils from
all plac......
Cirded with such an authorily, Talda Hiymlnol
disl1ibuted all his propeny among the poor and set
OUl 10 spread lhe word of Cod. He successfully
conv"ned n>any regions in Shewa and Dim01 to
Christianily, and he endure<! pc""",,wion. From lo-
cal chim ",,110 worshiped papn lods. On se"entl
occasion" he 'isited oe metropolit.."'..e 10 seek
adricc on what w do when J»Pn tradilions and
Ethiopian Cbriscianily <»ntlict, asking. for example.
If baptivn could precede drcufllciolion.
AIler tcachine fur many yean in Shcwa and DAm·
01. Taltb H.I).....lnot _nt nonh 10 'isil the anciem
and tradilional religious <cenlers of Elhiopia, includ·
lng Dabra Go! In Amba.... when 115 abbot w~ B~l­
OQ MiU'tl: Dahra ':Ia)'q Es.!lfinos In Amhara when
h, abbol was 1)')"tiUS Mo'a: and Dabra DArno in
Tigre .....h.,n its abbot was VoI;Ianni- Il Wll5 during
Ihio ""lended 'isitilial Takla HiyminOl "'. . cklthed
with !he monastic prb, !he (ina Slage by 1yya:'>US
Mo'a of 1:f.aY"l and lhe hich« Slq<e by Vol;\anni of
...... mmo.
Equippocd with Ihc .,.,....... to consecrale n>ook••
Takla Hayrninot relurned to his homeland In lhe
south a"d, with :s<"veral (JUo......,. ntablished the
famous Monastery of ",sbo, renarne<l later Dabm
lJb~n()S. Almost an of Ihe close follo.....,., of Abuna
Takia H~l'ntnOI were relaled bolh to him and
to Yelrunno Amlil< 10)' blood. This facl may ha,..,
1050 ETHIOPIAN SAINTS
helpW Vekunno Amlal< in wlnnln& the suppon 01
lhe c1~ric..1 establishment when he ""enhrew Ihe
U~ dynZiy in 1270. In fII'1Ilillode for the suppan
of !he c1.. rgy in ....a:oblWlin, his dYf""Cy, y.. knnno
Am.lilr. is reponed to ...."' p'"flI 10 lhe chun:h a
thini 01 his annwl revenue from Il~ lands ci the
COUIlI,),. Ho...·ner. Talda HJi)minoI.'. rok in the
ovenhrnw ci the ~·t dynuIy is noI wry d ......
The foIkwr."eB of bolh Talia HI)'IIW>oI and I)~
Mo'a 0Il:h)'q f.s!.i~ chum that it \$ !heir falhet-
who reprKeRled the cburch in helpin, Yekunno
Ambk 10 e!IIiIblish !he Solomonic dynasIy in 1270.
Takla HJiyminol spenl the Iasl years of his life in
iKlusion, 5landing for pr:tl)"er 10 the poinl ...·here
one of his kgs gave ......y. TM.... is abo lhe popular
belief IIw he gnow six wings (th~ on dlher side)
to Oy like lhe angel•. Talda HJi)minOi died durinll a
pestilence lhat dedn"'ted his community in i\5 in·
Fancy. He i. commemoraled nalionwide on 22 n·
khUs (Kiyahk), hi. nal;"ily; 24 Nah,,", (Mi.r1i), his
death; and 12 Genbol (Bashn.). lran,lation of his
bod,
B1BLIOGIlAPHV
Budge. E. A, W, Tire Life of Tdta HdymdllOl in rlre
V...si<m of Dabra LiMnos. alld lit.. Miracles of
,...
Tdla HIlymlmol in II,.. V..rs;"" of Dab.a Lib/mos,
alld Ihe BooI< of lire Riche. of Kill's. London.
Gelalehew Haile. '"fhe Monastic C~ncalocY ci lhe
Une 01 1llldlI. H;>yrnanOl of 500.:· Rass..,.... ai
Stwa; "Ropid 29 (l912~193.\,:7~31.
Ros.ini, C. C. "11 'Gad\a Ta1.Ia HaymanOl' secondo
l.a ndarione ......w.-bbana-- MtmOri" d..lI. R#:lJ1"
Ac..ad_ia d..i Lilfcei. CIas&e di scienu moraJi,
Jloric:he e phildogiche, 2, ser. 5. pl. I (11196):91-
14.\.
twosTATtwos (Emtathel.lt)
£woo!Jiltv._ .... b>ooo.n as the champion of lhe
k\l.iJh Sabbath il the Ethiopian Onhodox Chun:h.
l-le ....... born Ml'~ Epi' (TNJt oflhe lord) loa
noble £amily of K<esI05 Mo'a and Sena !:ley....... a
family known lor ·galhering lhe elderly poor I<:>ceth.
er and providing Ihem ...~th Iheir needs. Their faith
"'. ... Jlrenglhene<! when God heard Iheir prayer of
man)' yea,... to Ita,'e a <;hil~ and p~e then, Mli'eqaba
Egl:i',
When MJi'cqaba Egzi" r..ache<! KhooJ age. his par-
ents took him to Abba D.ine'~1 (Daniel), brOlher of
Sena !:l.. y"..at. where he pursued his eduCalion dili·
gently. This ....bba Dane'tl foU!l<!~d the monastery
Dabra MliryAm in Miy Owenlwcr (Tigre). Ml'eqaba
Egri". inclination 10...... rd the religious life bepn as
soon as he .....ned Khool. He 8"""" up pll.y:i.,. no
altention 10 his bodily comfort. Mi'eqaba EgD' .........
SliJI a YOUIII boy .... het! Abbo. Dine'tl agreed 10
clothe him with !he monastic gam. and ",named
him£~
Aft.... "'" onlination lIS a prieA. £ ~ relt
the eall 10 CO 001 and teach: '''Sow the ",'Ofd of God,
leach and make the Ia.... 01 lhe God ci IJUth be
heard .",'tn as )'OIl "''fie eommandnl befon.:' H......
t:W'r. he .._ bad 10 his mo~e')' regularly for
retreal and seclusion, a prac1i« thai ga~e him 0<:.
casion 10 study his holy boob.
'11........,.
£....... lOOn became a prominem monaslit
leader ""lh many foll~rs, including Abba AbsAdi.
his successor and a mO'-lic leader in his own
righl. ~wo5"t~ lei rul~ for his followers, in·
cluding lhe punish.ble prohibition of speakinl
again.. olhers, He alw advised them not to be e.·
ger 10 be ordained priest,_advice wlrh far·re,""h·
ing cons.. qu~nces for rhe communlry. As 10 th .. gen·
enol publk he admonished them againM slavery,
murder. robbery. and fomicalion.
£wosJit~wOiS ...... amonl Ihe monastic leaders
who ehMti.e<I Emperor 'Amda ~yon (1314~134")
for asootiatinK himKlf with a ",ife of his Own f=t.
tl>er. When 'Amda ~n banished him, £W05!;1o.
!twos allempled 10 oYtnhrow him by enC<lungin&
Warbina Epi·. the ",ler ci !:lam_n, In rebcl.
A more serious COI'lInl>"efSy. one Iltal fon:ed the
monk 10 lcav~ Ethiopioa for cood. emued from the
questions ci lhe Salurday Sabbalh. According 10 the
5ynodicon, one 01 the c_leal boob of lhe Ethio-
pian chu«b, both SatlUuay and Sunday,,", da)'S 01
rest 10 be ~ by II~ faithful. The m"lropoli·
lam comi. . from Aleundria made it known. t>o...~
......., that Salurday is not obser...ed in the Coplk
cburch. In raet. they .,.....,. IaIIght thai Eibiopians
should abandon J.,..~sh pnctiees. inct..ding Ihe obo
............e 01 Salurday as a Sabbalh. This c"'ated :a
great schism in the Ethiopian church. MallJl :agreed
10 obsen"e only Sunday. 8ul a few. led by £"'OS!J.
r~ refuM,d 10 violale rhe eommandrnenl& of
lhelr ScriplUres. Ihe New and lhe Old Testaments
and Ihe boob ci canon law which command the
observance 01 Saturday.
The feuding panl", came to rhe king's coun look·
ing for a ",Iinll. Tho ... WIS apparenlly no melrop"l·
iran in lhe country at rha' lime, However, $In<'e Ihe
king w... 1'101 in a position to pa.. any judgment On
""deslll51ical m"lt~rs and feared lhe implications of

schism for his kingdom, he askod the two parties to
go 10 Egypt and sellle their differences before the
patriarch. Before £.wos!Al~wO' left for Egypt, he or·
dered his followers never to aswdale themselves
with those who did nat follow his teaching. This
order created an independent community within
Ihe church and the Slale, which became a real
problem for the political as wen as religious leaders
of the countl)'. Some of his disciples accompanied
dleir father as ra, as Bogos (in whal i5 now Eritrea).
",he,.., he asked Ab,adi to return to the monaslel)'
and ....ke charge of its adrninis\mlion. Only (we!>'"
of his disciples 'tayed with him 10 continue the
journey.
Predictably, twOS!AI~w",,' joum,,)' to Egypt wos
not a sueee", as far as his cause of obsc",iug Satur·
day as a Christian Sabbath was c<mcerned. Accord-
ing to his hagiographer, Palliarch BENJAMIN II (1327-
133\1) was symp"thetic 10 hi. cause, bUI he is re-
pone<! 10 have said that Ihis leaching of the apostles
had long been ahandoned. f.wosfAt~woo and hi, fol.
lowers left lhe patriarchate and 'pem .erne time in
Ihe monasteries in scETtS in stricl ascelicism. The
hagiographer mentions Ihe Monaste')' of EJijah as
one of the monasteries they visited there.
After he left Scetis. he visited Ihe Holy Land and
Cyprus, and went to Armenia. where he spem the
rest of his life, Why f.wostAlewos wantoo 10 go 10
Armenia is not dear. He had either heard a repon
thai Ihe Saturday $abbath was obser.'oo there, or
else he wamed to live in anolher coumry where
monophysitism was the religion. His disciples at
horne made a .tatue of their teacher 10 be erected
in Dab", Mtrytm, an unusual praclice in the Ethio.-
pian church,
His followers continued their separale life for
many years 10 corne. MOOI of those who wem with
him perished on the journey, bul two of Ih"m were
able 10 relurn to Ethiopia, They allempled 10 con-
ven the Falasha (Ethiol1j,an Jews) to Christianity.
Dbser....nce of the Satur(\ay Sabbath is the celllral
poinl in the religion of the Falasha. When the num·
ber of the f.wOS!at~wosite~ grew at' an alarming rate
and their order cominued to differ fr(lm the tradi-
tion prac.iced by the eSlablished church-taldng
too seriously the advice of their leacher nol to be
eager to be ordained priests, Ihey denounced priesl'
hood-Emperor Dtwit (l382-14t3) banned Ihe
movement. Sina Ihey were many and determined,
destroying them was impossible, finally his son,
Emperor l.ar'a n'qob (1434-14681, brought an end
to the schism by summoning a council to consider
ETHIOPIAN SAINTS lOSt
the issue. The Council of Dab", Melm<\q (1445) de-
clared Ihat according to the books accepted by the
Elhiopian church, Saturday was a Sabbath 10 be
obscr.'ed by all Christians,
f.\Vos!At~wO$ is commemorated on 18 Maskaram
(HII).
GIYORGIS OF GASECHA
The idemity of Abba Giyorgis (George) is far from
certain. Two or e.'en Ihree prominent personalities
in the church of modio.'al Ethiopia may ha,'e been
confused in the lradition. One of Ihem, possibly
Abba Giyorgis of Dabra IUhrey, may have flour·
ished during Ihe reign of ·Amda ~)'on (1314-
1344). He must ha>'e been a disciple of Abuna Iy·
)-asus Ma'a af Dabra ~ayq. The Olher, Giyorgis of
Saglt or Gase<:M, died between 14Z4 and 1426. The
"",,umption now is that Ihis i. Ihe Giyorgis that the
tradilion refers ta as Abba Gi)'orgis the ,,-riter, the
preacher, and Ihe musician, The .ingle eslant copy
of his gadl is preserved in the Monastel)' of l;Iayq,
Giyorgis came from the noble family of l.lezba
~n (probably from Tigre) and Emmena Seyon
from WalaqA (in present·day Wollo). Giyorgis mu",
have inherited the zeal for learning from his falher,
who was widely kn(lwn as "a comprehendcr of Ihe
Scriptures lik. Salalhiel [Ezra]." The Slan, howev'
er, was not smoolh for Ihe child. His father took
him 10 the Monastery of l;Iayq, the cemer of Elhio-
pian church education at Ihat time. BUI Giyorgis
was so slow in learning that his teacher lost hope of
leaching him. A person who did nOI pes",," the
faculty for memorization could nol go far in the
traditional Ethiopian system of Mucalion, where
education was mostl)' oral preservation of knowl·
edge. Faced wilh this problem, Giyorgis w"m daily
to church, where he prayed with tears and IOtal
concentration to God and the Blessed Virgin, One
night, the Blessed Virgin appeared to him and told
him to be diligent in his learning, forgoing e>'en
sleeping by night.
The diligence recommended to him proved to be
>'ery effective, A hymn composed in his honor says
il all:
Rising from lhe region of Sagla like a bright .un,
buckling Ihe sharp sword of faith ahout his "siS!,
Giyorgis swam the depth of the sea of the Scrip'
1l.lres,
He built his castle upon a firm rock,
its foundalion does not shake to right or left.
The power of the wind could not make it fall.
1052 ETHIOPIAN SAINTS
Abba Giyorgis i. a ocholar saint without e<jual m
Ihe Elhiopian church in the qualily and quantil}' of
original literalUre he produced. Howe...er, he is
mostly remembered for two importanl works' a
book of hours called S,,'aIM (hours), and M,,~e"afa
me.(ir (The Book of Mystery).
Before Girorgis, lhe widd}' used serllice book for
Ihe hours was Ihe Ge'e, ...ersion of Ihe Coptic HORn·
LOGION. For unclear reason•. dilferem monaslerie.
compil.d their own book< of the hours, Uhimatdy,
howe.... r, that of Abba Giyorgis pre.'ailed, even
Ihough many churches continue 10 use the Coplic
Sa'aIM. The distincti.... characleri.tic of Ihe
horologion ascribed to Abba Gi}'oTgi< i. that it con·
tain. the doxology of beaulifully composed ....Iulary
hymns to many of Ihe saints ac~epted by the Ethi<;>-
pian chu.ch. As a musician, h. pro...ided Ihe melody
for his lyrics. His original horologion, probably in·
tended to be. used in .hift. in hi, mona<lery, co...·
ered the twenty·four heuro of the day.
The MaJ,,"afa Me'l;r, composed loward the end
of his life, is a collection of twenty.,.e,·en well·docu·
mented trealises refuling different heresies of for·
eign and local origin. These lreatises are arranged
to be read in chureh<"$ and monasteries at different
holy and feast days of the year /II; part of Ihe liturgy
and are ,till in use. Other locally composed hymn,
to the Blessed Virgin, su~h as the Argiino"a wed-
d,lsA (Organ of Praise) and Khokheia berM" (Portal
of Light). are now belie... ed to have come fmm the
pen of Abba Giyorgis. He al"" wrote a collection of
hymn. for the Holy Cro.., Weddase masqal (Prai..
of the Cross), It is also quite possibl. that some of
the locally composed anaphoras are his.
Giro'llis started his Caree' at the royal court as a
teacher of the childre~ of Emperor Dawit (1382-
1413). Later he held the office of nebura ed (abbot)
of Dabra Damo. But it appears that he v,-as not
always on good tert1).S with the emperor. Because of
Ethiopia's foreign r"tions, foreigners had easy ac·
ce.. to the emperon. Th.se foreigner< very often
included missionarieS and travelers from Ihe non-
Monophysite churches. Th~ chureh and monastic
leaders, including Abba Giyorgis. found themselves
at odds with political leaders inAuenced b}' such
...iSitors. Th.e "herelic" Bitu, who had great influ·
ence on Djwit, was in<lrumental in the banishment
and imprisonment of Abba Giyorgis. who won his
freedom only when the emperor died. One of the
~hapters in his Ma~t!IJ~f~ mu(ir is a refutation of
the conception by Bilu of the image of God.
Abba Giyorgis was also acti ...e1y involved in the
Saturday Sabbath dispute, devoting a chapter of his
M~F"afa me.(ir to the defense of the practice. Hi.
wish to be clothed with the monastic gam at Dabra
libinos was fru"rated when he saw Ihat Ih31 com-
munity was in the opposite camp. In<lead, he went
to Dabra Gol in Amhara, the monastery of the nebu·
lous saint 8a¥'lota Mik,I'~I. which he later headed
during the reign of Emperor Vesl:taq (1414-1429).
Giyorgis is commemorated on 7 l:Iaml .. (Ablb).
ZAR'A YA'QOB (e. 1399_1468)
Strictly speaking, lar'a n'qob (Sced of Jacob) is
nOI a saint. Bul he is one of the "ery few thwlo-
gians who ha...e left memorable traces On the life of
the ~hurch of Ethiopia.
lar'a Vli'qob was hem around 1399 to Emperor
OOwit (1382-1413) and Oueen Egzi' Kebnl. from
Tigre. He grew up in monasteries. with little hope
of ascending hu falher', throne. because he had
many olde. brothers. His years in the mon/ll;teries
were ... ery fruitful. He was abl. to study Ge'e~ and
its literature Ihoroughly, stayiog away from pala~e
politics and the struggle for the crown until his
brothers reigned and died withoul leaving ~apable
.ucee.son;. The throne was left empty. and after a
few turbulent years. the army di<covered him and
installed him on the thmne,
lar'a VA'qub came to power when Ihe country
was on the brink of total collapse. The Muslim v/II;·
sal rulers of 'Adal in the east were pulling pressure
on the Christians with regular raids, and the church
was divided inlo monasteries based on differing the-
ological ...iews. notably the ZamiU'Alites. the
~wost!tewooites, and the Es!ifAnosites (see ETHlOp·
IAN HERESIES AND THEOLOGICAL CONTROVERSIES).
Equipped with his knowledge of the theological a~d
Christological literature and aided by his ~hosen
kllhnllia dabiara (palace clergy). the emperor de-
cided to have a church united in its belief and
teaching, as defined by himself and his theologian•.
The main obstacle he had to face Was Ihe fact
that Ihe mother church in Ale~andria, Ihe Coptic
church. had a tradition slightly different from that
of the local church. kJ regards the ocriptural can·
on, for example, the Book or Jubilees, which is
enumeraled in the Synodicon. was not ~anonical in
the Coplic church. Therefore, theolngians at the
emperor's ~ourt challenged the emperor'. refer-
ence to Ihe Book of Jubilees. The Satunlay Sabbath,
to mention another example, was ~ot obsel'o'ed in
the Coptic chureh, even though the Synodicon.
which came to Elhiopia from Ihe Coptic church.
commands clearly tha' it should be.

For some event in his own personal life, Zar'a
Yli'qob became indebted 10 Ihe Blessed Virgin. [0
gratitude, he expecled exlreme reverence 10 her
and her icon, more even Iltat whal was Ihe praclice
in Egypt, One of his tasks was, therefore, to .ettle
these differences wilh Ihe melropolilans, who did
nOl dare 10 challenge Ihe Synodicon before the em'
peror, He summoned severa! councils to rule on
the Iheological i.sues, but he dictated his own
views on Ihem, Through persuasion, persecution,
and sometimes acceplance of O1her views, Zar'a
Yl'qob finally achieved a certain degree of success
in uniting the church and hence the Christian pop-
ulation.
'I11e number of the Miracles of Mary, which first
appeared in translmions from Arabic commissioned
by his father, grew considerably during his reign
through the translation of additinnal miracles and
the composition of new miracles, incorporating 10"
cal evems. He or his prie.ts composed collections
of homilies 10 be read in Ihe churches on holy and
feasl days. These homilies are mostly refutalions of
heresi.. and expositions of Ihe position of his
church 00 cenain ,issues. Colleclions included Ihe
IIl4fel1afa milad (Book of Nativity), dealing with the
theology of the unity and trinity of Cod aod th"
Incarnation of th" Word; Ihe Ma~elJafa hunAn
(Book of Ugh!), dealing with s""era! Iheological
issues; and TomAra leshe'/ (Leiter of Humanity), ex·
plaining the evils of magic and idol aIry. One of th"
doxologies of the Ethiopian church, a colleclion of
hymns, is also ascribed to him. These writings, in·
eluding the Miracles of Mary, are part of Ihe service
bo<>ks in Ethiopia ewo today. Sev"ral books, in·
duding the Jewish history ascribed 10 Joseph Ben
Gorion (Josippon), were also lranslaled imo Ge'",
by his priests.
lar'a Y~'qob inlroduced his refnrms wilh force.
He did not hesitate to have religious offenders exe·
cuted. He even ordered 'tat all Christian. bear a
tanoo of the cross on th<;ir foreheads. Rda",ing
violalors of the order to alt'end religious instruclion
on each Salurday and Sunl!ay had their properties
con6seated. Holy days for the angels, Ihe saints
(thirty·three a year for the Blessed Virgin), and
maTty"" were reordained. He ordered the reading of
the Miracles of Mary to be pan of the service in
CV<'ry church.
Zar'a Y~'qob also had great success on the politi.
cal front, He successfully repulsed a raid from
'Adal, killing Its king, and the n""" king of 'Adal
pledged to he submissive and peaceful. The emper-
or suppressed palace coups, destroying e~eryone he
ETHIOPIAN SAINTS 1053
$Uspected of cOllspiracy. He wrot" a strong letter of
prote.t 10 Sultan Jaqmaq (1438-1453) when he
heard of the persecution that the Copts suffered
under the rule of his predecessor, Sultan Barshay
(1422-14381· He cried billerly in public mourning
when the news of Ihe destruclion of DAVR AL-MAOH_
11S in Lower Egypt came 10 him and immediately
set out to build a new monastery that carried lhe
name in Ge'ez; Dabra Me!miiq. He recei\'ed with
great honor the Egyplian delegation Ihat came to
his palace 10 infonn him of the "nd of Ihe persecu·
tion. H. himself had also sent envn}'. 10 Ihe Middle
Easl and Europe, including a delegation of observ-
ers to th" Council of FI.ORI'.NC£ in 1439-1440.
lar'a YA'qob is commemorated on 3 Pagucm~n
(al.Nasi).
ESTIFANOS
Es!innos is commemorated by his followe"" on
18 nkh~s (Kiphk). For the Ethiopian church he is
still a founder of a herelical sect, known hy modem
..,holars as the Stephanite Or Es!if~n06ite mO""·
menlo Hi. father, Bernana Masqal, a chief of the
Gefmal. district in Tigre (east ofAxum), died be-
for" his son, Harlga Anbas.1, was born, After the
birth, his moth",", SAnl (Sarah), gave the child In his
uncle and married another man. Growing up with·
out parent5 mu.t ha~e caused th" child 10 ask many
qu".tions concerning life and encouraged him 10
reject the world. He himself says that he bceame
Cod's follower in gratitude to Him who became his
p;>.rent. He first weill to a school attached 10 a
church called Bela Iyyasus (Church of Je",s),
wh"re he diff"red from other children in that he
had an inquisiti~e mind. AI school they called him
Es!ifAnos, a name lhal his hagiographer considered
ominous for his laler martyrdom.
Es!if.\.nos took Ih" monastic habit in the Monas·
tery of Abba Samu'el (apparemly in Qwayya~) at
the age of nin.rcen, From thaI time he refrained
from ealing meat and <hiry products and from
drinking milk and alcoholic beverages. He became
a wlilary, di.~iating himself from the rest of
the monastic community. His colleagues r.,..,nted
his disapproving altitude loward their type of mo-
nastic life. He was a copyist of manuscripts, which
he called "abundant in our churches, agreeing in
teaching the truth. , . bUl wilh no court of justice
in the country to implement Iheir words." His
,1e"'" became clearer and more allraclive to many
wben he was assigned by Ihe abbot to be a teacher
of on" group of monks working in the field, He was
1054 ETHIOPIAN SAINTS
righill' accused of challenging Ihe ""tablished tradj·
tion of monaslic life, The melropolitan of Ihe lime,
Bartalomewos (Bartholomew, 1398-1436), w"" sup-
portive of Esjif.1nos' view.
It soon became apparent that &\i11.no, could not
live in peace in Ihe monastery if he """ not willing
to go along with lite established lradition of a rda·
tively comfonable life. Organizing Itis followers into
groups of twelve, he left lite Mon""le!)' of Abba
S:1imu'tl and established his own. His obje<:tive was
to be independent of the government by receiving
no land grants, unlike the rest of lhe monasteries in
tlte empire. The members of his community de-
pended entirdy on Iheir own work.
Es!ifa.nos' fame reached places far and near, at·
tracting more followers and alarming olher monas-
teries, which felt lhe dlllining of their "mook p¢w·
er" 10 his. He was accused al the court of lhe
go\'ernor of inciling unresl. Allhe hearing, the case
was intormiogled Wilh p¢lirics. When he was de·
fending his position, one of his opp¢nems said, "We
ask you by the [authorily of Ihe] king 10 keep si·
leot," Es\if;\n<>s answered whal he believed, but ap-
parently unwisely, "I spoeak the words of God
The words of the Heavenly King cannot be stopped
by the earthly king." The opponent went further: "I
call him [the king) Israelite," a reference 10 the
widell' accepted lradition Ihat the Elhiopian royal
family proudly descends from Solomon, king of Is-
rael. BUI the stubborn monk retorted, "And J call
him a Chrislian," implying that ISBellle, are Jews.
The governor found Ihis controversy beyond his
jurisdiction. He sent the parties to the king's coun.
The king, mosl probably l:Iezb Niififi (1430-1483),
dismissing Ihe political accusation, as unrelated 10
the main issues, found the accused innocent. In
fact, lhe king and the council of one thousand par-
ticipants summoned to hear lhe case allegedly of·
fered him the monastery of his spiritual falher,
Abba S:1imu'el, who ~ an ardent opponent of the
new movement. E4ifanos de<;lined on the grounds
thai if he accepted, he would be dependem on lhe
government.
Unfortunately for Es!i11.nojl, the new king, Zar'a
Yii'qob (1434-146-8), allhough well versed in Ethio-
pian church affairs, """ unable to disassociate poli.
tic, from religion. He 'could nol excuse Es!ifflnos
and his followers for Iheir refusal to bow 10 Ihe
monarch, wbich according to him was a mere ex-
pression of respect, a tradilion pervasive in Ihose
regions since lhe time of the Old Testament. I'..~!ifii·
no., however, considered bowing an expression of
worship due "only 10 God Ihe Falher, God the Son,
and God the Holy Spirit." There is nothing in his
gad/lhal could be considered 10 present an in", ...
mountable Iheological difference belween Eslifflnos
and his followers, on one side, and Zar'a Yii'qob
and Ihe established church, on the olher, Like Zar'a
Yii'qob, who represented lhe established church,
8!ifflnos belie,'ed in Ihe lrinitarian theology of
"three suns, Ooe light"; he accepted the Synodicon
as canonical; and he hooored bOlh the Salurday
and Sunday Sabbalhs. However, he refused to ac·
cept the undue reverence of the HoI)' Cross and the
icon of the Blessed Virgin; he rejecled the fast·
spreading Marian lilerature (Miracle, of Mary aod
Ihe different apocryphal pra)'ers ascribed 10 Mary,
e.g., 8<l'lo;); and he developed an interprelation of
millenarianism different from Ihal of Ihe emperor
and his clergy, the kl1hn<lla da/>lar<l. The emperor
was panicularly angered when Es!i11.no. challenged
hi, judicial system, in which monks, in violalion of
canon law and monaslic principle. were made to
participale as jurors, hearing worldl,. affairs, presid·
ed over by the monarch. His wrath was so fierce
that the two prelales of the lime, MiU:el and Gab-
re'tl, were unable to coniradici him,
Es!iffln<>s' courage in challenging the king who
ruled wilh an iron list brought him further fame
and encouraged others 10 follow their conscience.
The king and the religious leaders were dearly
Ihreatened. No fono of coercion-Hogging, impris-
onment, hunger, or the like-cOt1ld change Es!ifa·
no.' views. The emperor banished him and his fol·
lowers into provinces populated by his Muslim
subject•. locked up in prison in the village of Wsu-
rema, Es!i11.nos died in Gw5lr, a region adjacent 10
lfat and Da"wtiro. At firsl he was buried near a
church in Gedem. However, when hi, followers
were caught smuggling their teacher's body from
the grave, the emperor had his body cast inlo the
open al ~kr;j; in Daww,aro, where by orders of the
governor, lhe people piled stones on ii, $lkm is the
place where Ihe remains of Ihe ruler of 'AdaL Bad·
lAy, were buried under a heap of slones when his
rebellion ,,'as crushed in 1444.
The cily of Ihe king's residence received Ihe
name Dabra BerMn (Mountain of Light) from the
persecution of this sect by Ihe emperor. It was reo
ported lha, in approval of lhe perseculion by Ihe
emperor, a light in lhe fonn of a Cross appeared
over the city for several nights.
The movement of Ihi. eXlraordinary monk sur-
vived Zar'a Ya'qob and his successor, but by Ihe
end of tlte fifteenth cenlu1')' il was gradually inte-
grated into the established church. Their center, the
Monastery of Dab", Gamn in Tigre, is reported to
have a libra!)' wilh v'aluable manuscripls, but some

01 the important ones have ended up in the lumd.
of travelef!l and exploref!l.
GABRA MANFAS QEDDUS
Probably beeaus" Abuna Gabra Manfas Qeddus
(Servant of the Holy Spirit) doe! not belong to the
early period of Ihe Ethiopian church and because
hi!; hagiographer knew very Iinle about hi!; palron,
$Ome scholars have wondered if the saint could
have been a European. But there is no evidence
supporting such a hypothesis.
According to lradilion, Abuna Gabra Manfas Oed·
dus went to Elhiopia from a monaslery in a district
of Lowu Egypt called Nehis.i. The lime of hi. arriv·
aI is not certain, but there are $Orne wurces that
indicale that he died in 1382.
Abuna Gabra Manias Qeddus can truly be catled
the saint of the people, a man who probably never
visited the courts of any of the political or spiritual
leaders of the country, He taught in the area of
Mew-.. Kabd and Zeqwili (in Shew,,), about 28
mile. (45 km) $Omh of Addis Ababa, and died there.
He is popularly known as a saint who had the mi·
raculous power to spHt a cliff in two as one would
split a stem of a grass, TIt" e""gg"rated evenlS in
hi!; life preserved in his acts could indicate that he
was then. as he is now, highly popular among the
ordinary people.
The name of the saim's family is preserved as
Sem'on and Aqltseyi, which could be Egyplian. His
native name is not p.eserved, He is reported to
have grown up in a monaslery rrom the time he
was three years old. Either Ihere was some real
reason for this 0', as Ihe hagiographer hints, it was
just an imitation of the tradition about the lives of
the Blessed Virgin and Ihe prophel Samuel.
The saint started a harsh ascelk life at an early
age. The Lord covered ~im with hair when he re·
fused to protect himself f')m cold with clothes. Hl~
dark beard became an a,Jded cO"er to his body.
especially when he celebraled the mass. His main
prayer was to see and hear God 'himself, and to
have those who were in judgment resurrected and
pardoned before the Last Judgment.
When Abuna Gabra Manfas Qeddus came to Ethi-
,
opia, he found lhe physical environment of Medra
Kabd very agreeable. He praised God quoting Mat·
thew 11,25: "I thank Ihee, 0 Falher, LoTd "f heaven
and eanh, because Ihou hast hid these thini" [i.e"
Ethiopia) from the wise and prudent, and hast re-
vealed them unto babes [Le., himself]." The fim
people he met in Ethiopia in the wilderness of Med-
ra Kabd were the wandering hermits. Soon wild
ETHIOPIAN SAINTS 1055
animals became his friends, and lion" and leopards
offered him their services, especially 10 carry him
around.
His evangelizing activities were supported by mir-
ades of healing, which he performed among the
people. People who heard of his healing power
carne to him and received his blessing, and he
turned Ihem to God. 11 is not ,'ery clear whether the
pagans in Ihe region where he taught were in the
majority, but there were churches and several other
hermits whom he met there.
On his dealh On 5 Maggibit (Ba",mh;l.t), all who
knew him in the neighborhood, including angels
from heaven and the sixt)' lions and sixty leopaTds,
attended his funeral and mourned him, His monas·
lery. near the crnter on the top of Mount ZeqwAla,
though unimpressive, is a center for pilgrims, espe-
cially on the day hi, death i!; commemornted,
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Bezold, C. "Abba Gabra Manfas Oeddus_" Nach·
richten V<ln der Kiiniglichen Ctjell.chafr der Wi.·
sen.chafren in wtringen, Philowphisch·histoti·
sche Klasse, I (191~):58-80.
Budge, E. A, W. The Book of Ihe Sai"t. of the Ethia.
pian Church, 4 vols. Dmbridge, 1928: repro Hil·
desheim and New yo.k, 197~.
Colin, G. Vie de Ceorge. de SagltJ., In CSCO 492,
ScriplOre. Aethiapici 81: CSCO 493, Scriptores
Auhiopici 82. Louvain, 1987.
Dillmann, A. "Zur Geschichte des axumitif;Chcn ",.
Reichs im vierlen bis sech"en Jahrhundert." AI>-
hand/ungen der Konig/lehen Akadernie dec Wi.·
"~$chaf/en W Berli", Phik>sophisch·historische
Klasse, I (1880):1-51.
___. "iJber die Regierung, insbesondere die
Kirchenordnung des Konig> Zar'a·Jacob:· AI>-
ha~dlr",gen dec Koniglich.,n Akad~rnie de. Wis·
.en.chaften w Berlin, Phil<>sophisch·historische
Klasse. 2 (1885):1-79.
GeLatchew Haile. "A Prelimina!)' Investigation of
the rornarii Ta.ba'/ of Emperor Ziir'a Ya'qob of
Ethiopia." Bulle/in of Ihe Schoo/ of Oriental and
African Swdies 43, ser. 2 (1980)'207-234.
___ "On lhe Wrilings of Abba Giyorgis &iglawi
from Two Unedited Miracles of Mary." Orientalia
Chris/iana Periodica 48, ser. 1 (1982):65-91.
___ "The Cause of the &!ifanosites: A Funda·
mentalist Sect in the Chun:;h of Ethiopia:' Paid·
euma 29 (1983):93-119.
_ _, "The Homily of Abba Elayas, Bi-shop of Ak·
sum, on M~!!a':' " .. aleCla BoUa"diana lOS
(1990):29-47.
Getatchew Haile and W. F. Macomber. A Catalogue
of Ethiopia~ Manu$cripI$ Microfilmed for the Ethi·
opian Manuscrip/ Microfilm Library, Addi. Ababa,
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.nd /or the Hill Moot.wc Mo:Inwscripl Lih<"'rj. Col·
k,cvil/c. Vol. S. pp. 10·1).3)9-41. Collqnoilie.
Minn.• 1981.
H.. ntinder<!. G. W. B. "Saints of ~-al El:hio-
pia." Abb« S<d...... 10 (1979):lS7-J..41.
" Kiopbn. S. T1r~ .won_Slk Holy Mdn _nd Iltc Cltns-
li"nitJatiDn 01 E.rly $oI_ic: ElhlopUl. S".ldten
wr K.. lturlwndc n. Wiesboolkn. 1984.
K....-. S. Ad... d" 1)''''$''' MQ'•• Abhi d" Couvc.1/ d.
SI.Elit"rl~ dc 1I",)'q. In CSCO 259. Scripr"Tu M/II-
iopid 49; cseo l60, S<:riplOTu Adltiopici SO.
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325.
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1ll92.
_ _ us CIt"""i4"u dc z.,r. y".~qOb c/ d~
&l'cd" Mobyoinl. ",is d'Ei1tiDpi~ dc I4J4 .. 1418.
Paris. 1893.
~ Raineri. O. ~'Gadla SIdqin' 0 'Vila dei CiuslI' Mis-
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ff
(I en8): 143-63.
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sum, in <>nO<e eli <>'rim1.'" In Adcs d" ~ COt<gO'U
in'cTn"tfu",.t du ~,.t_listu, 1'1'. 139-n. Pam,
1897.
_ _~ Rit;qrdo til ",. sogioTno in EriJFu, Vol. J,
pp. 15-41. II Gadla Ublnos. Asmara, 1903.
_;::~ ed. Act. YoiTttl cl':''''';''/iiwon. In CSCO 26.
SCrip/OTU Aelhiopic:i 9: CSCO l7. Script"". A,tlt·
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'" &rx<'w Hablc &lIa5Iie. And"ltt and Mcdi,w./ Elhio·
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CETAlU\EW HAU..!
ETYMOLOGY, s.c Ap~ ..du.
EUCHARIST, on. of llevcn ""crament~ In Ihe
Coplic church. Althoullh all sacram.nt, conlaln and
impart grac., Ih. Euchari't carri.s Ihe m051 sub·
lime g"""e of all. In IlAl'T1SM. for .xamplc, ......tcr
remain. "'alcr,ll$ doellillt holy chrism in conlinna·
tion. lhe .i.ible elen'tent of the s.acra~t thou un·
de~,,& no c"*",,e, In the Euchari<I, how~r. lhe
bread and ...inc are no 10111.... mere bread and wine
but become the true Body and Blood of lhe Re·
deemer, Jesus Chrilt- Whe..... in other sacraments
lhe Lon:! ~ Hi< pfts in accordance with each
sacramenl, in Ihe EucNnst He oIJ,," His enlire
&If, ... lhat panak...-s may enter in full and com-
plet" communion with Him. Beinl ,he AoCrince of
Cllrist for all humanily. lilt Eucharist is univ'n111 In
nalu.e, ~mbraclng Ihe livi,,* and Ihe dtarl. and is
not, as in Ille calle of Ollie. sacramcnls, a grace
n:strict.d to one indivIdual.
Th. Eucharist has also be.n known a$ the &&Cn·
menl of thanksgiving, Ihe lord's Sllpp"r, the Lord'.
table. Christ', !.able. lhe lOlcred tabl., Holy Commu·
nion, tht holy &&Crillce, lhe d;v;roe m)'SIet)', Ihe
lord'. bread, Ihe ha.'.nly~, Christ', Body, Ihe
Precious Blood. the reclempti,.., chalice.
The following 'OJ*s n:late 10 the th.eme 01 the
Euchari51: the IllSlitUlKm of the Eucharist. lb. "".
pres'lion and ... atlifesullan of bdid' in this sacra-
_nl.1M church fathen' ".. ritinS'- the nature ol the
<J;Yine tnnsformaiion. the Euclurisc IS a sacrifice,
me n«essily of ",ing lea._e<l bcead, officiatlnl al
Ihe Eucharit.t. and !ldmini<terinl: the sac:raments.
The lnalltullon or the Euocharlst
Chrisl, hning Nlislie<l the hunger o.f Ih, multi·
Iud••. began to inlliaTe lhem inlO the mystery of Ih.
h.a".nly b.ead, ",hlch is His o",n body, HI am Ihe
Ii"ing b,..,ad ",hich Came down from hea",n: if any
one .at, of this bread, h. will II". for ever. and tilt
bread which I shall live for lilt life of the world Is
my flesh" On. 6:511,
The d~ipl.. lOOk Ih.".., _«Is in Ih~ir literal and
obYio... seme, ..ilhoul allegory o. metaphor. ''Thi.
is a hard saying, ..i>o o;:an liYcn 10 il!' lhey ..ked
(In. 6:60). Christ comitn>ed in the same vein ex·
poundinl 10 them the lJI)~ery tha. He was shortly
10 institule, aft.. which they ~eiYed it ..ilhoul a
~ 01. doubt or funher questioninl.
n".. bread and wine, following IDe IeaChi. . of
Chris. and .he e:x.antple He set on the .... of His
passion, are.he .km.....u of the Eucharist: Iea.ened
"'.....1 bread atld wine. n.. wine is unfermented
and milled with a linle waler, in memo.,. of Ille
water which iuucd wilh Christ·. blood when His
silk was pi.rced with a spear (In. 19:34).
The Expreilion and Manifestation ofBell.f
11 i. the finn bellef of tilt Orthodox <:hurch Ihal
after the <:on""cratlon of the oblations and lhe de·

scent of the Holy Spirit upon them, Ihey become
the Body and the Blood of Chrisl. Hence the decla-
mion by the priest: "The Holy Body, the Honored
Blood of Jesus Christ the Son of God. Amen:' fol-
lowed, for the second time by 'The Holy and Hon·
ored Body, and the Vel)" Blood of Jesus Christ, the
Son of our God, Amen," and for the third time.
"The Body and the Blood of I'.m.manud oUr God,
This is in veoy truth. Amen." Each time the congre·
plion responds "Amen," before the priest finall)'
utters Ihe profession of faith: "Amen. Amen. Amen.
I believe. I believe and confess till the last breath,
that this is the life-giving flesh which Thy only-
begotten Son, our Lord and God and Savior Jesus
Christ, took from our LIdy, the Queen of us all. the
Molher of God. the saint. the pUr<:' Mal)". He made
It one with His divinity. without mingling, without
confusion. and without alteration.... 1 helieve, 1
believe, I believe !hat this is in vel)" lrulh, Amen."
He kisses the ahar thrice, while Ihe deacon reo
spond. "I belie,'e, 1 believe, 1 believe. This is in
ul)" lrulh, Amen,
This has always been the steadfast. unwavering
faith of the church. While olher doclrines of belief
were subjecl to heresy during the early ceOluries of
Christianity, the Eucharist continued to meet with
universal acceptance for at least eight centuries.
unti! a bishop of Antioch called Abraham threw
doubl upon the efficacy of the sacrameOl. Patriarch
Oityaqus of Antioch (793-817), together with Patri-
arch MARK {] of Alexandria (7'W-819), asked him to
recant. but on his refusing to do so. a council was
con.'eoed thai excommunicated him.
The Writings of Ihe Early Church Fathers
This realistic interpretation of the eucharistic
bread and wine as beco,"!,ing the Lord's Body and
Blood ""'" strongly main~ed in Ihe writing of the
early fathers, from which ,,",'e cite a few excerpts.
tGNATIUS. bishop of Antioeh (c. 35-c. 107) writes:
"I have no task for corruj>lible fOOd nor for the
pleawJ"C$ of this life. 1 desire the Bread of God,
which is the f1e.h of Jesus Christ, who was of the
seed of David: and for drink 1 desire His Blood.
which is love incorruptible" (LelUr 10 Ih~ Rom",,"
7.3),
Saint Irenaeus (c. 13O-c. 200) wril"": "BUI what
consistency is there in Ihose who hold that the
bread o.'er whkh thanks have been given is the
Body of their Lord. and the cup His aJood. if tlley
do not acknowledge that he is the Son of Ihe Cre·
EUCHARIST 1057
ator of the world. _. :' (Advers". Om"", ho"r~s"s
4.111.4),
In the Mysl"gog;a, Saint CVRIL O~ JEll.USAL1lM (c.
315~386) writes: "'4t uS then. ,,"'ith full confidence,
partake of the Body and Blood of Christ. For in the
figure of bread His Body is given to you. so that by
partaking of the Bcdy and Blood of Christ, you
might be<;ome uniled in body and blood with Him.
For thus do we become Christ-beart''"' His Body
and Blood being distribuled lhrough our members.
And thus it is that we become, according to the
blessed Peter, sharers of the divine nature"
(My5lagog,ia 4.3). "00 not. therefore. regard Ihe
Bread and the Wine as simply that: for Ihey are.
according to the MasteT's declaration, the Body and
Blood of Christ. Even though Ihe senses suggest to
you the other, lei failh make you finn. Do not judge
in this maner by taste. but be fully assured by the
failh, no! doubting that you have been deemed wor-
Ihy of the Body and Blood of ChriS!" (Myslagogia
4.6),
According to Saim lOHN CHRYSOSTOM (c. 347_
407), "When Ihe words say. 'This i. my Body: be
cOll\'inced of it and believe it. and look al il with
the eyes of the mind. For Chrisl did not give uS
something tangible. but ",'en in His tangible things
all is intellectual. ... How many now say, '[ wish 1
could see Hi. shape, His appearance, His gannems,
His sandals: Only look! You .ee Him! You louch
Him! You eat Him!" (0" Mmlh,w 82.4.) and: "Take
care, then. lest you 100 become guilty of the Body
and Blood of Christ. Tbey slaughter",,- His mos!
holy body: but you. after such greal benefits, re-
ceive Him into a filthy souL For it was nOI enough
for Him to be made man. to be struck and 10 be
slaughtered. bUI He even mingl"" Himself wilh us;
and this not by faith only. but even in every deed
He makes us His Body. How vel')' pure, then, oughl
be not be, who enjoys the benefit of this Sacrifice?"
Saim Ambro.e. bishop of Milan (c. 339-397)
writeS' "Before it is conse<;rated il is bread; bu!
where the words of Chris! come in, it is lhe Body of
Christ. Finally, hear Him saying: 'All of you take
and eat of Ihis, for this is My Body: And before the
words of Christ the chlice is full of wine and wa-
ter; but wher<:' the words of Christ have been opera-
ti,'e it is made the Blood of Christ. which redeems
the people,"
Similar teaching about the eucharistic sacrifice is
to be found in the writings of CLEMENT OF ALEXAN.
DRtA, Tertullian. OIDNYStl!S THE GREAT of Alexandria,
BASIL THE GREAT, Epiphaniu., bishop of Salamis. CVRIL
OF ALEXANOtUA. and many others.
IOS8 EUCHARIST
The Nature or the mvlne Tran.ronDllllon
Unlike O1her chun:hes. lhe apostohc churches
hold the unohabble belid" tlUIl the elemt-nts are
completely t.....funned InlO the ~ry flesh and
blood of Je5t1£ ChrUt~. belief b....,d on the pledge
gi"en by Christ in .....hich He csJled bread Hi. body
and wine His blood. Saint Plul c1arilie. this lrans·
formadon in I Corinthians 11:23-25. Confirmation
of this belief recon in key passages in the liturgy as
mentioned earlier. and also In the ~ for the
descenl of the fIaIy Spirit: "We pray Thee. 0 1..0«1
"""r God. ",-e Thy sinful and unWOtthy ...,n... nlS. We
_rSIUP Thee by the pleasure of nay zoodnes. tlw
Thy Holy Spirit may descend upon us and upon
1he5oe oferinp placed here. 10 purify them. m.nsub-
_miIIte Ihem and manifest ,hem holy "nlO Thy
Saints. AIId !his B.... d. He makes inlo His Holy
Body. And Ihis Cup the honoured Blood. unto the
New Testament." Heocefonh. the bn:ad and wine
hning .It-eady un<ltrgone this di,'ine and mysteri·
ous translonnation. and become Ihe Lord·s Body
and Blood. they will no mOre receive the siSn of
the ClOSS from til<: priest. hut become IhemKlves
the IOl1ru of coll$ignation.
n.~ belief is :affumed by the b!heJ"$ in slniPl'
£uoward and unam"""""" terms. Salllt GREGORY 01'
HTSiSA ")'I. ~Ri&luly tben. do we bdieve that now
also the brnd ",'hich is coltlecnud by the Won! of
God is changed imo!he Body 01 God til<: word.~ In
1he words 01 John of Dill_us: "lbe bre:ad hsdf
and the ",;ne are made OYer inlo !he Body and
Blood of Cod. If)'OU inquire In,o the way in wllich
this happens. lei it suffice for )'J" to hear tbat it is
throuah the Holy Spirit.... Mon: than this we do
not know. .,xceptthat the word of God is true and
dfectlve and all,po",.,rful; but the mann~r [of the
E.ucharipic tr:o.nsformation] is ilUOCrtltable:·
The Elichartst~ a Sacrifice
The church bdicvo that lhe Eucharisl is a ~",
inc bloodless $K1i1icc offered to God. This is ~.
dent rro... the ......... of Cbmt "i>ftl H., inMituted
the: sal:ratn"Ill On. 6:51; U. 22:19. ~). Heoce lbe
lelIl;hing of th.. apostle hul (I Cor. I<U-21) ...oht..,
he contrtilS th<! Lord's table ",itlt thai of tbe G<!n.
tiles. among ",hom uncl.,a" sacri'ces wen: offered.
Th<! Eplstl., to the Heb~"'. says. "We ba,.., an ahar
from whleh tho.., who serve th., rest have no right
to eat" (Heb. 13:10). IhUli tCitifyiog to the heavenly
sacrifie., of Jeo...s Christ as oppostd to the pasan
sacrnice.
Th., Eucharist is the ..en6,., prophesied through
Malachi. "1 have no pleasure in )'OU. says the Lord
of t-u. and I will not aeeepI an oft'mn« from )'OUC"
hand. For from the: risinl of Ihe JUIl to its ""'tina
my name Os lreal among tbe nalions. and in .,..e-ry
place Incense is offered to my name. and a pure
offennl; for my name is crell among the nations,
say$ the Lord of hosts·· (Mal. 1:10. 11).
This prophetic text carries a clear implication of
the perfection of Mosaic sacrifice in the fullne.. of
time. This one ....:rifice ,annot be that of the G<!n·
liln... lhey were unclean. Nor can il be thai of
which tbe f'sI,lmist speaks ·Then wilt thou d<!liJhl
in righl sacri6ces. in burnt offerings and whole
burnt oIferinp" (P$. 51:19). • this is a spinlual
...,.riice offered. by all riahtCOW peopI.., eYe...".
ha,..,
...-ltCfl.'. Chrillians tnditionally interp<"e~ this
proph~ as rd"errln& 10 the .. ~ t 01 the Eu·
chariA ofkt'ed to God <!Verywhere.
Accordingly. the Utu"!Y contains ...riOl.1J refer-
ellces to Ihese oIf"rinp:
I. In the IntereCS5ion prayus of Saint Basil's Ut·
"''lly the priest ""ys. "Rernemb<:r. 0 Lord. those:
who offered unto Thee these oblatioll'. those for
whom they we~ offered. and those by whom they
...'ere offered. Ci\e them all the he",'enly r«om·
pc........ "The deacon ..esponds by la)mlil. "Pray for
lbel" holy and hort<>n:d oblations. lor our sac:rifu::es.
and for tI>os<! who off.".ed them:'
2. In the prayer of Itt., ,"til. the prie:sl SlI)'''. "We
peay Thee. Ol.lr Lord. do l>OI re)ect us as _lay our
hands on Ih;,; awesome and bloodl .... s"l:[;6c<". H
3. To.....rd the end of the consecrMion the prie5t
~'S. "As .... comm<:morate HiI; holy passion. His
Resurrection from the dead. Hill As<:.,nsion Into
heaven. His silling at Thy right ....nd 0 Father ...
w., off.,r Thee Thy oblations from what ;~
Thine...."
•. In the Fraction prayers for the feasts of th..
Angels and the Virgin Mary. the priest sayo. "Today
on th;,; ,able Is p""",nt "itt. us Emmanuel oor
lord. the Lamb of God who carries the: .;1"1$ of Ihe
"itole world. ... Holy and full of ,lory in this sacri·
fice ,,-ltldt has bent ola1n for the life of the ~
world. Amen. Alleluia. ...-
5. On Holy Thunday. the Frac1ion pea)"'I' for
1_. lOll of Abnhaon. ineludes this .Ie'CIion: "0
God ...Ito lC«'PIed th., off.,"nc of our falher Abl'l'
ham. do accepl from US this soacril1c<!. and bless
theW oblatio......
6. In the btid' Fraction the priest prays. "0 Cod
who hllll liven us. we sInners. the bread of ~iva'
tion. a live and hea,·enly sacrifice. the holy and
honored Body and Blood of Thy Ch.....t,'·
The ...crifidal natu"" of the Eucha"" has been
",ronslY stressed in the: ...-ritinp of the: ""r1y f:athen..

JUSlin Manyr (c. 100-(_ 1(5) Py5' "Accordingly
Cod, ""tid"".;ng all lhe ....,,,fK:es ..·hieh we offer
through His Name, and which Jesw the ChriSl cn-
~ \IS to otrer: Le.., in the EucharUt of the Bread
lOlld 1M ""p. and "'hi(,h are p...,..,o,d by ChriMians
in all places throughout the ,"",<,Tid. bon witnes
tlrat Ihq arc welJ-plezsing 10 Him" (ow,/DfIU "jill
Trypbo 117).
According to Saint Irft>U:US (c. 1)(1-<:. lOO}: '10k
[Christl rau&hl tM new """,rifice of 1M ne'" co-'eo
nant, oI .... ich Malachias. one of 1M I"''d~ propb-
_. had sivJifi«l bdord\and. "'You do not do My
will," Jays the Lo«l AJrnighly, Nand I ..ill nOi ac-
eq>! • AlI:rlfK:c al your hand!.. For fro.... !he rlslnl
of doe sun 10 lIS setting, My name is glorified amc>na
lhoe ,cn_Iln. and in <"Very place incense is o~~ 10
My name. and a pure sacrifice; for veal is My name
altlOl'll 1M ,.,miles;' oars the Lord A1m1lhty' [Mal.
I:l{l_llj. By these words He maku it plain ...... the
former ,",oplc will CC8$C to make offerings to God:
bu. lhac In every place sacrifice will be offered 10
Him, and Indeed. a pure one: for Hi, name 11 glori·
lied among lhe gentiles" (Adv~,...us Ol1m .. hute"s
4.17.5).
Saint Cyprian. bishop of Carth.ge (d. l58). writes,
"W~"Ill:" II aW<'ars that the Blood of ChriSI is not
ofI"red if lhere be no ",inc in the cup, 1>00" lhe
Lord'. ~rifice celebr.lled wilh a legilim.I" eonse·
cmion unlns out" ablations and. sacrifice respond
to His "-ion.... For if JtsLIS ChrUl. our L«d and
God, is Himsoelf!he chief priCSI of God til<' Fath.-r,
and has 61'SI ofI".ed HillJS<'If a ucrifice to the Fa·
Iller, and. hao commanded thi. 10 be done in COm·
mernonlion of Hirmdf, ""nainly thN pries! tnlly
disch:arza !he office of Chris!, ",'1>0 imitales thaI
"'hich Chris! did; and he lhnI offen a In>c and full
_rifie" in m.. Chun:h to God the F..n..r, ..hen t,e
pnxeedo 10 off".- it a<:eordina: 10 .....1 he we.
Christ Himself 10 t.:."" ~fend" (JEpisll. 112.9.14).
Saini GnJOry of N)"_W;c.. JJO-c. J95) sa)": ......
offered Himself for us. '{iClilll llnd Sacrifice. and
p""" as well. and ~b of God. who tabs y Chrisl_
the sin of lit" "",rid. W~n did H" do Ihis~ W n
He """"" His own Body food and His O"o'n Blood
drink for His disciples for Ihis much 15 ckar
enough 10 any<>ne, lhal a .t>e"p cannot be "alen by
a fMn unlns ;1. being calen- be pree"""d by ils
being sla..ghtered. This giving of His own Body 10
Hi. disciples for uling clearly indicales lhal lhe
sacrifice of the Lamb has now been complcted"
(Se""on Cm III. R~surreclion of Chrisl).
And accordin&: to Saini John Chrysoslom (c. 147-
0407): "Wh.l Ihen? 00 w, nOt offec dai1y~ Yes, ,,'e
offer, bUl making "",""mb",n"" of His <!calh; and
EUCHARIST 1059
Ihis; remcmbr:ll>C<' is one and fI(lI .......,y. How is il
one and nO' many~ Bc'C'M,ISC Ihis Sa.cri6c" is 0"........
on"", like thM in lhe Holy of HoUe•. This $acrifie"
is a type of thN, :and Ihis rem"mb~" a I)l'" of
lhat. W" offer a.h.':l)'S the same. no! one sheep now
:and anoIher lonsc>ml'W. bul dIe same thina a.J-ways..
Thus !here is ""'" $acri6ce. By Ihls ~in,. ,,;nee
lhe Sacri6cc is olfcred ""'eTY"'here, ar" thcTc. Ihen,
a ...... Itipl;,,;!)' of Chrisl~ By 00 .... ans! Christ is on"
"''CIY''t...n:. He is compkte hen:, OOIJlplcle <he..,.
011" Body. And jusl as H" is one Body and nol many
thouah offcred """,rywh.,re, 50 100 i. lhcre on" Sac·
rificc" (Homiliu On 1M EpfJl/e ro llu Hd1rrws 17.3).
Christ·s oxrifice on the cross and lhe C\Idlarislic
sacritic" aK thus one and lhe samc. BoIh are lh"
body and lit" blood of the Redeem"r. I..... formCT
bern! tile main tOOl wllile Ih" bller • shOO! gtm'I'
ing from lhi. rOllI, wi1~ bnlncb... spreading all o~er
lhc ehriMian church providing fruil and nourish-
ment to c~"ry partaker of the .ac",mem, The fol-
lowing di.tinclion, must, however, be nOI"d:
t. On the cross lhe bod)" and blood of ehri" are
the ,'i,ible sacrifice. whereas on the altar the eucha·
riSlie bread and wine become Ihe body and blood
of the Sa,·ior.
2. On the cross, Chri,l, in His capacity .. lhe.
High Plicst. olferc<lthe sacrifice of propiliation; on
the ahar iI Is offend by the priest.
l. The sacrifice of dIC cross ...-as real. :as the
umb ...-as pil)...ically slain, Now, ""'C' know !hal
Chris!; being I2ised fTom lhe deW ,...;]1 n",-er die'
apinff (]tom. 6:9); a bloodkos ..critic" is olf......d
Illrougb 1he C1lCharist.ie ~cnL
4. n.e cnLire human raoce " .... r«t""..... d on the
cross, "'hile the Eucharisll6 cdcbl'loled 10 a>k God's
forPvc"""" for sins comm;lled by those 00 whose
bdla.If the: oxrltic" (obl.ationaj is bcina o&red, both
the Ii".., and !he dead.
S. The sacril>ce OIl lhe cross ...-as alicnd 0"""-
N Golgolha-....t...r"as lhe tucharislic sacrifice has
been J"'I"PClually olfened sine" its instilution by
n.., cha,"""l"ristic ~al .. re
of lit" Eucharisl as an
'XPres!lkln of ,"'tilUde has its oriain in t..... prete-
oknl esbhlished by Chrisl ....h"n He inSlitulM I.....
sacramen" "'He look brud .nd ....hC'n h" had gi,'en
Ihanks. _:. (lk. 22;19; Cor. 11:23-24).
The liturgi"s us<:d by lbe church arc ime"'p".-scd
wilh expression. of lhankfuln"S5' al the beginning,
following the petitions, in lhe ",pielesi" before lhe
fraclion. during the co",",union.
The Eucharist is also a sacrifice On behalf of lhe
!i,ing and the dead. According 10 Jobn Chyrsoslom,
"For nol unmeanlngly ... ~ lhe... things been de-
106<l EUCHARISf
'fIJed, nor do we in vain make men.ion 01 the d.,.
pelted in Ihe course oi .he di~ine mysterYs, .nd
approadl God in th.,ir hehalf, brs«ching lhc Lamb
who ;s bcfu~ ......-ho uoletll .....y .he sin of Ihe
world; DOt in "";n doth he Wt standeth by lhr altar
cry OU' ...... n lhc tJ'C"",,"dous mYSler1e arc cel.,.
brated. 'For a1llhat ha~e fallen ~ In Christ, and
for lbo»e ",ito perform comrnemonl>ono in their
!>eftalf: For if lhere WCf'C no com..... monuions lor
them, .bftt thi"p ........M DOt ba~ b«n spoken....
Let US IKK IMn be "'"eafY in &i"inl aid 10 11M: deput·
ed, both by oIfering on their bcbalf and obtaininl
pnyen for wm: for the common E.1<pialion of lhe
world is nen before us .. :' (HomUiu 001 Finl Co-
ri,,/huntS 41.8).
The Coplic Liturgy oi SainI Basil includes litis
s«tion following the commemoralion of .he sainl$.
which is • prayer for both lhe <:1m .nd Ihe livina:
''''TI>t;I$e. 0 Lord. whnse """Is ,",OIl hN! IlIken. n:.
pose in the PllOldi$e of GJ'3Ce. in the land of elemal
hfe. in the h..avenly Jerusalem, And we, who an:
pllarims ill this place, k....p us in Thy faiLh, atld
annl u. Thy peace unto Ihe .,nd:'
uanned, Not Unlca~cned, Bread ror the
Eucharist
TIM: t""",ilion followed by lhe Coplic and ollt.,.
Orthodox Ea.lern churches. and by all East.. rn and
Wes'ertI churches in the <b)'$ of lhe apostles. Is .....1
leavened bnoad should be .-d in .he Eucharist.
Thil. is ""iMnl from lhc fact lhal Cllrisl inSlituled
litis sx........,.,.' on • 'Thunday, Illal Is, hole ...,.
prior 10 killing the ~ r lamb, or hoIe cb)'
before unleavened bread "'... 10 be caten. II is the
firm belief 01 the dll=h lhalthe lord-.s cNdfied
On II,., day ",itrn lhc passo...,r lamb for that year
_ killed, ...hich ~l on a Friday, lItus becoming
the . - ChriAian pa>5O'-er: ''the Lamb of God, ",ho
Wet ."'. .y dte "",01 lhe world" (In: 1:2<J).
TIM: Roman CaU.olic church cor..inued 10 follow
the same lradilion, usinl lcavene<! bread lOr lhe
Eucharist urnil .he e1",,-elllh c.,nlury when it intro-
duce<! unlea."ened bread insltad, d~ 10 a miscon·
ception !hal wben Ch...... inslitute<! the Euc ri..,
unlnvene<! brelld had stane<! to tw u$Cd; !his . woro., "Now on Ih. Ii... day of Unleaven ..d
misilllerpn:lalion of ceruin Pa&agcs in Ihe Gospel.
of Mallhew, Mark, and Luke. We shall here consid·
er Lhe faol. as gleaned from Ihe "'rhlnlls of the
evanaeliSIl. and also in th.. Hahl of Ihc Jcwish cw·
10m. for Passover.
In k«1'inll with biblkallaw, every houscltold was
10 kill a lamb on Ih.. eve of Ihe founeelllh, Mnd cal
it on the e"", cltbe fifteen.h day of Nffian, which is
the fint momh of Lhe )'CaI'. Till th., end of lhe
founeenth day, ltll•..,ncd. bred ...-Id still be in
....., and would not be talen a"'3)' umil just before
the J>IIS!IOver mcaI which, in memory of the hUJried
departure of me Israelites from the land of Eg,l"I,
had to be !he ~ lamb willi bill.,. herbs and
....lca,·encd bread-lhe bread of aIiIiction (01.
1603). The da)'ll of unln.'cncd bread wou..Id be
-le:a;;iS nf 1M Lord~: -In m.. lint month, on the
fou.rt«nllt day 01 the month ;n !he .....,n;n" is
tM Lord's pIMO"'tf'. And On lite fifteenth day of the
same mon.h is !he feasl of ..........'Cned bread 10 Ihe
LonI; ..,""'" day$ you shall cal unleavened bread.
On the fi... <by )IO\l shall ......., ;10 holy convocation;
you ....11 do no bborlous wort" (Uv. 23:S-8).
From .he JOSPCI of John ",e ..n"""'land .hal:
I. The supper which Ch ....1 ale ....i!h the disciples
look place before the PlIIssover: "No... before lhe
feasl of Ihe Passover .. ,And during .upper, . :'
(In. 13'1,2),
2, "Six days before LM P""sover Jesus came 10
Belhany Tlte ne.t day [i.e.. Ii"e days before .he
Passover] they look branches of palm Irees and
went oul In metl him" (In. IU, 12~1J). This
mean. lhal Ihe passover was on Ihe rollo",';n& Fri·
<by e.'Cnin" .nd lnat lhe IUppcr al whkh the Lord
i.... iluted Ihe Euc:llaris' .... on Thunday evening., a
..hole day before the Passo..er.
3. '1btn Ihey led Jesus from .h.. house of ea;...
ph;u 1O the pr&elorlum, It ..... early. They the:m·
xlvn did not en.er the pnoetorium, so ..... lhry
migl\! noI be defiled, bill mwu cal the ~'tr"
(In. Ill: 28). II i, e'l'iockn. hen: ...... the: Lord _
lrird and cl\lci6cd on the day on which the ~
()Y\"r bmb would be killed bier in lhe e......iI'lg, thai
il., on Friday. The Lord's StIppC1", ;oo;:ordinaty, .....
on lite pnvious Thursday, ...toole day bcfo« lhe
Jewish Passo..-ft.
4. The same be. is cle.,. from John 19:13, 14,
''When Piu heard these woro., he broughl Jesus
011. ;md sal do",n on lhe judgmen. 5tilI•••• Now i1
...... Ihe <by of Prqlal'll'ion of the f'aw>\-er... :'
If we turn 10 the synllpllic Gospels, ...., find 11...1
!he accounl is dif(ercnl. Mallh..... begiJl$ ... i.h Ihe
Bread,.:' (26:17·28); Mark t>e&in. with "And on
th.. linl day of Unlea"ened Bread.....hen !hey sacri,
ficed the J"'$SOver 11mb,.:' (14:12-24); and Luk.
begins wilh ''Th.n came Ihe day of Unl..avened
Bread, on which Lh.. passover lamb had to be
sacrificed .. :' (22:7·20). It is an estahlished fact,
as we have pointed OUI earlier, lhal Ihe PlL5SOver

lamb canlIOl ~ bUM on 1M Passo.~r fusl i!Self.
Biblical scbo!"", "",h profound knowledge of
Crnk, Heb~, Aramaic, and other relennt Ian·
guage., of whom the German Jewish'Chri"ian loa-
chim Jeremias is one of the mo", prominent. ha.'e
brcuiht '0 hgh, ceruin inaccuracies in tM Creek
tnnslJoliQn of ,he Hebrew 'ed, and Pl"Cn'td. rather
con.incintlY, thai the ....... Suppoer "'as nOl a pas5'
(fI'tr meal, bu, ~ lhal look place lwenty-four
houn earlier. How could iI have bttn, ..... en il ..'as
complaely cIevold ol the ritu.loI thai mUSI ~ dilo.
l'C"!Iy and meticulously oOeye<P. The« Os no men-
lion of !he Pa.->ver brnb.!he bil'eT herta.!he Pass-
oyer haaadah, lhe hal/d, IIIII' ne<:essily ol ,iYinl
every pel'$On his own pl.. ~ and cup (a<:tually four
cu",), Most important is the total inadmissibility of
doinll any ac,ion or holding any mcetinl On .uch a
sacred feasl <hoy, while countless episodes are in·
...,Ived in !.he 5)'IlOd in order 10 tf)' and condomn
lesus. The CO"c1usl'~ evldenc:c is thai lhe WI Sup-
pt'I" used leavened bread. Thb is what lhe Onhodm:
c1nm:hcs ..... for the E.lchariu.
~ I (302-111) """;111'5: "Sut afi..... His public
minislry He did POI: Cal of the lamb. bul Himself
sulfered as lhe lrue lamb in lhe PDchal fasI. as
10hn lhe Divinc and EvanlCliSl leaches uS in lhe
Gospel ",rillen by him, ,..Mrc he thu. speaks: 'Then
led ,hey JC$.II$ from Calaphas un,o ,he hall of judi'
ment; and h '-""S early; and they themselves WCflt
not i.lIo the jud,:menl hall lest lhey should be de-
filed. but lhat they miallt eat the ........,-er''' (In.
28;28).
The Rllht 10 Officiate al Ihe Eucharist
This riihl was primarily Ii...,n 10 bishops. as suc-
e""",,," 10 the aposde. who received il from Chri5t,
and who, In turn. pused II on 10 priests, "For I
reo;eived from lhe Lord what I aho delivered 10
you, lhat the Locd Jos.us 'i' the night whetl he ",as
bw-ayt<l took bread ..." (I Cor. II:n-25), Mosl of
the early bthen and !he'ecumenical councils re-
conIed Ihb righl of the dn'J)'. nor. l'3l!cndinS il to
the diaconate.. Dn.cons can only ossiU: and byrnen,
ol COW'SC. ll«' 1>01 cntilled to ~ at the ahar. As
to parukinl of me holy sacnomcnt, this is open 10
every Chrislian baplized beliC\-er who has fulfilled
the preliminary requi",mOnlS. namoly, fasling and
confession. ,"ccordinllO JU"i" Martyr. "this food i.
call.d amonS u. the Euchari51. of which nO one i.
allowd 10 paruke but the man who believes that
the mi"" which Wf' leach lOre ~, and who h...
been ......... ~ ..ilb the washing lhal is for the ",mis·
EUCHARIST 1061
sian of sins, and unlO ~nrliQn, and who is 50
livinl as Chrise has enjoined" (Fint Apnl"D 66).
Tho Eucharist must be denied to unbelievers, Ih.
unNplized, and belie,,,," who .'" impenitent Or
unpreparw to ",ceive Ihe Sacrament. "Whoever
IMrefore eats the bread or drinks the eup of the
lbrd in all unwonhy mann.r ...ilI be guilty of pro-
bnilll the body and blood of the lbni ~I a man
.""""inc himself. and so .... of ,he bread and drink
oflhe cup_ for any 01lC who eals and drinks ..ilh·
out disceminl the body. eats Mol drinks ;udcment
UIPOn himstlf" (I Cor. 11:27_29).
1k Ap<J$lol" CQlUtir...ilmJ inslsl lhat lbe Euo:ha·
rIsI should be give" 10 all, including child",n 1m·
medialoly aher baplism and cOllfirmalion: ",""d a(·
ler that, let the bishop partake, lhen th. prc$b)1el'$.
and deacons, and sub-deacons, and the readers, and
lhe .inlel$, and lhe ascetics; . , , ,hen the children;
and then "II the people in order ..... (eOllsrilulio/os
()/ 1M Holy ApoSlJu 8.13).
Dionysius Iht Areop3gile abo ",ccssed !he imp«-
W>C<I! ol communion 10 lm.J.l1 chiklrtn: "Childr-e-n
..no cannot: utKlerwond divin.e ,hillp ar-e yoet maclc
panakOI'$ of divine gener.uiQn, and of dnine tom-
munion ollhe most 50Cred my:sltl'ies" (&d~$itlstj·
c~1 Hier"rchy, 7.11). OIn.r church fa,h.... do al$o.
The Eucharnt is celebra"d daily in most Coptic
churches and monasterie$: • few churches. howe,··
er, celeb",le it only 011 Sunday, Wednesday. and
friday.
Jl.edempth·e Frulls of tht E"chartst
Put<Wnl wonhily of the AoCr&ment brinp about:
(I) 01tll'Dll'SS and communion ",ith the Lord; "Ht
,,'ho ,""IS tn). Bah and drinks my blond abides in
mt and [ in him" (In. &:5(»: Saini Cyril of lerusa·
lem says, " ... thus do we becomo Chri.n·beare""
Hi. Body and Blood being diStribut.d Ihrough Our
membe.... And Ihus it is that "'f become ... sharers
of the divine nature"' (My.,,,,,,,I,,
4.3); (2) &r'OWlh In
spiril\lal lift in Chris! Jeow: "As the li.inl F.11>tr
sent mo, and I liu boca...,. ol the Fall>tr, 50 he
,,'ho ,""IS me ..ill li.'C becau..e of ...... (In. 6:57);
and (3) a p1edct of eternal life: "n. ..i>o eau this
brud will li--e for n"tr" (In. 6:58).
BIIIUOGRAPlIV
l.lablb Jirji$. Jlsr4r al·Ka.ds..h ~1·SQb'ah, 2nd ed., pp,
75-120. Cairo, 1950,
Ibn Sihi' Yilt>ann4 ibn Abl zabtfy;t. Kit4!> a/·Jaw-
""_all gl-Ngfisah fi 'Ulftm g/.K"nls"h, M. ViklUr
 1062 EUCHARISTIC BREAD
Man~Or. Cairo, 1902, Trans. inlO Latin as Pre/iosa
margarita de seierltiis ecdesiastlds by Vincentio
Mislrl~, Cairo, 1961),
Jurgens, W, A" ed, The Failh of the Early Falhers.
Vol, L Collegeville, Minn" 1970, Vol. 2, Vol. 3,
Collegeville, Minn., 1979,
Perck,l, H. R. "E<cursus on the Worship of the
Early Church," In A Sel~CI Library of th, NiceMe
aMd Post·NiceMe Falhers of th~ ChriJtian Chur~h,
2nd ...,r., Vol. 14, ed. P, Schaff and H, Wace.
Grand Rapids, Mich., 1956.
Tadrus Ya'qOb Malan. ChriSI iM the E,,~ha,ist, bk. 1,
pp. 34-4(); bk. 5, pp, 268-74, 306. Alexandria,
1973.
ARCHBISHOP BASIUOS
EUCHARISTIC BREAD, one of the two visible
element, ~onstitUling lhe eucharistic sacrament,
lhe olher element heing the eucharislic wine,
The bread is leavene<l, unsalted bread made of
the finest wheal Aour, It is circular in shape and
has a diameter ranging from 3 to about 5 inches, as
required. On it, upper surface, il is stamped with a
crc.>sS consisting of twelve linle squares, each of
which is marked with a diagonal cross, The four
central squares fonn lhe despotikorl (the bread of
the Lord), Along the circumference runs a sacred
Eucharislic bread. Courlesy Lola Aliya,
legend containing in Coptic lhe words Holy God,
H"ly Mighly, Holy Immortal.
Such crosses arc engra,-ed on lhe ;nside of the
wooden seal used for .tamping the eucharistic
loaves before baking, An old wooden seal was
found in DAYR ADO 1;I1NNIS in lhe Easlern Desert that
had lhiny,si, small cro5lles around its inner rim,
this number being the thiny,six signs of the cross
made by the celebrant prie<l on lhe euchariSlie loaf
in the OOuI1ie "f lhe lilurgy. Of panicular signifi,
cance, also, are the five .man holes pier<oe<l in lhe
surface of the loaf hefore baking, represenling lhc
three nails, the crown of thoms, and lhe spear, by
which our Ulrd suffered on the cross.
Two pointJ; of spec;al trad;tional and historical
importance must here be .tressed,
In accordance Wilh the Church Ordi"a"ceJ of Ibn
al·'AssA] (1922, chap. 1.3, page 124), only wbeat
flour may be used in the preparation of eucharistic
bread. This was the custom followed by the Jews at
the time of our Ulrd, and established by the disci·
pies (Acts 2;42; 20;7). When Christ spoke of His
death, he likened His body to a grain of wheat,
"Truly, truly, [ say to )'Ou, unless a grain 01 wheat
falls into the eanh and dies, it remains alone; bUI if
il dies, il hears much fruit" (In, 12;24),
Following the example set by Chrisl when He
instituted Ihis sacrament, the eucharistic bread
must be leavened. He look ordinary, lhat is, leav,
ened bread, as is indicated by the Greek term for
bread (artos), and not unleavened, Saint Paul con·
stantly speaks of bread (I Cor, 11,23, 24; 1 Cor.
10-17), After the Resurrection lhe disciples devOled
themselves to Christ's teaching, and frequently met
10 celehrate the Eucharist by breaking bread (Acts
2:42; 20:7, i I). It i' also worthy of note that Christ
instituted lhe Eucharisl on Thursday preceding lhe
Passover, one day before lhe use of unlea,'ened
bread, according 10 lhe Jewish cuslom. The early
falheI1i of lhe church unequivocally speak of leav,
ened bread (see EUCHARtST), and until the eleventh
cenlury the Roman Catholic church continued to
use )ea,'ened bread for the Eucharis!. The Onhodo<
churches, however, adhere to the tradition estab-
lished since the earliest day's of Christianity, cnrre--
sponding a. closely as pos$ible 10 lhe aClions of
Je,us at the Last Supper.
Throughoul the preparation of the bread-a task
for deacons of the church-Psalms are read a< a
sign of reverence and awe toward the bread thaI
will become lhe Body of the Lord. 1\ is thcn baked
a few hours before the sen-ice on lhe m"rning
on which is il required for the celebration of the
liturgy.

1I111L1OGR"PHY
Burmester. O. H. E. The Egyptian Or Cop/ie Ch~'ch,
Cairo. 1967.
Cummings. D. The R~dd",. pp. 5. 650. Chicago.
1957.
Tadros Ya'qub Mala;i. Chrisl in Ihe Eucharis!_ bk. S.
pp. 304-306; bk. 7. p. 657. "leundria. 1973.
ARCHBISIIOP BASI LIaS
EUCHARISTIC BREAD BASKET. See li-
turgical InSlruments.
EUCHARISTIC BREAD TROUGH. SU Eu·
charislic Bread.
EUCHARISTIC FAST. The Copts rigorously ob·
serve comple,e ab!ltinence from food or drink from
the previous evening until Holy Communion is cel·
ebrated, This i. not a regular fast in the sense of
abstaining from cenain categories of nmritious e1e·
menlS. but a complele rejection of any solid or
liquid material from lOuching the moulh. On ,he
same principle. this fast i. equally observed on Ihe
occasion of baptism, ordination, dedication, and
penitence,
SOZO.UEJ\I stales that Ihe early Elgyptian Christians
sometimes celebrated Holy Communion after eal·
ing. but adds that that was not a general practice
and was probably followed in lhe case of the cele-
bration of rna.., twice in the morning and in the
evening of lhe same day.
The D1lMSCALlA, among canonical works. pre·
scribe. lhi. category of fasting in lhe Ea.l.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Deanner, P. The Trmh ahom Fas/ing will, Special
Reference 10 Fasting Before Comm,mion. London,
1928, ~~
Frochisse, J, M. "A prop"'; des origines du i<'iine
euchari.tique." Revue d'h'islOire tcclcsiaslique 2$
(19n):594-W9.
ruller. F. W. Co"cerni"g Ihe FaSI before Commu-
"ion. London. 1891.
AZIZ S. AT1Y~
EUCHARISTIC VEILS. Th~re al"<' fi>'~ types of
~uchariS1k veils used in th~ Coplic church: altar
veils, chalke veils, mals, palen and chalk~ v~ils,
an<l paten veil•.
Allar Veil, The allar veil is a set of doth coverings
and curtains on and around the ahar to provide Ihe
EUCHARISTIC VEILS 1063
right prot~ction and veneration during the lilurgy.
Aner a church has been consecrated, the ahar
should at no tim~ ~ l~n uncovered, Three doth
co"erings are requir~d: (I) a tight-fiuing cas~ (Ara·
bic. kiswal a/·rnadhbaJ.j) made of linen or cotton
r~aching 10 th~ lIoor on all four sid~5; (2) a 5econd
covering u.ually mad~ of silk wilh ~mbroidered
crosse. on all sides; between these two coverings is
placed tbe aharboard; and (3) a third and smaJler
co\'ering to be placed o"er the oblalions immedi-
ately aner th~ pray~r of thanksgiving umil th~ end
of th~ prayer of reconciliation, when it is lifted b)'
the priesl and the deac(m, This covering i. called
Ihe prospherein (from th~ Greek tenn prosphoro..
offering), and represent. the .lone Ihal wa., rolled
away by th~ angel from the sepulcher al ,ne resur-
reclion,
Th~ canopy over the altar. upheld by wooden,
.Ione, or marbl~ pillars, used to be sun'Ounded
with cunains hanging down from rods. as may still
be seen in lhe ChuTch of AbU Sarjah (SainI Sergius)
in Old Cairo. These curtains were drawn at certain
times during th~ liturgy, for exampl~, al th~ desc~nt
of the Holy Spiril and the Fraction Prayers. In moo·
ern times, however. such curtains no longer fonn
part of the altar co\'erings, sjnce the curtains on lhe
konostasi. doors provide th~ n~ce.sary protection.
Th,,"~ coverings. which ar~ also cons~crated by
means of special prayers, help proteel the oblalicms
in the pat~n and chalice (see EOC"AR'STIC "rSS~LS)
so that .• hould any of their cont~m. inad"enently
fall, it can Ih~n b~ properly dispose<J of, in accord·
anc~ wilh church ritoal.
In the earlier days of Christianily, when churches
were open to heathen attacks at times of persecu-
tion, pri~.1S used to I"<'mo\'~ these coverings. logeth-
~r with th~ altar vessels. and tak~ them to a safe
hiding place.
Chalice Veil: Thi. is a mat similar in shape and
color to the paten veil, used to cover ,he chalice in
th~ ark on th~ altar.
Mar: Litorgical mals au squar~ or circular pi~ce,
of fabric. white, pink. or blu~ in color, with a cross
embroidered in the cenler, They are u.~ for >'ari-
au. purpose" 10 wrap the Lamb (the Body of
Chri.t) and th~ cru~t of wine (the Blood of Christ)
during lhe offertory prayers at Ih~ ~ginning of th~
lilurgy: 10 cover the Lamb in Ihe paten. and Ih~
WIne in the chalice. befo.e both are 10 be eoverc:<!
with th~ large prospherei" on the altar; to b. held
by th~ ul~branl priest in boIh hands whlle saying
the pray~rs of th~ liturgy.
Mats are distribu'ed to the communicants a shon
while before adminislering Holy Communion. 00
1064 EUCHARISTIC VESSELS AND INSTRUMENTS
thai thfcy an cove~ Ihrir mouths al1er ~etciYinlllle
Body. But they have 10 .... laid Mide bdo..., rKlCi...
ina Ihtc Blood.
Palen ..nd ChiJlic" VriL: This is • rectanlUlar
sn«1 made of silk. _ r i n l about 6 f«t by • feet
(180 by 120 cml. usually ",hite or nd In color, wilb
• b.-,e c...... rmbroKloered in !hl' center and smaller
oMS ... lhe come.... At the belin ....... of the ede-
bra!ion <>f lhe liturgy. this veil ~rna.i"" O''U the
obI~ions 011 thtc altar until the pnyerl of reconcili·
... ion have ne.n WeI. ah...- ,,'hich it is ..e.no>'ed by
thtc celrbnnt and • cktton. II is lhen nfeally folded
and piKed on the altar until the end of lhtc lilUra·
Then. lifter Ihe alta~ "'cswls ha,'e ~n ellrdully
..1Oshoed and wiped. il is unfolded and sprad once
.pin (Wfcr th" rmpl:y vessels on 1M .l\.Ior until the
n<:Xt celeboolion of tt... lilure.
p"ttn V"i/: This i, a square or circular mAl. white
or red In color, ..ilh a crOSS embnHdered in Ihe
etcnler. used 10 cover lhe Lamb in Ihe p.o.l"n, A. lhe
bfcslnnins of the liturgy, after the c.,ltcbl1lnt hlU !'lid
the 1'11I)'<:r of reconcilialion. htc remoy" Ihis yeil
wllh his ristll hand and. holdinl it. makes the sisn
of thtc cross m·e. lhe people. then Ihtc dtcKons, and
1.0..<11)' him$Clf.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Burmesler. O. H. E. The ECPti,m Coplk CII.....,II.
C.im. 1967.
Buller. A. J. Th A"cie"t Coptic CI".;c'us 01 ECfPI.
Vol. 2. pp. la-32. Em>< and 0xI0rd. 1884.
AltCHBlSHOl' BAstUOS
EUCHARISTIC VESSELS AND INSTRlJ.
MENTS, lhe chalice. palen. a51tcTi$k. spoon. and
ark uo.ed al lhe altar ill the cdeb••don of I.... Divinl:'
Uture·
In lhe Old Te!lta(ljtent. God c:om .... nOed Moses 10
.noinl Illtc uobem.o.o;le of lM cooS...,plion. the arlt
of the tesli.......)'. 1M table and its vessels. Ihtc can-
dl_kk .nd its voe$Cb. Ihe allar 1100 its v_Is. el
Ctcttc,.. (Ex, 30:26-281_ Similarly lhfc wcharislk W'$'
N:ls·h..... to he eonsecrated ~ thfc)l .I...., fim
used in the chul'Ch.
These ve~sds. thoulh usuall)' made of iil,,,,r.
..'tcrtc .1 time. made of more precious mrtals such
WI sold Siudded ",jlh pred<.>Us stonleS, and were pre·
senled as lifts from wealthy ",.mbers of the con·
g.elation, On the olher hand. vtcssels made of glass,
wood, or eanhenware were also u.sed in EcYPtian
church", al limn of perwCUlion. whfcn the church·
es wertc threatened by plunderers .nd .... nuders.
Tbf: ark is a WOOolkn boll measuring approximale-
Iy 10 by 10 by II inches (25 " 25 " 30 em). which
al,,-ay5 MaIld5 in the middltc of thor alGle. The top has
a wide round hole. ..,d ronsists of 1'1,.., foldinl
I"",,,,,, througtt ...·hk:h I.... d..:Jictc is placed durilll
the 1itutJ:Y. Tbf: four sida caT1)' paintings of the
Lasl So.tpptor. the vtrPn Mary. an angtl. and the
saini in ...-ltOK namtc I .... church "'U e<>nse<:ratN.
The ark is tM tcmbodimenl of varicw s)~ical
anal~ It is iOfllfc1iTnQ ullcd • throne in refer-
ence b) the majIst)' ollhfc crucified Christ. I...iI<r 1M
ad lhal .... 1M inilrumnll of salvation 10 Noah
and his &mily (Gn. 9). 1M altar arlt holds lhr ehal·
i« <:anyIng lhtc liftc1!:i"nl Blood 01 Jesus Christ
(In. 6;S.). It is also alal;olOu~ 10 Ik Old Truamenl
art of the c<>~nanl. But. whrR2S the old ark usod
to hold the tabln of thtc law. thr newark holds thtc
chalice of Chri~rs Blood. Cod's new leslament with
maD. the fulfillmtcnt of the scriplures of the proph·
ets (M\. 26:5•• 36); and while the old ark included
Aaron's rod which buddtcd (Heb. 9:4). the newark
symbolizes the Vil'iin Mary who gaVtc birth to God.
th. Word. manifesl in the aesh (JD. 1:1; I Tm, 3:l6).
Finall)' th. Qld ark containtcd .he goldtcn pol <>f
manna (Ex. 16:32-34). whereas the newark holds
lhe lrul' htoa"tcnly Mania ,,'hleh lives lik evert""I'
;nl (In. 6:57. S'I·
It mlJSl: be slrnKd here lhat. in accordance wilh
the praccice of lhfc Coplic church. the art is to
hauSfc lhr chalice onl)' during the Iinug}' pnlyen.
a.i.d J10l lO hold 1M P1'u~ Body ....d Blood fol·
Io...-illl thrir COfUoKraliol'l. 1-" the ease of porwna
wishinllO panaktc of Holy Communion ..ito eannOC
atltcnd !he [)jnne UlUra rithe. through illness or
foe- oc}m ...,as-... lhe I'l'O'cious Body. ~trncd
...ith dropo <>f the Precious 8100d,. rnay be ~.m
and cOll,eyed 10 lhom m a spuia1 sih'el' pp:. called
the .rl<>phorion (ATabic. IJuqq .1.JMkhir"IIl. 10 ....
administered to I.... m by Ihe prifcOl. ,,-hile they an:
still fastinK- immedialely after the lilUTJY_ The box
is Ihen retumord .....pty to lhe churdt.
Artopborton
The ...Iophonon, literally "Ihe bo~ of the [HeM)'}
Communion." is a ~tcSKI usually made of sil~tcr. or
thick glass in pool' churches, circular in shape .nd
having a lid measuring aboul ) inches (7 em) in
diamet~r. Its htclghl Is about 1.5 inches (4 em),
l! is used 3$ a comalner to cany Ihe Holy Body.
sometime> moistentcd .....ith a fe", drop5 of Ihe Pre·
dOllS Blood, 10 those ",ho are eonfined 10 the
hoUSfc or hospital by ill Ittalth o. infirmity. and to
 EUCHARISTIC VESSELS AND INSTRUMENTS
the prisoners in their cells, and in cases of real
necessity, to all who wish to communkalc without
being able to allend lhe Di"ine Liturgy.
It resembles the circular siher pyx now used in
the Anglican church for the same pu'l'""e, but the
Anglican priest suspends it by a cord around his
neck while lhc Cop lie prieSt carries lhe ",topnodo"
in his hands.
A6teri6k
One of the inslruments used during the celebra-
tion of the liturgy, the asterisk is usually made of
silver or white metal and sometimes of gold. It
consiSls of two half·circles in the fonn of a dome.
intersecting at right angles. and riveted together
with a small cross at Ihe top. It folds so as to be
con,'eniently pUI aWa}', During the liturgy, it is set
over Ihe consecrated oblalions in the paten to pre--
vent the veil from touching them. It bears a mysli.
cal significance to the star of Bethlehem lhal led
lhe wise men to the infant Savinr while he was
lying in the manger.
According to A. J. Butler, Ihe Greek church
"makes use of a corresponding inslrumen, lermed
the 'star' ... said to have bun introduced by St.
ChrysoslQm," He adds, as a footnQle. that E. Renau·
dot, in Liturgi",um oriemalium collectio, is wrong
in assuming that "tbe Orientals, including lhe Syri·
anS and Egyptians, do not """ the A-~ler,"
Chalice
The chalice is the wine cup used in the celebra·
lion of the Eucharist. It is now usually made of
silver, wilh a long stem and a circular ba,<e. In
earlier limes. il was customary to engrave On lhe
outside of Ihe chalia Ihe figure of a lamb. in refer·
ence to lhe Lamb of Cod.
Al the celebration of tif Eucharisl, after the
pri~SI has poured wine inter Ih~ chalic~ from lhe
cruet and poured waler into: the empty c"'et. from
which he adds water to the ,wine in the chalke, he
places the chalice in5ide the ark on the ahar. Ac·
cording to Ibn al·'As,;al (c. 1205-c. (265). Ihe con-
ten,1S of th~ chalice should not r~ach the brim. for
fear of spilling, and the prOJ>Ort;on of water should
nOI be less lhan one·t~nth and not more lhan one·
third of the quantity of Ihe wine.
The tradition of mixing Ihe chalice wine wilh
waler follows Ihe leaching of lhe early fathers. SainI
ClEMEJ.'T OF Al.EHNDRtA (c. 150-c. 215) refers to
"watered wine" (Paedagogos 2.2.20). This mixture
of wine and waler also ref~rs 10 lhe flow of blood
1065
and waler from Christ's side .....hile on the cross (In.
19:34).
In the Coptic church, communicants ",cdve the
Blood by means of a spoon following the adminis-
tering of the Body. whereas in the Roman Catholic
church. Ih~ reception of the Blood has ~en reo
stricted to the clergy sinc~ the twelfth century. a
cuSlom later confirmed al the Council of Constance
in 1415.
Paten
The pat~n i< a flat. shallow, drcular dish, with a
turned·up edge. measuring about 8 inches (22 ern)
in diameter. II is used to hold Ihe eucharislic b",ad
which is consecraled during the celebration of the
liturgy and is lransformed into the Body of Christ.
The paten, now normally made of silver. used to
be made of glass Or earthenware, particularly dur·
ing lhe ages of persecution .....hen the Egyplian
churches were plundered by invading marauders.
The paten has double symbolism, It represent'
the manger in which Chrisl was born as well as the
grave in which His body "'as laid.
Spoon
The spoon is used for administering lhe Precious
Blood 10 Ihe communicants. It is usually of silver,
but rna}' also be made of gold. and has a long
straight handle on which certain biblical verses are
inscribed and ending "..ith a small cross,
The spoon bea... a symbolic analogy wilh lhe
tongs .....ilh which the seraphim took a Ii,.., coal and
louched lsaiah's lips to purify them (Is, 6:6-7).
Hence the leXl u..,d in the Coplic church in the
procel;S of consecrating lhe spoon, "0 God, Who
made His servant Isaiah the prophet worthy 10 look
at the seraphim holding the longs .....ith which he
look the live coal from off the altar and laid it upon
his moulh: do now, a Cod almighly. spread Thy
hand on Ihis spoon with wbich lhe Sacred Body
and the Preciou. Blood will be administered:'
In earlier times communicants used to partake of
the Precious Blood .traight from the chalice, bUl
later lhe spoon came imo use. and is now the meth-
od established in Ihe Coptic church. Priests laking
part in the liturgy, ho.....ever. are given the Body in
the spoon while il is placed on Ihe paten, unlike
laymen, who re<:eive the Body in their mouths from
the celebrant prieSl's hand, followed by Ihe Blood
from the spoon.
It was also customary in bygone days to adminis·
ter the Sacred Body into the communicant's righl
1066 EUCHARISTIC WINE
hM>d while he pbced it O>Itr tht 1m hMld in the
fonn of a en>t:lo. Accordinc1y Sain. CYltll- Of' JEl1.J$.O..
1Dl (c. 315-3861 JUllei. "When thou IOeIl to .....
eei..., communion 10 not ...ith thy ...·risb utended.
not with thy finaers 5tJW1dtd. t placing thy left
hand u a .hrone for thy ri&hl, ich i$ 10 _rioe
10 veal a kina. and in lhe hollow of .he p<>lm
I"ttei\.., the body of Chris!, ...)ing 'Amen'" (Ca'....
chetical Luturu 23.21).
Appa~n.I,., tome wnlthy ptrsom, ~r""ps mo:xe
o.H of ~,'erence .han os.enta'ion, Slarted '0 brinll
.heir own iolden or ill"er yo"",,l. in.o Ihe ahar,
inlO which Ihe prieSt would place the Bod,. for
.hem .0 partake of, un.ouehed by Iheir own hands.
Su<:h a practice led .0 50~ unease on the part of
the poorer members of lhe congregation. Come-
quently lbe Council In Trollo, in 692, b.ld 00..'0
Dttue 101 canyinl the followini dlt'K,I,..,:
''Whe~fo~, if anyone "isba 10 be a P"'nicipltor of
the nomaculate Body in lhe Lime of the 5)'I'Ui&, and
10 off...- !lllmdf lor the communion, let him drzw
near, arnl'Iina his hands in tht £ann of • ct'OU.
and 50 let him recei..... he communion of IJ'KC.
Bu. weh as. insttad of their hands, make "_Is of
IOId or othtT ~trbls £or the rr<:qMion q/ the
divine gift. and by tllest r ei •.., <he immacl>l:tle
communion, we by no mea allow 10 COmt, •..
But if anyone sh.1I be found impertini the Immacu·
late c(>mmunion '0 .hou "'ho bring """",,ls of .hls
kind, Ie. him be cut off as well "" Ihe on", who
brings .hem:'
B1BLIOGRAnfY
·A......p1lah ManqaryQs 'Awadallah. Ma,,'rat ai·
"",dtV; " Sh.rlt TIr<p(s .1-K'In'S<dt aJ.QilHiyy<lh ,"'G"
a1-{Judtla, Vol. I. P. 71. Cain), 1'M7.
Burm""",r, O. H. E. nre EDJ>1imt or Copri<: Ch"rch,
Po 26. Cain), 1967,
Bu.Ier, A. J_ TIu ~it'''' Coplic Churcltu 01 ECJ>I.
O>;foo-d. IM4.
Cummings, D. TIu R.ubler. ChicaBo, 1957.
Darin, J. G. ~Pyx'" In A Dtclio"...,. lJf UJ"'I1 and
W""hip. London, 1971.
Jurgens, W. A., t!d. T1u. FG'ilh 01 rlrt: EG',iy F<lthen,
Vol. I. Collcitvllle, Minn" 1970.
ManimOt1, A, /ltl.oduCIKm ~ /a 1i1"",1c, p. 163. Pal"'"
>S,I%1.
Neale, J. M. A Hi,wry of Ihe Holy EG'.lem Chu""h,
Vol. l. PI'. 350. London, 1850.
Renaudot, E. L!llIrgl<l."m o.ienr"lium colleclio, 2
vol•. Paris, 1716.
Tad"", Ya·'1ub Mala!!. The Church, House 01 God,
pp. 510-16. Alexandria, 1982.
WaIlS, W. W. Cat.lope 0/ Chtdius ...11 Ollrt:r Com-
m ....io.. VUSO'Is, pp. 39-46. Vocto;wU. and 1Jben
Museum, 1912
EUCHARJSTIC WINE, among Copts kno"... by
lhe Arabic Itrm a""rilah, rr'IOCaning "new wine" for
use in Hot,. Communion.
1M "bark.1I is prepared from dried grapes O'
rai.in•. Afte. beini washed ....i .h "'ate., .My are
placed in an ta"henware pol and covered wi.h
water. The ralslns are .hen left '0 soak for .hree
days, after whleh Ihty are laken oul and squetled
by hand (nn'tT trampled by f.-j, and .he juice i.
poured inlO vessels that are not complettly filled;n
ordc-r to allow roc honncntation. The ju~ is left lor
forty daY"'. after .....id i. is fil for sac""mental use.
The 10"leT tilt juke is aJl~ .0 remain. tht bet-
ItT is W wine. SomClUnes a little "ine from a
lorrnn" brew is added to each bottk of new wine.
The pnXedure is the same when frQh If&pa are
used in""",,, of raisins.
BIBUOGllArHY
BunnesltT, 0, H. E. The Egyptian", Coptic Ch"",h,
p. 82. Cairo, 1967.
BUller, A. J. The ,4rrcielt/ Capric Church" of EVpl,
Vol. 2, pp, 281-82. o>;ford, 1884.
Dro_r, E. S. WeIer into Wine, p. 64. London, 1956.
King, A. A. Tlte Rires of easurn Christtndl1m, Vol.
l. 1'_ 406. Rome, 19-47.
Worr<:ll, W. H. Coplic TexiS, p. 329, Ann Aroor,
Mich., 1942.
EUCHOLQGION, originally a compn:hensh..,
pra~ bu. now confined 10 the IQ)'CTS.-d in
.he e.ifl\;"1 and mominl: offerina of inc:enae, ancl
<he three anapI>oras of BASil. Ill" CtlUT. CUGOlY TIf[
TlII'Dt.OC1Ofl, and CTUL THE CltEAT, the last belns.he
liturzy of Saint "'ar\:. the Af'O"tle.
The first bilingual (Coptic and Anobie) eueholog-
ion, named .be Great Euchologion. was prinled at
Rome. II consisted oI.wo perts: Pan I, primed ill
1761, con.ained, among other .hing:!, prayers u..,d
in the ordina.ion to .he ,'arious gradns of the c1er·
gy, the ordlnallon of monh, .he C(lnsecra.ivn (If
bishops, the consecra,ion (If new churches, and the
consecration of Ihe holy chrism. Part 2, prime<l in
the f<>llowina yur, comprised prayers for .he con-

secration of church ,'~Is, the baptismal fonl, and
th~ altar, th~ order of lh~ S<'rvic~ of foolwashing on
Maundy Thursday, the sen.'ic~ of g~nufiexion, Ih~
servic~ of th~ prayer of Ih~ basin (on th~ sev~mh
day after th~ birth of Ih~ infatll), and Ihe blcssing of
the betrothed on Ihe fortieth day after marriage. It
also included the readings from Ih~ Gospels for
ralm Sunday and Ih~ two f~asl days of Ih~ cross,
ARCIlOIS>IOP BAStUOS
EUCHOLOGION STAND, a small movabl~
desk of wood for supporting Ihe euchologion on Ihe
altar during Ihe service of offering the incense and
the divin~ liturgy. It is similar 10 the Lalin missal
stand, and is call~d in Arabic qarrayah,
Its use is not gen~ral and appar~mly began in
modem limC$ only, sinc~ in early and m~dieval
times, Ihe priests used to memoriu their liturgical
prayers. Many priests prefer to plaee the eu-
chologion directly on the altar, sometimC$ pUlling
anoth~r book as a cushion under th~ euchologion,
EMtu: MAilER [$IlAO
EUOOXIA, name given to a fictilious sisl~r of
Constantine in a Sahidic Coplic l~g~nd, which cr~d·
its her wilh the discO\'ery of Ih~ Holy &pulcher in
Jerusalem, The legend is preserved almost intact in
a sing[~ papyrus codex in the Egyptian Museum of
Turin (Cat. 63,000, codex Ib, lois, IOv-4Ir, s~v~nth
to eighth century), A small £agment from anOlh~r
papyrus cod~x, cotllaining parts of chapters 47-49,
is pr=rv~d in th~ John Rylands Library, Manches-
ter (Coptic Supplemenl 20, a, se,'enth century). The
legend is made up of two parts: (I) Ihe ovenhrow
of P10CtErlAN and accession of CONSTANTtNE. the
peace of th~ church and bapli.m of Con.. antin~,
and a war belween Constantine's forces and the
Persians, broughl to a mipculous conclusion by
Constantine (chaps. 1-32): i'nd (2) the Slory of Eu·
do.ia (chaps. 33-105), • Ontke. H. i\. "A Coptic V~rsion of the Disco"e!)' of
According to the story, Elldoxia, the virgin siSler
of Conslantine, i. admonished by Jesus in a vision
to go to Jerusalem and uncover Hi. tomb, which
(at the insligalion,of the Jewish authorilies) for 365
years has been covered wilh the refuse of the city.
Eudoxia, encouraged by Constantine. obeys and
goes wilh a large entourage to Jerusalem. The Jews
refuse to lell her where the tomb is, but under
torture a scribe named Joel refers her to a kinsman
of Christ, the aged Jacob, a d~scendant of Jacob,
the brother of the Lord. Jacob shows her lhe sile of
EUDOXIA 1067
the lomb and Ihe ,,"one begins. Th~ tomb is ~v~ntu·
ally uncovered, and in il are found the bodies of th~
two thieves who had been crucified with Christ, as
w~ll as the inscription that had been nailed to the
cross of Cbrisl. Eudoxia r~mains for a lime in Jeru·
salem, supported by the king and his nobles, direci'
ing various building projects at Ihe hoiy places, She
and her company then ",tum to Conslanlinople,
where they ar~ welcomed by Ihe king,
Thi. story has been modeled upon a number of
previously existing traditions, especially the story of
the discovery of Ihe cross by Constant;ne's mOlher,
Helen, and lbe endowments and building project.
in Jerusalem camed out by' the Empr~ss Eudocia,
wife of TH£ODOSlUS II (408-450), Constantine had a
sister Con.tantia, known for her piety, bOll the name
Eudoxia is clearly based on lhe name of the Em·
pre.. Athenais·Eudocia, whose nam~ also appears
in late sources as "Eudoxia." The same name is
given 10 the sister of Constantine who accompanies
him and his mother 10 Jerusalem to build the
Church of Ihe ReSUlTeClion. This is according to a
Coptic encomium on Saim G~orge of Cappadocia
attributed to Bishop TheodOlus of Ancyra (see
Budge, 1888, p, 325), a story that may also ha"e
contribuled 10 the formation of the legend of Eu-
doxia.
A'''''J'imperfect lran.cription "ith Italian trans-
lalion was made of the Eudoxia legend by Rossi
(1886), but the legend has r~cei\'~d linle notice
until 1980, when it was published in a much·im·
proved edition, with English lranslation and histOl;'
cal analysis. Drake's extensive historical analysis
suggesl' a lime of compmition for this legend of c.
640 to 650. Whether it is an original Coptic compo'
sition or a translation from Greek is debatable.
BIBUOGRAI'HY
Budge, E, A, W. The Mattyrdom o"d Miracle.< of
Saint George 01 Cappadocia. London, 1888,
the Holy Sepulchre" Gr.~k, Roman. and Byzan-
tine Studies 20 (1979):381-92.
Orlandi. T,; B. A, P~arson: and H A. Drak~. Eudoxia
and Ih. Holy Sepulchre: A C"'lSIantin;an Legend
i" Coplic. Te.. i e documenti per 10 studio dell'
amichitA 67. Milan, 1980,
Rossi, F. "Transcrizion~ di Ire manoscrilli copli del
Musco Egizio di Torino con traduzione italiana."
Memorie della Reale '!'ccademia delie Science di
ToriMQ, ser, 2. Sci~nZf mora Ii, .<lQriche ~ {i/ola.
gi"he 37 (1886): 84-115,150-62-
BIRGER A. PEAlIse>!
1068 EUGNOSTOS THE BLESSED and THE SOPHIA OF JESUS CHRIST
EUGNOSTOS THE BLESSED and THE
SOPHIA OF JESUS CHRIST, interrd;ll...!
G_tic tnctales. They ~ bOO> found in Coptic':
"ersions ;n Ibt' NAG HAIIDolADI UlIMa,.. "'1Ieu there
a~ ""'0 copioes cI E..prrwos (Eut) (Ill.) [70:1-
90:131 and V.l [1:1-17:IIIJ) and one 01 Sophi12 0{
JQo<j CItrisI (SJC) 011.4 190:14-119:1')). In add;-
I;"". a oop)' of sx: (abo ;n c.ic) Is cootalnfll in
l'''I'1'us Be~nsiJ llS02 m:'-ll1:ll). A ft-q.
menl of SIC In Gceek (th.. languase 01 composition)
_ d~rd al (1)Tttync:hU$ (1'''f1Y"'S O~1ryn.
elruJ 1011). II pu;dlds th.. NiI& Hammadi CocIeK 111
(97:16-\19:12) and I'a~ BeroJine.uis (11502.&1:
1.-91:ISj.
E"i"ostos is :II religio-phik>sophical cOnlrtWersy
dis-ooune in lhe fonn of an epistle wrill..n by Eug.
llOiStOS. who ;s otherwi"" unknown. The scribe of
th.. colophon of tJ><, Co.~t of the Egyplia'l$• • 1so
called Euanostos. i. almosl c,,"ainly not the same
"",rson. II ;s direcled 10 "Ihose who are his" (111.3
only: in V.l lhe ""clion i. moslly In lacuna). "His"
may refer 10 Eugnoslos or 10 a deity. In Eug 111.
EulJlOStos is given the honotific lill( "lhe Blessed,'"
perhapl Indicaling lhal he """ de<:eased.
The discO\lne of Eut is divided inlO lWO J».rts.
Pan I {1ll.70:3-11S:9 and Eat V par.1 consists of a
description of Ihe "Iroe"' IUIllure oIlhe JUpercele,..
tial lq:menl of the co....os. "Jhe desctipllon Is based
on the theory of 1)'J""S, that is, that tM ~bIe
_rld ha.s been patterned on Ihe ""rnlitie5" in the
imislble .."Orld. ~ rta!ities. il "-as belie..ed.
could be kno..... by eUJll.inins the visible world.
which reflects the realiti... only i "",!fudy...i1h
IItt- help 01 a divine prineiple II...! ~I
(Greek. ~"...,..,) 01L74:11-19 and E~C V pu.).
The invisible ...:wId is undftstood 10 have oriti-
natal ,.'ilh • bein«: " .... simply b. call...! -UnbeJoc·
ten. ~ He is the!KlUrce- 01 all menu! ......."t:rs. Subse-
qu.. no .eaIilin come into beine throuch self·
objeclification (Sel{o~uer (Alltop""'] and 1m-
monal Man), spiritual ,..,gende"nl by androgynous
\»oirs (Son 01 Man, Son of Son 01 Man, eu:.) and
direcl creation (~ns, fumam~nts, .... c.). These re-
alities pro>-ide the types lor the temporal asp<'cl$ 01
"'our ~n."· It ohould also be noted t ....l. in addi·
lion, Self·Brgetln io the originator of a lpecial
trOUP of poople-pre,umably Ihe Gnosllocs-and
Immortal Man is tk SOlJrce of 1nsi~ dif!erenlia·
Iioni.
Pan 11 (IlLll~:9-90;3 and 81'S V par.) Is a desotip·
tion of Ihe highest level of Ihe .isible portion of the
cosmos. which is called "chaos."' Althouah three
aeOnS are .poken of inilially, allenllon is focused on
the third. nam...! "'_mbly.'· 11 is the sotIrc~ 01
diYine beings and S1f\lo:tUra. and 01. the Iypes for
the reS! of the >'isible COSffiC15..
Eug concludes with a ...-ediction of the com;n.. 01.
one who ,.·m interpret or simply repnu. the words
of&t·
JheT1, is nO s.ignifiam t'\ident:e 01 Christian influ.
~nce in the composition 01 Ewe. a1thwe. there ..
~,idrn« 01 Christian influence in its bl<1" editifll
(e.K-. lhe modification 01 the concluding pmpheql
in CuC Ill). Then: is alJo m\l(;h t'\'idenoc of Jewish
""",culation on Genesis I-S In bot:h pam of EuC.
Moreover. Ihe first ...n .. SU1>n&ly influenc...! by
Neop)11tag0rean number speculation. These obw:r--
....tions point to an early dale for Eut-probably in
lhe ~nc cenlury A.O. E.., tm.. .......Id likely be
thoughl of as an eomple of the kind of "peculaliv~
activity thaI was involved in Ihe origi"" of gnosti·
".m.
The pro"enance of Eug in all likelihood was
Egypt. Thi. i. suggesl...! by Ihe refe.ence in Ihe teU
to "Ihe 360 day" of Ihe year."' Only in Egypt in late
anliquily was the year thought to be of thaI lenglh.
It is now generally Il(:ct'pled tha, Ihe wtiler of
SiC used EUl: as • source. Mo.! of the dida<;tic
material fro<n E..,. alona: wllh thai from otha
sourc.... w,," plae...! 01\ the IiI'" 01 Chti51. who is
pictured in SJC :11$ .p'p"arinl in angdic guise 10 his
djs"iples and seven WOrn"", after h" r=I"""ion.
in o<df,r '0 ani....., their qoeries aboul the nalure
and PU'l"""" 01 edilence. II seems likdy that. hy
ha»inll Chrisl ..-,k the words of Eugnostos. the
writtr want...! him 10 be seen as fulfilling the con·
cluding pi ~ y cI E..,. Emphasis on Christ .. also
- . . in !he non·E..C rna.lerial. whe,.., the major
point has 10 do with OttiSl's roles: OI'M' as J"e\'Ukr
and nne ,,+.0 set lhe panem for lnump,in«: 0 ......
the ..ick...! ......"t:f1, thIc desire 10 imprison the di-
\;ne dements in matter. The connection .......h Eu,
and the focus 01\ Chris, in the non-E"l: material
suggest thai the reason lOr ...ming SiC may ha~e
been to convince non-Christian Gnostics. who may
have ,..,verd E.." thai lhey should become adher·
er>lS of Christian goos.tlcism.
The non·E.., m'uerial also has refe.ence-s (albdt
incomplete) to such t)l'ic.l Gnostic theme. . . the
rail of Sophia, Ih. male>'Olenl ~""8tor god Yaldaba·
olh, 1M .~il of sexuality. and the qualitalive differ·
ence belween Ihose whose knowledge is "'pure"
and those whose knowledge is "'defe<:li,'.:· All these
themes can be seen as elements in a mythological
worldview focu.ing on wletiology.
An early-secon<!·century date for SiC is suggt'S1cd

by the reason ju", di.ctl5S<'d for ilS composition, by
the lack in its frame material of allusions to the
controversy with orthodoxy (as one finds. for exam·
pIe. in the ~POCnPHt).. Of JOHN), and by the lack of
influence from the Gnostic systems of the mid-..,c-
ond century ~.D. Earlier auempts to date SiC in the
late .econd or third centuries did not conoider
these points.
SiC. then. i. probably to he seen as an earl}'
example Wilhin gnosticism-if not the first-of the
combining of a highly speculative cosmological sys-
tem and soteriologically oriented m}1hology.
Although references to either Eug or SiC are
lacking in the church fathers. th"y both app"ar to
have enjoyM considerable popularity among the
Gnostics. if one may judge from the number of
copie. that survive and the fact that the two copies
of Eug appear to have had quite different textual
hi<tories,
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Foe"ter, W., ed, Gnosis: A Se/eerion 01 Gnoslie
TUl< 1: Coplie ond Mandean Sources. Trans.
from 1971 German ed. by R. Mel. Wilson. Ox'
ford. 1974. Volume include. translations by M.
Krau .. of Eug III and SJC t11, employing materi·
al from the other copies to fill in missing pages.
Robinson, J. M .. ed. The Nag Hammadi LibMry in
Engli,h. New York, 1977. Includes preliminary
mmslations by D. M, Parrott of Eug t1t and SlC
1II, using panllel passages from the other copies
to fill in missing pages, The pre.entation is in
parallel column•.
Till, W. C, and H. M. Schenke, cds, Die gyws/isehen
Sehrif/en d.s koplisen." Papyrus Beroli".",i,
8502. Texte and Untersuchungen ~ur Ge.chichte
der alterchristlichen Uteratur 60, 2nd ed. Benin,
1972.
., DouGlAS M. PARROlT
EUMENIUS. ,eventh patriarch (130-142) of the
~e of Saint MARl(. He held the office for twel.'e
years and three months during the reigns of emper·
ors Hadrian and Antoninus Pius. He """,laid to rest
on 10 Babah near the remains of Saint Mark in the
Church of Bucalis at Alexandria.
1I111UOGRAPHY
Atiya, A. S. History of EaSlern Chri'tianity, Mill·
wood. N.Y., 1980.
Azr~ S. Ann
EUSEBJUS, SAINT 1""9
EUPHROSYNA, SAINT, fifth-ce:ntury holy )"'r-
son of Alexandria. Since her father. Paphnutius,
wished to betroth her, she cut off her hair and,
di.guised as a man (Patlagean, 1976), Red to a mon·
astery. the location of which i. not indicated, She
took the name of Smaragda. After thirty-eight years
spent in this monastery.•he died at the .'ery mo·
mem when her father, having searched eveT)where.
finally found her. She expressed her wish that .he
n()t be washed in the customary manner. and be-
fore her death she recounted her story.
We ought not to confuse her (feast: 4 or 9 Am'
shirl with her namesake, a mart)'r in Syria who.e
hiographical notice has PM.~ into th" recen.ion of
the Copto-Arabic $YNHARrON from Upper EgJ.-pt at
12 Tubah.
11te Luxor manuscript that gives the complete
notic" is unpublished (Coquin. 1978, p. 361).
IlrBLJOGRAPlIY
Coquin, R. G. "le synaxaire des Coptes, Un nou·
veau temoin de la recension de Haute Egypte."
"M/or/it &lIandiana 96 (1978):351-65,
Delehaye, H. Sy"axarium Ecclesiae Constanlinopoli-
la"ae. Brussels, 1902.
Murad Kimi!. La Vie d. Sainte Euphrosyni, pp.
235-60, Tome commemoratif du mill"naire de la
BibliGtheque patriarcale d'Alex..ndrie. Alexandria,
1953.
Patlagean, E. "l'Histoire de la femme degui'''e en
moine et l'evoiution de la saintet" feminine a
Byzance." Studi Medievali 17 (1976):597-623.
RE,;£-GEORGES COQUIN
EUSEBIUS. SAINT, a fourth'Cemury martyr
from Antioch who was killed in Egypt (feast day: 23
Am.hir). The Passion of Eusebios. written in Coptic,
is related to the Ba.ilidian CVClE.. It is almost com·
pletely concerned with even," related to SasHides, a
general and dignitat;i at the court of D10ClETJAN in
Antioch, to his son Eusebiu., and to his compan·
ions Claudius. Apater. Theodorus Anatoliu•. and
Justus (of all these there are the relative Passions).
It al,o dwells somewhat on the martyrdom of Euse-
bius. It i. reported in two ninth·century Bohairic
manuscripts (M, Hyvemat, 1886-87, pp. 1-39).
l1>e !ext begin. with a war in which Eusebiu,.
Claudius. Apater, Theodorus Anatolius. and J",.rus
take part. During this war Basilides remains at Anti-
och. aware that Diocletian is renouncing the Chris-
tian faith_ He wam. hi. son Eusebius and his corn·
panions. who after the victory come back to
1070 EUSEBIUS OF CAESAREA
Anli«h: Ih..,. stop oul$id~ <Jl the dly and inform
Basilides. H~ co".....IIs ",-ith VICTOR (ble-r abo a mar·
Iyr) ancl decides nOC 10 Iea,~ I~ cily so that D ~
tian ~nCH be masteJ" of the SIl.... lion. Romanus.
Vil;lor'. bthc-r. an apa.llOl~ himldf M>d cwncijlor
to Dioc:lelian. fnfonns th~ e-tnfOlOTOI'". who Knds b-
&sllides. When ~ reru.e. 10 rome. Dioo::le-llan
u..,15 1M pies of the 1_"Il, but EuKbiu. and his
coml""nions $UoCcud in «,,!ting in.. WseOi\>s 100b
for Olodelian 10 Ihrow him 001. bUI the lall~r lias
tal~n n:fua~ ,1It Roman..... Ibsilides, in an Inl~""
$il'l spuch illt lhe young men, asks for -......
ances thaI IMy will no! UStlrp Dioo::le1ian's lIt,o,..,.
TMn h~ asks Diod~lian 10 show himself In publk.
""hleh M finally does. Eusebi"" and his companions
d«ide" 10 becom~ manyrs. Diocle-lian i"",", his In-
famws ~ict; Basilides conf..- his bohh in lhe
law coon and is 'Kil.tn die in Africa. Euseblus. also
a confessor. is sen! to die in Em>'. wh~re h~ Is
m.any~d in Copt"" after havlnil been kill~d and
resurrected lhree limC!<,
BIBLIOGRAPHY
HY"~rnal. H. Us ACIC> des ""'ny'S de /"EiYpl~ riris
dn "..." ..senIS copus d' 14. Bib/ioIJI~q .. ~ V..tlc....c
er <I" M"ue BOf'gI•. Paris. 1886-1887.
T1To ORU.NOl
EliSEBIUS OF CAESAREA (c. 260-c. 340),
aUliloJ" of the HIS1OIlLO BOC1.E5UlS1'lCA The aUlhentic
bio&nPhy of Euscbius, recorded by his ""'"II
disci-
ple and ~ ACMJU5.. has bom lost. Historians
ha~ to aswmble the s<:a1~ details 01 hh rich
Ilk and the immense heritage of his lhertl)" J>f'O'"
duc.ions from contcmpoc.nry authon such .. Soc. .
lei and Sozomen. in addi.ion 10 wrilinp of ccl,..
brated pcrsonaIities of his .Utt.o. such as A'fH.VlASIUS
and IU<lM1t One of ~ elabontc modem ac·
eoonUl of his life appears in lhe Dic/ion4.ry 01 C/rrUo
';'11>1 Bi<lgraphy (Vol. 2. pp. 30M.) by J. 8. Uch.fooI.
""ho presc'n1!l a delailed anal)'$is 01 his muhlple
worb. eovcri"ll ahtlO6l all field> of <e-Illious schol·
arship. Howcv.r, Eusebi...· Fame mu$l principally
rC51 on hi. immortal Hi.srori4. uc!tsi"stie". which
righdy ~amed for him the tille of "Farher of Church
Hlsrory:'
N.hher the dal. of hi. birth nor his binhplace is
known wilh precision. His life is a:!I~ocialed mainly
"'ilh C_rea. where his parents ~ided and of.
fered him a lroly Chrislian educallon. Thls was
compl'l~ under rhe sU[;'eillance 0( $I.l llluslriow a
menlor &i p'.ulPHrws. wbo him..,lf had .Itendcod the
CAncHE1'1CAl. SCHOOl. Of' .u.ExAHDIUA under OR1GEH.
..m.-: worts he had 'Bfl~ated aod many of ",hich
~ had lramcrihed. As e-ca became a <:e,Her of
pe~ulion of ChriSlIan•• Pamphilus ...:as rnanyrcd
probably in .309, when Eusdma. decided .0
ftce 10
Tyn. &om which he _m 10 ~pL Tl>ere he
watched the 6eI"CesI of perseculion> and was hi",-
self imprisoned foe lhe falih. I~ nOC mar1)'Ted.
ShonIy ah.. rward. t.o-ver. fOlOnec:UIK>m so"""'-icd
and pcac~ ...... ro:slond. enabli", &&schUH in 313
10 rcNrn 10 ~. when he ....... unanimously
eleele<! as ilS b~ in .lIS.
Thmughou. WI pcrind. he became involved in
Ibf, uninnal COflflk. "";11I be-lwcr:n Alhaoasius
and .... US- He happened 10 ~ a 5UPPOI1er of Ihe
lancr. Emperor Constantine decided 10 summon
.he finl ecumenical ~ncil a. l'01CA1'.Il io 325 10
Kille all our01aodinl differenc.. and resl.orc peace
to Ihe church. Euscbius an~nd.d the council and
a'l!ued for a cOmprom!K, producing his baplismal
creed of Caesaua, in whleh Ih. vltaltenn homoo...·
;0' was omill~d 10 sull the Anan party. This was
rejected as here.ical. and inllea<! Ihe Niee,.., C...,.,d
was adopl~d by Ih~ cOllncil.
Though Eustbius had to accep' the decwon of
Ihe CQuneil. he ~v.r really pve OIIlnllht support
10 AthanasMo and hariJoud hls old haTred of SABU.
UANISH and MONARCHlAHlSM. which allowed him to
safquan:I ...., conception of MQNOTHEJSSl. After Hi·
caea,. he oon.in..... to fietll for rein,'eSling Ali"",
and Pope ~ I of Aleundria oornpLained 10
the emperor about Euscbius and the SYT'*n i)i§/Iops
who 5100d by lhe side of Anus. 11' the inle-rval.
Euscblus' indeblipblc er>erJY "'. . demon.nated by
IUs conlin..... dorIS al thc .synods of Cacsarca,
Tyn:. JerusaJc,m. and CooSlantinoplt .0 O<ltwrigb
the staunch s1aCnd of the bWtop of Antioch. ""M
suppon~ the poA.ion of Athanasl.... now thc foc-
mldablc !UCCCSSQf of the d«used Alexander I. £u.
~ ah,o ancnded Inc dcdic..ion of Ihe Calbcdral
Church of the Ruumec.lon in J~I~m. The Em-
peror Constanli,.., hcld him in high regard and
summoned Emcbius 10 confer ....ith him on .he un·
f1in~hing and uncompromising a"nude of Alhan"",i·
u. in the Arian eont~rsy. Presumably Ihis led ro
one of Ihe ",cccS$iv~ uilu of lhe Alexaodria.n
""",.
This universal conflicl. however. caJl'H;' 10 an ~nd
wilh Ihe death of Arlus In 336. when Eusebius was
relieved 10 devol~ his remaining few years to the
comple.ion of his lile",'}' works and especially hi!;
Histo"~ ud.si4.stlc4., which he ..... abl, 10 bring
up 10 dale.
h is amazing 10 Ihink lhal in lh~ mid5l of his

enorm<>u< ecclesiastkal activitie.. Eusebiu. was
able to produce so much wriling. In facl. his pro·
ductivity encomp,,",ed all depar1t1l"nts of ecclesias-
tical literalure. In the field of hislory. however. his
creativity is immortaliled by Ihe fi~1 serious history
of the church from the apostolic age to hi. own
time. Though occasionally described by critics as
poor in style, this work deal. with Ihe main events
in the history of the church, supplemented by docu-
menlS that he managed to preserve in the courM' of
his discussions. 11 deals mainly with Ihe Easlern
churches. including the patriarchate of Alexandria.
and hardly touche. the West. It consists of ten ,",c-
lion•. of which the first ,",,'en were probably writ-
le~ before the Coundl of Nicaea. The remaining
three sections dealing with Ihe evenlS of his own
lime, of which he was an eyewitness, must have
been appended 10 the pre.'ious seclions at a later
period in his life, This work proved to be the begin-
ning for subsequent hislorians such as Soclllte. and
Sowmen. whose works were supplemeni5 to the
initial attempt made by Eu,",bius, The wark has
sum,'ed in Greek as well as alher versions in Ullin.
Syriac, and Armenian. In recenl limes. it has been
translated illlo olher languages, including Arabic,
by Marcus Dawud (1960).
Another historical wori< by Eusebiu. is The Mar-
ty,s of PalOSline, HeTe he was an eyewitness of per-
secutions in the countries of the Middle East and of
the manyrdom of people he knew helween 303 and
310 in Ihe reign of the emperor DIOCu:TlAN, His Life
of Co~sl"min. i. a panei)'I1c full of prai,", for a
friendly mMter. Eusebius funher compiled a Chron·
ic/e of universal history thaI he supplemented with
chronological tablt:'$ of some value.
Qui5ide the realm of history, his contributions
co\-ered a number of vast theological terrains, of
which an unknown number bas perished. Of his
apologetic works. the best known is a treatise ad·
dressed to the pagan gove91or of Bilhynia entitled
AgainSl Hieroc/es. which is 1'n eloquent defense of
the Christian faith. On Ihe ~ew Teslament, Eusebi-
us wrote several works of 'which two stand out,
These are Pr.paralio~ /0' Ih. G(Js~1 (Prepa,,'lio
Eva~gelica), which consists of fifteen book•. and
Demons!m!um of Ihe Gospel (Demons/ralio Evangel-
1<:a) in twenty hooks. Through excerpts from Ihe
Old Testament. he establishes the prophesies 10 the
coming of Christ. His trcatise Againsl Porphyry in
fifteen hook.< refutes the ntmt formidable of the
healhen onslaughl. agai"'t the Bible. His work emi-
liI'd Theophania in five books cited by Jerome was
wrinen against Marcellus of Ancyra and con.i.", of
a ddense of Ihe revelalion of God in the incarna·
EUSIGNIUS, SAINT 1071
lion of the Divine Word. The heathen idea Ihat
Jesus was a sOrcerer who acbieved his aims by
simple magic i. discuss<:d and refuted.
Eusebiu. eompo,",d numerous works of exegetic
character on several biblical texls_ Prominent
among them is his wori< on the harmony of tbe
Go.pel" where he .tarts with the plan of the Diales-
$aro~ 01 A.mmonius of A.lexandria by dividing the
Gospels inlO parallel ,",ctions and the construclion
of a table of ten canons, all wori<ing toward the
coordinalion of the subject matter of the Gospels,
His commentaries on the Psalms and the book of
Isaiah are both works of exegetic excellence. in
which he followed the allegorical syslem of inter-
pretation formerly established in A.lexandria by Ori·
gen. More ,uch commentaries, extant or lost, on
olher books of the Scriplure have been listed in the
source•.
Outside lhe field of exegesis is a joint work with
hi. mentor Pamphilus emilled ne/enu of Origen
(perhaps his most fining treatise for inclusion in the
Coptic EnL'ydopedUl), This lreatise comi.ts of six
hooks. of whleh five were wrinen between 307 and
309 by Pamphilus while in prison before his manyr-
dom. He may have been assi'te<! by his disciple
Eusebim. who i, responsible for Ihe .ixth book af·
ter the death of hi, master_ Another work that was
considered of vital importance by Emperor Con-
stantine is on the subject of Easter and is enlilled
De Solemni!ote P".choli, in which Eusebius ad·
dressed the emperor in 365 on the "mystical expla·
nation of the significance of the Festival." Another
",ork on biblical topography under tbe title O~o·
maslUon contains an alphabelize<! enumeration of
all names of places cited in the Bible. Thi. work
was writlen at the In.tance of Paulenu., bishop of
the Tyrians, to ",horn it was dedicated. Of the liter-
ary remains of Eusebius, one should also menlion
hi. oralions, hi. sermons. and his letters pre,en·ed
mainly in his own works.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Cross, F, L The Oxford DiC/ionary of Ihe Christian
ChuTch. pp. 473-74. London, 1957, Useful bihli-
ography included.
Lightfoot. J. B. "Eusebius of Caesarea:' In DCB 2,
New York, 1974.
A:!.IZ S. Ann
EUSIGNIUS, SAINT, founh·cenlury martyr
(feast day: 5 Tubah)_ A. manuscript of DAYR ANU
SHINOOAH of which a few leaves remain at Paris
1072 EUSTATHlUS AND THEOPISTA, SAINTS
(~ L.ibrary, 1lClOI. 129.1. fol. 99 and 129.16.
f<M. 105) contains 1M lescnd of Saini Eusl&ni\ls.
!be"" are lwo sources of this le,end: Ol"Oe COl'!M'S
Ibrnugb lbc Coplo-Arabic S.l"'<LWtio... lhe Olher fol·
Jo- tho- Y2rious ~Iions cE 1M Grftk PIlS$iofI <J(
s.."'1 Eusipws (Bibli01heca l-bgi<Jgraphica Gn>«"
638-640); the notke In !he Synanrion clearly
....Ies whal is aloMlmt<! in Ihc Pws!Oft.
Saini Eusigni~ wu Ihe soId'cr C<Jmm"ndt<! 10
n-plain 10 COI'''STANTIN~ the meaning of lhe cross in
lhe celebraled vision in which the wor<b, "In Ihis
sign ),ou will conquer" appeared. In lhe maprlty of
the e~tremely numerous Wilyo in which lhe SIOry of
Ibis yision is lold, lhe meaning of Ihe CTOS. II ex·
plained by the Christian $Oldie", in general. The
name Eusiz:niw ("Ih. aood lign") is <:truinly con·
ncelt<! wilb lha basic: funClion of.,..... 'eliWion-
proclaiming lhe good roe- through the lign of lhe
crosa. The Greek PUsHm of &;", E".;fOI;OI. pre-
5<"t'ts him as tho- .ictirn of the po:rsceullon by JUI..IAN
THE Al'OSTAn: .. Anlioch. ~pile lbc facllhal atlhM
lime EusOf"iI>s _ already feeble with . . ~ is
• parallel here 10 lhe I"Ok of Blohop tusebius in lhec
510ry <Jl Julian lhal h.a been p~",ed in Syria<:.
Thus !be penon. involved in the conversion <Jl
CoJt5ll1Ultine are recalled to life to Intify apilW
Julian. From tales about ConslJlfltine, lhe Gree"
Passion dr;oWll On a 510ry of the Emp"," Hel.na·s
haYing been .nalched OUt of a life of debauchery by
Constantius Chlorns. the falher of COMtanline. and
of her child being promiwd lhe impenal purple
Ihrough the prolecllon of God,
Here in summary Is Ihe slory. Julian goes from
Anlioch 10 Ueo.area in Palesline: for the """r agalMI
lhe Persiam and .ummons Eu,j,ignius 10 him. Previ·
ously he had already lold his ""reIM)' Dion)'5ill5 10
ignore.be proceedinp againsl lhe Chri$lianf.. A ",1·
ative of Eusigni.... a oenain Eus!ochi.... a man of
plOperty and a God.farine man, follOW'S old £usla:.
nM in secnt. Eusit9hts recommends thai Dlon)"'·
... sJ-lld secretly make ..... 01 a taclI)'lI'l'lltter
(ohonband wriIer) 10 conserve the metnOI')' of Eu·
ligoi...• desliny. the btaI ... teome of ""'''ich he is
no. IOwan:: 01. Euwxhi... the deacon assures him
lhal all !he ~nsary peps ",ill be Iaken. (Suidu
menlions 0"'" Euslochiu. <Jl Cappadocia who was"
achclar and hisloriographer under Constandl'lC, The
choice of lhis nal1M! would lhus be explained,)
The compo$ilion is certainl)' literary in the u~ual
S1yle of lhe Passions. In the ....inl·. le'llmon)' on
Con.tantine·. vl.ion. the laller is wnn-n b)' Ih"
slars according to what Philostorgos lhe historian
and his gene ... lly """'n sources say. COn.... nline·1
campaign again5lllle P.rsian... P""'erut<! basically
in I........ of ...opovaphy. wfticl> played a ''flJ iIl__
100us role In lhe Coptic tndition. Ckarly. in sIlow-
lnj; lhat Constantine ""... Yicwrious thanks lO his
faith in the CroM, whereas JUliall ...-as 10 be COli'
quered by <be Persilllu becaas.e of h.. unbelief. <be
I'u5ion throws iOlo great"r reI;e{ the acandal of
Julian'. apotlAtiy and of the breach of Ihe Consgn·
linian peace.
The second paragraph of Ihe PaMoion d.picts Eu·
.ignius simply Il!I hcheaded in pm,on, Then i. no
greal IOrtur••Cene. In contl"a$l, the dCalh of Julian
is presenled as an esecution by an an8,,1 who
Sink", him with his lance. This version Is panlcu·
Iarly archaic. when we consider Ihat in the parallel
iiterature, Mar Qurios. one of lhe Forty Man)'"l of
Seb:utia. $trikes the apostate emperor ""ith his
lance on the Persbn from.
These ,.......... circl1l1l5tanCa male il neceS5afy
no! 10 place the emerwence of Ih.. lI)"I'IboIic ma11)T
100 IaIe.. II thould be nolt<! that Basil <Jl ea.esa.-
Vli>o coIleclC<i his rdlcs, is called "Ihe Nessed"
(.....hom•• thai iI. ~ bul DOl "saint") in the
Creek r«enslon publisht<! by V. l.arykv (1915). It
is probably not far wrong 10 KCepc that Ihe Ial
came inoo bring in lhe 6naJ decade of the founh
cenlury.
BIBUOGIU.I'HY
Coquin, R. G., and E. L.ucchesi, "UIH! Version copte
de la passion de saint Eusignio!l:' Anal.cra Bol·
la"diaM 100 (1982):185-208.
Devos. P, "Uno: Recension nouvelle de la passion
grecque BHG 39 d. Saim Eus.isnl05:' A"al"cla
Bolla"d;"nll 100 (1982):209-228.
lalJie:v. V. T. "0 tiliah sv. vdikomuaniku Evsig·
nija:' turn.' MmWe..1WI Nvod.. ~ Prowd-
t.,,#<> 2 (1915);131-91_
EUSTA.THIUS A.ND THEOPISTA., SAll'I.'TS,
a """band and wife ...no were ......rtyTed In Ih. 5«:-
ond cenlury (rnst day: 27 TUll. They are "'"ell
known throughout boIh Western and ~Iern Chm.
tendom. Thel. PNoSion h..... rvived in a greal many
differenl languages and ven;ions. ",hlch would ulti-
malel)' appear 10 ha.'e lheir sourc. in I los. Greek
,·ersion, similar 10 one of Ihe three le~IS ulant. The
definilive ....'or.. On this que~ticn, after quile anum·
ber of othe. monograph. of differenl I)"pCS. is lh81
of H. Deleha)'e (1919).....,ho diSiingulshn lhree
Gree" versions of the Passion: lhe premclaphrastic
.-ersion. which is clOleSt 10 the original; lhe mcIa-

ph~ic v,."ion; and the veniDn of Nie,.laS of
Paphbconia. An~1 tran.... lions in ~Iin, Syria<;.
Armenian. and GeorJi.an abo uist.
Tbe Colptic version has su....n"lOd In 01'1,. one maJ)-
uscripll (British l..ib-rary. Or. 6783, ed.Btl"',.. 1914.
1'1'. 102-117). The cootenl dOfS nol dilfn- substan·
tially from Ihlll of the Glftk ori&hW. The on,inal
nan>IO cl Ewathlus ..;as l'bcidus. and he _ OM of
Tnjan', ~s. In 1M coune of a hunc.. lhe mi·
fal;U1<:Ua apparition of the bmoU'I 5UJ willt llte
cross ~ hint. ~ w!lh his wife Theopo
1m. Ntd lhelr who'" family. '0 ~ booptittd.
Tbe~ follows an account of his rna",. mlsfo...
IUnell. h" Iqlaration. from 1m ...·ife and children,
and finally lheir mi"""ulous reunion in the courH
of • war aplml lhe Persians. He .. recogniud ;a.s
Christian. 10nured. and. wilh his bmily. pul 10
<in".
Drlrhaye rerOlnizrs lltre. mall' dements In Ih,.
",,,ounl: lhat of the staR is a common hagiographl'
cal element .hal of EuslalhlllS' mi,fo"unes is de·
rived from Ihe popula' romances and tales-lIOme
oflhem Oriental-of anciem t;m.s; and Ihe Pusion
pl'OJlCI is • .sort of se<:ondary addilion.
The prese""e of this marty' In the Coplic: m,di.
lion is undoubtedly due 10 his fame in inlernatlonal
clrdes; lhe lranslation mUSt have bern made rela·
lively early, pernaps in Ihe fiflh cenlury. Inasmuch
.. we do not lind the addi.ions lhat are Iypieal of
the taler period of the CYClES.
lII8UOGRAPHY
Delehaye. H. "La Lqende de saint Eusurclle." In
&Ileti" de rAc• .u.... fW).-!,. de !Jdtiqu,.. d _
de "'ttret
(1919),17S-21O.
EUSTA.THIUS OF THilACE, a ficti.ious per·
IO~ Crftl:ed during the period of 'he CYCLlS, he
appean In panicular in the. Cy<:le of JOllt< CH..VIl).
SIllM. nUe<! on lhe "'isblnd of Thrace,"' Ihus idenl;'
fyi", him ""Ih an imag;n;t.ry ioland. rt>T Thrace was
no island. There. John conse<:rales Ihe finl bOshOf'
of lhe new communilY, named as Antimus in the
homily described below, along w;,h IIOme presby·
ters. Amonll Ihe latter stands Eu~talhiUli who will
evenlually become Antimus' SuCCeSSor 8$ second
bishop.
The homily anribuled 10 Eustathius. In Miel,oe',.",
~f'Ch~ngelum. Is devoled almOSl: enlirelj' 10 Ihe siory
of EoJphemia. II recounts lhe many lemplatlons suf·
EUSTATHIUS OF THRACE 1073
fered al the hands of the t!el;il by Ihe failhful wom·
an 110 d ......,.ed 10 Michael. From a lilentl)' point of
view. lhe prologuor is greatly ~mbel1ished. The lis-
I<:ners are invi'ed 10 a spiritou.l banquet where
dancen and musicians mlenaln the guest!o. who
are themselves ficu..,.. fTcm llte Old and New Teota·
merits. Nal follows lite a<;coun' of Euphemia. a
member of the senate and ittNbitant of Thnce. &$
_0 as the wife of Gene..l Arislm:hus, "'-hom the
Emperoo- H............ has da;,.wed .. admintstralor
of the rqion. Euphemia and Aristan::hus haw bttn
cat.echittd by John ChtySOstom. and Euphemia
promiws her husband Iltal should he die linl• .he
will POt remany_ A•• his point Michael is invoked 10
be: Ihe custodian over her promi:sor. Aristarchus dies.
and after his death. Ihe devil. di!guised &$ a monk.
appears to Euphemia and Ines 10 convince her 10
many Ihe eparch Hen-e1i u s. a pTOt~l of Honoriu ..
However, Euphemia. slren,theM<! by Ihe powerful
help of Michael. dDe\l 1'01 break her oalh, whereup-
On Ihe devil. Irying anew. attemplS 10 frighlen her
by appearing as a very lall and blatk Nubian. He
even Il$$umes Ihe form of Michael himself, but to
no ''''aiL When the Rood woman dies, Michael ap-
pea1"!l abo"e the ahar durinli her funeral ser...ices
and remains there. suspended in mid·air. Even Ho-
norius comes 10 Th"""e '0 meel with An:.adius and
End",d. so as to see Ihis mira.t:le in peO%>rl- The
homily finally concludes with praise for John Chty5"
OSIom, """- d:i~1"!IQ ar,. copied "in an the
world, ""cep! in th.".,. rqioru occupied by
This .rftI:ise has $UT\'i''ed In Coptic: In lour Sahid·
it: mal1uscripu: one a complete codo (Pierponl
Morpn Library. ~ York. J,lS92. no. I).:and thmr
in fn&mrnwy codi.<:Q (one fronl 11I\'fIt Iolr....... YUH
&lid two from DA'fIt el SUl.«JD.ul). Aloo lltn1' is
""~ comp~ codu: i Bohairic: (British lJbrary.
Or. 3784; ed. Budce. 1394. pp. 93-13S). The Sahi·
die tctt has been puOlished in a crilical edition by
"- Campagnano (1977).
The lil<:rary qualities of Ihls oomily in rela.ion 10
other Coplic lextS are co...dudve loward daling lIs
redaction in Coptic 10 .he middle of Ihe eighlh
cemul}'.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Budge. E. A. W, S~iHl Miclr~e/ l~e Arch~Hgel. Lon·
don. 1894.
Campagnano. A.: A. Maresca; and i. Orlandi. Ou~r­
IrQ Qmdu. copte. P!'. 107-172, Ml1an, 1977.
TIro O!UANDl
 1074 EUfYCHES
EUTYCHES, fifth..:entury archimandrite in Con·
stantinople whose Christological vi........ had a con·
siderable influence in molding the Christology of
the Coptic·Monophysile church, Born perhaps as
early as 370 (he tell. Pope LEO TH~ ,""-EAT (440-461)
that he had lived a monastic life for seventy years).
he was head (If a m(lna.'tic house in the capital by
420. and at the time of the First Coundl of EPHESUS
was known as a staunch supporter of CYRIL OF ALEX_
ANDRIA, Thereafter he enjo)'ed honor at the coun of
Thw-dosius 11. He wa.< the godfather of the eunuch
Chrysaphiu•. who in 441 became grand chamber-
lain te the emperor.
His hostility toward all teaching that h. regarded
as Nestorian did not mellow with age, and on the
renewed outhreak of Christological contrm'ersy in
the East following the election of DlOSCORUS as pa-
triarch of Alexandria in 444, he quickly th<ew in his
lot with the extreme ami·Nesterians once more
dominant in Alexandria. Whether or not he was the
opponem of "Onhodoxus" in Theodoret of Cyr--
rhus's pamphlet Eean;.'''' is uncenain. but by 447
he was .uspected by Domnus, archbishop of Anti-
och. of holding Apollinarian views concerning
Christ and to be wonhy of con<lemnation (Facun·
d"" of Hermiana, Pro def",lSio~e lrium cap;tu!Qrum
XI1.5)_ Eutyches began to corne under displeasure
from the new archbishop of Constantinople. Flavian
(446-449), In the spring of 448 he protested to
Pope Leo that Nestorianism was again raising its
head in the capital (Leo. LeIlU. 20). In this letter
Eutyches described Cyril as "leader and chief of the
holy synod at Ephesus." a role wilh which Leo may
not have agreed. The pope merely acknowledged
the letter without indicating suppon (Leners 21, 1
June 448)_
By the autumn of 448. Flavian had C(lme 10 re-
gard Eutyches "" a menace and a troublemaker in
the senke of Dioscorus. In November he Ielt
strong enough to aq;aign him before an assembly of
bishops in the capi\'i'l. the Home Synod. Eutyches'
accuser was Eusebiu. of Dorylaeum. who as a law-
yer had heen an ally-again.t N.storius, bul nOw was
bi.hop of Dorylaeum and a firm supponer of F1avi·
an an<l the Christology expre..ed in the Formula of
Reunion of April 433. Only after refusing two sum·
mon,", On 8 and 17 November. did the archiman-
drite deign to appear on 22 Novembe<, accompa-
nied by a crowd of friendly coun official, and
monks, and take his stand to answer charges at a
sessiOll presided over by the pallidan Florenti",.
Even now it is not dear predsely what Eutyches
","',," leaching. He fe"'red and hated Nestorianism.
and hence any .uggestion that Jesus Christ was to
be acknowledged "in two nature."' (of godhead and
manhood). However, he lacke<l the .ubtlety to
dothe hi. views with an appearance at least of ac·
ceptable onhodoxy. In the long debate that took
place between him. Flavian. and Florentius. he ad·
mitted that Chri.t "'"-as born of the f1er.h of the Vir·
gin. but refused to say that His flesh was consub·
stantial with human flesh. He confessed that there
was a union of lwo natures in Christ. bUI that union
was before the Incarnation. After lh. Incarnation
there was ortly orte nature, thaI of the Son of God,
It seemed as though Eutychcs was suggesting either
a mixture of lite divine and the human in Christ. as
Basil of Seleucia. one of his interlocutors. thought
(Gesta synod; Ephes;n; ii. in A.cta condUorum oec-
wrnmico",rn 2.11.1. p. 55). or lhat he imagined that
Christ's flesh was heavenly in nature and hence
different from the flesh e>f human beings. In either
event, the incarnate Christ would be divorced from
humanity and could play ne> pan in its redemption.
Not SU'l'ri,ingly. lhe He>me Synod Ce>ndemned him
as a Valentinian (Gnostic) and/or Apollinarian here·
tic, deposed him from his status as archimandrite,
deprived him of priestly fun"tions. and excommuni-
cated him. Thirty·two bishop$ and twenty-three ar-
chimandrites signed the decree_
Eutyches did not accept the semence. During the
latter pan of the debate, he had made a telling
point. He pointed o"t to the president of the coun.
Florenti",. that "Cyril and Athanasius speak of two
natures hefore the union but one nature after the
union:' Cyril had done so. but the works to ""hieh
Eutych" was refening were Apollinarian writings
that had been placed undel' the name of Athartasius,
Pope Julius, Gregory of Nazianzus. and the titiro-
century pupil of Origen and missionary. Gregory
the Wonde,viorker. Some of these writings had
been accepted, howe"er. at the Council of Ephe.us
in 431, and this was te> prove Eutyches' tlUmp card
agairtst Fla"ian and Eusebius of Dorylaeum in his
next trial of strength. also held at Ephesus,
Eutyches at once appealed his sentence, not only
to Rome b"t also to witat he called "the councils"
of Re>me. Ale<andria. Thessalonica, Jen1salem, and
Ravenna (but nol Antioch), and also to the emper-
or. denying that he had wished to add lnything to
the Nicene Creed (action condemned at the Coun·
dl of Ephesus), that hi. doctrine wu in accord witb
that taught b)' "the Fathers," and that Eusebius of
Dorylaeum was personally prejudiced against him.
Flavian also wrote to Pope Leo. explaining the rea·
SOnS for the coun's verdict (Fla,'ian to Leo, ACM
co~cilwrum O<!curne"icorum. 2.ILi. p_ 22)_
During the ensuing months. opinion at Theodosi·

us' court swung steadily in favor of EUI}'ches. Chry·
saphius had a grudge against Flavian and inAuenced
Theoo<l5ius lJ against him. The<>dosius supported
Eutyches' appeal to Pope Leo. appointed a comrnis·
skm 10 reesamine the cbarge against the monk, and
finally, on 30 March 449, convoked a judicial epis-
co~l council 10 meet at Ephesus <In 1 August. Di<l5-
corus, Eutyches' ally, was charged wilh ils organi7.3'
lion.
At Rome. Leo first failed to discern an}1hing
amiss ;n E.utyches· beliefs. and even after Flavian's
prompting w,," still indined 10 dismiss them as Ihe
incoherences of an old man (imlX'rillssimus se~u,
ulUrs 47; and co~fab"latio"es dU<. Lelfers 28), He
was also annoyed wilh Flavian for failing to inform
him earlier. Only on 13 June did he wrile the docu·
ment AAO,,"'" as the Tome of Le<>. condemning EUly-
ches and sening oullhe Western vie,,' of the recog-
nilion of the incarnal. Chrisl in two natures
(perfecl godhead and perfecl manhood), By Ihis
time not only the coull but also the majorit}' of
clergy. monks, and a"kulate laity in the eastern
provinc.s of Ih. empire had sided with EUI}'ehes.
At the Second Coundl of Epbesus. Eutych.s was
vindicated. To the rapturous applause of the hish·
ops. he produced his "proofs" from the Apollinari-
an forge<ies of Alhanasius and Pope Julius. and
th.se were accepted. '"Two nalures before the In-
carnation. and one afler. '" thaI not what we all
believe?" asked Dioscoros. All appeared 10 agrt'•.
Then Ihe monk was avenged. Flavian, Domnus of
Antioch, and Eusebius of Dorylaeum were d.pos.d
and the papacy was humilialed. allegedly for seek-
ing to add 10 Ih. Nicen. Creed and causing distur-
bance in the ehurehes. Dioscorus and the see of
Alexandria w.r. supreme. and the "one nalure"
Christol"&)' vindicated as orthodos, The triumph
was short·liv.d, Th. dealh of Theodosius on 28 July
450 led 10 a complele rev.rsal of policy at the
imperial court, Chrysaphius was encuI.d, and
pow.r carne into lhe ha~ of Empress Pulcheria
and her consort, Mareian.:Relations belween Rome
and Constantinople w.re restor.d. A n.w and fun
• cumenical council was' summon.d to m.et at
Chakedon, on the Asiatic coast of Ih. Bosporus, on
8 Oclober 451.
At this council, Eutyche. shared the fate of his
palron, Dioscorus. Allhe Ihird session of lhe coun·
cil (10 Octob.r 451), his cond.mnation was reaf·
firmed and h. was esil.d. He died in obscurity in
454 (Leo, Lmers 134).
By now, however, E:utyeh'" muddled views had
been .l.....t.d 10 a heresy. "Eutychianism as well as
Nestorianism was conquered" (Leo, Lellers Ill,
EUTYCHES 1075
compare 110 and 119), and no one was to attempt
10 ov.rthrow thi. decision of Chalcedon. "Euly-
chianism" quickly became a tena of abuse. Patri·
arch Analolius of Constantinopl. (450-458), the
archdeacon replacing the strongly pro-Chalce·
donian Aetius, was d.scrilx:d by Leo as a "Euly-
chian" (Leiters III), while Eutyches' supporter>;
among Ihe monks in Jerusal.m were brand.d as
Manichees (uller$ 109). In th. East, Eutych.$ also
se!>'.d as a convenienl whipping boy for those who
disappro,'.d of Chalc.don, but not $ufficienlly 10
demand its compl.t. rejeclion. Thus, the encyclical
of the usurper Basiliscus (475-476), while accept·
ing both coundls of Ephesus as well as th. doctrine
of Cyril and Dioscorus as canonical, castigated Eu·
tyches alongside NeSloriU$ (see Zacharias Rhetor
Hisroria ecclesiastica V.2), In th. HenOlico" of leno
(July 482), Eutyches was anathemalized with Nes·
torius, though Cyril's twelv. anathemas w.re pro-
nounced canonical. In the sixlh c.ntury, SEVERUS OF
~"""OCH was careful 10 distance himself from any
all.mpl to rehabililate Eutyches. He accepted
Eph.sus II nol because il vindicate<! the monk but
because it canonized Cyril's anathemas (Sev.rus Ad
Neplralium, ed. Lebon, p. 9 of lhe lranslation). Only
IULl~N OF H~L1rARN~$SUS, his fellow esile but oppo.
n.m in Alexandria, had some sympathy for Euty-
ches, though even he did not seek his rehabililation.
Eutych'" theology was too confus.d and bes.t by
conlradictions 10 command assem. For Christ's
flesh to be of heavenly origin and yet be capable of
suffering s.em.d aOOurd. It was no more acceptable
to the Coptic Monophysite church Ihan 10 Byzan-
t;n. Orthodoxy or th. latin West.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Camelot, T, "De Nestoriu, a Eutych.s." In Das Ko,,-
:11 von ChalcedoM, .d. A. Grinm.ier and H, Bacht,
Vol. I. PI'· 213-242. Wlinburg:, 1951.
Draguel, R. "La Christologi. d'Eulyches, d'apus lcs
acles du synode d. Flavien, 448." Bywntlum 6
{l931):441-57.
Fr.nd, W. H. C. Tire Riu of Ihe Monophys;/< Move-
ment, 2nd .d.. chap. I. Cambridg., 1979.
Fulle., J, M. "Eul}'ches." In DCB 2, pp. 404-412.
Repr. New York, 1974.
Jalland, T, G. Saint Leo Ih" Grear, PI'. 205-300.
London, 1941.
Lebon, J. La Chrisrologie du monophys;sme syrien.
Lou""in, i 909.
Schwartz, E. "Ikr Prozess des EUlyches," In SIl e-
ungsbf!richle de. Mi<r.chener Akademie der Wis-
senscha{/<n 5 (i929):64-93.
 1076 EVAGRIUS PONTlCUS
Selle.... R. V. 1Jr.e Co.melt of CIl"leedon: A HiMorl·
e,,' ond Doclrirtal Su.-..ey. London, 1%1.
Van RU't)'. A.. -EulyChes." In Pie'iott....i.e i/'hWoire
el de tlov"phie ueliwH';q..es, Vol. 10. cok. 87-
91. Paris, 1967.
W. H. C. fREND
EVAGRIUS PONTICUS (~5·399). monk and
writer ...'itlt Oril"'"is( v~....... The life of E,""&'ius is
blown &om the- chapter N' P.u.uotus devo,ed 10
him in his His'cruz /.aIlS'"e.. (chap. 38). He ...-as born
about 345 al Ibon.;n the p.ovince of POOIUS, In his
)'OUlh he was a disciple of the- lwo CappaOOcUln
lathers. BAsiL OFCAESAJ.FA and lC$ptCially GnGORf 01'
NoUWlZU$. O.dained duc<>n by the !alltr. he Irve<!
wi,h him at C<I1>sta"tinople In 179-381. Following
an amoroos adventure. he had 10 leave die Imperial
chy and "'"en! to Jerusalem....·here he was wel·
corned by Rulinus and MellOn;" the Elder. Melania
advised him to go and lu.d the monastic life in
E!iYP'. whel"t' he went around 383. After a sojourn
of IWO )-eal'! at NlTRIA. he e51ablished him&elf in the
dcscl'l. of the I'1lllA. where he .emained until his
death in 3\1'9. With A.\Ild.ONIUS. 0"" of the "Tall
Brcuhen." he was the soul of the communily of
monk.s whom the-ir advtrSlries called "0riaenr..ts,'·
bKatIK of Iheir S)mpalhy for lhe opinion. of ORJU.....
judged heterodo.x. Beca"... of his death he acaped
tM uile imposed on the Origenisl monb .fte.
inlen"ention of the p.alriarch rn[(lPHlUlS. Bul • cen-
the
lury and a half after his death he was analltcma-
lized. ~I" Ihe sa....., lime as Oriten and D1DVNUS. by
lbe fifth ecumenical. council ,.....mb\ed at Cort$laIt-
linople in 553.
At the Kellia he wrat.. nUIneR1U5 books. \he Iran)-
miuion of wlticlt suff.. red from h.. COlldemnation
in 55). Only tome ha"" bC'en Prae'l'\'ed In Greek.
the ori.~ I.an~ sometimes under lhe name
of Saint Nilus; """'til ""'"e co.... dQoo.·n 10 us in
Syria<: venions. The books of which Ii", Quk lexl
has M...vived are especially lhose in ...hkh Ev;togri...
deals with lhe mona5llc ideal and wilh ascetkbm;
TJoe FOltnJ..ticru of IJoe Atond.<lic Li/.. (PC 40); the
P,"'tlit"'/ rre",'Ut of Th.. Monk; two collections of
melrical aphorisms, one addreued To IJo.. Mu"ks,
the other To a Virgin; and the treali_ To Ihe Monk
E"lori"s, 0" Evil Thought<. On Ihe Eighr SpiTitS 01
Malioe, and On Prayer, all four ..dited under the
nam~ of Nilus (PG 79). A large .....ork entitled Anti,·
_her/cos, <onuining a great number of scriptural
quotatlonl suitable for dispelling the evil lhoughts
inspired by lhe demons. has been prrsel'\-ed in ~"t'i.
ac (Frankenberc, 1912. pp. ~72-5.5).
In the$.e boob. E~.us professes 10 transmil the
leaching he ucei«<l from lbe Eg)'J'Iian monb
among "'........ he li,·ed. He ~ MACAJ.J1IS mE
Gf.£.AT. c:alJed Ihe Ec,ypIian. whose disciple he claims
10 be. and ill lhe Kellia he lhoed llear the other
MACAJlJU'I ALDA.'lDI.I_ who ..... thai the priesl oi.
this dewn. and in the com~ of rn<>nb wI><> had
been discipks of Saint rA.WBO of Nluia. In his boob
he M$<:I iI:>es .. lenp....ith ~"I pl'}-cholosic:al ~
nesw. the lernptatiotts undergone by the monk at
the hands of 1M MmoM and the remedies by
whkh he ...ill contriw 10 overcnme them. It ..
unain thaI the$<' books owe much not ""Iy 10 his
own pC'1"5<>Jt.3l monastic upetience bu1 .lso 10 lhe
lea(hing thaI in the dosen ...-as lransmitted orally
from """Ier to disciple. and that he was the fi~t 10
put into wri!ini. But he lranslaled lhis teaching
imo the languall" and wilh the concepts lhat he
owed to hi. greal philosophical culture, and he in·
corpo....ted it inlO a system of thoullht all his own.
Asceticism. which he calls p'4ktil<e. ha, f<>r its aim
purification from the p.uJ-ion.I &nd ...hal he calls by
a Stoic term impanibility (4p<ilhei4). Through im·
passibility Ihe monk ,nle~ into pOSlik.. or the
gnostic life, he becomes. "ln05tic," aceo<ding to "-
term probably bntTOWed from CI£!oIUlT OF AUMN·
DRlA. The gn05lic. 10 ....hom Evallrius devuted a
small boo.k enl;tled Gnoui/cos, enjoys the spiri!tn1
comemplalion of lhe treat:td natures, risible and
in~isible. the "'~y of ,ppn>Kh to the k:novo'ledge of
Gnd or ~theol"IY." 10 ",hieh man can only attain by
~ in ~ work! In the ang:etic stale and
lhenc:e rdum 10 !lis 6m cOllditinn befoT'C' the &.lI,
10 the SUit 01 an intellec1 free from an)' oorporali.y.
Of lhis stalt the &Jl'O'lk may sometimes calch
a giimpse' e\..... in this life. In prh'ilq:od mnments
of "pure peayer," when he hM the vision of h..
own intellecl iI1umlnlutd by the li8ht of the Holy
Trinity.
This metaph)'$kaJ ")'Slem. ""'ida o:no-es 11iU(:!l 10
Origen. is SC'I out in esoteric laniU"lte in a Ia,¥,
wort made up of s1:< "Cenluri.." and entitled the
Keph"/4id gnoSlib (IWO Syriac vcnions. PO 28).
Sew... l of lhe an!i·Oligenlst anathematisms of 553
were ,ullIcled from this book. rela1ing t<> lhe pre·
existence of souls. the plurality of the worlds. lhe
salvalion of all crealed beings includinll the de·
mons, and above all Ihe heterod<J~ Christology ;>C.
cording to which Christ is a crealed intellect di,lin·
guished from the others solely b~ the fan lhat he
remains uoited to Go<Ithe Word.

In addilion, an im]>Ortant corpus of about sixty'
five leners has survived. wve",1 of Ihem adrlressed
10 his friends in Jerusalem, Melania, Rufinus, or
meml)(,rs of Iheir circle (in Syriac, Frankenl)(,rg,
1912, pp, 564-635); Ihere are also commentaries
on some biblical hooks (Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesi-
asles, etc.) in the form of ",holia anrl reSling on
allegorical exegesis and .ome othcr writings of less·
er im]>Ortance.
D""pile his hetuodox doctrine and Ihe condem-
nation that discouraged the memo!)' of him,
Evagrius exercised a considerable inAuenee in
Christian tradilion. It is Ihrough his work as much
as through Ihe APOPHTHEG.IlATA PAIR"", (which pre·
served several apolhegms under hi. name) and
through the hooks that were wriuell under his di-
rect inA"ence, the Histo'ia lauslaca of Palladius.
the HrSTORIA "'OSACHORU'" IN AEGVPTO, and Ihe I~sli·
lules and Confu<~ces of John CASStAN, lhal Ihe
monks of Lower Egypt, of Ihe desens of Nill"ia,
Scetis, and the Kellia, and Iheir ascetic teaching
became known throughout the Chrislian world,
Translations of the majority of his books were made
n"t "nly into Syriac bm also into Armenian (Sarghi·
sian, 19(7) and Arabic. On the eontra!)', il seems
Ihat few were translaled inlO Coptic. II is known,
howe,'er, from the evidence of ostraea that one of
Ihem, the treatise On the Eighl Spirits of Malice,
circulated among the Coptic-speaking monks (see
Muyldennans, 1963). A paraphrase of Ihe Lord's
Prayer under Ihe name of E,'agrius is extant in
Coptic in an exegetical catena published by P, de
Lagarde (1886),
IUBLIOGRAPHY
Draguet, R. "L'Hisloire lausiaque, une oeuvre ecrile
dans I'esprit d'Svagre." Revue d'HlslOlre ecclesi-
~s/iljue 41 (1946):321-64; 42 (1947):5-49.
frankenl)(,rg, W, E"~griu!I,'panlic,,s. Abhandlungen
der Ktlniglichen Ge.eltst'haft der Wissenschaften
zu Gallingen, Philologisch·hislorische Klasse,
Neue Folge 13.2. Berlin,.1912.
Gressman, H, N,,~~.nsp;egel und Monchsspiegel des
Euagrios Pomlkos. Texte und Untersuchungen
39.4. Leipzig, 1913, pp. 143-65.
___. Les "Kep!'oloia G~ostica" d'Evogre Ie Ponli·
qu. et I'hiswlre de I'arige!,is",. chez les Grecs el
ch_l. les Syriens, Paris, 1962.
Guillaumont, A, and Guillaumont, C, "E~re Ie
Pontique." DictiO<lrIaire de Spiritualitt! 4
(1961):1731-J744.
___ "Euagrius Ponticus," Reallexikon fu.r An/Ike
und Chris/enlum 6 (1965):1088-1107.
EVANGELIARY 1077
___. Evogre Ie POnlu;ue, Tralle Protique ou Le
Moi"e, Sources chretiennes 170- 17 L Paris, 1971.
Hausherr, '- r..e rraile de I'oraiso~ d'Evagre Ie Pon·
lique (Pseudo·Nil!- Toulouse, 1934 (extract of Re·
vue d'Asdlique el d< myslique 15, 1934, pp. 34-
93, 113-70; reedited in Ln le~ons d'un conlem-
plallf_ Paris, 1960),
Llgarde, P. de. Catenae In Ev~ngeli~ Aegyptiacoe
quoe supersun/. Gattingen, 1886, p. 13.
Marsili, D. S, Giovanni Cassiano ed Evogrio Po~l;co.
Rome, 1936,
Muyldennans, J. Evogriona. Paris, 1931.
_ A travers la tradilion mo~"scrit. d'Evagre Ie
Ponriqu •. Lou.'ain, 1932.
___ Evogrimto Syrioc". 1.o""ain, 1952.
___ "S'agriana Coplica." Le Museon 76
(1963):271-76,
Rahner, K. "Die gdstliche Lehre des E\agrius Pon·
tikus." Zell,chrifl fur As;:..e und Mys/lk 8
(1933):21-38,
U~ VOIl Balthasar, H, "Die Hiera des E,'agrills."
Zeitsch,;fl liir kal~oli5Che T~eologit 63 (t 939):86-
106, 181-206.
___. "Metaphysik und Mystik des E:vagrius Ponti·
cus." Zeilschrlfl lur A.<;:ese und Myslik 14
(1939):31-47.
ZOekler, D. O. Evogrlus Pontlkus. Munich, 1893,
-'tnOtNE GutLUUMONT
EVANGELIARY, a manuscript or book contain-
ing Ihe t,~t of lhe four Gospels, or, more usually,
the ,"cl;on. from the Gospels meant 10 I)(, read in
lilurgical .eIVices, arranged according 10 the iitur·
gical calendar. The e~tant medi"al manuscripl
evangeliarie! of the Coptic church (the oldest being
of 1249/1250) conrain Gospel pericopes (hiblical
passages) "'ilh Ihe Arabic version facing the Coptic
or in Arabic alone, followed by douhl, men%g;a.
One, like the Greek mwo!ogum, lists saints, for
whose commemorative days Gospel pericope. are
indicated, and anolher, peculiar to the Copts, lists
$;lints whose commemorative days have no proper
Gospel reading, These two I~S of ",e~ologlon taX·
en logether are valuable for reconstructing the he·
onological calendar (a calendar for feast day.) of
the Coptic church of Ale~andria. In modem limes
the readings from the Gospels for use in Ihe morn·
ing and evening offices of incense and in the eu-
charistic lilurgy of the Coptic church are included
in the printed edilions of the LECTIONARY, together
wilh liturgical readings from olher biblical books.
The Coptic Catholics have twice primed an evangel·
iary as .uch, one for Ihe entire year in Arabic only
 1078 EVANGEUST
(~iro. 1930) and""", for Sundays and ",~jor kllStS
only in C"",ic and Arabic (c..iro. 19J1).
BlBUOGRA,,"r
MUU. H. "l..es Lines litu ...iQllf$ de l·t&l~ copIe."
~ilan~J &.ginc TUJUdm. Vol. J. Studi ~ Testi
2JJ. esp. pp. 9-12. Valican Cny. 196<1.
Nau. F. Lu Mbwlorn .us
i ...1tgI.Iii:irf,J "'J>Iu·
.ra1>cs. PO 10. pl. 2. Paris. 19U.
~Coo,..O.S.B.
EV.4.NCEUST, nne who prt><"laims ala<! ti<!lnp.
that 0$. the Gospel. panicularly nne of the lour G0s-
pel ,,'ritff$; Mal1h....... Mark. luk~. and John.
In Christian iconography the e,,&ngelists an' par'
IMlyed by means of fou. symbolic winged crealures
b.ascd upon the opening ~Kes 01 their respective
Gospels, Saint Matthew is symboli.ed by a human·
faced figu""; Saim Mark by a lion· faced figure; Saini
Luke by an ox·faced figure. and Saint John by an
eagle-faced figure.
The New Testament includes three I'deren~es to
other person. who proclaimed good news and de-
""rve being called evangelis... In Acts 21:8. Philip
the deacon is called an evangelise. In Ephesians
4:11. ~ngelisu are ~nie<I as occupyinl I MInk
lower than ap<l5!1... and prophets. bllt higher !han
ptitnr.l and leachen.. III 2 Timochy 4:S. Tim'lIhy is
U'led to prt><"laim the mesuge of the ~l.
SainI Mad. the palmO gillt of the EcYPtian
chuKh. is known in ecclesias1ical rec:ords and in
lhe dipt)"Chs as ··the bd>older of God. the E''&llgelist
_.
Mark. the holy apo,de and ....rtyr."· The Coptic
ehuKh eonlmem0r3les hi. ~ on 30 Bara·
IUotltSHOl' a..su!t)S
EVELYN.WHJT~HUGH GERARD (1814-
1924]. EngIw, arc~1ocis1 and Coptologist. He
..'as educated at Kitig-s School. Ely. In 1909 he
joined !he Melropolilan M....,um 01 New Yo....·s o·
pedition 10 Egyp1. reinaininl With them und! 1921.
~~eept for a period when he oervcd in World War I.
AI first he worked with H. E. Winlock at al·Baga-
wit in the Kharph Oasis and then at West Thebes
unlil 1914. This"""" followed by Ihe explor.uion of
the Coptic Mon"'tery of Eplphanill~ ar SH~YKl! '~B[l
~l.-OURN~H, His major undel1akinll was making an
architect",."l and arch~logkal .un'ey of rhe mono
asreries 01 W;\.di al-Na!n:in. which resulted in rhe
publication of his th~volume 11te Monasterie. of
the Wadi'" N"!rlm (New yo..... 1926-193S). Arnone
his Coptic contribulions ialM Mcnwslef"J' of EpiphtJ-
nUu "I Thebe•• with H. E. Winlock and W. E. Crum
(New yo..... 1909-1911).
81BUOCltAPHY
Crum. W. F. ~HuP Evelyn·White (a rnen>Oi.). ~
10"...d1 of ECJHi".. ,v,,11"""'zlr 10 (1924):331_
"
Dawson. W. R.. and E. P. Uphill. Who w... Who Dr
E.c!prDIoD. Londoll, 1912.
Kammerer. W.• compo A Cdptic BiJ>liogr,.phy. pp.
101-101_ Ann Arbor. Mich .• 195<1; .epr-_ New
Vork. 1969.
AZlz S. ATIU
EVETTS, BASIL THOMAS ALFRED
(lllSll-?). English historian. E~etts educated al
wall
Oxlord'~ Trinity College. gr.>duating in 1881. He
authored seve""l impol1anr works on CoplS, includ-
ing Ril.. of lite Cupric Church (London. 1888). He
edited a three·volume study entitled History of lite
Paln"re'.. of ,he Coptic Church 01 AlrX<>l1driQ (Plri••
1907-1915).
EVODIVS OF ROME. ~ltM'O"'"," of Peter at
Rome" and author of thrw homille$ of special in-
ten':Sl. t""nsmiucd in Coptic.
I. De JHluione. This it; a homily directed prim....
Iy against the Jews. who. IICconling to the author.
must bear lhe pit of !he murd... of Christ. It be·
PM with praise for RnmatI justi<:e. law. and ordtt.
swn.,; tho. the Romans might be panially ex.cu.sed
fOr thei. pan In tlw lemllk crime aga>l>S1 Christ
because- they were JIIPlt. Hen. the author..Jfirms
be~ all unbel.iewrs that be himself has witnessed
the risen Chrisl; thus he disc-.. .....daDo,," be:-
tween the J.... and Aleunder the Gaal.....n cit·
inll the sibylline predicllons before followinl m..
argument wilh a Ie"/lthy and detailed slatemenl of
Christ·s lrial and paulon. concluding with an ac·
counl of Ihe Re$ulTe<:lion. [n the midsl of the homl·
ly proper. another person (a "reporter") ste:ps into
the piclure to relate how rhe nlmtloT. EvodiU$, was
interroptw durillil his sermon by Jews pr01e>ting
againsl hi, words, This work survives in an incom·
plete code~ al Tur;n (EJyprian Museum. cal. 6JOOO.
XU: ed. Ros.i 1892). and ;n anorher cooex from

New Vorl (Pierponl Morgan library, MS9S), which
is comple'le but is as )"to unedited.
1. &comium i" ApoSlVlw. This work ~ SUI'
.;..nI In three vel)' fnlgmcnlaly manuscripts from
me White Monast:~ (DAn ....,lIA !loHIN(IOAK) Ih3t
haY<: ~"eumined In .. ~unory TniUlI1n bl&1 as ~I
"'......in .I....... cornplecely W>C<!i1ed. Ho-o."",'ff, by
piffin. lQJed_ their ~nts, a pld pan 0( die
texl IN.)' be rttONotrueted. II seems 10 bqin with
pnise for the apostles and contln..es ;11 .. lone col·
Ioquy ..ith 'Thorn... concerning the btcharist, 1l>cn
CO<\'WS an accounl of the J'CSIlJTe<:tion of 1.azaros
and .. narration of the passion, ..ith characlers de·
n-! bolh from the ap<>cJ)1>ba, web .... CariuI (a
Roman proco-..J). and from tbt Go5pf:IJ, ttK'h as
Jofotph 0( Ari""'the.. and Nicodemus. f'tot", pia)" an
Important role in these .,..,nlS and hence is pro·
claimed head of the aposlles. The author also pro·
claims ,hal he hlmsdf is a disciple and ..dtneH 10;>
some of the lnciden1$.
3, E~co",iu", i~ Mariam. This teet begins wllh
praise for Mary and a polemk against the Jews.
A~lually, II merely repo'" the well·known apoery·
pNlI work Dwmirio Man"., making. however, .some
very interCSllng variations con~ernlng Mary'l as·
somption (on this ,en end question. see VIRCIN
JlARY). In the Encomium. Evodius identifies lIirnsdf
and I3)'S he is at Rome. Tills work lias be<m I ..m·
mined In Iwo prindpal redao;o-ilons.. whi~h in tum
may be claMified into subredactions. In 1lI1, "'e can
COWIt at leasl richt manuscripts of ilS I<'lU. Seven
~ in Sahidk and one is In Bobairic (l1oprde.
IUl).
Tbe fi&ure and lrwlition of Evodius art pttrt in·
vmoon, nude b,' the authon from the era of the
CTClD. and thus E,"OC!ius' "'vrU <:aJl be dated froOl
the se-venth cnuury. Such a condusiofl ma), be
redy proved by tht COlIt~ms of the thrft leats. all
0( ""'iclt shAre similar ~""""'Inislic,Iynthesilltd in
the anlHtodaic po!elll.'a'and;n Ihe ree>'llluation of
the EcYPtlan J>05Wre t....:!d Rome, Illal it, its aui·
tilde loward Byzanllum. ~ing this ltit item,
there are in lbev manuscripts many quOUlliunl of
'~heosophlc" nalure (d. Van den Brock. Inll),
very rare in rnost Coptic te~lS, thaI bear wilness 10
the sevenlh<enlury remain. of Chrislianlzed pag&lt
~ullur~ In EJypt;. In fact. tllese hommes were prob-
al:>Iy wrinen as ami·Islamk polemia masked by lhe
aUlhorily of an ancient and venenued ~rson, It l~
.'ery probabl~ lllal in creating "Evodi~ of Rome,"
Ille Copts ",,~r. ;nsplr~d by the Evodius who .uc·
ceeded Peler of Antioch. and of whom very Jillie is
EXCOMMUNICATION 1079
really known apan from one remark in the Ecclesi-
astical Hislory of Eusoebi,",
8IBUOCRAJ'HY
Brock, R.. ,.. n den. "four Coplic F...mems of a
G<l:ek Thcosopby:' Vili1iu Chri.uY.uu 12
(1978):111-.2.
I.aprde, P. A. de. Aem1iac'., "", 39-63. G&1tn,;en,
IUl.
Rossi, F. "Papiri copti " •." Memorie Aceadtmia di
Ttwirro, ser. 2,.2 (11I92):l07-252.
TYro OJltJLt,-nI
EXCOMMUNICATION, ex~lusion from com·
munion. The Copt;lc chur<:11 canons conlaln lists of
offenses lhat lead to exclusion from communion.
The exlant osl"'''''' from around 600 show how bish-
op. executed llle punilhmenl, As liOOn 1Io1 a bishop
received Information of an offense apin.1 the
church's Canon. or th. CllriSllan rno",1 law, he no·
tified the penon concerned-after Ih~ Infonnalion
had been .laled in evidence-of his exclusion from
communion. If a rnembo:=r 0( the deCl)' was "ffect-
M, hi. superior also wlK informed of the punish-
ment. Fo. the avoidan~e of funhe. offenses that
mighl lead to excommuni.-tion, lhe bishop com·
posed cir<:ular lellen in ",lIleh, suonlnl from a con-
crete C:Me, he threalened eacommunicatiOn to all
whoo made themseltt$ guilty of the same olfellSC-
In Ihe con-esponden~e 0( Bishop AIlItAItAM of HCT'
OlOnthis, the rollowin, are named as grounds for
exclusion from ~ommunlon: disobedience.:II IKtstile
disp>sitIon toward one's nrichbor, the doi"l of in·
justice. blasphemy. bo-.~h 0( the duly 01 residen~e
by one of the cleraY. makin, )'OUn, men drunk,
desecmion of a church cw mollMlery. damag~ to
ch.....,hes and monasteries. the 1"""""""1 mixing of
....It!" and wine ;n lhe cornmunion chalice, "
breach 01 the p.-."ept 0( sobriety OIl tile Lord's table.
the lIindenn, of poor men in Ille calching of fish,
ill treatment of the poor, and olfenses against the
marriage law. Among .he tallt!" offi,nses are mar-
riages forbidden by rcason of .he kinship of ,he
partnen (marriqe of brolher and sisler. marriage
to nephews, Or marrying IWO sisten), Ih~ di,,,,,rc;ng
of a ""ife wilhout her having broken the marriage
vow, the fo.....king of a husband b)' a wif~. lhe writ-
ing of lenefll of divorce, III. giving of communion
10 ""ople who have knowingly commilled these of-
fenses. and fornicali"n.
IOSO EXEGESIS ON THE SOUL
In addition. eJ<c..... m.. nicalion .. thrulencd by
Ii>e ~hop in C35e!I lhal include failure 10 cany oul
injunclio"f 01 the b"hop, dislribmion of commu·
ni<ln In conjunclkm w;tll an tlc(lmmun;"'aled
member of the clergy. and di51ribullon of commu·
nion by the: abbot of. mona.tel)' while a wrongdo-
er ordered before the hi"'0J' ;., 5Iill 1i~inll in the
monasttf}'.
II is IIOl onl,. the bishop "i>o;> excludes from com-
",..nion. n.e ti1ular heads of c""",hoes and monas-
teries appointed l". him can, in cue of dUobedj·
..nee. C'iCluck those under them from communion.
Such ~rso", are acommunic:llllcd until IJw:r C(lme
10 the bishop, who then inwsliplel the bets in a
triaL If he conti"'" the: puni.hment, the perwn
punished can plead ,"crl:>ally and in person for ,..,ad·
mission 10 communion. This pica i$ 5ubmilled In
writing only ,,'hM the person punished ca,u>Ot
conic 10 !he bi5hop bec:ause oloidnef,S.. If the bish-
op lihs the p"nW"nent, the pe"",n ~dmined 10
communion decbns in ..."riIing that he: will not
l'<'bp$e. no.. wnncn declaration may tab the farm
of a ~cmenl of obliption or a prnonaI pl~. <W
senral penons ......y stand 5«Urity befo~ ,he b~
op ,hal ,he penon readmined will nOI ~Ia....,. If ..
member of Ihe clerlY ~lapses, he will be plmi.hed
wilh lhe nex' highec ~nahy, exclulion from lh.
clergy, The bishop can link lhe readmission to ..
condition, such as lhe memoril.3.llon of Bible lexlS,
Clel'8Y ,hem.le...es will be .... cluded from commu·
nion if lhey a~ nOO willing 10 :xl in lloCeordance
with a .... 1'dK1 srill awal,ing decision.
[See a/so; PmaJi.,ulon.j
8111UOCllArHY
'Abd al·MMih. Y........ "leuer from :10 Bishop of ..I.
F:Ioyyum," B,<llelin de la S""ib. d'arehiolo"ie
coprt 1 (1941)'15_1.8,
erum. W. E. Coplir ot'aca from Ihe Collecrion of
1M £opl ExplormW>o F""d. rhe Cairo M...e"'''
and 0111.... london. 1902_
-::-:c Calalogue of ,he Coptie Ma'....eriplS in Ihe
BriJi"" M".....",. London. 1905.
-::-cc Caralope of 'M Copti£ "'a""scnplS ;" 'M
Co/la'IIO" of 1M John R,yumli. Lihrtuy. M.ltdlu·
ler. Manc:hoter. 1909.
kinWd,. K. "Eine anbisch-koplisc'" Kirchen·
bannutkunde:' In Aevpriaea. Fesllehrif! filr
Coorg Ebe" <.. m I. M~Tl /897. Ldp1lg. 1591.
Slein<!orlf, S, "Eine koplische Bannbullo und an·
dore Briefe." Zoirschrifl fUr iityptische Sprac"e
..nli Aller/.. msk"""e 30 (1892);31_43.
M... ",nr< KJ.AuSE
£XEGESIS ON THE SOUL. an imaginative
lale. from Codes; II of ,he SAG IIA)IMADI UIlRAIlY.
dncribinll Ihe adv<.lIIl1rcs of Ihe SOII1 po....,.yed in
the guise of a woman. The .10')' 10 highly animale<!.
le!ling of the !IOul's divine origins, her fall into lhe
world. and her final retum to the house of the
Father. The WIll, ....i losc nallln is feminine. was a
virJin and a!>droo'1101.1! wh..., she .....,." alone wilh
Ihe Father. When b ..... on she r.-Il inlo a body and
inlO !his life. t.hc became coowninale<! by com.act
....1I.h 1Il1mnoua lovers th....... acts of fornlc:Mion
and adulle')'. allhouJlh she bclin'ed each lilM thai
lhe lover with whom she "'. .. united ......, her IrUe
husband.
TtH. loven. however. deceived her, dt$pised her,
trealed her 115 a slave. and finally abandoned h"r.
The soul lhen llroane<! and repen'ed. allhouHh ~.
maioing for shame in her condilion of sl...,,,')'.
The froi. of her uniono ..i,h lhe l<Wen is imper-
feci: lhe Creatu..... .he brinp inlo "'e world are
deaf. blind. sid. ",ilhou. il'lldligence.
The "",,1 later comes 10 her sensa• .....,.,m••
"'UPS. and ltl"Oke$ the name of !he Fathn. asking
His help. Moved 10 compassion. the ",Iher judges
hn "",nhy of m"rcy. Firsl of an he lurns Ihe womb
at lhe ~oul from ouWde 10 Inside 10 wilhdr,lw il
from Ihe sexual pollutions of Ihe loven, Then he
sends to her from heaY<'n :10 husband·brother, Ihe
firsl'born of lhe Falher's house. probably lhe Spiri!.
The bridellroom descends 10 lhe bride. the WIll.
pure from "''er)' delilemenl. who a"'otits him in Ihe
bridal chambe1" ",mch she hu perfumed in expee!3-
tion of the bridqroom. Th.. warnng has betn dift).
cuil. The soul is afraid of lite bridegroom, for she
docs not know hlm. " dream. however...ill n--:J
'0 her his appearance. The union be'W«n Ihe
bridegroom and Ihe bride is spirilual. ewn if Ih"
author describ." il ill a very sensual and erotic
fashion. Through Ihe marriage ,he soul will bll able
10 bear iood children, f<)r" this marriage has betn
accomplisMd accotdinll 10 lhe ••'ilI of Ihe Falhe..
AIt.e. this Ihe soul will rqener'llte h......U. haYing
received in lhe "",ion.IhrouHh Ihc bridep-oom. the
seed :and Ihc v....-y os.sence oIlhc Falhn. n..... t.hc
will retum 10 her origiftal situation. 10 Iloe place
from which t.hc felL We ......y dedu« from ,he r--
...ge 134.7-8 thaI ~he will also re<:m....- her andl"tlCY'
ny:and altain 10 !he lighl of ... h ...I>On (I3S.29).
Thi. story is enriched by eharact"riSli<=, of Ihe
Hellenistic novel. Thievell and robbers are broughl
Imo Ihe n"'<ratl.'e. and enlu.n,,· its effect (d. Bx!'
ldink. 1%1). The ... tting consillS often of plates of
ill fame. of bedrooms "'......... lhe SOII1 undersoes Ihe

imposture. of her lovers. The soul is funher de·
scribe<! as a slave, seduced by the wiles of her
Jovers. Finally, a stonn OCrurs in the story to un-
derl;ne all Ihe more clearly the mi.fortunes of Ihe
soul (on this device, see Langm Pastoralia I XV.I).
The recital of the unhappy adventures of Ihe soul is
followed, as in every self·respeCling narrative, by a
final denouemem detennined by a heavenly intcr-
vention clothed in the fonn. of love (d. Charilon
Advt'll,"es of Cheereas QMd CalUrhoe 1.1; V111.1;
Xenophon of Ephesus Amh;a oMd Habrocome. 1.8).
Love is evoked with a certain erolicism, which in
some respects recalls thai of tbe Hellenislic rO°
mances, which were romances of love and ad,'en'
lure par e~cellence (d. Longus Pasloralia 11 38.2;
Heliodoru. Aelhwpica V 4,5).
exegesis on the So"I, however, is not ju.t any
story; il is a Gnostic story. In fact we have here, in
the aulhor's imaginative adaptation, the Gnostic
myth of Sophia as it is set out in lrenacus' repon
on the Valentinians (Adversu, omMOS haere"s I
1.2-3). The SlOt)' of the soul fallen from her Fa-
ther's house echoes !hat of the Valentinian Sophia,
the last of the aeons, who lea"es the Pleroma and
her spouse to sink into prostitution and give binh
to misshapen creature!. Like Ihe soul, Sophia aho
will return to her virginal and androgynous condi-
tion after many sufferings and after having made an
act of repentance before the Father,
What is it then that give. originality to Ihis Gnos-
tic tale in lhe Exegis;. 0" Ihe So"l? It will be noted
that tM SIOr)' cemers on a feminine character. Thi.
is not unique in lbe Nag Hammadi Library, where
"""era) Ireatises are devote<! to a female entity:
Brome, Norea, IfYPSIPHRONE, Prote""oia, .... well ....
the treatise 0" Ihe Origin af Ihe World (on Prono;a,
Pistis, P$lche), lhe H)'postasis a/the Areho'" (Pi.tiS
Sophia, Oreal, the Dialog~e o/lhe Savior (Mariam),
the Paraphrase 0/ Shem (Rebouel). These numerous
women in Ihe Gnostic literature often conceal, un-
der dilferem fealUres an;'JJdilferent name., one and
Ihe same personality-the soul in search of its ori·
gins. Do lhe"" women share common lraits? We
mal' reply in the affirmative, if we renect on the
polarity of prostitution and virginity which inspires
the conduci of 1M majority of these figures. Most of
these women are .inners, and even prostitutes, who
through repentance deliver them""l'·e. from the
bonds of the nesh and anain rehabilitation. This
rehabilitation consi'ts in the recovery of lheir vir-
ginity, an indispensable condilion for access to
knowledge_
In Jewish tales and no\'el. we find stories of
EXOUCONTIANS 1081
women who pass from Ihe stale of prostitution to
tbe state of virginily through repentance, and tbus
become an example for the people of Israel. The
storie. of Ruth, Tamar, Rahab, and Bath.heba
should he compared wilh the Exegesis on the Soul,
of which they were no doubt one source of inspira-
lion ($copello, 1982).
The soul's journey, from prostitulion to virginily
through repentance, is supported by quotalion.
from lhe prophet. and from Homer. It h.... been
shown that these quotations were drawn from an
anthology (Scopello, 1977). The introduction of bib·
lical and classical language inlO this Gnostic trea·
tise .hows the author's concem 10 make himself
comprehensible through the medium of lwo Ian·
guages familiar to lhe .pirit of hi' age (probably thc
"""ond century A.D.. al Alexandria) for the better
communication of the difficult message of gMo.is,
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Baenelink, G. "le. D<!mon. comme brigands." Vi·
gilia. Ch"·.tia,,oe 21 (1967):12-24.
$copello, M, "Les Citations d'Homere dans Ie traM
d. l'Ex"gese de l'Ame," In e"os;. and Gnost;.
d.m, ed. M, Krause, Nag Hammadi Studies 8.
leiden, 1977.
___. "les Testimonia dan. l'Exegese de l'Ame."
Revu. de /,hi.lOir. des relig;o... 19() (1977):159-
'L
___ L'ExJghe de fame: inlroduetion, Iraduelio",
commenlaire. leiden, 1982,
MAOELEINE SCOPEll.O
EXOUCONTIANS, one of the more extreme
groups of Arianis.. that surfaced during the last he
years of lhe reign of Constantiu. II, at the time of
the third e~ilc of ATHANASIUS (356-361),
So<:rates Scholasticus' Ecclesiaslieal UislOry,
(2.45), wrinen about 440, i. the main source for
information about this group of Arians. They as..rt·
ed that the Son w.... altogether unlike the Father,
"nol merely in .-elation to his 'ssence but even as il
re.pected his will." In panicular, th"J" emphasized
thaI "he ......., made out of nothing" (ex auk 0"10")
hence their name E~ouconlians. They .....ere strong
in Antioch, but George of Cappadocia, Athanasius'
supplanter in Alexandria (356-361), leaned toward
their point of vie...... His theology was olltspokenly
suoordinationisl. He believe<!, according to Socra·
les, that the Son was "of God," but in the sam. way
that "all Ihings" .....ere "of God" (1 Cor. 11:12), and
explained that it was for this reasOn that the words
 1082 EXlJPERANTIUS, SAINT

"aceordin, lo the Scrip.ur'C$" "'t're added LO lh..

drafl of ,lot c...... d (of AriminumlScleucial.
ThO' houcontia.... died oo.n ... a rorce ""th,n a
fC'W )'elU"i of AlhanasiU5' rclurn 10 Aleundria lQI.
loIIlin, tht death of EmpC'ror Julian in J.6l
W H C. flIEt.V

EXUPERANTIUS, SAINT. a mcmbC'o" of lIw

Jll£8.Uo, L.E<:.I05 3lld 0 .... 0111", wnrs manned ncar
the Roman fonrcss Turinun (Zurichl in the third
e .... lurY (r.._ da~- 1 Tu')_ Accordi .., 10 I........d.
ExuJlC'l"'ntn"s. his fellow lqionary FEUX and the
Lan.....s 5istcr. Regula. ""ere bnolal1v lOI1ut"Cd and
behudcd al the hands ci DECJU!i, in'P<'rial lO.... mor
of this ....ion under EmpC'.-o' ~b.,imian. Af,er lheir
de<::lp,.alion. they a.-...e and. ca ......·inelhelr hnd. in
,h..l, hand•. walked fom ell. to a ,pot ,ha' bC'came
th..l, rcstin~ pl.c... Along ",llh FC'!ix and R.. gul•.
E.'uperamius occupies. 'p<"<Ol.1 plac .. In .he history
of Zurich. In this city three great edif,ees-the
erou",un ..er. the Wasserkirche. • 'Id the Frau·
mUn~lc,-h..m:: been erecled 10 co,nmemo ... te the
Ille. of IheiT man}TOOm and originai rC:Sling place.
and to house their relic•. Also. the thre .. headless
figures. head in hand. Ita,'.. httn on the coat. of East Portal (die Z"'inglill.lrc) of thf" GrQ>.SmUn.,cr;n
arm. of both th.. city and ,he canton of Zurich Zuricll ,,'i,1I rcprCl-Cntation oIthc thre<: risen wnlS
since the thlrtccnth c.. n,ul)' "ilh hcad in hand (lo"'cr Icli). c,.... rt...... MOU>l"
CC':min ",holan ha"e cxprcMcd doubt:! co.... ern F""·l.,vG~.

;n, the associalion of ExuP<'""nll,.. "'th Felix and

Rtgula, lOme C'VC'n mainlainin, ,hal he and Sam.
ExuP<'....., the' com,-adr, of So......'ltmUS at Asa.. n·
urn and btan:r of tht l1>eban ban~r (sipi(u).
"....., 0fIC' and tht sune P<'BOn. H.....·C'Ycr. th.. ol-deSI
manuscripts scan co refu,.. SIKh opinions, The cal'
lies! SOUrcc:s (c.l-. Cock< C 10i. Cen....l Ubran ol
Zurich) al .....w "'anion !he compMiom (SM") 01
Sc~1 of the Parlia",,,'" of Ca'''(lI' Zurich l'cpre~ ,ui "II
th~ th,~... risen sa,m. ,,;th head in hand. COflrtesy rhe
C"d>lceliuy of IJoe SM" of C.. Plum Zuriclt.
Fclix and Rtgula. "1100, uUP<'r:anuus is sprctfically
named in tht AfQm-rolo&7 01 E rrJ (ninlb CC'JltUTY).
AI.oreo'"er, E..upC'J'1lnliU5 ..as ",th F..lix and
RC'pda. in dill't'renl docum u_k>r instancc, .hf"
ccssm ollhe W_""i .... he 10 tht Can....• Founda-
.ion in April 1256 and the confirmalion ol thts cn.
sion mucd b. Bishop Eberhard ol Consoancc on 21
January. 1257. Accord,...lv. &'upcrll.ruius ""'"
linkC'd to boll! Feli~ and Rcl"la befor-c IW"
~le>'er of Ricdcn 1I"c the Canons' Foundation all
his poMCSSion5 on condilion lhat E..upcranl'us bc
mcruioned and commcmonloo ",Ib the' ",lotr twO
salnts during their colleclS and pr:a~rs (I2M)_
As to the confu.soon or ElIu!'<'ranliu. ";Ih ElIuperi·
u. of Allaunum. thi, SCC'm, 10 bt ref"tcd b)" the facI
Illat the ea,'Ii""!I IoOUrces rccoTd Iltat when Dedu.
was questioning Ihc lhre.: Thebans, hc specifically
asked if ,hcy had b..--en companion. of "Mauri,i"•.
8.upe,iu., Candidu., and Victor." Such a que,), In
the 1"""CtiCC of bupet""1tiu, e"narning the dis·
tant £.uperiu. would indicate tltat Iwo different
men werc ;n,'ol.·cd.
 EXUPERANTJUS, SAINT 1083

BIIIUOGRA.PIlY

Egloff, E. Wu h~1 d~s Chri'I"""''' nach Zijrich ge·

brach" Zurich, 1948.
___, Der Sw"d"" de. M"na5leri"ms L"dwigs de~
De"lschen ill Zurich, Zurich, 1949
___, D.. A"jfi"d,mg der Zijrcher fleilige". Zurich.
1950.
Muller, I. "Die friihbrolingische Pa"io de' hire·
her Heiligen," Zeilschril' li,r Sdrw<iuri.,ch<
Kircl,e"geschichl< 6S (1971),
Muller, J. GHc},ich,. der heilige" Mar,y'"' Felix und
Regula, Alldon, 1904,
Ramer, C. Felix. Reg"la ,md Exuperunliw., IkarlO-
gr~p"ie dO' S,,'{, ""d S,adlh<ilige~ b,rich" Zur-
ich, 1973.
Ea'l Portal (die Zwinglillire) of lhe Gro"munstc' in
Zurkh with ,cp,escntaiton of the three ri.en sainI' SA,'''R F. G1RGtS
,,>jth head in hand. Detail, COl"'es)' Mmmir FawlS
Gi.-g's.

"'
FABRles. Su Tutil .... Coplic.
FAKHR AL·DAWLAH ABO AL·MUF-
A~J;)AL IBN AL-'ASSAL (b. c. 1170). falher of
the Coptk wrilers of the beginoin, of t"" thirteenth
century. He is I;nown ... Awlad al··A$$I1. His hono·
rific title FdJ,. ~1.[)Qwlah (p.-i<k of I.... slate) Indl·
eal" his iOC~1 Imp<>fU.n<:e. He ClUTht from a rich
CopIic family in Cairo thaI distin*"is~ I~lf in
lhe service: cL tht Falimids and the An'Ublds, as lhe
lillu, b •..,..." hum.une), and nicbtamts of cenaln
01 his ancest"'" indic.aled. He was Ihe JOn of
MU'\8m8n al·D1w1ah Abu W:>iq IhrihIm. IOn of Abo1
SaM Jirjls, !JOn of Abu 8ishr Yuhannf, a)·Klolib al·
Mip'l, whMc fathu ...:as nic~ aI·'~.
Fakhr al-D1w\ah's h.lf)'f'h requires _ explana·
tion. Occ_onally the spdJin8 Abo. al·Fa4) can be
lIou.od ~ in Coptic nI8lIuscripu of the thirttallh
century (wch as in rbe Nation.al l.ibr3ty, JOaris.
An>bt 201. and VMican Mabie 103, fol. 1!Y, Ia.!t
line) In the Inl of tht M<lj""" U¥'J .fom (this is an
easily made copyist', ~ lnvolrin. Ihe omission
of Ihe small leller "'1m). ,Less fnquenlly _ find
Abo a1·F~·lI (as in Ori~taI LllQry. Beirul, SUo
Coptic, fuuneenth centurj) in lite same pass;la:e:
this ~nion was adopled by G. CrW" (1932, p. 3S),
MOll fnquently we find AbU aJ·Mufac;l4al, a ludin,
confirmed by a verx c<lmposed by the Muslim potl
al&n1j al·Wan1q In which lhe readin. AbU al·
Fa41 Is In<:ompatible wilh lite meIer.
Fakhr al·Dawlah married twicc. By his first wife
he had two son•. al.As'ad Abtl al·Fan) Hib;olallih
and al·$af'l Abil al·Fac;!I'il Mljid. Ahcr his firsl "dfe
died, he remarried and had two <lthcr sons. Mu',,·
man al·o.wlah Abu IsMq IbrahIm (named after his
1085
,r.>ndfalhcr wilh all his names) and al-Arnjod Ab"
al·Majd al·Rashid (d. A,,-'Ild al·'A~I). He may have
had other child,..,n, but the,.., is no record of them.
Fakhr al-Dawlah'i enviible positl<ln enabled blm
10 give his children a good education. Yiislb, bish-
op <If Fuwwah. the church historian ..... ho composed
a derailed chronicle of contemporary evcnts. stated
during the ~ond quarter of lhe Ihirt~nlh century
(G.-af, 1947. Vol. 2.!'P. J.69-71) that Fakhr aJ·Daw-
lab had engqed as lutor for hi. chlldreT1 the <ha.,u.
a1-sanl Abu al-Majd Bu!NI ibn al·MlIhadltdhib Abu
.nown
aJ·Far.oj. l"m slurJHo ,,--as as aJ·Tbu'ban al·
RAhib or ... '"the PMI of Abo. Sa.rjah" (concerning
him, see Sidarus, !'P. a-Is and 19-20). He .... the
fathe. of lbe historian, lheolocian, and linguist AbU
ShlI;i. ibn aI·lWtlb (GTlIf, 19.7, pp. 428-35. and
especially Sidanls). Three of his.sons be<.-aJne gn3I
Coptic wrilCl'S :u>d a fourth (a1'Arnjad) a high 0ffi-
cial. "T1wy we,.., meai .... &Cencs 01 the Coptic. ~
ais:sano:e in lhe thirteenth century.
FUh. a1-Dawbh _ ,ellCrous 10 thase ill need.
This is attested by a1&rT1j aj·WarTAq, a Muslim
poet who dic:d in 1196 and ,"'he composed a poem
of eight WT$C$. In lhe poem he sinp ,he gencrosily
of tht 'AM:lIids and of AbIl al-MIIfa44a1 in particula.
fa. his discretion in airing, This $Il8£CS1S that Fa.h.
al-Dowlah ..... .<IiIl .li~ at tlte lime the poem was
composed, around 1250,
JlIBLIOGRAPHY
GnU. G. "Die koplische CielehrtenfamHie der Aulld
al·'As.aL··OriemQlIQ I (1932):l4-5~, 129~48. 193-
""
Ibn Fac;!laliah a1-'Umarf. MQSdlik QI·... b~M. Ii ma-
mMik QI-Q"'~dr, V"l. l. ed. Al)mad Blshl Zakl, pp.
369-71. Cairo, 1924.
 1086 FAMILY L\W
Khalil Sam'r. AI~a/l ibn a/-'An.!/. Brf/l ~1I"pllr"'s
SUr It> Tnni'f f' f/ncllnUUU;m. PO 4~. fasc:. 3. nO.
1920, pp. 10-12. TurnhoUl, 1985.
Sldanas. Adel Y.lbn "r-RlJhibs Lt!bfn .. nJ Wfri. £1"
iopliscIJ..,r"biscltt!r EmyllopJidUJ d~ 71IJ. J"hr·
h..ndtl:rls 1sIamhondlicht! l!nlefSuchunlen 36.
Fmbu... 1975.
YilAlb, bishop of Fuwwah. His/oaf (...... uteript of
DII).. a~ryb). In KitMt Tbfh\r _.J.dIM'it &r{.
I,;i,,/ "Us!Il"JJ>nyy.lI .J.Oihf. ~. Klno,l ~i~
l'lakJllah. p. 47.... Cairo. 1943.
KJ.uUl Sull'- SJ.
FAMJLY LAW. S""" Pfrsonal Slalus u ....
I'AMILY LIFE. COPTIC. Egypl has been de·
sc:riMd U lh", oldeSt folk-nalion In the W<lrld. ltt...
Egyplian family. whether COplic or Muslim. lnht!ril·
ed lOme of ilS main fealures from anciem Eg)1'1,
The cominuily of a 'e!lled lif", in Ihe Nile Va.II",y
provides Il. conlexl for Ihe conlinllhy of family tr../i·
lion.
TIt", I",mpl ... and monumenti of ancient Egypl
she- an alf""'lionale relalionship ber""et!f1 husbands
and wi-es :and a kindn"''''' of parents 10ward Iheir
children. In ancienl Eg)'pI Itt... inSlitUlion of rnar-
Ne'" wu VOUno:it!d in llot legt:nd of the nu.rrilo&'" of
Osiris and Is". M:arriag<' became an honorable part·
nership between hwb:and and ",·ife. The f*"enw
a)'Olem found its I'OOIS in a recocnition of the hus-
band. and noI :a 100em, ... th", re:al &lhn of th",
child. 1bt ramily _ a baik uni. in which lh",
~nd held lhe alJlhori'J' In an andenl E.gypIian
lelll we read: "If thou an a man oi noIe, klund for
lhysotlf an 1>o.tsd>oI.d, and low: thy wife at home ..
it ~mtth. Fill ...... beUy, clothe hn bac"; u...
pnt to W <Wlfdy for hrr limbs. Gla.ddeo hn
heart. aa lonl ... " ..~.y..-eth; aI.e ia a goodly field ro.-
her lord" (Entun. 1%6. P. 61).
Monopmy "'_ the prc,... i1in, pall",", of the an-
cifnl Ea,yptian family. B_her-si$l:t1" and blheT-
<;bu""",r marriagn might .... v~ ""is.ed alllOl1g Ih",
ancioenl EWian I'"'"""nl$-
Th~ WOman in ancient £CPl enjoyed equal Iithts
10 Ihe man in mOllI aspects of liFe, She was nOI
yeiled or immured and was giyen lhe ",ducal iOn
Sl,lil.ble fur Ihe rol~ she p"rform~d. Some wum"n
b",cam", queens and ",t on lh~ Ihrone of Egypl. a.>
did Hatshepsul; olhers ",ere women pli",sts. and
atlll olh",rs wen: goddesses. Neyertheleu, lhe m051
impon.nl role for Ihe Egyptian ....om.n was per-
fonntd in htt home as wif~ and mOl her.
\
1bt children in llot anclenl Egyptian family were
lhe focw. of bmily life. 1bt ancienl Eg)p11aM gave
mIlCh C:IITt! 10 I""'ir children and 10 their education.
The bt/ott Ir::aintd his children '0 5UCCt!'Cd kim in
his fields• ........uhop. or office. In one of llot :ancienl
ItJ:!£, a man """" cn-m 1M folIowinS:ad\ice: "Tab
to thyself a wife when Ihou an a )'OUIlo, !hat w
may P'~ ~ • son. Thou s.t!o..l<Iesa beaiM him for
1'- whilsl thou an ~ you"" and shouldeSt 1M ro
see him becOCM a man. Happy ia the man wt>o has
much people. and he is re:spKted because of his
children" (Erman. p. 235). An"" • bwr died his
wn inherited his rtIl1mlonJ. but lhe dead .-...w
-.. conaKle<ed :alive in the penon of his son. who
carried on llot responsibililies of lhe falhrr. Th",
sons wrre aka held responsible for lheir aged. par-
enlS.
Some of lhe charac.eristics of the anci~nl Eg)v-
lian family ha,'. uisled in [gyp. down to Ih. p"".
ent. ""pecially in lhe Egyptian villagn_ The woman
in the E.J>l'tLan ,'Hlage works side by .id" with h<:r
husband. lhe Ii~ MII"een husband and wife and
between parents and childr",n are Slrong. The r~·
.ponsibilily for the family is dl",..,d among all lhe
m"mbers of Ihe family, Onc", &rown up. lhe W<h
and daughlers <:any some of Itt... family rt!SJlO",ibili.
Ii",. The older b_hen are responsible for lhe
)'<lUllger oncs and for tht1r sisten. In ~ne...l, lhe
Er;ypoian f:alher holds .he au.horily ill his borne.
The pancrn nf bmily life Inherited from the ancienl
E«;ypt.ians con.inuca 10 prewil in the Egyptian
bome lOIby. Coptic and Mw.lim alike..
Chrktlan Toohlon In tM Coptk Home
Wbt!n lhe Ec;ypIians became Christians,. their fam·
ily Ilk ....... rr:shaPl'd accordinll 10 the principles of
Chrialiani'J. Os-ymynchus-the ~t:al of the P">".
ince in the' Fa)')'l1m walley, sll"",ed about 120 miles
(200 kin) from the banka of the NiIe-f1OU1'isM.d ..
a mOnaslk center and as a I,adin, Chrislian cilY in
Eg)'pI. The noolilerary papyri found wre oR...- a
pio;lure of priYllle lire of lhe people :III1d llot social
Tdatio"", amons .hem. 1bt (1)Th)'TtCbus papyri in·
clude leU...... uchansfil among parents and chil·
dren thai demonStrale the intimate ..,Ialionship and
mutual concern amonl lhem and ..,veal tbe soli-
darily of family life among th", E.iYP'ian.,
Coptic women found theIr ld"'al lif", in Ihe ",'am·
pi"," of pious WOmen memion",d in lhe New T","a·
ment. such as the VirgIn Mary, Salome, Manha and
MaD', and Mary Magdalene. The hiSlory of lite Cop-
lie church has supplied Coptic women with stories
of heroic ¥i'lins and devoled mOIn.:rs. of ....' hom

Saint DlMyAtiAH AND HER FORTY VIRGINS who were
martyre<! wilh her in Ihe time of Diodetian and the
mother of Saint Augustine are good examples.
Coptic marriage is one of the se,'en sacraments of
the Coptic church. It is conside,..,d the fulfillment
of the union between man and God. Man partici-
pates with God in the creation of life and "partakes
in God's nature:' The Coptic ",'ife is not a tool for
the pleasure of man but the helper of Mr husband.
Her dignity has bttn expres<ed in her chastity be·
fore marriage and in the glory of her home.
The life of the Coptic home olfers the child an
atmosphere that has been very elTective in shaping
his identity as a Copt. The naming of the child after
biblical figures and the saints itself imprints a sign
on the child's personality a.. a Christian. Following
the apostolic tradition, the Coptic church has prac·
ticed infant baptism through the centuries. TM
child becomes a member of the church through
baptism. and recognizes his spiritual distinction
from the non-Christians, In the bapti,mal service of
the Coptic church, a godmother or godfather is ap·
pointed to become ,..,sponsible for bringing the
baptized child up in accordance with the Christian
teachings and ideals, This godparent pledges before
the priest, at the very beginning of the baptismal
ritual, that she or he ""knowledges Christ and
promises to educate the child under their charge in
the Christian faith and life within the fellowship of
the Coptic church (2 Tm. 3'16).
The Coptic family has oc..n lraditi<>nally Ihe cen-
ter of religious life in collabor;>tion with the
church. Coptic parents nurtore their children in
Christian faith and life and nourish them in the love
of God, Acquaintance with the Scripture, and ....-
cre<! writings has been stressed because they are
useful for teaching vinue.
Coplic parents offer to their children a good e,·
ample of Chrislian life in,their own lives; The father
is a model before his chilfjren of what it means to
be a Christian. The fathe~ leads his wife and chilo
dren in family pnyers; he: acts as the priesl in the
sanctuary of his house. The family ahaI', or holy
room, has been the place where the child learns
from his father how to pray. Family worship in-
cludes reading the Bible. singing hymns, and read-
ing the seven cane",ical hoors of prayer which con·
lain psalms. Scripture readings. and several
prayers. Religious praclices in the Coplic home
have lied the child,..,n to the tradition of Ihe Coptic
church. In fasling, for instance, the child learns
self·control and sacrifice; in addilion, il is an oppor·
tunity for Ihe Coptic family to share with the re,t of
the Coptic community a common religious tradi-
FAMILY UFE, COPTIC 1087
tion. Through the centuries, the means of recrea-
tion for the Coptic home were also religious. The
occasions of the celebration of the feasll; of the
saints served a, reminders 10 the COplS of Ihe exam·
pIe of Chrislian life gi""n by the saint whose feast
was celebr;>ted and at the same time 3$ an oppor-
tunity for ,..,creation and meeting friends and rela-
lives.
Influence of MuslJm SocIety on the Coptic
Family
The similarities between the Copts and Ihe Mus·
lims in family life and social cuslOms may be atll;b·
uted mainly to the common social and cultural
context in which thC)' live. Although they follow
two different ,..,ligions, both religions have interact·
ed and integrated with Ihe total Egyplian cnlture.
Under Arab and Turkish rule, the Copts lived a
.eparate life within their own community with few
social contacts wilh their Muslim neighbors. The
mWel syslem, which was established by the OtIO'
man empire, gave the heads of the millels, or reli·
gious minorities. the right to adn,inisler their own
communities as autonomous entities in their spirit-
oal, personal, and administrative allain.
The Changing Structure and Functions of
the Coptic Family
The responsibility for personal affairs of mar-
riage. divorce. and inheritance bas shifted from the
church to the stale, For centuries, marriage and
divorce among Ihe Copts were conside,..,d entirely
religious mallers for which the Coplic church was
held responsible. Under Arab and Turkish rule, the
palriarch. Ihe bishops. and Ihe prieSts of the Coptic
church conducled Ihe marriage and decided about
divcrce according to the canon laws of the Coplic
church. When the Coptic millet councils were es-
tablished in 1874. one of Iheir major tasks was to
organize millel couns and maintain ,..,cords of mar-
riage and diverce. In 1955, the ERvptian govem·
ment replaced the miller coun, by civil courts,
which took over the responsibility for marriage and
divorce casl'$ among all citizens-Muslims, Copts.
and other religious minorities, The principle ()f reH-
gious commonily laws. however, wo-s prese....'ed in
the civil courts, Hence, the Coptic priests. as well
as priesls and mini'lers of other churches. are Ii·
censed as registrars for marriage on behalf of the
government. The task of the priest end, wilh his
filling in the registration forms and the liturgical
celebralion uf the wedding. When problems later
arise in the life of Ihe Family, concerned panie.
1088 FAMILY LIFE, COPTIC
apply for di."O<C~ in the ci.il COUIU...,hkh Innl
dlvon:~ 10 Coplio; coupI~ for reMOIlS olh~r than
aduheT)". Comequemly. the number of divorces
_ I the Copts has increased.
1M Family is l\oadt>aIly !:leinl dq»i~ed of its U1Hii.
tional functions.. 1M eeonomic. educational. <eli-
po..s. <ecf'eationa.l. and pmlCCli•., func1>onS of th~
blnily are ll1lnSlerred to spuia.l2ed insciwtiont in
the eommunity.
Until th~ end <i ~ nineteenth «lUlU)'. the Cop-
lie family lived as an e.nendcd bmily: .........xcI ......
li~ ..ilh their parenlll in the bmily hom~, .. hieh
then contained th<ec or mllre gen~Dlions livinl
II>Ielher. Thi$ pattern of family life has liven ""'y to
lhe p;lll<ml of th~ nud family In whkh th~ ne>w.
Iy married couples I ve their pllrents' homes 10
SIan a new family life ill a ""p;lrau home.
Th~ socioe<oonomic challies in Egypt slnc~ the
beginnllll af Ihe nineleenth c~ntury have Increased
mobility In two direclion.-mol>ility belween the
weial daiSes and migration lTom vil1aac~ lO t"Wn'
and cities and from one city to anQlhu. The devel·
opment of lIgricuhure, industry. businesll, and g"v·
emmem employmen' has reSldte<! in ,rrater SOCial
mobility In the lwentieth cenlury.
Tnditicmally, the peasant'....Me and daughter
worked side by side ...' ;th him in the fields. A' lbe
same time, !he women in the city ....,re wiled and
meir place ...... the hom~. Since 19!J, a Te"Olution
in the emancipatlooo of the EcPtian woman has
IaUn place. GnKlua1ly m<>fe opponunitiel have
bHn opened 10 bu. She has takell off her .'eil.
found I\eor pl:a<-e in ~ducalioll, and C(lmpe~ ..,;u,
men in many Iioclllo.- Many _ n _ occupy pc.ri-
....... in the ptcf iora as docwn. teachers, La.....
l""rs. and mcincers. They abo ...,rIr. as HCl"Clarin
in ol6c4S and as laborrn in factorits.. Womm have
been gr.>mcd political riV'ts. Ttwy ba•., hem cNcn
!he rlJht to VOle; ~me " ...men have been ~lected as
repraentatives in lbo!Nation'. Counell and lOIIIe
have be<:o..... mlnisten of ....t~.
The q.. esI>on <>I the ~lfect of W ne>w lUI... of the
woman in Egyptian lOC'ioe:1y has 1101 been ~I Mud·
ied. Howe•..,r, it may be said in ee'ICral that the
educated .......rnan be<:omes mort independem of he.
Iamlly. She does not ",,,it for a husband Cholell for
her by h~r fllmily, but .he bc<:Ometl lhe One .....ho
has th~ final deci.ion. The workin, wile ..1$0 be·
comeS a .....lI-.:'e of family .uppon and consequently
gains mOre ""y in fllrnily deci,ion m.aking, The h\l$'
band'. authorily in the ""me may be weakened and
more conflic.. bct....'un the h....band and the wife
miJht be expected The mother'. employment 001·
•ide the home might have an effecl on the chi1dr~n.
The l1U5S media haw lito had a n<>liceable effect
on F.gypo..ian bmily life. Th~ bmily and the Khool
an" no longer the only basic sources al infomunion
in the life <>I th~ child The role of boIh the ,,",ren'
and the teacher is cbanainl with the growth of
m.... media.
TeIO'Yi$iotl, loo'.'ever, bas a ~~ dftcl be-
t __ of its poonicular anracllon in the oon'>C'. It has
become an In<penoNi ~r in shaping the <el..
tionshipl amon, the memben cL th~ family and a
factor bqoond "OIItrol that ia alIectina family values.
11loe CopIIC' Chun:b .nd Family Lire
Educ:allon
The changing p;lllem of family lire in E8:l'Ptian
..xiety raises KnouS qucslio,," conc~ming th~
rrllgiou. function of Ih~ Coptic horne and the re·
sponsibi1it}' of th~ Coptic thurch toward the Cop-
tle family.
The tontinuity of ehri.. ian lif~ in the Coptic
home depends upon the awarene•• and maime·
nance of the religlous and spiritual function in lhe
home. In 1973, th~ Family Life Education Prognom
(F1.EP) was esu'o1ished.
By 19&4 twemy"fiv~ Inlelrale<! Family' Health
Care "'nle... had been ntablishcd in dioceses from
A5wan in. the south 10 Aleuondria. and !'on Said ill
!he nonh. Family life education and bmily counsel.
ing "..,re oIJered alolll with medical treatmenl and
family plannin, metbo<b.. Boob, pamphle\s, and
edocuiona.! m..erla.Is ha~~ been publi<.bcd by RH
for use by bmilies and traillinl ~
IUBUOCllAnn
0Unncs(...... O. H. E. Tlte £DPriG" (J'I" CopfU: C/uw:h.
Cairo. I96Y.
Erman, A. "1M A"""~1t/ EV"n.m: A So<dc~ Book of
T'hw Wrilinv. tnns.. A. N. Blackman. New York,
I"".
Goode, W. J. "ChaRgine Family Panems in ""'bie
b1am_" In WOIld A£\IOlulioIf ""d F"mi!y Patlcnu.
N..... Ym. 1963.
Je/fcry, Anhur. ''The Family in Islam." 11I11r~ F"",~
/y: II> F,,"c,i(m ""d DeJ';ny, ed. R. N_ An:sh~n.
New York, 1959.
Lerner. Daniel. 711£ P"ssi", '" Tradition,,1 Soci~ty:
Moderni.i", Ih£ Middle E"JI, Glencoe, III., 1958.
Muhyi, I. A, "Wom~n ill Ih~ Arab Middle East:' In
The Modern Middl. £aJI, ed, R. H, Nolte. New
York, 1963.
Shenouda, Anba. Sharia' al·Za"" ai·Wahlda Ii 411·
Ma~~iyy"It (Mon. .amy ;n Chri5l:lanity). Cairo,
1967•

Whit~, loIln Manchlp. Ev~rydG)' Lif~ ;" A."C...."I
Efypl. New York, 1%3.
MAUKlCf AS-All
FAN, S~~ Ut"!"ikal lntlrumenu.
FARAJALLAH AL-AKHMIMI, ... thor of a law
rqW~r (NO~IOCA".oo...). C. Cnl loa'" thal fanjallih
..... from the cit)' of A.t.:loI/Ilblll in Upper £cypc and
lived bonweeD t~ middle of the Ihlneenm .nd lhc
middle oIm~ foIllU'ellth cemul'}. Th~ evidencc for
mi< datinS i$ the fact I~I his law replcr is mosdy
borro\o,'M from lhe 8001: of Spiril..<l1 Mrdicine and
!he judicial _rb 01 a1.$Al'1 lIN Al,-'ASS1l... !be IJWI...
scriJu of "'hkh date from this period. AbU aI·s.
rUtt I'" ~ dooos noc menllon him.
This law l"C'Jisler is ill twO pans .nd ~nlJ"SU
pIagiarnm. has the._
cllaptrrs.. '1M 61'SI pan. 10 be conllidcred a11n(>l.l ..
lnlrodocrory chaplet'S oIlhc
&01: of Spi"/>ltU Medic;"•. then cite! lhe ""'rees 01
church ....... and in the remal~ preseau lhe de ...
BY .nd tht rituals In correspondence with u.osr
-...en, bu. in altered order. n.e KCOnd part. ...;m
fiity chaptet'S. COI'Cemi rnond .nd ;..dkial INlten.
repratin« for the _ paI1 tite corresponding tal
of !be BooI< of Spirit.. ,,1 Mt.ic/J,e, with the Clltq)-
lion 01. tht pan on conl"eision. whcne ~ and
d.il I.o.w are lIollo-.d.. The onl)' $O\lrccs oarrtM for
inht'riWOCt law .... the ""•••iu: of OnIr""<U, of
AbU .J.Far3j <AbdallMl ibn T.nib .nd the I ~ of
Elias of Nisbis. both Natol'bns.. The ""positions of
d"...ree and marriage and SoC~tral other s.. bjttts
(unless Ihey """Cre wrn from somt unknown
$Ollrce) are ~bl)' independent.
Cnl (Ecclrsi-sticQI Rt."'''' S6 [1917J:IN-36)
cites J. C61n as recOInillnl the pcculi.rltie! in the:
and table of cOnltnls.. 0'
composilion of t~ work ·and as living .. synopsis
VINCI!H'T f1IfJ)UIC~
FARAMA, AL- (Peluslum), city locale<! In the
notth",nt comer of lite Sinal Ptnlnsula about 14
miles (22.5 km) east of the Suez Canal and 3 miles
(5 km) Inland from Iht Meditemonean Sea, Coplic
tradition holds Ihal Ihe Holy Family stopped In a.l·
fat:!lrnA durinll Ihe FUCIfT INTO Ec~n,
AtlCSlatl.,>ns of Chrlstlanl1y In Peluslum in the
Byzantine period arc num~rous. The Melitlan bi"'·
op KatHnikos was In office In Ihe cily as early as Ul,
32S. SO~OMEN cepons Ihat the palliarch Al.£:UNDER I
FARAMA, Ai.- 1089
(312-326) brought Kallinikos ,mo Iht office of bish·
op and. thaI ATIUNASlUS (326-373). Ihe nut palrl·
alt'h. e~=mmunicated him and replaced him with
a man named Marl< (His/oritJ ucksitJS1/cG 2.25).
"The name of Kallinlkot;. ho_~r, does nOI appear
In the liSl$ of pattiCipanlS in .he Council 01 "'lCAtlO
in 325. Instead.. the !iSIS show thaI Bishop Doro-
Iheus rq>!'estnltd Pelusium aI Nicaea. Nonalteleu.
around 335 Kallinikot; atlended a S)lIoo In Tyre as
biW>op of Pdulium and in 351 he wb$cribrd lhe
~ of the Council of s.rdlc.a as bishop of Pel\!'
sturn.
The successor of Dorolhe~ or prtbaps of M.rk,
was Panbalius, who .igD<:d the a.nons of the Coun-
cil 01 Sinnlum in 359 ... the bishop of PelllSi..m. In
HI &hop Eusel>ius of PcI....m anendrd tl>c
C<>w>cil of EnllSUS. In the middH: of tl>c si!uh cm.
lUry a Chakcdonlan biUMlfI named George " .. In
oftKe in Pell&Sium. He had bern a Ptlpll of SIlbA. lhe
blItrT of monks, and was oMained blshC9 by lhe
Chalcedonia.n pa.lriarch Zailus (53!-S51) tomecime
bon......" ')40 and S50.
A "-umber of sainlS and matt)T!l had aJ·F.nunt as
rilhcr their birthplau or plau of manyrdom.
Some of those assocw...t wirh the d'1llf"C Anlonius
of Banall., Apa Tit. Epim.du,l$, bishop 01. Pclusium,
Hor of Sirr-tqUs. lsido<e of Takin~. l.sidorus of
Pdusium. Piroou, and SIna (see !ltIdlTYJ$. oornc).
Al-Fararnj, bttame an impol'Urlt cmltT of m0nas-
tic..... a. an tarly period. "The Af'OPHfli£GIUTA I'AT.
..u.. . menlions the area <>hen. 1'bc best-kno","" ol,he
monks from ,he aru was lsidorus of Ptlusl..m (c.
355-c_ 435). who "'"as a lheologian of $OI'U. an txt-
grlC, and the aumor of. vast eonrspondrnce (pub-
lished iD PC 78).
When Bernhard tnc Wise "",i'M aJ·Faram6 in 870
he spol<r 01. only one ehurch in lhe city. a chult'h of
lhc Virzin Mary. and thOllgh he was aware of ,he
lradition Ihal Mary and Jesus had stopped for •
lime in al·Faram6, be ""'nu not 10 have IIlke"
m..ch notice of tht Christia", li~inl lhere at the
lime of his 0""" visit.
Variou~ bishops of al·Fal"am6 from lhe Arabk
period arc mentioned In the HIST<l"V 0' TIll! PATllI·
HellS, In its lift of l<Hl'l~ I (744_767) Ihe History
speaks of a confronlation Ihat Eplmach..s, the Cop·
tic bi~bop of al·Fal"ami. had wl,h a Chalcedonian
priesl In his dty. During the palrian::hate of MARl< I{
(799-g19l. Bishop Mark of al·Fal"am! hdped being
a synodical INler from the palriarch to Antioch.
The IMI cefe<ence to a bishop of al·Faramt II from
the time of Patriarch SlIENIJT1! II (1032-1046).
Shenulo ordained a monk nam~d Joltn as lhe blsh·
op of aI-Faram! and signtd an ac..cement 10 pay
 1090 FARAS
him thiny dinars pt. yor I<) supplement the R>e*.
gc.- re$OU"'~ availab~ to John in al·Faraml. How-
ever, SMo",,, reneged on hi> p<omi~ and wrote II
leiter postdated 10 the lime of John', ordination in
which he anathemali~"d the bishop.
In Ill? the fift«nth year of the pa.tna.",l"'te of
MIoCUlUS II. tilt' erosad« Baldwin besicll«l aI·
F....,"" and destroyed the city 1houah ;t "'.... .al-
ready spancly popubled.
A... H. Sayc., I>epn ~ arc",""ok>p;a1 inwstip
tion of TaU a1.Fanmj, the nlins of IIw: 'l'ICOf:nl city
of Peluslum. in 1$31. laIu in the nint1eemn CeDtu·
ry. W. M. F1in<kn Petrie funhe<ed Ihe an:haeologi-
cal work on the site. and in the mid·twentieth cen·
tury. A. L Fomaine ucuated in the arta. o.,spitc
the.., .. ~tensive laoon no remains of Christian
chul"Chel have been found in Tall ,,1·Farami.
BIIJUOCAAPHY
Beman!, J. H. '"The ItineflU"}' of Ikmhard lhe
WISe.- In the U¥a'Y of W PO!Uline PiJvjm's
rUI Soc..".. Vol. 1. pp. 1+14.l.o<IdoP. 1893.
F~, It.... d. S. Hililni Episc<Jpi Pic""';ertsis. Opm"
pt.•. CSCL 65. Vienna and LeiPZil. 1916.
Munier. H. Recueil Ju /iSles ipi$CopDlts d~ Nlli.<~
CCplf. Cairo, 1943,
Schwartz, E. KyrillO$ von SkylhopoUs, Tut~ und
Untersuchungen 49. pI. 2. Leip~i8, 1939,
Timm. S. D,,, chri.<t!ich·kopliwlre Acp,en in oTobi·
d u 'bil, pl:. 2, pp. 926-35. Wi~n, 1984.
R.t.ND.t.u. SnWAn
FARAS, ""me ,;..en in modem times 10 a small
yillage on lhe west bank 01 Lhe Nile, on It", Fronlier
belween Egypi and t.... Republic of lite Sudan. In
earlier history it Will one of ,he mOllt importanl
religious ,nd administralive centers In LoweT Nu·
bia. II is named bo,h.., M~roilic a"<l In medi~v.1
le.. t$ M Pakho~, .. hile the most common Anobic
rtnderin, of the nam.. is Bakhar.$ or Bukharas.
Bej,./t. which appean in ctrtain Iatf: medie>'aI Ar·
abic m&nll$oCripts, is probC.Iy anocher ''ariant of the
same _ , a1Lhough SOme nineteendt-eentury
$Chobrs allempced 10 locale Bejruh &nher 10 lhe
north.
At last I"'" I.,mples _rt built at Fa~ duri",
th~ Egypcian N~w Kingdom. but the main impor-
lance of Ihe plllce appar<:mly bell.n In Meroitk
times, A walled ~nclo5.ure wos built al In.tlim~ just
ba~ the riy~rban.lr.; tnu foul>d in a nurl:»' t.t..ro-
ilic c.,met.,ry u.dicale that Lhis ,.".. a major ad",in'
"t",liyc and cult center. AftI!'! lhe colla,,"," of Men:>-
ilk pm,..,r, some .$Cholars ~J""" thai the capital 01
lhe posI·Meroruc kingdom of -...n.. was esQl;,.
Ji:lhed 'I Faras. Howe".,r, the e>idenee for litis is
largely 'p"culal!Ye, for Ihe remain. of Ihe poll·Mcr·
oilie p"riod thai hav~ been uncov~,..,d at Faras a""
nol very exlensive. A number of medieval Arabic
docum~nu rder 10 Faru as Ihe c.pilal 01 Nobalia
(or ai-Malts. as they one.ll call il), bul these dale
from a la..... lime. after Nobetia had been absorl>cd
Inlo the b...,. .lr.ingdom 01 lotAUlUW. Af1eor the
merp:r, which probably IOOl< pia« in me Sf"enlb
(;fntury, il is clear tha, the epa.... hs or 1I'i«~ of
NoWlia resided chiefl)' a, Fans, lhou~h lhey e,i·
dentiy had other resid~ncel as w<:li.
Th~ primary impommce of Faras in lh~ Middle
A~es was undoubtedly religious. A bimoprlc was
establish"" In lhe sevenllt «mury. no( Io"i after
lhe convl!'t$foo of NoWtia 10 Christianity, and the
rim cathedral al Far.lS was apparcndy !>qun al the
same time. I' was replaced in the eighlb cenlury by
a mlKh IarJn and ..-t impolin& buikIi.IIg. the b-
mous Faras Calhedral. "'....,.., discovery ........ 0"'" of
the hi&h'ights of the archaeoJosicai Campaign 10
s.."", lhe Monumen", of Nubia. In Ih~ immediate
vicinity Ihere w~rc in ,h., early Middl., AIlU at least
six olh~. churches. A .izable monastery (known in
recent times as O"¥ al·Wil.Z) occupi~d a nearby
hill lop; lhere may have b«n " second monasl~ry
..ithin me ,own. A pottery belOry, probably ope"'t·
ed by otK 01 the rnonastcriQ:. made finely decorat-
ed vessek 1....1 ...."..., traded all ""'tt Nu~ n-
and ocher Christian rtmains ~ lCautted O\'1:r a
fairly considerable ........ wgeulng thai Fans was
one of Ibe largest com.....nities In NubQ in the
early Middle Acet.
A mar.lr.ed decline i$ e,i<lent at Farns in Ihe late'
medie""l p"Mod. Some of the "u\lying church~s
were ab.ancloned, and evenlually Ihe great calnedrnl
itself was S<trrender~d 10 the encroaching sand
drifts. The lisl of Fans bishops, wbich was com-
piled 0V6 a period of _raJ cenlUnes on one of
the c:athednol \YlOIls, C()nlQ to an end ,,;11> Jesu in
the bote I_lfih cenlUry. Later Inscriptio..... found at
QAa IB.boI indlClK~ 1M the bishopric of Farm .....
ullilDOlldy combined wim thai 01 Oa¥" Ibl1m. the
lalter ~Y1denlly being the chief episcnpal resklence_
This developmem did nOI quil~ .pell Ihe cnd of
Christianily at Faras, for the buri~d calhedral was
overbuilt by a small mon"'!lery and church, whc,..,
occupation continued until lhe end of 1M Christian
Nubian period. With lhe coming Ottoman rule,
these S1rudura were convened 10 ",,,,,., as a Imall

.mlilM}' outJlQ"'l, bul Fans was IlO lonler a place of
any imporu"",e. cillter ~lip.:.us OJ" civil.
The decline "f Fat3$ in tlte later Middle Alles i<
probably allribUlable 10 tlte fact Iltal lis CXJlO'led
riverside lOCali"n was nOi readily defensible. In tlte
dio\urbed miliiary and political condilio"s wltich
fol1~ lite A}}'\Ibid coroqueil of £aypI. lhe Nubian
population began increasingly 10 cona:rq&le in de-
ffttm>le local1lies ""cit as !he fonilie:d itilhops aI
Oa¥ Ibo1m and M.lW- 'ADM, and in the lU'f)l Al.>tJ,UAL
Much of lite population aI Faru may haw mi&nled
..,..... the ri~"C1" 10 lhe old phanlonic fo~ "f
Seml, whiclt ..... reoccupied and rd""nified in the
twelfth cemu'}".
Major e~cavations were Cilrried out .. Fa"" ~.
Iween 1910 and 1912 by an O~ford University e~pe'
dition, direcled by F. L. CRIFFI'Tll. Tlti, upedilion
unc<>""re<i _ra1 of tlte Fans mu,..,hes. the poI-
wy belory. and the Chriscian cem"teriu. At about
the ......... lime. two oohn" F..... "horeh." weTe ,ft-
.=Uped and 'e<:oukd by C. S. Mileham. Slill
more e>.lensi.", wort< _ done bet...ftf\ 1960 aDd
1965, mainly by the PolW. C<:n..,r of Medit,.,......~
ArchHoIOl)'. Th" Polish npedition unco""'Ol"d the
buried Faras Catl>edral, another 11'1le cburch Ihal
bad been buill alonp/de It. an epi$<:opa] palace.
and the monastic comple~ thai had been built on
lop of lite earlier remains, Th<: oUlStandinl acltieve·
ment of tM exp<:dition was undoubledly Ihe di""ov-
ery and preservlItion of lhe lreal FlUS lolliRALs dec·
"mini 1'I\.Illl)' of the -lis In !he buried ClIlbed...._
(See .Iso: Nobatia. q",rc:h of; """'" Murals; Nubi·
an Churc:1t Orpnization; Nubian Church An; Nubi·
an Inscriptions; Nubian Monasl"rin.)
BI8UOCRAP'1fY
Adams, W. Y.. P. E. T. Allen. and G. J, Vcrwcrs.
"Archaeolollical Survey of Sudanese Nubia."'
Kush 9 (1%1):7-43. •,
Criffilh, F. L "P'wtito~.&l.h.a ..... -Faras in GeogQ.
pity and History." }"""""I 01 Emfitln Arcluu,,1rJry
II (1925):2S9-6S.
_ _ "OJord Eu.avations ;" Nubia." lIniv<niry
0/ LWerpool Annoili 01 ArdodwIDD d~d AnJ/oroprJJ-
"C' 13 {I926):S4-9l; 14 (1927):57-116.
Jakobidski. S. fonJ.$ III, d HislGry or Ihe 8Wtopric 01
FilrtlS "" Ih~ B.!.<;. 0/ Cop,;c fn>eriphO'U, War.gw.
1972.
Michalowski. K. f,mu. Warsaw, 1974.
_ , and G. Gerster. Fi"''', die Kmhtdrale au.
de... MlilJle".a"d. Zurich and Cologne. 1967.
Milehltn. O. S. Clturclu:.;.. l.owu NubItJ. Universi'y
of Penns)1vania. £cypIian DepanIMDt of the Uni·
FARAS MURALS 1091
..,rsily MUHllm, kid.". B. Co~e Junior bpedi.
lion 10 Nubia. Vol. 2. 1910.
Vanlini. G. T1te £.,cavaliolU ", F.>rtu: A C""trib"flon
10 Ihe Hislor, 0/ Christian Nu/>ia. Bologna. 1970.
_ _ Chr;sf;t/niry in II",Sud"n. pp. 138-40, \44-
47. 8ologns. 1981.
w.UJAJoI Y. ADAMS
FARAS MURALS. The mosl spectacular arc:hae-
olopC*!. discovery of the Intema.ionaJ CampaiJn to
~"" Ih" MortumenlS of Nubia was thai of the Faru
Cathedral. buried ;n .... nd with ;\1 medi"...1 pn.>-
Il"IIm of wall decoration largely prncn'ed. Nearly
200 individual paintings were found On Ihe cathe-
dral wall$ and In adjoininl bishops' lombs. and of
Ihese 169 were we<:nsfutty remo..,d and prewrve<I
prior 10 tho: final dolnaetion of F~11AS by !he Waters
of Uk" N_r. The Fans munois. now divided be-
t""eer! the Sudan National "'..-urn and the Nation-
al M~m in Wan;tw. provide 1»' br the fuliat
surriving record of medin'al ",,81AN OIURCH Uf. By
a strolr." of lood fortune tlte Fans Cathedral h:ad
bftn abandoned and filled wilh sand before .he end
of Ihe Christian Nubian period. 110 Ihat its paintings
had been largely .pared the vandalism that has
b.,en vi.iled upon many Nubian church paintinp in
the Islamic period.
Uke 11'I05I Nubian chu,..,bes. lite Faras c..hedral
had betn periodinIly rMeconlled.. resul.ina In an
"'''''01".I&lion 0( p.imlnl; one on lap d _ber.
The silll of !he Polish e~ca.....ton and conKn"'on
....no undenool< the ....rt aJ Faraa ,,"""led them in
many"""",, 10 remow: succeuive la,,,o'5 of paintings
indiv:iduall" thus reveal ins a le!>enol d"",,,loprMn·
lalltiSlo!)' cf Nubian clturch llI1. TIt" paintings wer"
belie,..,d by Knlmien ,.,J(;HAlOWS~l. the Polish exca-
vation direclor It Faras, 10 reflect four main phases
of ..)'Iistic d<:vek>pmenl. TlteM: were de$ignaled as
lite violet S1yle (early eiGhth 10 mid-ninth «Rtu!)'),
tIte ...flile Slyle (mid-ninth 10 early t<:JIlh century).
tlte red'J"'11ow style (Ieoth cenlury). and .he mulli·
coland styM! (etleVenth aDd twelfth c",,"'riIes), Th<:
earli.". S1~'IQ an clearly similar to C<IlItempoTUy
"nmples d churc:h decomion in Egypt, as rel\ect·
ed al BAwfT, Saqqano. and dwwltere. They an char·
acleriud by oomewh.al muted colors and by 'Ie')'
fl.>nnalized and Italic ITUlment of tit" human ns·
u,..,. Tlte two laler 51)"I"s are mOre distincli""ly Nu·
bian and are characleriz"d by brilliant colol'$. lavish
Of1IIlm"ntaI detail. and sornewhac more lifelike hu-
man ligurQ.
1092 FAROUK I
Mural painune depicting Saini Michael. Faras.. Eln-
(nm «(ntw)'. Hrighl: 171 (m; width: 199 em. Coun(·
,., St<4art Artfiquiriots fUld NruM>rtdl .u.. nurtu ~rvlCf;.
~ Iarzcsc and spe<:taeubr of all 1M Faras
nJ'" • mosl
a ~nu.tion of tl>o! lllr« Hebrew
youths Shadra<:h. Mehach. :and Abechl* In 1M
!Mol)' furna«. protected by the "",hanc(1 1I1CKAfJ..
II • in the muhko.lol~:ft,.r;kand is n~ly \0 ~ec
(J m) Ion.. Othn ~,~ pa..inlinp Inc:ludol: a
(omplel nalivity Kene (which is uniqu( in lhal 1M
auutdanl shepherds are given Ihe namn of ArniM
and Lo<ko!.a), a (Ndm.ion, a dt:sc:(nl from Ihe
(roM. and porlntil.l of arcltangds, sain's. and lhe
Holy Family, T!lcre are at least nine madonnas. In
four of Ihem she io """""iated as proleclrC" with a
Nubian bishop or a member of Ihe Nubian ruling
family. Several ollter painlings are idealilCd por-
lrailS of Nubian bishops, kings, and eparclts, In
lheir ponrailo lite Nubians ar( always shown willt
dark faces, In conlnsl 10 lhe while faces of Ih(
non·Nubians.
The sequence of S1}'lislie da..,lopmcnl in lhe
Faras murals .. more or leu pllrallellcd in oUt(r
Nubian ehurches. ahhough lite multicolored 5Iy1e
SC'Cfm lO have ouched full devdopmenl only III
Faras ilStlf. Michalowo.ki bellevel ttw FaJali - . the
artistic cenlCr of Nubia. &om which odICI' ellu",h
painlen lOOk their InsplralioP. bul lhcn is noc
enough ... rvhinl ~nce lO ewobIisIl litis ckarly.
Some of the FarB pIIinl;"&' haYe been exhibiled
a1 lbc N~ Vorl< World's Fair (1964), lbc PeDI !"a.
Lais in Paris (1964), and llle Villa Hilgd in &<tn
(1969). Over one hul1odffi:l of the pooinlings are on
pcnnanenl ""ibllian in Wana", and Khartoum.
(Su dis<>: Nubian Church An.]
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Michalowski. K. FtmJ$, cenlre ,mi.r;que de la Nubu
chrili.n~c. [.eiden, 1960,
_ _ Faras, Wal"$llw, 1974.
_ _. and G. Gersler, Faral, die Kmnedra;e a"$
aem Wiijle~$a~d. Zulich and Cologne, 1967,
Vanlini. G. Tne ExcavariO'1$ al FarQS: ,( Conlribulion
ID /hc Hi.fary of ChriSI;an Nubia, pop, 201-236.
Bologna, 1970.
_ _. Clorisli".. ity i.. 110. Suda ... pp. 1049-56. B0lo-
gna. 1981.
Weiwnann. K. "Some ~marks on lhe Sou.-c<'S of
lhe Frr::sco Painlinp or Ii.. Calhedral of Fans:'
In Ku.. Sl ",,4 Gnclolelol. N"bU,u I" ehrisllidK,
Zeu. cd. E. DinkJer, ~cllinaJws$en. 1970.
WILLJA)I Y. AIIAM$
FAROUK t, Su M~mmad 'An D)lI"'ty.
FARSH"OT.1arJe lQWlI s~f'd 00 the lrit bank of
the Nil" After iI l'QUmes ics CClUne from 00Ulh 10
nonh, !l.a>in, llovotd COIIlIWY 10 ilS CUSWm from
."..1 1O "'"C5l beno."CCO Oint and Hiw. Fanhu!. wril'
len ..ith the f"minine ankle (T) in \h" Coptic Inl$.
is ...id lO ha.( oon>e from ,h( language oflhe New
Kingdom and 10 be a borrowing from Hebrew,
meaning Ihe lake (Vycichl, I98J, P. )1; tcmy, 1976,
p. )4).
This lown io f&/llnus In Copl;;; and COpla-Arabic
\ileratur( as l!lc birthplace In lhe Mlh or si~th e"n-
IUry of Saint ..11...." ..11, After havlnll be,," archiman·
<lrile of Pl>ow/Faw an<l having been <lriven nul by
lite police of Ihe emperor JUSlinian (527-565) be·
cau~ of his an1!'ChaJce<!on~n opinions. he look
refuge at Suhlj in lhe mOnaSle.,. of Shenute (DHa
ANal. SHlNODAH). He lMn founded lwo monasleries

near Fan.hol!. One for women near !he 10wn, -e.
cordinC 10 a mirxle rdaled in It.. Coptic lUI of
hi5 Uk and the other fur m .... in .he I)/tjir, lhe
Slony ana belween lhe mounlain5 and Ihe "'uhi....I·
ed ,'alley. Thi5 monaslery of mrn i5 ClI.l1ed J~ OT
J:Iadcla by the ..-eo:enston of me Syxu'o'RlO!' of lhe
Copu from Upper f.&l.l'I-
A "One STElA relates me ratonol>on of me mon·
asltry 01 Abraham in 698.. But W. E. C.... m thinks
W"' i5 nOlhinC 10 allow lIS lO idmlify the monas-
leIY 01 AnW Abr.!haln !hoe anc:hori.e 0<1 thll SIeJa
wilh lhe monaSllOf)" rounded III Fam.~ by Saini
Abnham. Accordin& To the iNlmc: aulhor. !he man-
aslery of Abraham in !he I.jfe of J>tw:nl>u' i5 wilhoul
doubt lhal of PIlO.........os al Dayr al.BaJ:>r1, the suo
perior of which, named Abnham, _ a ",onlempo-
rary of Pl:scmiw..
No ucavation 'pp"an to ha~e been tamed 01'1
in thi, ....Cion to rediscover the ....in5 of this monas·
tery.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Am~lineau, E. u. GfOfl,aphie de I"ED'P" ~ I·tpoqu~
cople. Paris. 11193.
Bud,e. E. A. W. Coptic Apocrypha in the Dialul 0{
Uppe, E,ypt. London. 1913.
Cerny, J, Copric Eryrnoloeicol Oictio",.ry. Cam'
beid,e. 1976.
Munier. H. "Lc Mo.....tm de SL Abraham i Fa...
s/lwI:' gu"ew. de I,. Sod;'ti d',.,c1,iolop d'AIu-
,."dm )0 (1936l:26-30.
Vyekht W. Di",ti<mnai,.,. ilylflOlogique de ". "'''twe
«>pIe. Lc-u.""", 19iI).
Winlock, H. E., aDd W. E. Crum. 11010 Monastery CI{
EpipJt4"i... '" 71IeWs, 2 vol... New Yorl:, 19th..
Rn;~COOOt. ..
MAllRJClI; M.orrts, S. J.
FASTINC. FastinC i5 :IU'iejlyobierved by the Copts
in IIoCcordance wilh their calendar_ 1'he custom pre-
dall!:l Chrislianily in Judaiom and anc:,enl EsYJMian
relipan. Fasts are recommended by JC'!'us (ML 6:16:
Mk. 2:20) and by the apostles (Acto 13:2, 14:23; 2
Cor. 11:27). The toul fasting days in Coplle tradl·
tion eo~er approximately IWo-Ihirds of lh~ year Or a
minimum of 250 da)'!l.
In their ~ts. lhe Cop's avoid meat and all animal
eJiracts ineh.ding eus, milk. buller, and cheese.
Fi~h II also prohibiled in Ihe fasts of Jonah, Our
Lady, and especially Lent. It ~ said thai th~ fOMy
da)'!l of Lent COincided with a. similar period during
which the ancient Egyptian~ also refrained from
FASTING 1093
eatill& tih Ihrough the $p&wnint - - . ; n the Nile.
This renders thai lradilion wilh lhe CoplS okler
!han ohIo introd"etinfI of Chrislianity.
CcJpl.M: monks, as«IM:s. and solilarie5 often pushed
fasting far beyond the canonical pntCIices. They
f:Il5l.e:d the wbnIc year, and ~tly .tic only OIIe
meal afl:er $UI\SI!:'l.
Fut of the Apoallu
This f:w. commemonln lhe b5I observed by !he
disciples after the Nc:enslon of Chmt (Acto 10:10;
12:2.3; 14:21-24; Xl:9. 21).
" ..arts on the Monday that iollows PenlecOSl:
and ends on 5 Ablb, when tile Coptioc chun::h cdc-
bratn lhe feall of oh~ apostlC'!' Peler and Paul.
Since Pemec05l is a movable feast, Ihis fast "'" no
~Kcd duration, but ,,,,ri" betWl!:Cn fifteen and rony·
nine days.
According to the COllstilutiollS of Ihe Hoiy Fatlre,s
5.20: "', , . after you ha'"e kepI Ihl' felti,,,,l of Pente-
,,~t. keep one wl!:flk rna .... festival. and after that
faS!: ror it i. reasonable to rejoice for the gift of
God, and 10 fast after that relllltation" (Constiru-
ti'm•. 1951, p. 449). The Coptic church. however,
5U.rt! the fast. immedialely after Pentecost.
n.e fifty days followin, Ihe R"uTre<'lion ~ a
period of rejoicing durin. whkh it i5 not pnlflC"T 10
fasI. "Can the weddin, guI!:SU moum as Ion& ... !he
bridc&J"OOll' i5 "'lh lhem? The days ..ill COllIe.
when the bridegroom is miter> away from them, and
tJoen they ",ill fasl" (Mt. 9:15). The falhers ha•..,
~ this ""int in !heir "'mings, Tertullian (c.
160-220) sA:ltt •.....·10 eOfll.du II unla...full0 fast or
10 pnl)' knee/in&- upon the Lord'a Day; "'.., enjoy the
5&O\e libert)· from Easter-day 10 thac 01. Penteooo.t··
(De corornt, 1910. p. 9-4).
A spe<:W rite iJ; followot'd in lhe Ct"Jeb~ of the
DMne Liwru durin, the fasI of the ~ espe-
cially in the daily Psalmodia and Ihe Fraclion. A
complete fasI i5 also ktpe unt,llhr_ o'clock in the
ahernoon, thaI is. the nimh canonical hour.
FaSI or "eradlua
This seven-day bst is auribvte<l to Emperor Hera·
dius (575-1>42), who rescued Ihe holy cros.~ from
Ihe PeThian. in 629 and rescored it 10 Golgotha. It is
erroneously linked wilh the CoptiC church, and tal<·
en 10 account for the /irst 5l'~en of the fifty-fi,'e days
forming the Coptic Grfat Lcol, The misconception
an," from the following historical event,
When tM triumphanc emperor ",a<:hed Tiberia<
In hi. way back from Persia. he was lobbied by lhe
1094 FASTING
J~ population wbo ,.,""~ Illmugh Ia>ish
&ifu; in acquit;". his writlen pl~ oJ. SK\Irily. This
they did 10 foratall any poo.5ibl.e acts of relriootion
on W lW1 d lhe Chri$l:ian popu!alion of !he Holy
Uond. ~, on his a>TinI al Juusalcm. ~
Chrislians p:>inted oul 10 lhe empero~ con<:re..~ e>;'
~""e dille dcYa$lalion caused by the Jews during
Ihe yean oJ. the Persilton o<:<:UpAtion and urrd him
10 punish Ihem. Heracllus was ill !irs.! rclue,-nt 10
<kpan from the promi.le of securily he had juSI
granted. but Ihe Byunline palriarch of Jerusalem
and ni. bishops argued thllt a promise made un<.ler
fraud would not be binding. Funnermou, 10 allay
hi. misgivings, Ihey offered to in.litute a week's fasl
in expiation of hi. breach of promise and to write
10 other churche:s 10 this ell'~l. E...emually. HerxU·
us pve orders for the massacre of w J~ popu'
blion of Je~nl.
n.. SlOTy oceun in Ille ehroniclft oJ. Sa1d ibn
Ball1q (887-940), lhe Mclcltile piilrWch in EcYPt,
coml'DOllly known. Eutydlius, aDd .,thor of KilAh
H..,.. tzl.J....I!v (The Sinnl of P~). 11 also 8p'
pan in J1t·Kh~ .......... /.,('hA' by a1~ (1364·
1442) and in ....rious ec:clcsi;wical hi$Wries by, 10
mention a few, SA....I.U$ IIIN ALMI.~A' and Jiojis
ibn a1-'Amld, known. Ibn a1-Makin (1205-1273).
The authenticily of SOme dcUtils oJ. lhis SIOry.
howcv~, is questionable. in new of apparent d;s.
crepancie•. For while both EUly<hius. and al·Maqrl:zl
stote thai the week's fUI ""'" to be o~~d In
"",rpctui!y, Ibn al.M"kln limits it to fony yearll,
Apin. according to one version, the Jews of Jerusa·
lem are said to have been enliuly wiped out. but in
.lIOther "en;o" \hey were only exile<! to EcJ.'I'1 and
other count';"'" One hislorian confines the massa·
cre to Jerusalem and Galilee, olhen nlend illo Ihe
",hole of ~'ria .nd Ect'Pt. Some commentalors beo
Ii.,..., !hat the lasI was a YOlive oHerilll: made br
Hendius himself just before embulci"l on his clV'
$8dc spinsl W Pc.....
Whatn-cr the case ,"""y be. the said lasI of Her..
<:lius is cornp6etely allen to !he Copl:ic church and
its fasts for th~ foIlowinl reawns:
AI the lime of H~I1Ic1ius, the church of Aluan·
dna had seve""" its links with Con.... nlinopl~ and
established ilS own fasts as part of its uclusivc rites
and praclices, which wauk! '1<11 be affected by fOf'
ei,n ",'enls oucb as • massacre of Jews in JerulllO-
lern,
The tension belween the Coptic palriarch~ of AI·
""andria and representative. of Con~tantlnople had
reached. it. utmosl limits and pt"cvente<l contact be·
tween 1M IWO sjoks and any uchange of ,'iews or
recommendadons. This "';IS the C8S<C a. the time of
Pope ~SA$\'UlUI (1lO5-6l6). who _ exiled from
his J-fuJ seal in Aleundria. and Pope _0/o1CU5
(616-6221. his st>«asor, and also durinclhe pap;>-
cy of ..:NJ....1/i t (622-661) who was in uile unlil
the ARAB OONQUtST Of EGYPT io 640.
Ever sinclI: the end of the second cenlury when
Pope DEMEI'aJUS 1 rwrpnittd Coptic fasts, they had
become unalterable. The lim ",'.-.:k of lhe C,eal
unl was integrale<! into lifty·five days of lhe fast
p.eceding Easler.
It is remarkable that Euty<hius and Ibn ai-MakIn
each give another juslification for thi_ week', WI_
i1te fo"""r uplains that it was added by way of a
prelude o. prepooralion. while the lan~r reckons
IhaltM addition of one week made up for the total
....
e>.clusion of S6lurday and Sunday fronl tbe lenlen
Accordinlto the Itslimony of Etheria (or £&erial.
the Spanish tr.. vel~ who visiled the Holy Lands in
382 and 3U (Pue,,;... 1io JlnltuUle, 1919), the
church of Jerusa.J.ern obst..ed &II ri&h"'..eek &sI
~ East.,.,..
Fasl of Jonah
AI... dco....led lhe Fasl of Nineveh, Ibi:1 f... is
obsenied 10 commemorale tbe penance of lhe Nin·
",-it"" at the preaching of Jonah (Jon. 3:1-10).
This fast wall originally kept by the S)'rian Ortho-
dox Cnurch and wlS adopted as one of Ihe fasts of
the Coptic church by Patriarch ~a""HAM, the si.ty·
second pope of Alu•• ndria (975-978), as s marl< of
unity and solidarity bet"""",n the lwo sisler ~hurch·
<.
It lasts for three wbole days, represemill& the
lime spent by Jonah inside the whale, >laning on a
Monday. aboul 1"'0 ....,.,b before lhe bqinnina of
~ weal Unl. Uturgies ..... held daily;n lhe aft.,...
DOOD. The eal;n. of fish and all forms of animal rat
is not allowed dun,. thi. fast.
The fnoclion prayers appointe<l 10 be ~d duri"ll
!be lillUP:al senice i""lllde<! th.c following words:
HII was Ih"""" fasling: and prll)...... obse,o....d by lhe
people of Nineveh, lhal God had mtrey on lhem,
foq:a>'e Iheir sim, and turned His wra.h away from
them."
Lenl
Great Lent. as diltinci from the little fast that
precedes the feast of th. Nali,ity, is observed in
commemoration of the fony-.Jay 12s1 (If the Lord
Jesus Christ (MI. •:2; Ii. 4:2), aft.r which the

chun:h oburvu Holy Week in memot)' of Chrisl's
passion.
1nI1 has been obstn-e<l by Ibe church ner since
lhe apos.olic age_ Accordi", '0 the Coou,ilu,ioots 01
1M Holy FfUM'''' -". the fzt of lent Is 10 be aD.
served by you as conwnlng a memorial of OUr
Lard's mode of 1m and legislation. Bul lei Ihis _
Iemllil)" ~ ~ l>fton, the fast: of thor: p&UOW'f.
.. ,Ann ",'hich _.. ~ 1M holy week of I~ pass-
0""eI'" fasrh'& In !he same all of you with fear and
tn:mblinc .. :' (C""'lilurions 5.18, p. 443). n.e
penally for failure 10 observe Lent is laid down in
the C.no.., 01 tire Holy Aposl/n: -If any bishop, or
pre:sbyler. or deacon, or rnder. or si,.,..r dou noc
(,..1 Ihe fasl of thor: IOny dayS of holy (.,ent, Or .he
founh day of t"" week. and Ihe <by of the p~.
lion, 1111 him ~ dO'prh-al, "",cep{ he he hindered by
weakness of body. Bul if he be one of tl><; laity, leI
him be e~communkaled"(Co'Htilut",,,S, <:SOnan 69,
p, 504: .... pos'01lc.1 C."""s 69, p. 598; Cummings,
1957. p. 122),
Reference to Ihe imponance of obse ....lng U:m
occul'$ in Ihe wrilings of Ihe early fathers of Ihe
church.
In Ihe urly church. Lent began on the day ailer
the fust of Epiphany (...... ff.MTS, MAlak). In imha·
lion of Chrisl. who fasted immedialely after Hb
baptism (MI. 3,16,4:2; Ii. 4;1,2). Holy Week was
obseO'ed as a sq>arate fast 10 coincide with lhe
Jewtsh I'assover, QCcurri"ll SOme time betwttn lhe
twO monlhs of 8:>ramh.l1 and Diu'amUdi>h of .he
Coplic eaknd:sr. To....rd II", end of the second cm·
IUry, ""","",r, Demetrius I establ.o.haI the cpa<:t
~em of compUlatiort. and joined the holy fal,c to
Passion Week. M 0""' continUOU!i and unimetTUp.ed
""riod of fast:inl prior 10 the celelrr.Won of the
ResurTeCtion.
Great Lenl IIISIS fifty-fi"e days, heinl the Iony da)'l
thai Jesus O"i... lasted, wi,h the addition of Holy
m"bsl.
Wttk as the final ..-e:dr. of and an imroduc'
tor)I ""cck of preparMion. in view of lhe panlcular
significance oJ Lent.
More lhan one inl~rprelation. bmo."f:\·~r. has been
suggesled rqarding this imroduclory week. I. has
bun calkd. for iTl$lance, the fast of He<1IIClius (see
abo>'e), Al'6AFl 18N .... ·ASS~L. who anledated Heracll-
uS hy several cent"ri .... nates that "all m~n and
wOmen should omerve Great Lent for eight w«b
e>lending from Ihe end of winter until the begin·
ning of summer" (1927, chap. IS, p, 1(2).
Another Interpretation was given by cenaln
church historian., such as Jirjis ibn al··Amld, and
Abu·Shaklr ibn al·RJhlb ihn-Bmrus ibn al'Muh.adh·
FASTING 1095
dhab (thineemh century). who "plain lhal a fur·
lher week was imposed by lhe church in yiew 01
the dilfen:nce in lhe practice of fasling on Satur-
daY" and Sundays. Slricdy $peru",. unlike other
weekda).... fasbnl On these lWO pankubr day$
$Il.ould not be a total abslinmce bdwee-n 1loe fiISl
canonical hour 01 the day (6 AJol.) IlJld the eleventh
hour (5 ~SII.). with 1loe aoeption of the ~ Saturday
in Passion Week, thai is. Greal Saturday. on ",ilkh
the body of Jesus ChriS! was Mill !yinl in the graft_
To lftIke up for lhe difflll'CnCC, a ,,~ ~ th~
fore added at the bqinoinl of (.,en..
Thmu&bout Great Len.. the lituTJY is celehr.otcd
on .... eekdays bet....... n the ninth and e1e,-enth ca-
nonical houn. that is. from three 10 6w: o'dock in
the afternoon. but on SaturdaY" and Sunda)'5 it is
held as usual earlier in the day. It is al"" "",nhy of
note Ihat it Is frequently taken from the Anaphora
of Saint Cyril, al"" kno....n tIS Ihat of Saint Mark.
According to the stipulalions of canons 51 and 52
of the S}'nod of Laodicea (343-381), no weddings
or birthdays a... to be celebrated during the season
of Lem. and the faithful should abslain from aCliyi·
tic' of a festal nature, or Ihose in>'olvinll physical
enjoymenl or plcasure.
Faat or the Nativity
The fast of lhe Nllmly innriably he';... on 16
HaUlr 01 the Coptic caJmdar and ends on lhe eye 01
29 Kiyahk. thus coverinl ro",...hr« days. Originally
it "''25 obsen."Cd for forty days only. but toward the
end of the leoth CClIIUI)'. three days we.... added 10
il 10 C<>IIlfDl'morate the mineulous evenl of the
Ill<WtnI 01 the Mu~~ hill in Cairo during the
palriatthale 01 Abnharn. The SlOry cl this ewnl
I"... around the: ch.allenge by a1·Mu~1ZZ. ..... Fati-
mid caliph ('152-975), 10 lhe Coptic: patrian:h 10
prtn'C the truth ~ the ..yinc of Jaus (Mt. 17:20)
that bid> could mQ>'e mountains. Aco;on:!ingly, the
patriarch. together ",-jth .he Coplic. communily.
kept ,'igiI and pr.oyen fO<' three days and nighlS•
..hich nemually p",,-al efficacious in mO>'inc: al.
MuqaHam.
This fast ....as ordained by 1M chun:h as a spirilu-
al prepar.otion prior to the celebration of the Nativi-
ty of the Logos, ju..... In the Old Testa"",nt M~
observed a fas. for fony daY' and nllhlS before
recei,'lng the word of God in the form of Ihe Ten
Commandments (E.-<, 34:26).
The nrict observance of this fast necessitates tOlal
daily abstinence from food 1111 Ihree o'clock in the
afternoon and from ealinl animal fat afterward.
1096 FASTING
~I the monlh 01 Kiyahk. tM church
. a 6 1M Kiyahbn p..lwoodi4. ...itich re>ol.'cs
amu".f t~ t~""'" of tM incamatioo of tM Lop.
the Son of God. and the Pl1lu., of the TJrtoroiOJ
(mot~r of God). The Divine LiIU'l!Y abo includes
lhn $pe~~1 m.clion: "0 Master Lord our God. who
art unseen, unlimiled, unchanguble and incomp",,·
henslble: who senl uS the True Light. His only'
beJOuen Son Jesus Christ. the Logo.; who abideth
everll$linaly in Your Fatherly bosom. and came
and d.....,lt in the Virgin" undefiled ...'Omb. She pvc
birth 10 Him. ",,~ning a -;TJin. and her villinily
is sealed. The .....geU praiw Him, .....d tM heavenly
hoN clwu unlo Him. Crylll&: Holy. Holy, Holy. lhe
Lord of Sal-Kh, heaven and &nh are 'lied "'llh
Thy I>oIy alo<Y.~
Fasl or the VI"tn Mary
Thil lift""n·day b:<l covers lhe firsl lwo wttb of
lhe monlh of Misri and endl with l~ feast of lhe
Assumpllon of lhe Virgin Mary.
Mention is made of lhil fMI by the thirteenth·
cenlury wriler al-~ ibn al··"",,,1 in hi. /(il~b ~I·
Qd...."./II (Book of Canon Law), whe"" it is memO
l(> 86 f"''''''
'Id Q/-$ayyldah (lhe WI pl'f:CCding the
~t of our Lady).
This b:sl i' _ widely obse ....ed amona Copts 01
aU "CU, who kt:qI il with puticuIar abstention
from ealina fi>h and all food substanU$ tha.t in·
clude &1. 011. or iu products. II is abo <:UStoolal)'
for ....ny people 10 pncllce full abslent>on. eating
only one meal at the end of the day. ioU.....·inalhe
cdehnlion of the liturgy. Other people may also
extend lheir bst by a.dding a week before and "fter
the p""scribcd period.
Wednesday and Friday
The Coplic ch'fl'Ch ordai.... thaI Wednesday and
Friday be ......." I I fast days. the former bring
tlH: day on ..t.ich,Jesus Christ _ condemned 10
be crucified. and the laller being Ibe day on which
His <;~11 lOOk pbce.. 11\is lasl appta
lhrougboo.ll the year, with the I'ollowing ncqICtono:
during ,he fifI}· da.ys fOllowing Eastff; <x should lhe!
kas' of lhe Nativity (29 Klyahk) <x of the Epiphany
(II TObUl) Ian on either day.
The lui. which;,; kepi IInlil three o'dock in the
aflernoon. lhat is. the ninlh canonieal hour, entails
ab&lenllon from food&IUff& cOlltaining animal fal&,
ror the ""&I of the day.
R.ference to Wednesday and Friday fuu <>ccun
in ,.. riouf sources wch as lhe Did....Ulli.. (1929,
chap. I'), lhe Di.heJu (19st, chap. '). Canon 69 oi
the Apo&lollc c...ons. in Ibn al··AssaI', AI.J./..jmi/..I·
s"t"wt (chap. 13. iii), and in Ibn a1·l\.luqalla"& Nit,o-
ry 0/ Ihe P'lIri"TCIls (1949. Vol. ~. pl. J. pp. 161.
168).
h. impot'1ance ......u also Stressed b1 Clemenl of
Aluandria (c, 150-215) in S"omala, vii. 12 (1956.
p. 544): Tertullian (c. 160-c. 220) in 0 .. Fa$ling, xlv
(1951. Vol. 4, p, lI2): and Peter of Alexandria the
MMtyr (d. )11) in his fift.,.,nlh Canon (19~, xi>', p.
6(1).
BlJll.ll)(:aAPHY
k'ad Rustun>. K.m..t Mair",,1 AII4Jt An{~ "I·
'U9'!', Vol. I. pp. 4la_H. Beirul, 195!.
Aliya, A. S. A NisIOr)' 01 E.. It~m Cltristi"Ni(y. lon-
don. 1961.
Audet. J. P. La Did"cM.- '''SI,...:tions du ApQ/I't~.
Paris, 1933.
Burmes'er. 0, H, E. Th. Etyprl..n o. Cop/ic Ch"'ch.
Cairo, 1967.
Bntclter. I!.. L Th. Story of Ih. Church of Etypl.
Vol. 2. pp, lIS. 139. 1.0."lon, lS97.
Buller, A. J, TJre Arab C.,.,q"ul of Eopl, ilna Ih.
L ....I Tlti,,, Y~an of the ROI'Iiln Domi"ioN. pp.
136. 16L O!Iford. 1902.
are. Wl:l6a wassd". Pr..tiquu n·tut/k• • 1 tllmt....
III~ du CO(1f." Cairo, 1971.
Connolly. It H. DidIUC.J", A,ostolonl.... o.:foo-d,
1919. Repr.. 1969_
Cumminp, D. T1K IWdtJrr. ChicalO. 1957.
I:U~ ot..-ud. JlI-DisqUliyy"h "'" r"'lit",, "I·RI/U"I,
2nd «I.. p, 17L Cairo, 1940.
Homer, S. Th. S,al"u. of Ihe .41'0<11.,. 01' Cllmm~~
Ecd~sill"lici, London. 1'Kl4.
Ibn a1-'Asdl, al~fl. AI·M.. jm,' ·al·S~f~wl. Repr.
Cairo. 1908.
_::-~ /(;I~b ~1.Q~wan!n. pp. 1)7. 1)9, 142. Repr.
Cairo. 1927.
Ibn Sib;t.· YQl)annA ibn AhI' l.aur'I"y;i. Kildb ..I·JII ....
""rail IIJ.N~~ fi 'Ulimt 1I1./(""lsiI.h. «I. Viklur
Man~r. pp. 52, 53. Cairo, 1902. T~ inlO latin
*& I'rtriou ... ~"Cllri.ra d. JcirnliiJ «ck$i4$lids by
Vincentio Mi$Il1I:I- Cairo, 1966.
bidhorus. Kil.b III-Klt<Utthh "I-Ndf;s.h " Tlinkll ",I·
K.rrbllll, )rd cd. Vol. 2. pp. 90. 91. Cairo, 1923.
Kirullus a1·An!iinl. AI-{)ib! _qllll.Flldt IIJ-'Arllbl, pp.
51-53. 2"-20. Cairo. 1955.
Linsen""llr. A. Em...icl'/u"1 der ~irchlichDt fllJl-
."diwpli" ItiJ ;;"rn KO"til VOn Nicdell, Munich.
IS77.
L'I,le. J. de, Hiuaire dagmarlq.. ',t morale d" ;etl",.
Paris, 1741.
Maclean. A. J. Th. Ande." Ch"rch Ord.... Cam·
bridge. 1810,

Niwn MIni.. 'II", II/.lAhill, Vol. 3, P. 421. Cairo,
1938.
'e~,""lIfio At'he>iD.e_ n... Pilgrinul.ge II{ EdNn.,
tram. M. L Mcl.w'e and C. L ""'llM. London and
~ York.. 1919.
{}II!"J"I<1ftS "I~ ...... 1l1-K<dnr. pp. 4. 5, 21. c.iro.
1~3,
S.1d ibn Ba!riq. Kildb N";[7ft tIl.}"""IrIl'. Vol.. 2, pp.
5-7. Beirut, 1905.
Suicer, J. C. 71Iua ..rus rcc~>linu. Amsterdam,
1721.
~. L TrIl;li de ;e.:.".... de N,Jiu. ",,.;,.
1615.
viIl«ourt. L "La Obsen'3nCeli litu....quu et Ia dis-
cipline du jeWle dans I'~ise coptc.. .. E..UrplS
from U Mus/on 36.37,38 (1923-1915).
Y~nI SalAmah. Xildb ,,/·Le'''l'' ,,/.NII{is4h "
SIr",~ fuqu. "'II-J.IU'IIlq<MIJI III-KII,,'~Ir. Vol. 2.
P!'. J71-73. Cairo, 1909_
ARCHBtSIfOP B~SIUOS
FATlMlDS AND THE COPTS. h is dlfficuh to
give a complete piclure oIlhe situation of lhe ColliS
unckr Ihe F.'irnid dynasly (972-1171). Ccnen!llly
~ini the caliphs wrre very tolerant toward
tllem. e.cel't during IW<I vcry ten... periods thlrot
even brought persecution; under al'W,KIIll (9%-
1021) and durinl Ihe reign of Ihe Iasl caliph, al.
'..\4id. With Ihe coming of Shirltuh and Ihe ~o...
lion of Sunni Islam after at- 'A4id. the ~i ... of ~aI;I
al·[)fn (Saladin) . . ."'d badly f.,.- Ihe des(ructlon
of churches.
n.e Copu occupied maDJ important ~e postS
durini moll of the F.tim>d period. Thq .... not
actu.Uy an in-.uion oc the ~n of the F.limids.
When they aniwd in £&ypc. Ge"" ..l Jawh.ar and
hiI mauer, .1·Mu·iz:r. (972-97Sl, found Jews .nd
Ch~ian:lI on dilJCf'Cflt lcvcb ollhe adminislnotion.
aod they were wise c"""8;h to clLanie no!hi"i in
Ibis matter. A1."Am (97S~~) was the fiBI of the
Falimidi 10 bestow the tide of vWcr, and Abtl aI·
Fanj Y.·qilb ibn Killis ..... me fint recipient. But
he had. in facl, alrcady abandooed the Jewish
reliiion before tM F....imidi anived in EoPt. On
\he contrary. the Chrntian '1$.1 ibn Nu!OtllS. who
held the same pt)S( from OIl,;; aI-qo.·dah 3gS/Oecem·
ber 995 until Ram;a4an 386/ScplenlMr-Ot::loQer
9%, dler bring finandal "",reJary, hpt hil
religion. Perhaps he showed mOre favor Ihan was
tolerated to his fellow Christians was rumored
10 lhe caliph. Whatever the c.u he, was dismissed
from hi, poll. tOllether wilh mhcr Chri..ians In offi·
d.lpositions. Shonly aftel'Wll.rd. bowt>'er. 'llll was
FATIMIDS AND THE COPTS 1097
mnsuJled On the mtel"V<"nlion of aJ."A$'1 fa•..,rilC
daucJu:tf. the famous Sill .1·Mulk, OIl condition that
he pay • &ne of .300.000 dlnan 10 the Treasury_
C!lrisliam occupied imponant POI",.1so during the
rriI;n of ai-Ziltir (1021-1035). For i~WK:e, Majli
Ibn NM!'inu ...... in lhe Dfwll.. • 1."Ablo4.< (........ Iy
=-eooed for- Muslims). Abo1 Ghilib al~y8 ill lhc
Dfwjn ~-K}"u.i (al·Maqrizl, tai'.~ Vol. 2, pp. 161.
163). A ccnain number of Copts, who had been
COllvr:ru:d I". fonoe to Islam lkarin"he pcnccution
unde>- al-l:'Jokim, look ao:t...,....e of the casing or
theu- lituation 10 come back to Chrisli&nity_ Bul in
102S Abo Zabriyyi, • Chrislian ""ho had bccolRC
Muslim. was beheaded in Cairo for ha'rinc ..,tumed
to his fonner ",Iigion (a1.Maqf1Xf. IlIi'''-~ Vol. 2, p.
1*1·
The", ""em 10 have been no slgl'ific.nt changes
in the siluation of the Copts during the reign of
al·Mustan~ir (IOJ5-1094). A cen.in hardening of
go,'ernment policy tow.rd them m.y have bccn due
to the deterioration of the relalionship bctween
Constantinople .nd cairo. At the bcglnning of the
rcign, a lrealy with the Byzantine, pennined Ihe
reconstruction of Ihe Church of lhe Holy Sepulcher
in Jeru.saJem. laler on there were exchanges of
ambassadors and gifu. But in 1055-1056, after a
ckleptiort from Baghdad had been allowed to pmy
;n Constantinople in the name of the Abbasid no·
liph, thc Fatjmidl permiued Ihe Church of the Holy
Scpuleher to be pilb&ecI. while othc.- churches
-.e dosed in £cpt .nd Syria and the 1I2Y,," (poll
IU) "'as .upnemed. In 1066-1067, siny-tlu-e.e
monb .....e re auusinalecl near a1·AIohmUnayn. This
bsl ew:nt, it .. true, _ a ~e""e« disorders
in the region and not directly lhe faull nf Ibc «n-
uaI c<""Cf1UlICI1l.
The first _ineT of aI·Amlr (1101-1130), a1-Afdal.
appoill"'" • Chriolian and • Jew 10 Ihe "-d «the
Df...." .l·/a1}qtq (office of justice) that he had just
founded (1107-1103) 10 wperrise expendilW'c. Tbc
Christian. Abu al-&raUt Yu!p.nnl ibn Abi la}'Ih,
held this post until hls atcUtion in 113<1. In addi-
.ion. the monk Ibn Qan .... played afI importanl role
.t the end of the reign of aI·Ami<.
Under a1·l:IAfiz (11lO-114~) lhe afllj·Armenian reo
action that folloWC'\l. on 8ahrlm's fall had reptr"CUl-
lioll' in the CopIk community. The new virier.
Ri<;lwan (1138), removed many offici.ls .nd rcvi"ed
• number of discriminatory me8llUrei .gainst 1l01l-
Mu,lims. such as the wearing of special clothe. and
the prohibition on "noble" transpon. &sidtl Bah-
rim ....e kno... of olher Chrlstlans In Ihe caliph's
circle. Abo. Sa'ld ibn Ourqah ....., one of his doc·
1098 FATIMlDS AND THE COPTS
lOB. Havilla _.<<<<1 \0 prqxlre poi$Oll for H.....n.
• 1·J:llofi~·$ 100II, he was pUt (0 death and hOs pooses'
slon, were given to his Jewish colleague. AbU Bah
al·..uhram was k<2rib (..ecrela!)') with ute",i,'., pow.
~ l...a1er on. in 1146.11.7, he was u"",uted for
conuption. One of oh.. c~iph's as.lrologers "''as ,.
Chri5tian named MUsIo.
It is more difficult to _ the dally COnla<:~ of
th.. two communities. 0.. Ihis ",aile. IOU"''''' are
ve., ~r. We j>OSSC'5oS lOme indications thai in
gene",1 Christians and Muslims coedSled peaceful.
ly in Fatlmid Egypt. Chrisdans and Muslim. mel for
certain fCOl5I$. At Muslim marriages it was Ihe cus-
lorn for CoPI$ of ,"ItA to ling in pro«Mion befou
Ihe bridegroom (AbU $Ali~. 1895. p. 102). wbile 1he
Muslim population of CaIro loOk pan in ,;lrious
rit"" oi !IOmC Copl:ic fea>u. lor example, EpipbaJly
and ~w Ynr. More th.an once die caliphs renewed
w:aminl:5 apins. this moo ..... ",hich P'"O"ed that the
_mingo were di.,.,garded. for example, al·'Allz
forb<>~ the celebration of Epiphany in 978, as did
al·Hakim in lOll. aut on the New Yur f,,""t of
998, the Chri>tian secretary ABU A!.-'AU' YAI<O t8>l
tBaAHIM was ~t officially, while in 1025 the
c~iph al-~iT _ accompanied 10 the cdebr.uions
by h;s wiw:s. He o.Ut:d only thaI ~tuslims and Chri..
ria... refr.Un from bathi". ~ther in lhe Nile. A.l
certain periods, lor e.umpk, al Chris..n.....d £as.
ter. the c~iph's pal"",e Mnl gifu, among which
were sj)l'dally minted dinars, 10 lhe ChriSlian nfIi,
dais (AI·Maqrlzl, Khi!Q(, Vol. I, pp. 265, 494~(5).
II mu", nOl be supposed, however, that Ihe Cop«
en;oycd full ....ligious libeny al the lime of the Fal;'
mids. Careful reading of lhe work of loBO VoJ.JJ:I 1M!!
.l1l.ItE!<Wl showo., in rael, dw Y"Y few n~ churclt·
es Wef'e built in Ef;ypt. The ChristiaJu had to can·
ltol them.sdves ...."itIt rescoring " ... ones b.lIeu inlO
ruins. ""'cordial: 10 lbe mm0U5 CO\'ENANT OF 'UM.U..
The same was lrut; for lhe m""""'eria. It hapj)l'Md
Ihat one or anoth" monaslery wao fTeqllenled and
heij)l'd financially py a Muslim vider or even a
-ere
caliph, bul lhe.., .... i50laled incidents (Abu ~;l.t,
I89'S. pp. 62 and 89). The Copts, who 81 thaI lime
............ far ~ numerous !han today in ~'JII. had
lhe kpIlllWU> of Dhimtnis applit<l 10 them. 1C\'<:n if
the Fallmids Inlerpreted It with a certain Rexibilil)',
ObviOU$ly, the rdalioruhips of Falimlds and Byz-
ani in... were markd by Ihe incessanl struggle be-
I....'een the tWO empires. However, they enjoyed peri,
ods of calm when diplomac)' had the upper hand,
Already in 957-9~, before lite conquell of EtlYJ't.
aI-Mu'izl and Constantine VlI had changed am·
bnrnnrs. Th.. caliph's en>'O)'$ _ said to have
brou&hl I manuscripl, enti1led A!.~w. .. ~
MosfJ,.iyy.h r""'" Chrislian ~e"). in whith II·
Mu'i"" invlled Ihe emperor 10 cOnven to Islam.
Ahhouah the tentative was unsuccessful. al leasl a
trealy was arranged belween lhe two sovc"";Mns.
But .....hen the Byumlncs llt13ckd Crete in %1,
a1·Mu'iu. re\'Oked lhe lI'ealy and ...oughl of ~
ing an npcdition 10 defend the i5land. We have lWO
lctteJ"!!l add~ by the caliph to lhe Ikhshldid amir
of Eg)lK and In the emperor 1Wnw>'" II, rnpee'
lively. In lhe fil'Sl, .a\·Mu'izl;ltS\<ed 'AUal-lkhshld to
suppon a campa!&n a""in51 Crele. But it....erna Itle
expedition failed for wanl of a response from Ihe
amir. The island fell into Ihe hands of the By""n·
tines and only in 1669...... hen conquered by the
0110<"113111I, did il reven In tbc Muslims. Man, Cr..·
Ian Muslims .........e taken poioonen and deponed,
..ili.le othC'n. IIl'er'C forcibly conYene.l 10 Otristianity.
Ib<t aI·Athlr spcUs of another dopuuolion that wenl
to Mahdin-h in 968. Aft.. r his ani,·. in EcYJ'I:,
al.M.. ~"Il:t carried on Ihe olruggle againsl the By7.at>-
lines. bUI h;s army met with unequal results,
lhouah he managed to caplure Tripoli and Beirul
(975), he was repulsed before Anl'kiyah. The ca·
liph, however. continued to receive en\'Ojo'$ from
BY""ndom Onlil near his death In 975_
AI··.uIz'"s rei&n "115 muted by an allP05l comlnu·
ous 61:ht apDw the Creeks fur the poMCSaion of
Syria, and especially the AIcppo «'lion. No doubt I
de~pdon "..,,1 by Basil II in 987 managed 10 co'"
dude I Mven yeal"$' lruce lhal, among other eond"
liono, included the liberation of lhelr Muslim prls·
onel'$ by lhe Byzanline. and an undenakinll to have
the pnyer in the name oi the Fatimid caliph reciled
in the mosqut of Coniltalllinople. Bul liltle allC'l>'
Don was paid to this lruce; 10 aJ·'Arlz's dellh,
flghti. . wenl on f...- lhe, ·ion of Aleppo, and
lht emperor Basil II thoughl it ncecsaary to join the
eampaien personally. On the Falimid sid.., 100, an
e~tremely well~uippcd expedilionary fon:e was
prepared. A first fleet comlructed On I"" orders "
lhe ,-izier. 'Isa ibn N..,urus, having been destroyed
by fire, other ooal$ were immedialely buill 10 re·
pLo.,., Ihem and senl 10 al""'k the pon nf Anllll1t1<
(996). II ...._ a b,ilu...., The c:aliph died .0.1 lhe head
of his army at Bilbris in Octob« 996.
As _ as a1·~ir ascended lhe throne, the re-
genl Sin aI-M.. ll< sent Nicephoru.. the palriarch of
J<.'T\l$:Illem. to lead an embassy 10 Cons<anlinople.
bUI il Clme 10 nolhlng. A fresh lenlalive in lOn.
however, was crowned wilh .uccess. The truce Call'
"'ined the followinll provisionl: the ....COlllitruCIlon
of 1M Church of the Holy SepulchC'r and the
churches thaI had ~ dl:SIJ'O)'fll by a1-l:J.lkirn in
EcYJ'I:; lhe Fatitnids 10 desisl from helping Sicily

apirnt 8~"lium; a Bynonli~ ""Irian:h 10 be
namfd al J~n.ualtm; th" "",,er- 10 be made In lh~
nlIm~ of al-~~ in ConsIanlinopl". where lh"
rntlil:lu~ .... 10 be r«ofUlrUCled (il had b«n d~
molWw<! aft"r lilt dt:suuction of the Chun:h or !he
Holy Sepulcher); ITW", el M...lim prisoMri Mid
by lhe Greek.; and the Byzantints not to Mip ~
S)'rilln oppontTllS el tht FatimOds.. 'Tlti$ Ir'l«'t mded
in 1011 ....'bm 1M !lyJ;antines supported lhe S)Tian
bedooiM' TeYOII "Pins! Fatirnid rule.
Rebliom impro\'e<! under "'-M~. A lruc:~
.... concluded in 103& with tht ~m~r Miehael
tv. This providtd for ..... rrc_ruclion of lhe
Chun:h of lhe Holy Sepulcher in Cl<chang~ for the
liberation or S.OOO MtWim pri5ODtrl. A fnesh em-
busy SCnl b~ Con.Utnlin" IX arrh~ in Cairo in
Il>4S-IQ.l6 ,,·ilh sumptuous gifts (the.... was Utlk of
300.000 gold dinars). The Ireaty or 1038 was re-
newed in 1048. But a new period ollenslon sUlned
when the empero~ nellolialtd ...ilh the Saljuqids of
Iklghdad, and Ihe prayer at Conslantlnople was
made In lhe name of Ihe .ultan Toght\llbcg. This
w3ll ""nicularly true under tbe empren Zo!!, In
,......eng~•• 1·Must,.,,~r had the Chun:h of the Holy
~puleher pillagtd. and he foTced Ih" Chrl$tians in
Jernsalem to live in .. special dmrici.
Amb¥'3'lon wen, exchanged. again durina Ih.~
second half of Ihe el ....enlh c"nlul')' (e.... in 1069).
bul ll"~rally tbc e<>nlXlS "",re not as rood as un·
d... (A)l\Sl.3nline IX. The ani•.". of til.. Crusaders in
lhe Easl upsel the haboc" of fo.-.:C5 in tht rqlon.
Allianctl we.... eoncluded. sometimes be.......en 8)"'1·
ami..... a"d Crwadc~ and eo..,n bcc.....ecn 1M Fati·
mids and til" Crusaders against the U'OOpS of Nllr
al-Ofn (1169).
In !heir rdalionship ...ith Chmrian Nubia. IIw:
Falimids had Inherittd a paniculu silUallon based
nn the aM)T nEATT....-hieh bid do...'11 thai tht kina
of Nubia had 10 pa)' an annual tnbute 10 £&)l". I'ot"
a lon, period lhis tribule ~td mainly of 360
black slavts. IOl"lher wilh animal. lhal wert un·
known or ..... in Egypt. Through """end Maori."..
a1.Maqrbl i" ""nkular. "'" .know that Ihis pf'loClice
(onlinutd under lhe Fatimids, bul onl)' inl"rmi!·
lentl)'. Apan from certain periods. the gOytmment
of Cairo load no mean. of forcing lhe clauses of til"
!r<lq!. and the Nubian. tool: advantage of this to
Il'duce or inltrrupl their pay",,:,nl. alit Nubian
slaves ....ere oum"rou. io Egypl_ Ibn Muyassar sa,.
th"... were 5.000 solely in Ihe .en-Ic" of al·Mul·
tan!ir·1 mOther ( ho ....as he"",lf a Nubian), nOt 10
meolion thost sc ing in the ann)'. The grealer
numbtr of th"m _re late, extermlnaled In lhe
terrible arugales against lhe Turkish. elem"nts.
FATIMIDS AND THE COPTS 1099
Exc""" lor Ihese events. 1M hislory ellbc Nub..
ans had linle connection wilh tNl of lhe Falimids;
al Icast lhe SOW'Cti rarel)' m"nlion them. A shon
lime aft"r Gt:neral Jaw"'r'. amval in f.&ypI. he M:nl
an "mbassy to King Ceot"l" of Nubia. ino·iting him
10 con",," 10 bLun or elM: 10 pay lhe ~II. The
.... udgn d ...... It> pay. We hear of Nubia ooee
mo.... during the rtVOIl d Abo Rakwall. in aI-
~m" timtS. 1llt rtbri had fled.o Nubia.. bul ......
capturtd by the king 01 Ihe COUntry• ...no handed
him ....'Cl" to tht Falimids. .........n tbc king of Nubia..
Solomon, who had rK.... lIy abdicated....·enl on pil·
grimage 10 """... n (1080). he "''as 61"i1 arrcsted and
SC"IIO Cairo. bUI the oilieT. &ad, aI-Jam;loll. lrealed
h.im "ith spedal attenlion. 1llt ling ditd in Cairo
the follo....ing ytar and ........ buritd in th~ Monaslel')'
of SainI Geo'1le.
During lhe Ma&h... b period of the dynasty. Sidly
had been one of the major pnoocc"palion. of th"
Fatimid caliph.s. When al·Mu'ill seultd in Cairo, he
left hi. lind lieulenaol the t3llk of deftnding Sidly.
Thi. pmvinc" remain"d "nder Musllm dominalion
until the middle of til" e1"""nth cenlury. Fmm Ihat
lime on. weakened both by Synontine auac"" and
inlernal division., it bt&Rn to represent a covetC<!
pTe)'. The Norman. ROIlU l. lradually conqll~red
lhe ii1and betwecn 10lI1 and 1091.
There Sftm 10 havt bttn v"l')' friendly ....Ialion-
ships b........... n htimids and NOrmanl under Ih.. cal·
iphl "'·Amir and al·J:Ufi;. and ...... hao.., a ctltain
number of docummu lhal bear witneM 10 Ihis. De-
tcriofalion SCI in durina I.... nip of al--R'u
(1154-1160) and al·'A.;Iid (1I6O_1171)....... kh in-
cluded nn\ Norman opediltons by Ita "P-'-
lDw.... F.C)?l-
BI8UOCItAPHY
MaIn Arabloc Sources
AbU ':Ianifah a1-Nu'mln ibn Mul)ammad lOidI}. Kil·
~" ,,1.M"jdl~ "",.../.MuS<l,,,,otl ",,,..,/.M,, ..."'qi! ..'''-
"1·T,,wqr~"I. Tunis. 1987.
Al.>tn3d ibn 'Abd al·Wahhib al·Nuwayt1. N'-~il)IQt ,,/.
Ard~ f! Fun';'" ,,[·Ad,,". Cairo. 1923.
'AII ibn ~fir. Aklrl>dr "1.0"",,,,1 "1.M.."q,,(i',,Ir. ed. A,
FelTe. Cairo. 1972.
Ibn al-OaIAnisl. Dh",1 Totrlkh DI"'"s~q, "d. H. F.
Amedool. Lcid"n. 1\108.
Ibn al·-$ayarfl. "Allsh!rah IIi man nAJa al·Wiclrah,"
Bulletin de I'ln.tilUf /r"nr"ls d'),rc;heologie ori"n·
,,,Ie 25 (1925):49-112.
Ib~ I;lajar al·A!lqaIAnl, R4 "r"f' '"n QmJl'I1 Mi~ •.
CaiTO, t957_
1100 FAW
Ibn KhalliUn, Wa/aJ~r ,,1·11.')'1'" 6 vol$., ed. M, M.
'Abd a1-I;{arok\. Cairo, 1948~19SO.
Ibn M,,}_. ,u1Un!, Mi?, ed. H. ~ Cairo,
1919; 1957.
KilAl> 4I-M.....·i' .......I·{,lH' (41·Kh~I1l). 2
YOh. BuIaq, A-H. 1270.
YaJn'j al-Anlikl. ~il,,/ KillJ.1t Urf~IIlJ., ed. L Cheikho.
Paris, 1909. Ed. and F,..,nch lrans. T. Kl'luchkow-
Iky and A, V..iliev In PO 17 and 23 (l924 and
1932). "ntil yur 404.
Slodlet
'Abd al-Mun'im Mapd. ~1Iu, KII1/4/QI "I F4{imiyyt..
..."·s"qU!,,ItlJ. Ii Mif" AI ....andrl., 1968.
Canard M, "Un Vizir chr~ien i I'tpoque f:\!imile,
l'Armenten Bahrim:' A""al... de I"institm
d'£I"th. oritnUlkJ Alto U (1954):84-113.
___ "Noles sur les Annbliens en Egypte. il'<'po-
que ~irnite.~ Ann.1u de l'hUlilu/ d'£/..d... ()ri.
~../"I... 13 {I'JS5):I43-57.
_ _ "Vne Lectn .... calife filmile al·Hafi:!: i
Roger II:' In Alii d~/ C"nve,,,o di S,..di R"Ueri-
a"i, pp. 12~-46. Palermo. 1955.
':Iasan Ibrlhlm ':I...n. T4rl~h al·D"wlah al.
FlJ.{im4Jy,,1I /I "I-Mavib ..." Mlfr ..'a-S"ri)'l "",,·8i·
Mil al··AT"b. 3rd ed. Cairo, I~.
':b.un lbBhlm Hasan. and A. $baraf. AlM..·iz:. Ii·
DI,,-<lliilt. 2nd ed. C.iro. I~.
Min~w\, al. AI,Wiu'TllII ........I-........'{j. " ./··A,r "I-
Fa!imi. Cairo. 1970.
Muhammad Jamil al·Din Sunir. $iyiism al.
FlJ.{imiyyfn 41·KhiJrijiY!"h. C.lro, 1967.
Vantini. G. 0"·e..,41 So.." ...... Concern.", Nuhid. Hei·
ddbe"l and Wana..., 1975.
FAW, Su Pbow.
FAYYOM, C~ OF,!he capiUl of l~ pnwince
of fayyiirn. In anc~l Ec1'l t~ city, !hen named
after lhe crocodile cod Sebek (Greek Such",,). was
an island in a lake called Moeri. (now Birkal
Oir\in). The Romans callM the <,ily Crocodilopolis,
and its name in Copt;';' ....... +‫סס‬oo (sea). probably
beaUS<' of the sitt of lake Moeris. vmich
IlUnounded !he city. In Gf"ftk the city was kn<>-o."
lOS A~oi.es, SO named afrer At'$inoe, I.......ife of
Ptolemy II,
Arsino<'/Fayyiim had a bi.hop lIJ eady as Ihe mid·
dle of the third ~en1ul)'. when Nepos .dministe,..,d
'n the dty. Mooast:icisrn nw:Ie an .,.,rly entry into
!he area- Salm AlC1QHY visited rnonks in I.... fa))'ilIn
anti John MoIIehlls WTO(e aI I.... becinnlns <Jl .....
""venlh celliury lhal lbe pla~e WIOS a Ihriving mo·
naslie Center (Pra/um Spirituale U. 71).
BlBlJOGIlAPtIy
Arnllineau, E. La GiotraphK.,u "Egyp'~ oil fipoque
top/e. p. 337, l';lris, 1893.
Le Quieti, M, Orlens ChTistian'H, 3 vol .. Gru.. 1958,
Reprint of P.rls, 1740,
Timm. S. D4J christlitlt·kopti$Che Ac'pun /" /IIrabi-
sc~, kif, pt.'. pp. 1506-1525. Wiesbadcn, 1988.
RAf,'noUL snw-..IIT
FAYYOM GOSPEL FRAGMENT, a small
frasmenl of papyl\l.$ conlatlling SIK Incomplele lines
wriuen in a bloek hand On the recto of a roll, lhe
veno bernS blank. It is misnamfll in !hal it . . .
discoYft'ed not in !he f&:yy1lm bill $I;,;hdy 10 the
south. on the sile of the ;lJ\C~t HenlI~lis.. in
the ~ourse of «<,a_iollS carried OUt in 1882. it is
preserved in Ihe Rainer eolleClion al Vienna. It is
unusual In being pan of. roll rltlher Ihan, like lhe
peat majoril)' of .,.,rly Chri:sTian papyri, part of a
code>:. h can be ~Iy daled 10 the Ihird centul)'.
In iI is deKribed. &oS in Mat.hoew 26')()-34 and
Matt 14:26_30, the dqranure of Jest.t!i and his di!K:i·
pIes to lhe Moum of Olives immedialely bdore tI,e
Passion, with Jesu.' prophecy from Zechariah 13:7
and hil prediclion of Peler's denial. The ac<,ount is
closoor 10 Mart'l than it lito Malthew'•. but is much
mol"l' ...mmary ~n INn Marl<'.. The .... thor cer-
wnly d"",,· Oil Marl·1 nan;uM:, bul his ooabulal)'
~ thaI he also used JOme Olher ...... rcr, for
«ample, he UJCI Ihe word '10 <,row," nOl found
anywhere in I~ New TeSlamenl. Thi. also renders
il unlikely lhal wh;>.l we have i$ part of a trealise In
which !he ...'riler abbrevialed me narnui,,., of Man:
ralher lhan a separale I05pel.
BIBUOGItAPHY
Bickell. G., ed, "Vas nichtbnonische Evanl~1ien·
frag"'enl." Z.ltsd,rl/1 f~' kalhollJche n.e"logi~ 9
0885):498-500. and 10 (1886):206-209.
He.. necke, E., and W, Schnee...eicher. Nrw T&<f4·
men( Apoe'YpN., tl"&tU. It- MeL Wil......; Vol. I.
pp. 115~16. London, 1963.
C. H. ROBDmi
FAVYUMIC. See Ap~~dix.
FAVYUMIC PAPYRUS, Sa HamhurJ Papyrus.

FAVY(JM PAINTINGS. SU PortrailS and Fu-
nerary Masks.
FEAST, an occasion appointed by lhe church to be
observed Wilh rejoicing and celebration.
Old Testament Feasts
In obedience to God's commandmenlS. lhe fol-
lowing occasions were kepI as days of reSl, abslen·
lion from work. and offering of sacrilices:
1. The Sabbalh (Ex. 20:8- 11)
2. Passover (E>:. 12; Lv. 23:5)
3. Feast ofWeeb, or of lhe wheat hal1'e't, celebrat·
ed seven weeks after Passover (Lv. 23:15)
4. Feast of the Tabernacles, on the lifteenth day of
the sevemh momh. al lhe end of lhe harvest
feslival (Lv, 23:33)
5. New Moon Feast, on lhe firsl day of every month
(Nm. 10:10; 28:11-15)
6. The Day of Atonement. on the lenth day of lhe
sevenlh momh (Lv. 23:27)
7. Feast of Blowing of the Trumpets. On the /il>ll
day of the sevemh month (Lv. 23:24. 15)
In addilion, lhe Israeliles were ordered 10 hallow
the jubilee year. occurring once every fifty years al
the end of se"e" Sabbatical cycles.
Early Chrlstlan Feasts
From various references m the New Testament
we learn that Christ and His disciples obsen-ed the
annual Jewish feasts (Mt, 26:19; Mk. 19:13: U. 1:42:
In. 2:13: 5:1: 7:2, 37). Ukewise Saim Paul celebral'
ed various feasts. stressing their Chrislian characler
and dissocialing them from Jewish connotalions.
Thus. for e><ample, he obsel"l'ed the Pentecost at
Jerusalem (Acts 18:21; ..... lrlso Acts 20:16: I Cor.
16:8). , I. Annunciation of her Nativity (7 Misra)
The Apo<loiic Con,liluli.m, ordained lhe celebra-
tion of feasts: "Brethren; observe the festival
days. :' (Co~'lirulio~, 5.13. p. 443), and the Apos-
lolic"i Can<>t1s warn, "If any of the clergy be found
fasling on the Lord's day, or on th" Sabbalh. ex-
cepting lhe one only [lh" Salurday preceding Easter
Sunday]. lel him be deposed. 1f a layman. let him
be excommunicated" (A[X!slOlicai C~nons 66, p.
598).
Palristic writings abound in references 10 feasts
and festivals. lG,"ATtUS OF ANTIOCH (c. 35- I07) states:
, . let ever~y friend of Chrisl keep the Lord's Day
as a festival. the .esulTection-day, lhe qu""n and
FEAST 1101
chief of all the days ... on which our life sprang up
again, and the victory ove. dealh was obtaine<l in
Chri,t .. :· (1956. Vol, I. p. 63; see alsoluslin Mar_
tyr [c. 100-165]. Fir.<! A[X!logy 67; John Chrysostom
[c. 347-407), Homilies on Fim Corill1hians 27; Saint
Basil the Great [c. 330-3791. Episrle 176).
Feuts Observed by the Coptic Church
These fall inlO four main divisions: the se,·en ma-
jor feaslS, the sC"en minor feasts (sec FEASTS. "l ..... 0R;
fEA.STS, "l1,"OR), the seven Marian feasls. and the
saims' and martyrs' feast days.
The seven major feasts are:
l. The Annuncialion (29 Baramhat)
2. The Nalivity (29 Kiyahk)
3. The Epiphany (11 Tubah)
4. Palm Sunday. on the seventh Sunday of lhe
Greal lenl
5. Easter Sunday. a movab]" f"asl celebrated on lhe
lirst Sunday after Passion Week
6. Ascension Day, on the fortieth day after the Res·
urrection
7. Penteeost, on the fiftieth day aft"r the Resurrec-
tion
The seven minor feasls, in chronological order,
are,
I. Circumcision (6 Tubah)
2. The Marriage Fcasl at Cana (13 TC>bah)
3, Candlemas (8 Amshir)
4, Maundy ThuTIiday, on the Thursday preceding
Good Friday
5. Saint Thomas's Sunday. On the Sunday followin8
Easter Sunday
6. Entry of lhe Holy Family inco Egypt (24 Bashans)
7. Transfiguration (13 Misra)
The seven feasts of the Thtolokos are:
2. Nativity (I Basbans)
3. Candl"mas (3 Kiyahk)
4. Dormition (21 Tubah)
5. As.<umption (16 Misra)
6. The Iron Dissolver (21 Ba'unab)
7, Apparition al Zaytiln (24 Baramh;\t)
Saints' and Martyrs' Days
The Coplic SYNA><ARJO," re<:ortls the history of lhe
saint. and the martyrs who gay' their lives for lhe
Chrislian faith. Various churches also celebrate lhe
anniversaries of lheir patron ....inlS.
1102 FEASTS, MAJOR: AnnunciatiOn
BIBUOGllArHY
B\J!ruS Jlrjif. Kirllb .. ~A"U ./.s.>yyid;y,v,. Cairo.
1941.
~bJb Jirjil. AI-s<>Uu..h .'·UrlhuJJwhiyy«h. pp.
175-82. C.im. 1948.
All.CllBISIlOf' BM;IUOS
FEASTS, MAJOR. [This entry disc..... eJ nv'"
Ie...,..:
Annunclltlon
Narivity
Epiphany
Palm SwKby
,"""
AS1O.,moion
p.,,,.«<*. J
Annunciation
The Annundalion i.o one of Ihe ..even majo~ feas15
of the Coptic chn!"Ch; it commemoralU the an·
nounnment of the angel Gabriel.o .he ViTFn Mary
that sh., should conceiw and g",e binh 10 Je_
Christ. the pc-omi..ed Messiah.
A.ceordinglO th., CapeK: SYIWlU1ON. this fesoinl.
...i1kh has bttn ob.eyyed Jim. the early centum
of Cl\rSiani.y. fall. on 29 Baramhlt. nine moeuhs
befon: the narhity of Jesus on 29 Kiy.1ltk. '" Ihis
occurs dun"l the Great Un. preceding E;ut.,r. it is
celebrated ...·ith due rcjoidn. but without breakin,
lhe fast. rhough it is a major fellS'_ If. howeve~. it
coincides with Holy Wuk. it is commemoraled
withoul nhering any of Ihe solemn observances,
The aceounl of the Annundalion as rtlaled in
Luke 1:26-~ ,..,fieets the humilily and willin, sub-
mission of .he Virgin Mary '0 God's will. in dear
contBS' to Z"",haiiah's $kepdcism in """".ion to the
ancel's ;der!tic.a! ~e co;>n(:eming his ",ife E1lla·
beth and ehe birth 'of John lhe Bapist..
B1BUOCllAl'HY
Jug;.. N. "La Premiere Itte ....riaJe tn Orit'nl et
O<:cident; I',,-ant primilif." In &/ws d'OTie,,' 26
(1923): IJO-5:t
ARCHB.SKOC' BASlUOS
Nativity
The flttil of the Nal;";ty of Christ is b,p' by ,he
Capeic Chu..:h 00 29 K1ya/tk.
The oblip'ion to observe tllb fnst wu .tipuiale<!
in the ~po.,o&oI ConstiJ.. oorlJ 5.13: "Brr:thren. Db-
r.ervc lhe fe5ln-.! days; and firs' ol all 1M binhday
which you .....0 cddmate:' ...·here it is dtscribed
as a public holiday to all. IndudinS sla\'CS an~ .....
va'lts: "LeI them rest on the fest;val of His birth.
because on it the unexpeeled favou~ was granted 10
men. that Jesus Christ. lhe Lo,os of God. ,h"uld be
born of th., Vira:in Mary, for the salvation of lhe
~ rid ."
Many ..,ferenccs.o the feast of.he Nativity occu'
in the ...-ridnp of variolu behers. ORlGUI (c. 115-
2504) spdU ol the c..-e at Bdhl"'t'" ...-hcre He .....
born: .."'. sl&ht is Cready t.lked of ill surroundinc
places. ,,-en among the eMmies of the bith"
(A~.i"sl Cels.. ~ 1.51). He abo mers CO the fcslival.
kepi in comme......... tion 01 the rwi\ity, Epiphany.
the RcsulT«1ion, and PefllC«lS' (Ag..msr Cew...
8.22).
During Ih. lino: tht-ee cenluries of lhe Chri"ian
e.... il ..ems Ihat the celebralion of Christ", nalivily
and Ihe Epiphany look place on OM and the same
day. 6 January. Thereafter. from Ihe founh century
onward, the t...'o occasions ha~ ~n celtbraled
__ralely In all churches 01 Christendom fXCCJll
the Armenian.
n.c", is nO indication in any of the Gospels as 10
the aaet day 01. the week Or .ime of,.,... on ...-bkh
Chri:A ",-as bonl. aDd, thcr.,(Oft. lhe time could not
be detennined with any accu.-.cy. Reftrringlo lhe
I,..;:k of agreemen' on Ihe ...b;e<el. aD\C>. OF AUX·
Mo-VRIA (c. ISO-215) 5IalCS: " ••• ,here ,hose
who ha"e determined nOl only ,he year of our
Lxd's birth. bot also the day: and lhey say Ihat il
look place in tht lwenly-eighlh year of AuguslU'.
and on .he 'wenly·fifth day of Pachon. _.. Funher.
o,he'" say .hat he ",..as born on the twenty-f""rth or
twenly-M.h of PharamUlhr' (Stromata 21).
The Co""i/"ri,,,.. oj/he Holy Apo5ll~. how....er.
strike a !'IO.e 01 cenainty: "Brethren. ob.e~ lite
fcsli.al days; and s...... of all the binhday ... hkh )00
arc 10 eclcbra,c on the l ....... nty-liIth 01 the ninth
month." The month in lI.-lon hn-c is the nimh ol
the Hebrew calendar.
C'OI
Difference of opinion also applies to the )'eN 0(
Christ's Nllwity. To trenaet.15 (c. 130-200). ;t was
Ihe forty·lirll year of me reign of Augmrus. AU£'
751 or 1 soc... n opinion ~h.red by Tertullian {c.
I W-200j. Olher historians held the view Ihal
Chri..'1 birth took place in the forty·.econd year of
the rei", of AuguSIUS, the twenty-eighth year after
Ihe COrUl,UC51 of Egypt. A,UC. 752 or 2 B.C. To Ihis
sthool of thc>uth. belong Clement of Ale.... ndria (c.
150-215). Hippolyrus of Rome (c. 170~216). EU5&

BIUS 01" CAlSo\UA (e. 260-340). and EJ'II'HANIUS. bish·
op of Salamis (c. 315-403):
Anoth,r «elniastical .... rilel". Dion}"$_ Er.ii\NS.
the Sc:y\hian monk "'ho liYcd in Jl.ome toward the
end of the filth century and in me fine half of the
.alit and ..... the Ii... l<> intmdu.cc the sY'tent of
lI$ina: the ye:ar of the IDcamation .. the bqinninS
of the Chriaoian en.. liud the yeu A-V", 753 or I
Il.C. .. the )UJ" 01 Je.w' birth.
BIBLIOGIlAPHY
Boole. B. Us Orip.u d' u. Noitl d ~r I'Epip/HInie.
Pan.. 19)2.
Duchesne. L O~"es d" c"ltt eMilie". pp. 247-54.
Pam. 1889.
Epiphany
This is one of lhe most popular feam celebraled
by Ih. COpl$ (on II Tilbahl, for whom h mUSI have
been a Chrislianized rorm of the ancient EiJ'PIian
fWivitiC$ auocialed willt lhe Nile. on", of their
principal dyna.slk god$. Th' Coptic Syna.ocarion
stales lhal lhe MCS6iah appear~ on lhat day ,.. me
Son of God and the Sacred ~ to obliterate the
si... of lhe work!, hence the ""ramounl important\!
of that ~as.t in lit", Coptic cilendlor. On tIlatlby. me
faithful are puri/Oed !Tom $in!. by the holy ~er in a
wrj equh~ent 10 bIlpcism.
,",k lUst Is P<"'Ceded by a .,.;,pI and a no<;lurnal
...-, _ of lItr'" night cc1ebraliom. the other t'OlO
beina: the Nativity and the Nicensioll. The chief pu....
pose of litis function is the sanctification of thc
water. which in t>,JIO:>C day:s _ brow&ht to the
middle of lite nave in • Iarse Jfl:q>laCie "ith t"'O
ca..... on the sides.. Prj".- 10 lhe celebration of
mass• .special praye:n are ~ for the sanctific.a·
lion 01 thai waIn with inceost. hymns. and ,""ins
from lhe Psalms. the Epm~, and the Gospeh. IJ·
I.... the completion or the Lltutgy. the receptaCle is
lI>O\'ed to Ih' nanhca where the continuation of Ihe
045ces ends with the faithful plunginll inlo lhe holy
waters. This practice "''as suppressed in rno<km
timn to avoid Ihe confusion ensuina: therefrom and
did nOi uist in the primitive church; when ils origi·
nal performance on the banles of the Nile was for-
bidden by the caliphs after the advent of the Arabs.
It wall lransfelTM to lite churches.
Under early Muslim rule. however_ this feast was
celebrated willt ,reat pomp. and the Muslim hlstorl·
an .l-M;os-Cidl Siv,. a lively description ollhe ace.·
FEASTS. MAJOR: Palm Sunday 1103
sion under lkho.ltkl Mul)..mmad ibn Tughj in lite
year 941. The bank of the Nile _ illuminated by
endless to«:""". and the f.&yptlans-both CoptS and
Muslims-e~ in their best appar",l. Many
plun~ed into the Nile in the belief thM its santli6ed
waler ,,_ld '-I them fro"" .U mmenrs. This is
reminiscent of lUI anc>mt Ec,yptlan 1etend. when
people rcenacwl the search oIlsis in tlte "''ltIen of
the NUe at the pIaoc ",heft ~h bad killed her
husband Osiris and .KsuenG his limbs. In ehos.c
day:s. F.c1P6- .bo illuminaled lite Nile bank and
p1un£ed imo in waleD.
Copt5 used 10 visit Ihelr deceased ~IMiVft,;n the
cemeteries on lite foll_;1I/I day. This tradition has
been establo.bcd ....ona: u..pl$ .nd Mu.lims alike.
The food on that day ,;onsisa of. spteiil ,~le
kno....n in latin under the name Cole••", artt;quo-
tUm. in A",bic as qulq<l1. It !VOws in the soil like
potatoe•. The fruit of Ihe season also i. used and
dinributed 10 the poor It cerneteri"", This indud,.
oranges and mandarin•.
BIBLIOORAI"U\,
Blackman. S. L" F'elltlhs de Itl H"ute.Egypte. lrans,
J. Marty. Paris. 19a4,
Budtr, A. J. The A"c~"t Copt;,; Churches of Egypl.
2 mls. OafonI, 1884.
Coquin, R.-G. "Lcs OrIgines de l'Ep;phanie en
F.cJp!f." In Noll. Epiple""ie, re""" du Cleml. ed
A. Kniazill and B. Bolle.....ris. 1%7.
F"'"""l. M. de. Le StlnclO,,,1 copte. Beirut. 1960.
AAcHBIS_ BAsluos
Palm Sunday
One ol the most popular fI!asts amonr; the Copts-,
this occurs on the JoeYenm Sunday 01 lent and has
been cdebral~ by the Coptic dtun:h from carty
Chrislian lima in order 10 c:ommemorauo the entry
of Jesus inlo Jerusalem. This bePm. Holy Wed...
""hich is called the w«k of s-ullering (Jum'", "I·
Allm).
n.e CopU throns lIteir chun:hes from early
mOnlinll carrying "''ltn lhem plaited ",,1m Ie.,= in
th~ .hape of,;rosses Or I round cake of holy brcOtd.
or both, deC<>rllted with olive t\Nip and flowers,
Religious services On Palm SundlY begin al day-
break and lasl until the afternoon. ahhough nowa·
days .ome curtailment is pra';llced in town ,;hurch·
,.. The celebrations Include leven proc"",ions;
thn:e Wilhin Ihe JanCIUa'Y b<!yond the konostasis
around th~ altar. mree around the int~rior of th~
church, accom ....nioed by cenaeR and a great wood-
1104 FEAsrs, MAJOR: Easler
"" C...... d~k~ with bnond'''S of palm and th~e
undl.-s. The p.-.x:esoion halts bricfty lnfur" iCOllS
and rdies. The S!'venlh lour take' place around the
altar. ",'hile 1he choir chanl!l hymns. Members of
the congreplion join ill the three cenlno' munds of
mit proctll$ion "'thin lhe chu.-c:h. Mer ~ rtadina
of the Gospel and the ollK., d .....rins. tho: UtutJ:)'
of "ilM." Saim Crqory or SainI lbsU Is reitemed
..nrillhe lime or communion. when 1M office of the
dead is held at the nimh hour of Palm Sunday. This
t.-.dition.l office amon, the Copts is espe<Olally
practiced In behalf of those whose dealh might oc-
Cur belween Palm Sunday and Easler Monday. for
no .-qular funerary functions are allowed for prj.
""Ie indiYi<!uaLo ",ix>5e Math falls in the CO"","" 01
Holy Wed.. One" the <..'rilnotions au cornpk'ed
with 1M upenion of holy ......,,...- and the l>enWic-
lion. the bilhful ",ithdrl..· ..ith their polIm C",",",""
and their holy bread. As • rule. IMy break lhe Jast
on ~al. consisting ~nliaJly of fish, all this hap-
pen. 10 be: the only day of len! when fish is p"r·
milted.
In the early etnturies of Coptic hislOry. a special
procession is said 10 ha~t been conducted oulsidt
lhe chu.-eh through tht city ~ ..,..... ht8ded by lhot
eletw:r and Iolk>wcd by IN: a>mmunity d !he bith·
fuL This 1f"8dilion rnnained in foret until il _
fori:>iddtn by thoe FaIimid calip/l al-l:f.Ikim at tilt
lum of tnt Itnth untury.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Burmesler, O. H. E'.. TIr, Etyp'iD.n or Coptic Cit"""h.
Cairo, 1967.
Buller. A. J. 111, A..cienl Coplic Ch"rches of EDP!.
1 ..::>U. OlIbnl. 18M.
Une, E'.. M.....""" ...11 CMSWfII <J/ th# M/JduJ< EO'po
1i.1IS. 1 woIs. Londo.., 1"2.
wa.s.sn. am Wissa. h.liqu~ ,jl"'"~ " ..urn,...
"'iru d" I:OpIU. Bibl~qu, d',tuoo Copt"'l 9,
pp, 195-96. Cai9>. 1971.
ARCIl8IS110' B1.S1UOS
Euler
East" Is 1M uealeSl and earlitst ml;'''' of thot
church, at which Chri$tians cdebrale the annivena·
ry of the "':wrrection of 1esus Chrin and Hi. ~J.c.
tory O\'er death.
n.e omel'\'llnee "I Eutu starttd as early as lhe
apo5l(l{ic age. Writina: to lhe Corinlhians, probably
at or near thot """"""r lift5Ofl. Saine ,....1 decbns.
.'0."". ""r.,.ehal lamb. }u.s been UoC:rifictd La
us, tI..a~fo...., celebratt the festival. nOl with lhe ok!
lea""'n. the It''''en of malice and evil. but with tilt
unleavened bread of sincerity and lruth" (1 Cor.
5:7,8).
In the eoulV: of lheir cdebralion of Easler, lhe
farhe", P'~ it ''arious dtsig....Oons. Ju<tin Manyr
(c. loo-IM) called 11 "II"" paschal bsl." To cnll
OF lU1lS.Il'W (e- )15-)I6J it _ lhe "holy day of
salvalion:' aECOIIV OF NAZlAt<W!I ()23-J89j called
it "the quU'll of ~. the f"""l oi fe&SlS, and the
solemnity of 5Olemnities.·· After lhe wave. of PC""""
CUI ion had subsided, and ChriSllanity beean'e the
official rtligion of lhe empire. EaSIer was celebrat·
ed on a llrand ..,.\e. ElIsebius, Bishop of Caesarea.
deKribm the panicipation of al.'lSIANT1t<E TilE
GItFAT "'110 "changed tht holy niJltt 'i&i! into a
bri&l>lness like that of day. by c:ausinS ,,_en Iafltn
lO be ligtIled throuaf\out the eity; baides which
lorella tycl}""he~ dilJu5ed their light. 50 as to
impan 10 lhis m~ic visil a brilliant splendour be-
yond thaI of day,"
During the first th~e centuries lhere was dloer·
gen"e amanS the churches aboul lhe <hIe of eele·
b",ting Chris"~ rdUm!C(ion. In Asia Minor, Nonh-
em S)Tla, and Me ...... amia, the "hurch use;! to
com_onUe the cf\lcifi.tion on 14 Nisan and to
celdwale the rrsurrection on " Nis;an. i~cdyt
of !he day of the week on ..... ich these tWO dales
fell. The churches of EgypI, Italy. Creece. Palesline.
and Africa were panicular aboul C<>mmemonting
the cruc;fi~ion on tile Friday and celebrallng lhe
re:wrrect;on on lhe Sunday following 14 and 16
Nl$an. respecli,,,,ly.
In Eal-l'I. Patriarc:h DEMEnJUS' (119-231) de'i!oed
!he EpK! method d caku.lalilll the e:>::act day of
Easler Sunday. so I~ it ........Id always foil"'" lhe
Je.....ish Paswvu. in dOK a<\hereOCt 10 the first Eas-
,~.
The comroveny, nnenhe]""" continued. The...,
was also a difference of opinion ""prding the inler-
prelation of the concept of the crucifixion. To the
Asian churcMs, it was an occasion of rejo«:ll\8, on
the Sroun<b that it hentded tnIon·• ...,Iease from
bon., ,,-hilt lhe Dlher churches, indueDnl AI"",·
andria, obsenoed Good friday as a day of mournina
and sencl &sting.. This.lUll. of afb.in was lolerated
by the church, as it ""lllS adn_ledged thaI Int...,
....... apo6lolic aUlllonl)' for boIh al1ilud..... tile For-
mer ~r1ving from Saint John and SainI Philip, and
the lauer from the Apo.tles Peter and Paul.
The difference was ~uled in lhe Council of 1<1-
c.lE.t. (1l5l. "'hicit decreed thaI Eas,er should be
celebrMtd on !he Sunday WI foll_-ed 14 Ni$an •
after the full moon d the vernal equiDO"-. n.e

church of Al~)<andrla, Ih~ city lhal W\05 famous fur
il$ upl:" ll$ItOnomus, was ~ntl'\lSted with th~ _k
of com,Xl\inllhe date (If Ea.s:ter and it became the
province (If the Alexandrian ~Iriarch to proclaim
the date Qf Easter t(l all tnc churclles of Christen'
dom. in a paschal leiter iuued On tnc occasion of
the EpOphany.
n.e It>llowinl are Ihe main fealures of the faMer
Sunday service:
I. The cdebration of the Uturo sans late on
Holy Saturday .,..crain... • nd encb in the early hours
of Sunday. in conhwmity with tnc New Tewomenl
(ML 16:2,9; LL 2<4:1: Jn, 20:1).
Z. As in thor: CIM of the feasts of the N>llimy and
the Epiphany. the hahM appointed for the third
aftd $iith hours are omilted, in vi.... of the facl tIJiU
their contents are: not cOIll~ible wilh the joyful
occao.ion of 1M feul.
l. An irnpre:ul~ leaIllrc of this service ts the en-
IoCtItlCDI 01. w Resurrcclion. Ahff w Ieflion ft-om
me Mts of'hc ApoI.I~, ",hich foIJo-1; tbe Pao.oline
and Cath3lic Eptules, the JU>C1u.ary door is dooed.
Aprien or a cXacOfl holds the Icon of the J!.CSUITCC·
lion, and the l'QI 01. lhe clergy and deacons, cut)"
ina candles. ef06SeS. ppels, and «men, sinl the
bymn of m.: Resurrection. Thftt lhe priQts, toeetJt.
.r with '''''0 or IbreI: deacons. enter inlO the S;lnetu·
ary. ",hile the rtiC remain ouuide in m.: choir. and
me sanetlUl}' doors are thecn d~ (repn5elllinl
th~ sealed .......e front which Christ r<>aoe. lO$ w~11 lIS
.ymboIizina the clolure of .......iu as a ",sult of
the bll of Adam). A1llichts in the ch..rc.h llre atin-
pilJtcd. and IWO deacons. !Undine outside the
...nctuaty. chant in Coptic "Chrisl ts risen" three
times• .,.,h time the chief prie$l. .-cspondina: from
within: "He .. rilen ind«d"; this is then ",peated
in Anlbic. Th. t..o «loCons e~dalm. "Un lip )"our
beads. 0 lates, and be )'e lined lip. 0 aoci.nt doo",.
thai the King of gbry may cOme in" (Ps. 24:1). This
is said !hI"« timcs. witho"il~ response from within
the sancluary. Aher the thi~ time Ihe chief pric$t
ask>. "Who is this Kinl of ,lory?" to which Ihe
deacon. answee, ''The lord,strona: and mia:ftly. the
Lord. mia:ftly in battle" (Ps, 24:8-9). Then 11",)'
knock on the 5&DCu,Iaty door vlolently, at whkh Ih.
door is pushed open. and the lights a.e ptH on.
t. The clergy altd deaconllo in pnx:CS$ion three
time. around the altar, ~arryilta the icon of Ihe
Re.llrre<:tiolt. bannert!, crVSRS. ~andlcs, and cen·
se .... and then, coming OIlt. lhey 80 thrice around
the church singing in Coplic and Arabic lhe R.sur-
.«Iion pM~le)<. Finally the pnx:enlon entc.. Ih.
sancluary aaain and loes around the ahar onCe.
TIt.... it will be noted thai Ihe number 01 ci","ils
FEASTS, MAJOR: Pentecost 1105
made in the procession is seven. I)'n'bollcal of the
seven circuits made by Joshua. son of. Nlln. around
the gat"" of the eity of Jericho. which finally feU
down. TItis .II"" alllld"" to the collapse of the gales
of Hades upon the death and the ruurrection or
Christ.
ARol8lS1lO~ B.tstUOS
Ascension
This <by commemorates lhe asC<"nsion of Christ
to h"""en from the Mount of alit..". ..... h 2a,5O-,53
....,1115 to imply that the Meension occutTC<l oorill&
the .,...,ning of the day of the Re$ll.rrecIIOl1: but il Is
stated in Acts l:3 ,."d: Mari: 16:19 !.hat Ihis event
took place in presence of the ap<:liJtles forty days
later. Further implicit refuenees to thts are fot>nd
in John 6:62 ,."d 22: 17; Ephesians 4:8- 10; He\noe>.'S
':14 and 1:26: I Peter 1:22; and. I TImoohy 1:16.
The fony--d.ay tradition Is ..,ceptcd by ~ Copu and.
this seems 10 h,ne been tlteit' ~ice front early
times. lOKI< OIl\l"SO.'ml!ol, Etheria. and S(lCIlATU re-
rer to lhe cdebntion 01. the feau in the c:ourse of
the fourth century.
This few is solemn!)" cdebra'ffl by the Copts on
the fifth T1lunday after Easlff Sunday. that is. the
fonieth day after Christ", RcsulTl'Clion. II is a1WllYS
aeeompan>cd by the ""me liturgy as the Resu!TI'C.
lion, :and a proc~n <:<;ImmcmonolCS the journey
of Jnus 10 Ihe Mounl oJ. Oli...". from ..hich he "enl
to heaven_ Amonllhe Copts. thil' service seems 10
ha>.., laken the form of a simple chllrc:h li.tnc:tion
wilhout the popular celcbratioll$ of Easler.
B1BUOC....PHY
Benoil. P. "L·Ascensioo." Revue bihliq~~ (1949):
167-201.
Bunnester, O. H. E. TM Emti4n 0<' Coptic Ch~rf:h,
Cairo. 1%1.
Millipn. W. 1h~ ,hce~s;o" o..d H~~,,~~ly Pr;~S!hood
of O~r Lord. London, Ill'll; 2nd cOltloo. Green·
..nod. S.c., 1971.
S..ete. H. 8. Th~ """ .. d,d Chrisi. LondOr'\. ''l10.
81sHOI' G1U1GOI\l0!S
Pentecost
This major feast in th. Coptie Church. commemo·
rate. the d.ocent of Ih<: Hoi)" Ghost on Ille apostles
on lhe fiftieth day after lhe Resllrre<:llon (AclS
2:1-4). This "'"",,;n fulfillm.nl of the promise rrnode
1106 FFASTS, MINOR
by Jesus before His cnocibion: '1"he counselor, .he
Holy Spirit, ...horn lhe Falher will ser>d in my name,
be will leach you all Ihings, 3nd brine 10 your re-
membrance all Ihall ha\.., said 10 you" (In. 1.:26).
Saini Mart explicitly m<:nl>ons lite promise 10 en·
able l~ "10 ~ in n......· IOnl"QH (16;17). 1'1Iese
and tJmllar pifllta _re all fulfilled len daj.'lI met"
!he AsunsOon, thai is. fifty days met" !he Rnurnc--
tioa, £qIliva/enl 10 the J"",-isi> feaso: 01 _eb INoI
OOC'llrnd on the fiftieth day after the I'asIoYer (Dt.
161,
In the Acts 01 the Apost~ tile descenl 01 tIw
Koly Spiril on Ihe m.ciples is ~n"bed as "Iongues
as of fire, distribuled and restine on each oi.hem"
(AclS 2:3).
The Coptic l""nlJalion of Ihe Bible dearly di:uin·
CUishes between the term "Holy Spirit" when il is
u$Cd 10 indicllte Ihe HYl'OST/L$IS and the term ,,'hen
il indicate, the gift or snoce bestowed upon Ihose
who are blessed by the Holy Spirit,
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Bur_Iter, 0. H. E. The Egyplian O' Coptic Ch"l'th.
Cairo. 1967_
JUl"Jens, William A. TIre Faith ollhe Eal/y F<trher'S.,
Vol. I. Collegeville, Minn .. 1970.
wasser, ce~ W. P.<tnque5 ""ue/le, et "!""e.. r<tir«s
du COfHn Cairo, 1971.
FEASTS, MINOR. Then are sewn minor fnuI
celeboned by the (:(,plic cbureh.
Ful-t of Clrcumdsion
This r-st occurs 011 6 Tubah.
The pt'lIIClice of circumcision started with Ab~
ham, in fulfillment of God', COlo..,.,.nt (Gn, 17:9-
14), by which eyeryifa-!e child should be circum-
ciwd on the "igbtll day aft.... his binh. Accord-ine to
thoe Ne... TtlIttmenl, brr..'"""r, Ihe sanctity of this
rlt .....1 ""'" mpeneded by !he sac:nunem of holy
Baptism. Consequently, jU51- :os Ihe un<:ircumdlled
...ere nOl all.".''''' 10 partake of the Passoyet lamb,
those who have nOl been Npliled a~ not allo_d
10 partake of Holy Communion: "In him also you
were ci~umdsed wilh It dreumcilion macJe wilh·
OUI hands. by pulling off the body of Aesh in Ihe
circumcision of Chri.l; and you were buried wilh
him in Nplism. in which you were also noised wilh
him through failh in Ihe wor~ing of God. who
noised him from Ihe dead" (Col. 2:11-12). Saint
Paul rei"'l1II~ ,his point in "'0lIl of his cpist~, bUI
he mm, II up succlncdy in Galtotians: "Fo.r neithe.-
circumcision counts for anything, nOr uncircumd-
sinn, bul a new crntiofl" (Gal. 6:15).
Durilll the ;loJ'OROlic age. a con~' arose: as
10 ...-bet:her cin:urncislon _ dSentialas a ~ligioou<
practice. n... aposala mel in 51-52 at Jerusalem
and agrttd 10 ""cd Paul and Bamabu, XCO<rl\*
nOed by Judas &rsab.os ~ Silas. 10 Antioch to
oenle the issue by uplaln1nc the ""~ Ilipi6cancc of
circumcision in the liP' of Ihe teachlnp of !he
s:
N.....· T tslllII'I<Onl (AclS 1 1-29).
Article 51 (7-IJ) 01 Ibn al·'AWiI's AI-Af"jmu' 0/'
~f""" (The . . Compendium) Males that cir-
cumcision is a practice followed nul of habit and
not in compliance ","h any relipoull ordinanc",
and lhat, Ihough optional, il Ihould 110I be carried
out once a person hlll been baptized. Ukew1se,
Bishop Athanasius of Qt}f e~plained that circumci·
sion was nOl prescribed for females eilher prior 10.
or following, bap.i.m (a remark quoted by Ibn aI,
'AssAI).
Celeb... ted On 8 A",shlr. Candlemas commemo·
....tes Chrl5t', "ntry with .he Virzin Mary' forty days
after His birth inlO the lemple al JenJ5alcm_ In
""co.-dance wi,h Ihe la... of MOlIQ. a mother had 10
presenl he, MWborn child al the lemple al Ihe "nd
of the pr"""n"bed period of purification, ",-hicb was
fany Wo)'lI in the case of a male child and e;pot! in
the case of a krnale child (lev. 12:2-1). The _ e
Ia... ~ thai ".-cry fir$l-bom male ...... 10 be
cameen-Ied '0 the servlc" 01 God (be:nce the ",'Of'ds
of U. 2:22-23). The te-i1es _re later chosen from
:among the child..... of hnel 10 be consecrated
~ . but as they _ ... found 10 be oulnurnWcd,
il ...... dK.--d that tirsc-bom mal" c~n .....,re 10
be ~med for a Sltm of money (fi"" shekels).
Notwithswtdine .he miraculous YiI¥in birth 01.
J~ Mary and Josc-ph "perfomted all ,hines ac·
cording 10 the law of the lord" (ll. 2:39).
CandlemlU is a1110 the celeb_ion of Ihe meetin,
between the infanl Je_ an<! Simeon the elder,
who was "ri.hleOtlI and de~oul, loolr.ing for the
consolalion of brael, and tile Holy Spirit was upon
him" (Ur.. 2:25). It had been dillClosed to him by the
Holy Spiril Ihal he would not die Unlil he had seen
the Messiah.
F<om the reading for S Amlhlr in the Coplic snl-
"-"ARION we lcarn that Simeon was o"e of the In-n"
lators of the Septuagint, While worlting on Ihe le~t

of Isaiah 7; t4 ("Therefore the lord himself will give
you a sig~, behold a virgin .hall concei"" and bear
a son, and .hall call hi. name Immanuel") Simeon
was skeptical, and felt inclined 10 use the word
"maid" instead of "virgin." In a vision the lord
promised him lhat he would not .~ death unlil he
had seen lhe Lord Jesus Chrisl in person, horn of
the Virgin.
Anolher person who witnessed the presentation
of Christ into the temple was the prophetess Anna,
daushter of Phanuel of the Hibe of A.her, a devout
wife for seven years and a widow for eishty-four
years. who served Go<! with faslings and prayers in
the lemple. She. 100. gave lhanks to the Lord for
granting her the sight of lhe Redeemer.
In lhe course of celebrating this fea.I, lhe congre·
galion carries candles 10 signify thaI Christ is lhe
light of Ihe world and lhal, in Ihe words of Simeon,
He is a "light for revelation to lhe Gentiles."
Entry of the Holy Family Into Egypl
This feast is celebraled on 24 Samans.
(S" a/so Flishl into Egypt.]
Feast of the Marriage al Cana
This feast occurs on 13 ~ubah. It celebrates the
first miracle ""rformed by Je.us Chrisl during His
minislry. when He changed the waler into wine.
lhereby manifesting His glory to His disciples who
consequendy "believed in Him" (In, 2:11).
The following lrulhs may be deduce<l from this
miraculous event:
I. It is the first evidence of the power of Jesus
Chri" over maner. a power derived from wilhin.
Jesus demonstrates this po"",r in later similar situa·
tions such as the healing of lhe wOman who had an
issue of blood, by her merely touching Him (Mt.
9;20-22; Mk. 5:25-34; Lk. ~.43-48),
2, Il establishes the inte,...,,,ssional chamcter of
the Blessed Virgin Mary, whleh is evidenl in Jesus'
prompt response to her request.
3. Il is an advance confi~ation of the mystery of
the Eucharist. lhe conver.sion of the bread and wine
inlO the Body and Blood of Christ. Consequently
lhe conlinuous growth in spiritual life is dependenl
on lhe full imegrati"n wilh Christ, like branches in
their relation to the vine. "As the branch cannot
bear fruit by itself, unless it abide in the vine. nei·
ther can you, unless you abide in me" (ln, 15:4).
The wine converted at Cana was nOl intoxicaling,
but "good" wine as testified to by the owner of lhe
FEASTS, MINOR 1107
feast, wholewme and ben"ficial, rather like the
wine of blessing menlioned in Genesis 27:28, 37.
and in Deuleronomy 7:lJ. or the eucharistic wine.
4. It is a manifest indication thaI lhe church
blesses marriage and treats it as a sacramem,
Hence there are many references 10 the marriage
feast of Cana in the sacrament of holy Malrimony,
Allain, in the offering of incense on .he eve of 13
Tubah, the lection from MaUhew 19. which is used
in lhe prayers during the matrimony service, is in·
duded in the celebration of the Feast of Cana of
Galilee, "Have you not read that he who made
them from the beginning made then male and
female, .. , What theref".., Go<! has joined togcther.
let no man put asund.r" (Mt. 19:4-6).
Maundy Thursday
Maundy Thu~day commemorates Christ's institu-
tion of the sacrament of Eucharisl; "Jesus look
bread. and blessed, and broke it, and gave it t" the
disciples and said, 'Take, eat; lhis is my body.' And
he took a cup. and when he had given thanks he
gave il to them. saying. 'Drink of it, all of you; for
Ihis is my blood of the co.'enan!, which is poured
out for many for the forgi,'ene .. of sins'" (MI. 26;
26-28; Mk. 14:22-24; !Jr.. 22;19, 20; In. 1>;53-58; I
Cm. 1l;23-29; 10:16-17),
As with all covenants drawn betw~n God and
lIlan and consolidated by means of a blood OOnd
(e.g., circumcision in the case of Abraham. and the
paschal lamb in lhe case of Moses), Christ's reo
demptive covenanl was confirmed "n lhe cross by
meanS of His precious blood. The commemorative
""nice thaI the Coplic church holds on Mau"dy
Thursday, the only day wilh a liturgy in Holy Week,
is particularly rich in spiritual nourishment. It fall.
inlO thr..... main parts.
The first part covers the canonical hours of H"ly
Week, .tarting with the first hour (or morning
pra}'er), f"llowed by the third, sixth. and ninlh
hours, in each of which lhe laction from the Old
Testamenl is in perfect harmony with lhal from the
New Teslament. After each hour the rdevant Psalm
is chanted in a special sad melody, then follow the
appoinled readings from the Go.""ls. and finally a
short passage, calle<l (arl) in the commentary. is
usually sung as a hymn.
The second part is the service of tootwashing,
known as t.<QOAN, meaning basin. As in the service
f(>r the sanclification of the waters on the feast of
the Epiphany, the priest prays "ver a basin filled
with waler. with a lishlcd candle on either side.
1108 FEASTS. MINOR

There are nine readings from the Old Testamenl Late on ~laundy Thursday evenini. pnyers are
and ''''0 fron, Ihl' N....... Tl'ltaml'nl. and some p"'y' l"e$Umed in p..."aralion for lhe tillOc of Good Friday.
eo'S and homilies on lhe Ihft"'" of humility. m""k·
nesI • • nd self·,xnial lhat our lotti lllUllhl <1' by
precep' and praclice. An ocuoal fooo:....a.hing lllke. Sunday of l1\omaa
place. followin, tM v.ample of Jesus Chmt: "If I
The f"'S. of 'J'homal; fall. on ,hI'c ~rst Sunday afilOcr
tMn. your Lord and tl'ach/ll". have ",...hed your
the Resurre<:lion_ Tho..... was one of thlOc twcl~
ffft. you lObo oughl to ","aIfl 0fl1Oc anot"""s fe<:!. For
dis<:ipl.,. clll.... n by Christ (ML 10:3; Mit.. l:18; Ll.
1 ha"" given you an I'cUmpllOc. thal you should do '""
6,15: In. 11:16). In Saini John's Gospel he is alwa)'l
1 ha,.., <\o}ne 10 you" (In. 13:14. IS). Vested in an
reft:rl"ed 10 as Diot,mus (Aramaic. I"in).
rpilrdd'di.". ( _ UTUltl;1CAL \I1!$TME.-.rs~ the high
When J...... Chrisl appearN 10 lhoe disdpll:S afler
pries' dipl a (Iolh i",o thlOc f;OIl$l:'C..red '....Ier and
"'~ t"" (<<1 of his fl'cllow ~ and Ih., Conve-
Hi. r.....lTection. Thomas
and "" hearing of it he
not prelent (In. lO).
slteptic..... HIOc.suspended
ptlon.
his belief pending ac,woIly Itti... ,hlOc math of IhI'c
"The Ihird pan ia thoe litu'BY Propel". in obedilOcnclOc
wound. "im his """n eyes .nd louchlng IMm wllh
10 ksus' f;ommandmenl: "Do this in remcmb... nce
his Own fi~. Wh.,.,. therefone. Juus appeared 10
of.....,.. (Lk. n'19: 1 Cor. 11:25). It is noIeworthy
the discipl... the following Sunday He .... ed Thorn·
that in thl'c M.undy Thursday Eo>c:harisl. in ......... of
lI$ 10 diopd 1Ii1 doubts. "Pu1 )'OUr fin,.,r here. and
the PaMion of OUT Lord and thl'c panicul..- incidents
see my hands: and put out )'OUr hand. and placlOc "
lhat take plac:1Oc prior to Hil ruurT«liool. the fvIlow-
in my .;de; do not I><: bith...., but bdie->'In," (In.
ing e1....... an made:
20:21).
I. TbI'c f'laJlnIl lhal precede the 0/("";1\& of lhe
A durer idea of the '1\JI'c eharac.1'c1'" of Thomas
lamb .rlOc 01111,,«1-
can bI'c ~ ;( "''I'c take' into acCOUnt that he OIKe
:z. Thene .ne no I«tlOlll from the c.tholic q>i.I- oIJe«d to die with Jesus on H'" "''ay 10 see Uzaru:s
des <lr" the Acll of IhlOc Aposdl$, ThI'c rnding from
in Bed",n)·. "Let us ....... 10. lhal _ may di., ",ith
thoe l'aulinl'c epiltk is (onliMd 10 , ConnlhiaM
him." said ~ ",t>tn b<: leam.,d ,hal thlOc JIOcW1
11:23-34.
_ne Ittl:inc 10 kill Him (In. 11:16). OM b $ not
J. "The ~I radiol- ",'hieh is lllkt!tl from Mal-
doubt ,he sinclOcri.y of su;:h • StatlOcml'cnl. Thouah 1M:
!hew 26:lO-29. is ""'(~ by these rdevanl ....,neI
f;o.dd nol ac<:qlf b<:ts unlns vctifiN by ""P"rWn«
from tM- !'salim: ''Thou pneperest • lable before me
like a ur:at many peopk who ha.'e las bilh lhan
in 1M- presoelOC'1' of my I'nemin~ (Ps. 23:5) and
,..,"""'. the so<.... ,N doublins n..omas was 1M vny
"£Yfll my boIoom frilOcnd in whom I truged. who .'e
first among the 1"lOch.., di5(iples 10 (OI'lffll lhe di·
of my brud. hasliftN up his hffi .",ilUl "..". (PI.
.inity of J...... Chrisl.
4' :9).
The mornenl he ......red him..,lf of lhft .....lily of
4. lhe pra)'er of ..,condliaciool (as reconcilialion
lhe """rs in Cllti$l's hanok and In Hi. slok. bilh
is only df~led throuJl> tM- CnJdfiJliool) is omined.
_lled up from wilhin him and M proelalmN. "My
S. lhe kisl of peK" iI omillN (be<;...... Judas
Lord and my God." (hrian rebukl'c. howe,~r. is of
15f;anoo bI'c.....yN Jesus wilh a kisl).
""nif;ular signi/iun(1Oc to :all II\ciM who shau
6. The« s«tloros flOm ,he Creed-"H., ...... (nI-
Thomas's .k.qlfif;;.m: .. Bl.....,d are III~ who havt
dfied for"" at the ~ of Pomi"" Pilale"; "He
not ..,.,., and yet I><:lie.·,," (In. 20:29).
JullerN and wa! lxlrie'd; and tile Illird day he rOK
again from tile dlOcad, aCf;ordinl'O the Scriplum":
and "H., BSClOcnded to,' thl'c lI.,a"lOcn!; lie ....t at the
Transfigurallon
right hand of His F3'hl'cr: He will also (Orne ~in in
Hi. 110ry to jud810c IhlOc livln8 and Ihe dead; of Whose Th., vision of J~"". Christ's Transfiguration On
Kin8<k>m tIM:" !hall hoi: nO end"-are dropp.,d. Mounl Tabor ...."" "'il~d by three diloC:iplCl-
7. The (omml'moration of the ... ints i. omined. Peter, James. and Jolin_in fulfillment of Chri~t'J
Whil., Holy Communion is beini .,Jmini"ered. lhe promise, "Truly I say to you. Ih.,u at-e some sU\nd·
usual P$>llm (150) and lis acco'"Pl'nyinl uprc.· ing h~re ",ho will not mste death hefo", IhlOcy see
.ions or e~ullallon ar-e to be replaced by lhree ,ead- th~ Son of man comini in hi! kingdom" (Mt. 16:28:
inll' from tile elevenlh (anonical hour. taken from Mk, 9:1: U. 9:21). This, ho;>wever, was. nOI the first
lhe Old Tl'lIlament. The Psalm and Saint Jolln's lime that th~ thr." diloC:iples ""ell! <;hO#n by
Cospd (l3:21-:Hl) arlOc Ih.,n read in a ...d mdody. Chti.. for a Pl'ft;f;ular gra<::e '0 blOc bestowed upon
Finally th., l'Oeil gl"« the bllOcssinll and dismissal. Ihem. We learn from Mark 5:J1-40 that when J.,,,,,s

Lor<l was on his ....ay to raise the daughter of Jairus
from tM <lead, "he allo....ed no Olle lo folio.... him
except Peter and James and John the brother of
James." He also singled them out to he with Him
during Hi, agony in the Garden of Gethsemane:
"remain here. and ....atch with me" (Mt. 26:37~39:
Mk. 14:33-35),
If "'e m:re to suggest possible grounds to justH)'
the special trealment accor<!ed 10 these three disci.
pies, we might offer Ihe following considerations.
Peter was the eldest disciple. and the first of the
twehe to proclaim the son5hip of our Lord. "You
are the Christ. the Son of the living God" (Mt.
16:16). James wa. the first disciple to gain the
crown of manyrdom. He ",as killed by Herod
Agrippa I, grandson of Herod the Great fActs
12:1-2). John. the brother of James, both of whom
Jesus surnamed Boanerges (the sons of thunder)
because of their nOlable zeal and fe,-,.or, was him·
self the very personification of purity and <:hastity.
which earned him the special love of Christ.
As regards the number of the disciples ",ho were
pre5ent at the Transfiguration. it is in keeping .... ith
the estaDlished precept neeessitating Iwo or three
for a lawful witness (Dt. 17:6: Mt. 18:16; 2 Cor,
13: I).
According 10 church tradilion. tlte localion of Ihe
Transligontion is Mourn Tabor, tM same SPOI Ihal
saw the encounter between Abraham and Melchize·
dek (Gen. 14:18-20). Some scholars, however. dis-
pute this and suggesl Mounl Hennon or the Mount
of Olives instead. Mention i. consistently made in
Ihe Euch%gion and the doxology of Mount Tabor,
panicularly in the Psalmo<!y of Good Friday. ",here
Christ is described as transfigured On Tabor.
In the Western churches the fe",,1 of Transfigura·
lion ",as recognized only toward the end of the
Middle Ages. The Eastern churches, however, stan-
ed to ob.e""e it at a much earlier date, first as a
local and unofficial feas~lhen solemni,.ed Some
lime before the end of th~ firsl millennium. There
are records Ihal "" early as the sixth century three
chun;hes had heen built On the' eastern slope of
Mount Tabor, in memory of 1M three tabernacles
that Peter re<\uested permission to make. The CoptS
observe this minor feast on 13 Misri.
The special significance of the Transfiguration
lies ;n the fact that. ",ith the appearance of Moses
and Elijah next to Christ, it provided testimony of
the Jewish law and prophets 10 the messianic na·
ture of Christ, and gave further divine proclamalion
of His sonship to God by these words: "Thi. is my
beloved Son. wilh whom I am well pleased" (Mt.
17:5).
FEBRONIA, SAINT 1109
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Boobyer, G. H. 51, Mark and the Transfiguration
Slory. Edinbu<glt. 1942.
Burmester. 0, H. E. The Egyplian or Coplic Church,
Cairo. 1967.
Che. Wissa Wassef, P7atiques riludle. el aUm"n-
laires de. Cople., Cairo, 1971.
Crawford. L P. The Transfig"rati<m: .( Manife"lation
01 God in Man. London, 1912.
Fenoy!. M. de. Le Sone/oral copte. Beirul, 1960.
Ibn al-'~I, al·$afi. AI-Maim,;,' al.!?alowi, cd. Phllii·
tb.:;:;" ·Awa<!-. Cair<:>o 1908.
lsidhuru•. KitJb al·Khartdoh al.Nailsah fi TanH a/-
Kon!.;ah, 3rd e<t. Vol. 1. pp. 17. 18. Cairo, 1891.
Ramsey, A, M. The Glory of God and Ihe Tra"sfigu.
ralion 01 Christ. London. 1949.
Rei....nfeld. H. lisus !ransfig",~, Acta Seminarii
N~estamentki Upsaliensis 16, Uppsala, 1947,
BtsHOP GREGORJO$
FEBRONIA, SAINT, fourth--<:cnlu<)' nun who
was manyred (feast day, 1 Abib). We do not know if
the nOliee in the SYNAXARION regarding Febronia
was derived from the original Syriac text (d,
Simon, 1924) or from the Greek.
The story of Febronia is told by Muslim"" ",ell as
Christian historial1$ (AI ... AORlzl, 1853. Vol. 2, p, 493:
AI·Mak'n. 1625. p, 99).
The notice in the Synaxarion is rathel' banal and
gives Iinle information, While she wa~ very young.
Febronia was conducted to a monastery in Nisibis
in Mesopotamia. of which her aum was the .uperi·
or. When [)iocletian's persecutions began. the em·
peror's messengers came 10 the com'em and seized
the superior. but Febronia said to them. "Take me.
and lea"e thai old woman." They led her off to the
town. where she confessed her faith before the gov·
ernor. He tried to coax her. but did not succeed in
shaking her. He had her tongue cut om and her
teeth drawn; her limbs were cui and she .....as roast-
ed; finally the weary governor ordered her throat to
be cuI. A rich believer lool her members and
placed Ihem in a gilded ch~t.
ABO '>AUf:! TJ-1E ARMENIAN reports another story,
which i. said 10 have taken place al Dayr al-
i:iami<Mt at the time of Marw.m and Ihe Bashmur·
ites. who assisted him in tbe .....ar against the Abba'
sids. Febronia was a nun in the con"ent that "'as
besieged by the Bashmurites. She pretended to pos·
""ss an unguent which rendered her invulnerable.
and proposed 10 make a trial of it, but she died by
the sword, and thu. sawd her .istel>'. The .IOl)· is
 1110 FELIX. SAINT
fuund In ,h~ "",.-n,h... COf>c~rnins ,,/lA'll. I (744
767). bul withou, lopogr.ophical d~ ...il. (IImor:>' 0/
I~ P",,,,,rrlu. \01. l. pl. 3. P 162). II i. a " ...U·
ktloO\O.ll them~ or folklo...... the ene' origtn or" hich.
...... ner. is no! ........ n (Cerulli. 1946, P9 439-11).
BlBUOGU~HY
CCI'\llh. E. "La ronqu..... persia.... di ~ruS:llem....,
e ai,,,, fonu ori".,uali criotianc di un cpo.o,ho dell'
Orlando furiooo.' OriDff./i. 15 (I946)~39-11
Ode""..., II S,..,,,-,,,,'-;um Erclesitu COtlSl<lm,.,.",.,..
'''''''''e.
BlUSSCb. 1\102_
AI·\bkln Hi!UorUl s..r"cen..,,,. cd. T. Erpcmw.. The
t1asue. 1625.
Ram>!. \l AI.Qilm"5 .l-JugJrTl-'fi 1,1·8;'~d ., llif·
r1ryal1, 3 ,-ols. in 6 pu. Cairo. 1953-1%8
Simon. j, "Not...Ul I'ori,inal dc la Passion de
Sain'e Hbr-onir."· """lula IWlla"d,.". 42
(1924),69-i6.
Rf.Nt-GWR'.f.S COQIII.~
FELIX. SAINT.lhird"'~n1u",miSl;iollarv who was
"ne of Ihe ""lOIS ma'ty.....d n~ar ,he Roma" fortress
of Turieum (lurich) (fea.'" day: I Tlul The carlie.1
dcscnplions of his dea,h are found io ,he "i@h'h
cenlu,'" Codex 225 in ,he Con'..,n' of SalOl Gall (jIp.
413--71). ,he mid-nin,h..,..nlury Cook. C.IO" 10 lhe
CCOIral Librvv of Zurich (fols 59r-6OI"). and 'M
laIC nlmh..,enlu" Cook. 5$0 io Sai,,.
Gall tP9· 29-
Sain' Felix and his si'h:r. Salm Regola, S,one rdief.
Pillar ,n ,he GrossmjjnSl~r, Zurich. SWll/erinud.
Courtesy S<",,,, Girgis,
391, Lingu .."c. SCOIraphical. and chronological
..udOts of .he Sf'S1 'Wl) codices indical~ lhal bolh
are based on a much carti".. manuscripl. poMibh
"ril1~n b, Ro",nlmus m ,he founh c"nlU".
Accordinl 10 Ihese accounts, Felix. hi. sisler
Sain. u:Q.U, and the.r companions. all m=>b<,n of
,hor THF....... ~ left ~nu ... (Sam•.\l.3uricC'fl>.
',a1ais, s.".ilUrtand) upon Ihe ..a.'ice or .heir co....
~drr. Saini loIuamt:S '" onlrr '0 earn' Chrisli-
anil} in... ""'" 'CfT\lOn' Hod,.... CtiC. 1M, Ira,
ersed the drsoIa", .......... of Glarus and linaJ"
rached lhor Limmll. f!.i,er a, lhor end of Lake Zur-
ich 1lJcr" ,hn remaIned. preachinl lhor ,,-or<! of
God. Howe'. .... M""""lan, Ialcr ~mprror. lIOI.onous
for his ru,hl.,.. prrsrcuuon of ,he Theban Legion,
had ,hern pursued. As • ","uh. ,hC\" w't'"re broughl
before Decio•. Ron,nn go,emor of ,he "'Ilion, who
in lhe face or ,heir ",wi",,, fai,h ordrrr<l ,ha' ,hL'"
be 'o",ured. Lelend ~,~ lhal during ,his 'onure. a
voice from hrawn p..odailllc-d, "Fear nol. A crown
is ..~adl fOI' "OU. and yO<J "ill ha"e gre,,' glOlY
among Ihe hos' of "".•aill,"," Afler Ihe" were be·
headed, Ihe sain .. arosc and carried their heads in
Iheir hands fm" dis uphill. 10 a 'PO' Ih31 be,·.,nc
,heir ....."inS place and ""cr which Ihe Zurich
GrossmunSler no" "andi, Two other Zurich cdific·
e.; built 10 comme"""""e ,hi, e,,,nl a,,, th~ W"<SC1'
kin;he. whkh ..ands o,,,r ,h" ~ of thcir mal1 ..•
<10m. and ,he "raUlnunsler. "hich con'ains eighl
famous m<'d",,-ai fre>cocs deplC,ing ~,,, .... st-agc of
Ihc SlDI). AhhouJh "" "",e no specific da,rs of ,....
c_""".ion of ,hese cd,s.,""" ,heir crr-<:uo.. is as-
cribed b, .radi.1on '0 CJu,rte""'lne aocl his son
!.<luis lhor p;.".<. or hilo lrandoon louis ,he Gennar>.
Throughoul lhor \hddlc Aces. the... Ihree church-
n cnjwc<l ......n" 1>"" ...."" from the Hoho Roman
Emperor. and !hn' b«:amc Jl'tIPlbr ce....." of .........
noli.... Indeed. dun.... ,hto iconoc"""" of the SY.,,,,,
Rcfonnalion. a pontail of Ihe Sa"," Iha, adorned
their reSl:ins plxe in ,hor Gr05SlTlUnSl:er ,,--as ,h(,
..nly imal" '0 sun" e deSl:"""lion. 1lJc pldcd ~hrinc
holding rhe IT\lUn relics of the .... n.. al ,he Gro..,,·
muOSler "..,.. hid<:lcn. and .bus san-d. In 1225 the
risen ...inlS. "i,h head in hand. "..,re dcpiu<:d <to
,he oldes, 5c,,1 of Zurich. and ,hC}' .'ill appear on
,he c...., of arm~ of buth ,hor cily and ,he can 'On.
Olher siles of ,'encra,;o" in S"illerland arc Ihe
Church of Sainl$ Ferh nnd Regula in Zurich. Ihe
Church of Niedcrglall and ,he Church of Watl""il in
Sain, C;,lI, 3nd ,he Churcll of Thal",il in Zurich. We
also find evidence .. t homage to FcI;~ and Regula in
Swabin, I\I"",e. and Hung;l""
[See also Exuprntnliu•. Sain,.]

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Egloff, E. Wer hal das Ch,isum"rn nach Zurich ge-
hrachl? Zurich, 1948.
_ _. Der Siandorl du Manasl";"rn. Ludw;gs des
Deurschen in Zurich. Zurich, 1949.
_ _. D;e Auffi"dang d" Zurcher Heilige". Zurich,
1950.
Muller, I. "Die IJiihkarolingische Passio der ZUrc-
her Heiligen," Zell",hrifl {iir Schweizerische
Ki,chengesch;chre 65 (1971).
MulJ~r, J. CeschjchM de, heilige" Marly'"' Feli.r "tid
Regul". Altdorf, Switzerland, 1904.
Ramer, C, Fdb:, Regal" ""d Exuper.nlius, Iko"o-
graphie der Slifl utld SMdlhilige" Zi'r;ch•. Zur-
ich, 1973.
SAMl'" F. GIRGIS
FESTAL DAYS, MONTHLY. At presenl. the
Coptic church observe. three monthly fe.lal day•.
Th~.e three momhly commemoration. are record·
ed in the Synaxarion atl2 Ba'unah with reference
to the story of Saint Euphemia, a d~vout widow
who used to ob.erve her hU$hand's habit of distrib-
uting aim., especially on these three feasts e"ery
month.
Th~ first, the Feast of tho AngeL is observed on
the twelfth day of ~very Coptic month (Budge,
1915, pp. 917 -19]. It is held to commemorate Saint
MICHAEL me Archangel through laudation, which
follows the reading of the Synaxarion in the church_
It i. more r~gularly obs~rv~d in churches d~dicaled
to Saint Michael and is usually a simple memorial
except On the two main feasts of Saint Michael, 12
HaUir and 12 Ba'iinah. Some Copt., following the
custom of th~ir anc~stors recorded in the Synaxari·
on under 12 Hatolr and 12 Ba'olnah, still mak~ vows
and observe a monthly family feast, to which the
priest also is in'ited to ble"" the meal that follows
the prayer of laudation and,y,e reading of the homi·
ly, Such family or church ~tivals are more often
oo.erved on the main: feasts, where "Saint
Michael's bread" is also prepared by the faithful,
blessed by the prie>t, and then distributed to those
who are present and to the poor.
The Feast of Ihe Virgin occu,,; on the twenty·first
of ~vel)' Coptic momh. It is a simple memorial
service consisting of laudation after th~ reading of
the Synaxarion, with some more hymns sung 10 th~
Virgin. The monthly feast is more regularly ob-
served in churches dedicated to the Blessed Virgin
Mary, especially the feas," commemorating her dor·
milion, 21 Tubah, and th~ consecration of the firsl
FESTAL DAYS, MONTHLY 1111
church dedicated to the TIlEOTOKOS at Philippi, 21
Ba'i\nah,
The commemoration of the Annunciation, the
Nativity, and th~ Resurrection of Ihe Lord is ob·
served on the twenty-ninth of every Coptic month
with the prC!lent exception of the months of Tolbah
and Amshir, which represent the Old Testament
period and the silence that preced.d the Annuncia·
tion, respectively, Thus, this momhly commemora·
tion continues fur ten successive months, beginning
on the Annunciation, 29 Baramhat, and ronning
until tho Nativity, 19 Kiyahk. The Resurrection of
th~ Lord also occurred On 29 BaramMt (see FE..ISTS,
MAJOR).
Commonly both 29 Bammoldah and 29 Bashan'
fall during Paschahide. the fifty days beginning with
East~r Sunday. Therefore, they are dedicated, like
all the days of Paschaltide, only to th~ commemora·
tion of lhe Resurrection.
[f these days of monthly commemoration fall on
fast days, the fast i. ended directly after the liturgy,
which is 10 be celebrated early in the morning, but
th~ required ab,tinence is observed, The liturgy is
recited in the joyful mode (see UI;lN).
The lessons appointed for the day are to be read
as usuaL But if it be a Sunday, the le..on. are to be
changed for those of 29 Baramhl'it, except du<ing
Paschahid~ where th~ appoimed l=n. are to be
ob5ero.'ed. Burial and memorial services are to be
performed, as On Sunda}', without using the mourn·
ing mode,
On 29 Bammh~t, the hymM commemorate the
Annunciation only, and ,'erse. like "Jesus Christ the
Son of God took flesh from the Virgin" and "For
11>ou hast com, and .av~d us" are th~ recurrent
theme of singing, The commemoration of th~ Res·
urrection is restricted on that day to the reading of
tho Synaxarion (and the Fraction Prayer for the
feas," of the Lord), since the glorious celebration.
of the Holy Resurrection are to take place only on
Easter Sunday and Paschahidc,
The twenty·ninth of Ihe month. Ba'unah, Ablb,
Misra, Tiit, Bahah, and HalCir is designated for the
commemoration of the Annunciation, Nalivily, and
Resurrecti,m, together with the use of a verse for
each or "Thou hast com~, "..ast born, and hast ris~n
and saved us."
Th.re were additional Coptic monthly kasts, but
they are not observed at presen!. The beginning of
every month was observed by the ancient Egyp'
tians, not with festive proce..ions or ceremonies of
a mythical character but .imply with a service of·
fered for the dead. Howe,'er, there is no ",'idenee
1112 FIGURINES, METAL
lO relale Ihe bejinning of ...,. Eg)'JlIian mon!h 10
the mO(ln.
Thi. ~U$lom survivw in Chn.lian Egypl for some
cenm"", in lhe fonn of a eucharistic liturgical
5'"",'ice, is allCSlod by 1QK.'oi OF NIlC:1OU (c. 1i'JO),
...flo :ann ,..;l ~ origin of this CUSlom 10 !he R0-
m ying. WNow Man:h is tJ". lxginnin:!: of
months (i.e.• In. ~nnlnc of the IlomlIn yearl.
And in the ~nning of I",," monlh lhey celebr.uc: a
fusi. and lhey named lha, ~asl 'Primu.s.'w His com·
ment l~li&"1 '0 Ihe Copllc CU$lOM of wcharil$lic
celeb"uion al Ihe beginning of every month when
iliOCS on to say, "II i. for Ihi. rcaoon Ihar lbe holy
fathef', rhe EcYPt;an mon ..... who wen: clOthed wilh
God. neer al rhe beginninl of evt'Y month an un·
bloody sacrifice 10 the holy consubstantial Trini.y
and receive the holy life..aMng mysteries, while
lhey cham the .......... of the Psalm 80. 'Blow up the
lrumpel in the day ol,he noew moon, on ,he notable
day of our reaIMoI"" (Charlu. 1916, p. 40).
BIBUOGRAPHY
Budc<'. E. A.. W. MisuUQ","",,~ Copri& ruu ;n 1M
IJill1ccr <>, Upper ED·pI. London, HIlS,
CharI.... R. H. T'he Chronk/c 0{ Joh>1, Coptic Bishop
<>1 NikioI<. London, 1916.
Meinantus.. f. A. Chri$rioln Ezypf. A",..kIor Uld jJaJ.
ern, 2nd ~. eel. pp. 99. 1(W. Cairo. 1917.
N.... F. N. IA~ ItJI>101otiu Ju Ivt"'gili.irc~ eOple$-
,,,,,,be•.
PO 10, \>p. 16S-244. Pari., 1915.
Tl••"...nl. E. Le Ca/end,,·c. d·Abo"'/·8,,,.UI, PO 10,
\>p. 245-86. Pari•. 1915.
FIGURINES. METAL &e Metalwon.. Copt;.;.
FIGURINES, TE;RRA·COTTA. See ~ramiC$,
COplic. ~~
FJLJOQUE, a Latin word meaning "and from ,he
Son" adde:d 10 ~ Ni""ne.{:Ot1$Wltinopolilan Creed
by the latin chu.-ch after lhe words "thf: Holy Spirit
... Who proceN!l from the father." II _ the sub-
jecl of diMension bet....«n Ea!i~ and W ~
chu.-cbes.
Hisiory of the FlUoque Controveny
IdeM akin 10 lhose cxpc_d by rhe fJilXj"e We<"(!
ac:ccp"'<l in lM West aJ. a compar:alivdy early dale:
,he !IO"Cailoed Alhanasian Creed rc:rers '0 pn><:ession
from ~ Fathff aDd the Son. AI the Third Synod of
Toledo in 589, dte VlliJOlh kinl Reearcd <:on~ ..... t'd
his abandon""'lII of ARIANISM by announdna ,hal
"the Holy Spirir al.o .hould be confessed by u. and
laught to proceed from the Falher and the Son."
and he redlod both lhe N.co:.'oie Cb:ED and lhe
NicetlC<:on:wontinopolitan Creed "';Ih the addition
ol the filOoqr.e. The ~it;>q"e and lhe doc,rine' il a-
p ~ ~ particularly useful as a mnm of «1m-
bating or apli<::idy re;«1i"l Arianism. The ilka.
thoulh not the !Uioque ilsdf, had reached England
by the lale .......,mh cenlury; and Pope Man,n I i ....
eluded rhe word in Ihe synodal leller he ..,m 10
ConSlanrlnople in 649. aul rhough Ihe idea of the
double proceosion Ql)vlou.ly had gained lOme CUI'
rency by lhis lime. irs eeoc",l sicnlfic:anoe ....... slill
limilcd.
n.e PJioqw bccafne a mallet" of more gel>C'nJ
..,..0
«Intn:lYefty ... il pmcInne<l tlte frank.i$h kina·
doms and became enshrinod ;n fl'llnkish religious
policy and Ideas of kingship. II appean 10 have
been di5CU...,d (in rclalion 10 lhe Gn:eb) at Ihe
Synod of Gentilly .ummuncd by Pepin the Shon in
767. It n.. been lLI&8ested lhal, be<:ause of a delay
in lhe ~nding of a Mass bouI< from Rome when It
....... RquCAoed by Charlemagne;n 78S, Akuin SCI lO
oompil,nl a WlH"I< of his OWD in whieh a "",nion of
the crud vrith the ~ioqw "'~ inlcrpob.led..
Whatever the tnltlt abou, the rour.. by which the
filioqt<. reachod ,he Fl'Ilnb (,here ha~ ~ £CiIer.oI
thcc,","), ;1 soon became an onhodo. doctrine to
he defended by Charlemagne and his rhe<>loa:ians.
The conclusion of Ihe Second Council of Nicaea
(787). which saw th.e defeat of the ic<>noelasu, "''as
the occasion for" deliam lrumpeli... of the Frank·
ish view of doctrine.nd theoIOJJ'. The Libri C.rol;·
...- (790) wb;ecloed the a.cts of the COt.It>ciI 10 acath-
iAg crilicist>!. and look issu~ with ralriarcb T_ _
... Con... minople, wlto had da~ lO say thai ,h.e
procession 01 Ihe Holy Spirit was from ,he Father
Ihrouih lht Son. Pope Hadrian I auempled 10 justi·
fy Taraslus' doctrine to Ihe F",nks, bUI in 794 Char-
lemagne called his own ..,pposc<Ily u"iv«>a! coun-
cillO Fl'Ilnkfun, "'hen: the /iliQq.u. ...... used 10
<:oPdetM the bet'"'" of adopoionism. Al the s.!ightly
later Synod of Friuli, !'aulin... of Aquilcia dekndtd
the lqilimat:y of ao:Id;lion. 10 lhe ereed that do DOl
conlradicl the lcachinp of the church falhcn..
AbQuI 807 a dispu'e broke oUI on the Moun, of
Olives between Greek and Frankish monks onr Ihe
larter group's use of the fi/ioqu •. Pope Leo it, to
whom lhey had appealed foe ....ppon. made it clear
lhat he had no doclrinal objec.iom 10 lhe filioq".,
though he later lold a I""'P ol Frankish church·
mnI thaI while he haod allowe<! the crud 10 be $>lna

in the Mas$ lhrougbout the empir<:. be could noI
sanction any additions to iI. Monow:r, be advitcd
!he franb 10 slOp havina tbe c.ft'd sun« in ihe
MaM, ",bile the fiJioqu~ ... quietly r~rnoHd It
oeems only bir 10 ltUUlQe dial Leo "'. ... an~ ...
!he .... y Ihr (iJioqu~ had, in 1109, been mm.fonnt>d
into oJ6ciod doctrine of !he cburcb in !he Weollern
~mpl,..,_ His !ina! action on .IMO """ct was to ha,~
IW(I IiI...,. Iablell engra"ed-one in Grtdt, the
other in l~uin-wilb the unlme'l"'lat~ Nice"'"
ConsUonlinopo!itan Crud and 10 hang one al .,ach
~jde of Ih., 10mb of Saint Peler in Rome.
Renewed friction was generated by Ihe U$t of tbe
~lioq.. e later in the nintb cemury, when a mi&Slon
10 lhe Bulgan; headed by Bishop Fonnosus of P0<10
not only """uesled lhe u",n 10 d~iss Byunline
missio..... ries bu. also was found to be Ulina the
interpolated~.The palriarch ofConstantinQPle,
Photiur., had already cltihed ",;lh Pope Nicholas I
_ r the malter of Nichol. election. He now ener-
lJdicallyanacked the '"'" of the ~iDque and "".,"tu·
ally d..dartd NichoW 6epoeed on a charge of. here-
sy, Pbotiw is IO...-imes accused of il>$inctrilJ. It il!I
I.IIqflI thai he woulcl ne>"er ha"e raised the que:s.
lion of lhe {iJioque had it noI been fur the diffic:ul·
tin ... rrounding his """,",..tion to the patriaTch:Me,
This. howe:vtr, i. 10 overstate the case. Photi... con-
smenlly complained not of any injury don~ 10 him
but of that done 10 the cr«d and th~ father,; of lhe
church. His most ambiliow defense of the anti·
(iJjO<ju~ position was th~ MYjla,oiia. complet~ in
exile after his deposilion of 886. In this work he
auempted to show lhat Ihe filiO<ju .. implied not one
but two causes in the Trinity, destroyed the prind·
ple of a mDtU>rrnia within lhe Trinity, and .umed
10 rdept.. the Holy Spiril 10 an inf.. rior rank. Th..
Western replies 10 Pbotius carne. noI $Ilrprif.ingly,
(rom Frankish theolocians such as Ratramn... of
Corbie, who quoted scriplu<e, councils of the
~hurdt, and l>odt Uot~ ere..k chun:b fathen in
an anU-Greek tract before- W coundl ol
879-UO at .. b;"b P'tool.... ~ ","ffded in obtaiI>'
ina from Roman l"'PIes not only ~ of. the
Nice!le'ConslantinopoliUln Creed ",;mout ;ll(\(\ilioos
hUI also an agreement that DO additions ohould be
made 10 it.
N......rtheless. by tbe ele~enlh c ..ntu')' Ihe Franks
had w(ce"ded In iml'O'lng the fi/ifXJu" on the papa-
cy, It Is generally agre..d that Ben.. dict VlIl acced·
ed 10 th.. wi.h of the Gennan .. mperor H .. nry Il,
"'bo had inherited thi~ Iheological and liturgical
Iepc:y, and th.. creed wilh the filioqu .. was .... ng In
Rome. This did not m ..an ill ""loma1ic di•..,m;na·
lion throughout tile West as a "We;"'" learn from
ALlOQUE 1113
Aluande1" of Hales that ill - . noI in use in Pam as
la"" as 12-40. But the Jl"I*CY's accepcance ensured
that it was mentioned in 1054. One Mlhe xcuy·
tions Ievded at Constanlinopk in that rear by
Humbt" of. Silva Cancli<b and b.is companions, pa-
pal leptes sedin, r«Ot1ciliation of the Eascem
and W.,.tem chun::IIft, ..... that the Crub bad
omiu.... the (iJioq... (rom lbe creed. Oth.... ~onsider­
alion., such as lhat o'~ the azyrne5, had hitheno
played a more prominent P<''' in th.. dispute, but it
is Il<llewo"hy that Michael C..nolariul' P,,~oplifl
ga".. priority to a defense of th.. East..rn ~.. rslon of
the cre..d. before r..turning to the azym... and olher
mailers.
By Ihe laIc d .."enlh century. however, there "'as
SOme deg,"",e of. willingness on the pan of some
prominent chu",hmen 10 Iry to account for the
differences thai had VO"'"" up belween Ease and
W.. st on the subjecl of the (iIioque. Theophybct,
archbWlop of. Ochrida in Bulpria. whil.. unequ;"Oo
.ally condemning the West for innova"... in mal·
ters of faith and s~na lh.. gravily of their tfTOI",
believ.... that the laliM ~ ....... through ~ ..
mo.... than through wkkedneu. They did noI under-
stand the ..... aninc of the --.:I "procession," on
...hich lhe wll.t>le debate about the .... lations of fa-
lher, Son, and Spiril lurned; e,-en lhen, Ihe.e _
som.. u.use 10 be made for Ihem on accounl of
the poverly of the utin tongue.
At the Council of Bari In 1098. Anselm of C.nl.....
bury admiued of a difFerenc.. between th .. v..rsions
of the creed used in Easl and Wesl but strove 10
show Ihal th" addition of th .. ~Iio.qu. wOll not an
Innovation; ....ther. It was a mailer of doctrinal clar·
ilical.lon. In hi. tk proeessio,,~ Spi,j'''J S,,~.,i
(1102) he argotS his own view of. the Trinity ",hile
........nling possibl.. Creel< counte....rgumen15. AI·
lhoush ;11 first glance his """" of the int...-naJ ma'
lions of th.. Trinity looks remarbbly similar 10 tbe
Eatem view of a monarchy within the Trinity, be Is
in factsuessinc the doubk procession of the Holy
Spirit wd the common ~., of the lhru Per-
:IOns. As for the ""'lIer of ll<kIition to the c~ for
..ttieh Ih.. CrftU criticize lhe Uolins, be merely
says lhat il -.. difficult fO<" the Latins to consult an
the issue at tho tim... This loaD like a ...Iher more
hard-line defense of the ulin posilion lhan do his
rem;ub at Rali, b\lt be was also capabl.. of sayin,
tltal differences lhoold nol lead to argum.. nt and
thaI Ihe Greek church wOll no ie... faithful than the
Latin.
In Ih.. twelfth cemu')' discu..ion involving the
filioqu~ look place between Greek ar>d utin
cbu.-chmen in lise fonn of theological debatQ lhal
1 I 14 FILIOQUE
were not usually surrounded by any great mutual
animosity. In the thirteenth century. however. new
de"dopments took place. After the Latin conquest
of Constantinople in I 204. the rulers of the Gnek
successor states to Byzantium found themselves
faced on more than one OCC;lSion with politico-
military threats of such magnitude that the backing
of the papacy was a ne<:essity, The way to achie"e
this backing was to hold discussions on the vexing
subject of church union. Under the Nicene rulers
John Vatat""s and Theodore Lascaris such avenues
were explored, and during Vatatzes' negotiations it
became clear that e.'en if the Greek clergy were
willing to submit to Rome. the}' still believed that
"nly the sanction of a general council could legiti-
matdy add the (i!ioque to the creed.
After the recapture of Constantinople b)' the
Greeks in 1261, Michael VIII Palaeologos faced the
prospect of a Westem "crusade" against his empire
by Chades of Anjou and thereIore urged a union on
his church and populace, which wali confinned at
the Se<:ond Council of Lyons in 1274. There ,,"'as no
theological discussion al Lyons. which in any case
was attended by only a few Greeks as representa·
tives of the emperor. They repeated the (ilioq"e sev-
eral times during the proceedings. Although the (iIi.
oque was by now, in the eyes of the West, a
doctrine that the Greeks would haye 10 accept as a
prelude to union, it is illleresting to note that the
fonn its acknowledgment took was an anathema
upon those who denied the (ilioque and upon those
"who have presumed with audacious temerity to
assen that the Holy Spirit proceeds from the Father
and the Son as from two principles rather than
one." In his patriarch. John Bekkos. Michad VIll
appears 10 have found a man who was personally
convinced of the identity of Greek and Latin doc·
trines on the processicm of the Holy Spirit, and who
would continue to defend these beliefs e.'en after
the rejection of uni~1l by Ihe Greeks as a whole.
and his deposition an'a, imprisonment.
The final attempt at union of the churches look
place at the Council of Florence in 1438-1439 (see
FLORE."cr, COPTS ~T TII'E; CO~NCIL OF); there the fiUo·
q'<e was the object of eight months of debate be·
tween Greek and Latin theologians. The occasional·
ly bi7AlITe a.pects of this debate have sometimes
been overstressed-rather a lot of attemion has
been devoted to the episode in which the most
obviously antiunionist Greek clergyman. Mark of
Ephesus. was accused of falsif);ng. or conniving at
the falsification of, a text of Saint BAStL THE GREAT.
whom he had cited in an allempl to darify a pas.
sage from Epiphanius, The public sessions of debate
on the (ilioque did not achieve any change in the
Greek viewpoint there and then. and il is perhaps
wonh remembering in this context that the Greeks
were subject to con,iderable pressure from their
emperor. who sought union in the face of military
threat.
Ne.enheless. the chief interlocutor on the Latin
side. John of Montenero. had affinned that the La·
tins perceived onl)' one cause in the Trinity (thus
avoiding. as the L)'ons formula doubtless had
.ought to avoid, Greek accusations of creating t'-''O
principles in the Trinity). Greeks well disposed to
union. such as Bessarion and Scholarios, confessed
themselves disappointed in the arguments of their
own .ide. Bessarion was to argue, after hearing the
seentingly interminable arguments in which both
Gree4 and Lalins died fathers of the church-and
often the same fathers of the church-in defense of
their respective viewpoints on the question of the
(iUoque. that the saints could not err and could not
in reality contradict each other. It has been argued
thai Bessarion was inAuenced by his reading of
Aquinas, SOme of whose work had been translate<!
into Greek by this time. The conclusion reached on
the fi/ioque when union was finally proclaimed was
that "the Holy Spirit is ultimately from the Father
and the Son, that he takes his essence as well as
being from Father and Son, that he proceeds eter·
nally from one and from the other as if from one
principle and one spiral ion. , . ,the (ilioq"e ba,
been reasonably and legitimately inserted into the
symbol [creed]."
Theological Background and Interpretation
There ha"e been many auempl$ to discem be-
hind the history of the incluSion of the filioque in
the Western cree<l and lhe subsequent East-West
controversies. the existence of two distinct and con·
tradictory trinitarian mOOels. which can be per-
ceived through the complaints of One side against
the other and through the references of both sides
to palristic writers, both Greek and Latin.
The master of Western uinitarian thought is Au·
gustine. whose theology is eventually expressed in
the (ilioque. In his De Tri"ilate h. declart:s, "Nei·
ther can we say that Ihe Holy Spirit does not also
proceed from the Son. for the same Spiril is not
without reason said to be from the Father and the
Son," Augustine combines a ,Uess on the divine
essence in the Trinit)' with the use of the Aristoteli·
an category of relation to produce a concept in

which it is lhe divine essence, common 10 all the
Perwns of the Trinity, that is of real signifinnee
and alw a causal agent. The Pe....o"' them.elves, or
the idea of Person, is nOl pallicularly emphasized,
The Spirit is the Spirit "of the son"; he proc""ds
from the Son; and .inee the Spirit i••ent by the
Son-the West does n01 tend to distinguish be·
tween the procession and the temporal mission of
the Holy Spirit-therefore the Spirit must <:ome
from Him; and as lhe Spirit is the common bond
between Father and Son, it must proceed from
both, Augustine believes that the Father has gi"en
the power of spiralion to lhe Son; the Spirit pro-
ceeds from both, and (as he makes explicil in
Trac/(l!u. in !oannem Erangdiurn) at once.
Augusline', lhought was extensively use<! and
quoted by lhe We<;l. The Carolingian and post-
C<>.rolingian theologians invoh'W in controvelOY
"Wr the {ilioque, 'uch as Theodulf of Orleans, the
anQnym"us author of the LilJelius de prQcess;"'te
Spiritus Sancr;, Aeneas "f Paris, and RalramnU. of
Cornie. all used him, Nor does Anselm', basic
thoughl differ subslantiall}' from that of Augustine,
The explanatory framework of the De pnxessione is
Anselm's own but, like Augusline, he ",,,ncentrates
on the essence rather than the Persons of the Trini·
ty. Saint Thomas Aquinas was also dependent 10 a
degree On Augu'tine, espedally when dealing wilh
lhe cha<ge-also leveled against the Latins by the
Greeks-of teaching two principles in the godhead
through the {ilioque, He used Augustine's De Trio;-
laic (though not word for word) to show that the
Father and Son are not two principle.. but one prin-
ciple "f the Huly Spirit_ Augustine alsu was used by
i\.quinas to .tate that "the Father is principle of the
entire godhead," Again, this might be used as a
counter to Eastern claims. Since much of the diffi·
culty over the {ilioque stemmed from inadequacies
"f vocabulary and problcms ovcr tenninology, it is
interesting to note that ~3uinas cbampioned the
Latin idea of "principle" in the Trinity [<lIher than
the Greek "cause," believing that the Jailer word
implied some degrec of srn,ordination within the
Trinity.
The patristk background to and theological im·
plications of the Eastern view of the Trinity pre.ent
considerable difficulties. Most writers seem to agree
that the East does nOl concentrate on the essence
(the Western, Augustinian concept of essence) but
COmes lU agree on one 'msia (substance) and three
hypostases (pe....on.). It also seemS to be beyond
dispute that the East regarded th. hypostasis of God
the Father as the cause and fountainhead of being
FlLIOQUE IllS
in the Trinity-hence the Nicene-Constantino·
p<J1itan Creed's "from the Father,"
After this point, however, substantial problems
arise, It is noteWQrthy that considerable use was
made by Western theologians of quotations from
Eastern patristic writers_ Both eighth- and ninth-
century writers, for instance, quote from SainI ~TH.A­
NO$IUS I, nH>YMUS THE BUND, Saint Basil the Great,
SAI~ GREGORY OF NYSSA, Sl.l~ (;REGORY OF NI.2UN·
WS, and (\'Iltl I in an attempt tu provide justifica·
liun for the {iUoque. Pall of the problem may have
been rewl.'ed by recent work that shows that many
of the passages or worh used in this conte,t are
not authentic or, at least, have been interpreted out
of their general context. Thi. still leave, the more
general question of interpretalion. For J. Gill, the
theology of Cyril and the Alexandrian 'chool was
de,'e1oped by Augustine and eventually to<>k shape
in the West in the filioq"e. A. Palmieri see. in the
WQrks of the CappwJocians similar adumbrations of
{i/ioque theology. Reoent w'ork faStens un the ek
Palm_, di Viou as the real expression of Eastern
trinitariall thought, emphasizing its relation to the
theory of monarchia in the Trinity and to the idea
of one cause and origin expressed by Gregory of
Nyssa, who wrote of the Trinity in tenns of one
cause and two causes, the Son ",aused direotly by
the Father and indirectly by lhe Spirit.
fn the eighth century, Patriarch Tarasius of Cun-
stantinople maintained "from the Father through
the Son." Yet it is still difficult to say whether
"through the Son" is universally acceptable as be·
ing the true expressiun of Eastern patristic or medi-
eval thought on tho processio". Part uf the problem
Ii", in the circumstance that W"'tern thinkers the~
and now tend to fasten on the expression "through
the Son" as proof of the Father, and more tban one
historian Qf the Eastern church regards tlte ek Pa·
rro. di Vio" as a compromise fonnula_ Of the Ea.~t­
ern write..... Photius giv,," what is probably the mOSt
extreme defense of "front the Father" alone-but
this is a concept not incompatible with that of the
Father as cause expressed by uther Eastern theolo-
gian.; and Photiu. was, in any o~, defending the
creed against interpolation. And while it was possi-
ble for pro·unionists such a. Bekko. to quote from
other Eastern theologians in defeme of the {i/ioque,
Photius defies this appro:'><'h to such an extent that
Bekkos makes him one uf the real authoT$ of the
schism betw.en East and West. (Palmieri [1913)
se.ms to share a similar point of view_)
The formula ex Pal" FUioque wnquarn ab uno
principiI), used at Lyons in 1274 and at Florence in
1116 FIQTOR
1439. milh, ~ thought '0 O\-eTCome aI le~ some
of the Gr«k ob;e<:.ions to the pli04~. in INI i,
dea\$ ..;,h .he problem of mOre man one c:ause or
principle of origin in the Trini'Y. Ii il noteworthy
thaI BeU05 Ielt able to dttlan: that the« .... only
OIle Iin&Je prvdudioon of the Holy Splri,. Al Aor·
ence. duritll the Ionr: textual and rneuphyilcal dis-
cuuionI on the {iJioq"e. John of Montenef'O reaf·
firmed. on bdWf of the Lalins, a belief in 0 ....
priDeiple. Bu. both before and mn Ftorence the
IdeIo tlul. "from the Son" and "throup .he Son"
"'ere "iden'ic:al in iorce~ ran in,o a JOOd deal of
skeplicilm I'rom Greeks who believed ,Nt this. .....
simply ano'her .....y of foisting the unacupuble fiJi-
oq"e on Ihem.
For lhe Easl. iDeluding Ihe Copoic chureh, ,he
fifjoq,,~ represemed an illicit addition to lhe creed.
11 has been ....id lhat even if Ihe Eastern church had
believed Ihe jilioq.u '0
be ,heologically acceptable.
,he inlerpolation would slill have been condemned,
Ph<:>tius. il should be remembered, a, one time
managed 10 oblaln a retraclion of Ihe jilioqu,. from
papal representali,""s and a promise lhal no funher
additions Ihould be made to lhe creed. The Wesl
frequently argued that lhere was no sU~lanl;ve dif·
ferenet! in belief and lhat the word had been u~d
only lor purposes of clarific:ation. Another weltem
arplmenl wall lhat lIIe Fim Council of £N\ESUS
(431) had nOl forbidden ahe""ion of the lOreN i,·
~If bu•. rather. any rormulations contrary to its
II'iri,. and 'ha' the Sic""" CI'Cftl had i'self been
ahend at the Finl Council of OOI1$T...." lfI-..£ In
)S,.
BIBLlOGRAJ'Hl'
em, J. no.. C"";,tcil of Flo..e..u. Cambtidlc<e,
1959,
Gordillo, M. TMoloritJ orietltali..... COl'" l.i>Jino"""
~,ala. C"""",en'..nn htlloric... OrIentalia
Chrilfiana Analeaa 158. Rome, 196(l.
Haugh. R. Photius and "J
C<UtJ1i>1puu. 11K Tri..i-
,.ri." COllmw.,S)'. Bol«>n, 1915.
Kelly, J. N. D. E.rly Chri$ti." C,etS$, 2nd ed. lon·
don. 1960.
Palmieri, A. "La ProcessiOn du Sainl-Esp';l du Pm
lOt du fils." In Dk-Jiann"ir. <k Ihlo1og~ c.tlto-
liq",. Vol. ~. col~ 162-829. Paril, I!H3,
_ _ "filioque:' In Diet;o"".;,. de lhiol0li. c,,·
Iholique, Vol. 5, Coli. 2309-2343. Paris, 1913,
PeHkan. J. The Chri.,i"" Tradilioll, Vol. 2, The Spiril
01 £"$110'" C~ri$l<lIdom M)(>-J700. Chicago and
London, 1914,
_ _, The Growlh of Medieval Theolov. Chicalio
and Lon&:m, 1918.
FIQTOR. Set Ethiopian Pr'Cbtes.
AS, SAINT. An er.ensi.'e life of this saini and an
account of ~'IOQ,/ of his mil'Kla can be found in
......, manllSCripu of Coptic orlain.
The Lile of Abo. F'b (National L.ibnry. Paris.
Arabe 4n5, fob.. 119¥_9'6\". ninth century)"'_ cop-
ied by the MLI$lim Muhamnud ·lzzat. as commis-
sioned by £. AmtlinlO*u, Since this Iext .. ""ique
and $Iill unkno....... a .nnmtion of lh.. incipit fOl-
Io-.: ~U!"en and I"'y h«d. 0 p«!pl.. ...no kn.~
Cbrl$!. $0 lhat 1 may ""coonl 10 you ,he life of .his
man. This $Ilinl AbA fb was, ever since his chil<!·
hood, when he was. in the house of hi$ ""...nl£. .. :.
Another manU5Cript of Ihe Lin of AbU Fis is men·
tioned in passing by J. Muyaer (Church of the Vir·
gin of ~ril Zuwaylah, Cairo. UIU'1Y 23. fols. Iff.).
In il.•][u.ion is madoe 10 Ihe villi paid by Ihe young
F'Is to AbU H(H" .he Fuller (al·Oa~r) of Abrahat.
who wall liv;nl in the Mounlain of Ihe Pillar (Jabal
al··Amud) near Qlw (no,,' 'l7.blot al.Aqbll) wi.h the
inlenlion of taking the monastk: habil. According.o
thi. de5cription. he was ]['lng 10 ,he wesl of the
Nile and 10 the $(lulh of Qlw, problobly near l<>day'S
Timi..
As for mir,.d,.., lh~ ar" as usual. linked to th'"
co=r.uion of ,he church dedicated to .IIe ....in._
This took plac'" on II Ba·unah. Some of Ih,.,.., an:
","""",ted in a mu.ilaled manuu:rip, dated 1360-
116J. copied by Jirjis Abo. a1·B.araU, ibn RizqalIah,
the great-grandson of ,h. Coptic .-ncyelopedist AbU
al·Barilil ibn Kabar (cI. 1324) (Capric: Mu.ewn.
Cairo, History 469, £ok. 216.. -1Ov). Since this Ie",.
is unique and ulllrnovn, lhe inCipil (mn" the COli-
venUonal preface) may be .no",1.>ted .: HO bek>'''d
breth... n......, shall men'ion a n of tIte minel... of
the great and pious "';n'••he ~ner.ued Fath"'r Abu
Fls. ..."
An iso~ folio (pUMps lift«nth cc:n,ury) con-
taining a fJagmenl on Abo. F'b kept in the Univenity
UbDry of Loonin (ronds Lefort arabe A 14) was
burned in the fi... ,bal d~led Ihe library durinB
World War I.
BIBUOCaAI'Hl'
Graf, G, Ca/"log". de man"scripl$ a,,,blCS ch,";,,,.
cO"$e",h liu elii'e, pp, 264-61, no, 112, Vatican
Cit}', 1934.
Muyser. J. "Enni,e p~relrlnanl et pHerin inbti·
Kable. FraBmenl anobe de la vie inedil'" d'Anba
Harmln, nloon,u par $On cornpagnon de "'}'lOg'

Apa HOr de Preht," B"II~lj" de la Soc;;/; d'Mch·
;ologi~ copu 9 (1943);160-236,
Troupeau. G. Catalog"e d,s man"scrits (..abu. Vol.
2. pp. 25-26 no. 4775. Paris, 1974.
KIlAUl SAMIR. S. J,
FISH. $", Symbols in Coplic An,
FlsHAH. earlier name of the Egyplian town now
known as Fishah Salkhah. which is located in the
province of Beheirah in the dislrict of al·
Mahmoldiyyah in the noohwest Delta..
The SYNAXARtON siaies in its commemoration of
Apa plOJJMI (II Kiyahk) thai this monk hailed from
Fishah. After Pidjimi had Ii"ed in Seetis for more
than I....,OIy years. an angel appeared 10 him, prom·
i..,d thaI a memorial church would be constructed
for him in Fishah, and commanded him 10 relurn
t(> his homelown. which the monk then did. This
account place. lhe origins of Christianity in Fishah
at leasl as early as the end "f lhe fourth or lhe
beginning of lhe fifth cenlury (for lhe dat" of Pidji.
mi, """ Evelyn·White. 1926, pp, 157-62).
BIBLIOGRI\PHY
Amelineau, E La Geographio de /'Egyple ;, NfJ"q"e
copto. Paris, 1893,
Evelyn-While. H. G, The Mo"osteriu of Ihe Wadi 'n
Nalntn, VoL l. New Y<>rk, 1926.
Timm. S. Dos christlich-kopt;sche ,{gyp,.n in arabi·
scher Zeit, pt, 2, pp. 959. 960. Wiesbaden, 1984.
RANOAU STEWART
FLAVlAN OF EPHESUS, name of a bishop of
Ephes.... thaI seems to be a scholarly imention.
This per:<on is memione<! o.nly in the title of a Hom·
ily, fn Demelri"'" et Petr"""~Ie.xa,,dri""s. preserved
in the British Museum (Or. ~783: Budge, 1914, pp.
137~56). This homily is, hOwever. the result of a
late redaction thai made u* of two earlier texts,
and lhe name of Flavian, bishop of Ephesus, seems
t<> ha"e been inveme<! for the purpo.., of attributing
the text to a spedfic author.
The two original lexlS were very differem in char·
acter, and it is nol at all clear why the need was felt
to combine them, The first is an encomium in hon.
or "f Saint DI'MEt'RlllS t. patriareh of Alexandria in
the third century. and dwells especially on the
problem of whether it is legal for a bishop to be
marne<! and how it can be justified that Demetrius
FLIGHT INTO EGYPT 1117
was indeed married. This suggests ongins in an
Encratite milieu (see ENCMTIT~). which, however. is
difficult to situate chronologically.
The Se<"ond text, which can be fairly easily daled
in lhe ..,vemh century. pretends to "lfcr an enc"mi·
urn in honor of PETER I, patriarch of Alexandria in
the early f"urth century, but actually recounts a
fictional episode derive<! from lhe Cycle (see CY-
CLES) of BAstUDES the General, which occurred duro
ing the persecution by DIOClETIAN in the lhird cen-
tury. Manyria, a Christian woman of Antioch, {he
wife of Sokrator, who, in turn, was a friend of the
martyr Ter (see TER AND ERAij, betakes her:<e1f by
sea to Alexandria in order to have her children
baptized by Peter. During the crossing, a slorm en-
danger:< their lives. and she herself bapti,.es the
children. When they arrive in Alexandria, Peler
confirms the ,,,,lidity of the baptism, When she re-
lums 10 Antioch, she is martyred,
The lwo texl5 in their separale slale. QT the h"mi·
Iy combining lhem. were known to sAWlRUs IBN
AL-MUQAFFA', who employed Ihem in tw<> different
chapter:< of his work: one for Damian and one for
Peter. Hence. although they now survive in only
one manuscript. they probably had a cenain impor-
lance in C<Jptic lilemture.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Budge. E. A. W. Cr>ptic Mtlrlyrdr>ms ... in the Via-
Iut of Upper Egypt. London, 1914.
TIro ORl.'.NDI
FLIGHT INTO EGYPT. The Infant Jesus, the
Blessed Virgin Mary. and Saint Joseph. accompa·
nied by Salome, mother of Zebedee's children,
made the journey 10 Egypt in compliance wilh a
divine message communicaled to Joseph in a
dream, directing them to leave Belhlehem and seek
refuge in Egypt to escape the wrath of Herod the
Great (Mt. 2:13). This was also in fulfillment of lhe
Old Testamenl prophecy, "An macle concerning
Egypt: Behold. the Lord is riding on a ,wift cloud
and comes to Egypt: and lhe idols of Egypt will
lremble al his presence. and lhe hean of the Egyp.
lians will melt within them" (Is, 19:1).
The incident is glorified in the Coplic Doxology
and the DIFNAR hymnal, as well as in the $YN1.XA.R·
ION. The D;fnd', in particular. cite' under 24 B.a-
.hans a reference to the swift while cloud descend-
ing upon Egypt, symboliling lhe Virgin Mary in
purily and ethereality: "I praise the Lord, my Say·
ior. and magnify Hi. Virgin Mother, the light cloud
1118 FLORENCE, COPTS AT THE COUNCIL OF
came 10 Egypt, Ihe saintly Virgin Mary, with our
Lord Jesus Christ in her ann•. "
PA!.L'lOlUS. Bishop of Helenopolis (c. 365-425),
who spent several yea... wilh the monks of Egypt.
recorded his visit 10 Ihe region of al·Ashmiinayn
(Hennopolis Magna), to which Jesus went wilh
Mary and Joseph. thai Ihere might be fulfilled Ihe
word of Isaiah quoted above. According 10 Palla·
dius, "We also saw there Ihe house of idols wherein
all the idols that were in il fell down upon their
faces on the ground when our Redeemer went inlo
the cily."
Various historians have traced a roule likely 10
have heen followed by the group. The Coptic Syna~·
arion also records the ilinerary. and many homilies
refer to names of places '"isited by the holy family
in the Delta and in Upper Egypt. It is nOw accepted
Ihat the group (;J'OSsed the Sinai Peninsula by the
nonhern cara,,,,,n route alongside the Medilemtne·
an littoral from Gara to Raphia (modern Rafa!)) and
came to the present aJ.'Artsh. Their last stalion in
Sinai was Pdusiurn (modern al·f~RAM~. regarded as
the easlern key cily 10 Egypl). Having c<ossed the
Islhmus of Sue. south of Lake Man...lah, Ihey came
10 Ihe city of Bubastis near Zaqaziq. It is believed
lhat at Ihis spol a spring of waler was made to flow
for them. where the Blessed Virgin bathed the In·
fam Jesus. Accordingly this Spol was given the
name of al·Ma!)ammah (the balhing·place). now
known as Muslurud, where a church dedicated to
the Virgin Mal)' was built in 1185,
The I~ al Ma!ariyyah near Cairo under which Ihe
Holy Family resled during their joumey into Egypt.
Courtery Egypli<>~ Slate T,,,,";sl AdminiSlration. Phoro
by Subht Af'fl.
The group Ihen ""surned their journey to BILBElS,
from which they followed a long and circuilOUS
route to avoid their pursuers. Consequently, they
took the road to Minyat Hna!) (the present Minyat
Samannoo), 10 al'Burollus, Sakha, and funher west
to Wadi al-Nanl1n, Their neXl Siage took them in a
southeasterly direction to Heliopolis; then they set·
tled for a while at the spot now known as al-
MaJllriyyah, where they took shelter under a I...,e.
which is still known by the name of Shajarm 0/'
',(dhr<!' Maryam (tree of the Virgin Mary), The next
slat ion was at HUll ZUwAYtMI in the northeasl dis-
trict of Cairo, commemorated by the Copts in the
Church of the Blessed Virgin Mary and a convenl_
Later the Holy Family proceeded to BABYlON. and
al a spot near the present al·Ma·adJ, they crossed
the Nile and penetraled Upper Egypl via Memphis,
Sarnalii1, al·Ashmiinayn. as far as Mir and Qii~iyyah,
al the 'pol whue the monaslery of Our Lady known
as DAYR ......MUljARRAQ now slands.
It is believed Ihal the group later returned to
PaleSline following tbe same roUie Ihat they had
taken in the oUlbound journry. The Coplic Synaxar·
ion states Ihal on their return they lodged in Old
Cairo in a cave beneath the spot where the Chur<h
of Abu Sarjah nOw slands (see BABYlON).
The du.....lion of the Holy Family's ",ay in Egypt is
difficult 10 delennine with precision: historians "",.
ver between one and four years. Whale"er the case
mal' he. another divine me"""'Ee was communicated
10 Joseph in a dream: "Rise, lake Ihe child and his
mOlher, and go to Ihe land of lSnlei. for lhose who
soughl the child's life are dead" (Mt, 2:20), This
message, like the earlier one. was also in fulfillment
of an Old Testament prophecy'. "Oul of Egypt 1
called my son" (Hos. 11:1).
BiBUOGRAPHY
Atiya, A. S. A History of Easurn Christianily. Lon·
don, 1968.
Budge, E. A. W. Lege."i. 01 Our Lady Mary the
Perpelual Virgi" a"d Her Mother Han"o. London.
1922.
Meinardus. O. E, A. I" the Sleps of the Holy Fornily
from Bethlehem 10 Upper Egypl. Cairo, 1963.
BlSHQP GREGORIOS
FLORENCE, COPTS AT THE COUNCIL
OF (1439-1443). The Council of Flo...,na was one
of a series of increasingly polilically motivated gath-
erings between Ihe Lalin church and individual
 FLORENCE, COPTS AT TIlE COUNCIL OF
East~m churches. Pope Eugeni.... IV uoed the "di-
churches _re
..ide and rule" policy, for the variotls E.u"m
in'iled aI diIIel"Cflt Ii",", and Iho.lS
Ihqo could not £om, a unifif'd bloc 10 nqollale ..ith
,he Latins as C<fIUI plUUItn.
AAu the rcwri<m wi!h the Grecb (6 July 1439).
Pope Euaenha IV ..,m the Franciscan friu Albenus
a Sanlto.n.o as ~ !cpU 10 ;nvi'e !he Co,lIS of
EcYP< and the Elhiopians 10 the coundl. In a leuu
da4ed 7 July 1439. he informed !he CQPIlI of the
reunion wilh !he Gre<eb and ollhe Armenians' ac·
ceptance oi an invitalion 10 the council and In"iled
tlot Co,llS 10 a"end "" well. In Jerusalem. Albeno.lS
pemaaded Nicodem..... abbot of Ihe DAn AL-$Ul.lAs
in ElhlOJlia. to send .. repr....."wi'.., In llot CQUndl.
Nicodemus appoinled thc dcacon Peter. In Seplem·
ber 1440, in Cairo. Albertu. mel $Cveralllmei whh
JOHN Ill. Coptic pope and patriarch of Ale><andna,
who In a koller 10 Eugen!us dated 12 $eplemb<:r
1440 appolmed Andreas, abbol of the monastery uf
Saim Amony, as Coplic repre.emative to the coun·
cil.
In October 1440. Albenu., Andreu. and Peter
arrived in Florence. Bugeni..... appointed ... neliOliat·
ing commission cons;"ting of three cardinals: Gil"
liano Cesarinl, Johannes de TUlTCcremata. (Juan de
Torqucm&da). and Johannes Gallkus Marinesl•.
The ~UlnlS were !he papalSCOCre1JlI)'. 810000 Fla·
,·io. and a team of 'heologians includinl Vespa5iano
da 8illhzl, Tommaso ParenlUcelli (bller Pope Nkh·
obs V). and Albenus a Sarthiano.. 1be commission
used prawre IaClics and Ulquisilnnal procedures
in colleclinl ""erTOf'S" oi the Copt$ and EJblopbns
-k>r n:ampk. thC)' Wd ROC know about OOI'llinna·
IW:>n and "e:uremc: unclion~; they omilted the nuo-
O!JI: lhey ~enIted Dioscon.Is as a saini; IMy
al"'-d divon:e in case of socrious crime Of l<eprwy;
and they pennitted dUld marriage.
On 31 ""go.os.t 1441 And~ spol<e lO the council
pnlising Eusenius IV as ~ lrue SUCCCS!Of" of Saint
PCICT and the head and ,?,,=her of IIIe universal
church. "The dexon Peler '$pOk~ 2 Seplember. in·
forminl Eucenius and the council ahoul his 1'lolI,Ive
EJhiopia and aboul !he emperor's intenlion 10 re-
unile wich the Roman church. On 4 Februal)' '442.
the bull of reunion with Ihe Jacobile. of Egypl,
CQl1lale Dom;~o. Vi"" solemnly promulgaled In the
Chul"Ch of Santa Maria NO'o'ella in Florence, It was
.ilned by EUI~niu•. lw~nly cardinal., and f,fty·one
prelate., Dnd by Andreas "in lhe nam~ of lhe Jaco·
bi~ and hi. plltriarch." Thi$ bull e~pla;n~d the
Latin doctrine of the Trinicy. enumerated the hooks
of lhe Old and New Testament, anathem",i~d here·
1119
siarc/u. and ..'&n>ed against the above-mentioned
eTfQl$ of the Copt$ and EJMopians. These ....,..., ac-
lI.ally lqjtimale cultural. lilU~1. canonical, and
lheolopcal differences. in«>mprl'hensible at IlK
time ... !he Latin mind. ""nhennore. lhe bull con-
tained lhe 1$ 01 seven ecumenical coundl. and the
~ ... they combaled. and of the OIher I~te
councils.
Att:ae:hed 10 !he bull were tWO Olher bulls, lAcun-
a.. ctHli (on ""'nion with the Gred<o; 6 July 1439)
and EJuJIiUe 1Ho (on ...... nion wiIb the Armenians;
22 November 1439). 1be docume", ended ..i!h an
addio:ional dedara'ion (OI\cemlll« the sacramen"'-
The bull demanded oi Andreas and Ihe Copts "!rUe
obedience. 10 obey al_)" and milhl'ully the order
and commands ollhe Aposlolic See."
Thio ol'lC-$ided union ....d no rnob and ,,-aos
doomed 10 failure. for lheolosiCliI fonnulas were
interpreted differently by both pa"i~, The Roman.
unde"'lood il as a InJe ,ubmio.ion of lhe Copts and
Elhlopians to the Roman church, "'here"" the COpl<
Dnd Elhiopian. al fi"'l unde"'lood it .... a reunion of
C<lual partne~ and In lhe course of time rejecled it
alolll wilh il< Latill interpretation.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
AI;yll. A. S. A Hi51LJ"'I of EllslurI Chri,tiQnily. Lo>n-
don. 1963.
Biedennann, H. "[)as Konnl VOn FIorenz und die
Einheil <ler Christen:' OrinIs Christ","... 48
(1964);23-0.
Bilaniuk. P. B. T. TIu Filth U.tUIl" C....ndl (l5f1-
1517) Qnd th~ &Ule... CIt..,du. pp. "-11. 195-
102. Toronlo, 1975.
Caulli, E. "Eujl:enio IV e &Ii Etiopl al Conci];o di
Frrenze nel 1...a I." Ilellk IK'ell<fnrrifJ d~i Lmcft.
Rtndil;_ti d~fl. c/a_ <k SCn"y .-.>oli. storidt"
e jJo4ot;it<Irt<. 6th s.er. 9 (l9B):147-6&.
Gill, J. Tht< C"""rilo{ F1",e"ct. Cambridce. 1959.
Hofmann. G. CH ""ione Cop/onem. Texlus et dncu--
menu. series Ilteologia 22. Rome, 1936.
-c::C "Die KonolijOlrbeil in F1orenz, 26. Februar
109 bi. 26_ Februar 144J.~ OritntQliQ Christ"'''''
P~riodica 4 (1938):157-88. 372-422.
_;:;-::: "Kopeen und )ithiop>cr auf dc:m Konol ~on
f1",enz." Omlltlllia CltriYill"a PeriodicQ 8 (1942):
5-29.
Lehman. M. "[)as Kontil von f1oren. und die 051-
kirche."' OsthTChliche Studi"" 12 (1963):295-313.
Leidl, A. Di" E;~h';l de. Kirche a"f d", .p~tmillCl"l·
lulkhe~ Kontilie.. ""n Kon'I""t />is Flor~nl.- Pad-
crbom, 1966.
Wingene, H. A. "De Aethloplbusln cancilio Floren-
tino."' L""re"t;"""m J (1%2):41-70,
PETll:o B. T. Bn..",auK
1120 FOGG ART MUSEUM
FOGG ART MUSEUM. Sit Mu~um•. CQplic
Colltttions in.
""'_.
FOOT WASHING. S« fnsu, Minor. Maulldy
FORTESCUE, ADRIAN (I87"-192J). Roman
Calholic clc'lYman. 11Iul'Jiil, and ecd~ical his-
lorian. FoneiClie WU <:ducal<:d at the Scou Colley
al Rome and al 11IIQbn.ock Vniwnil)' In Iwwia. He
was ordained a pri<::st al L<:tehwonh in 1901. 0<:-
spile his P"lOnrJ dulies, he ,••as able lO \J'll'~ in Ute
Middle Easl, ...hefe he beca...., inl ....<:>IN in Ute
Easum Chrislian eomm..nitia and their local
churches. Cons<:quemly he o:b01ed • &1"'M &eal 01
....
his lime to comJl(lSin, lhe hislory of &stem lil.. r·
.u a hilcoriall. he WTOIe nrc OnIfodo.o: &urern
Ch..nlr (1907), TIw U3u, £II.u", ClrunM' (La...
deft. 1911). an.d ne Urti"" £II.Ie'" CIr~rrheJ
(1921). in which he ma.de- llSC' oil"" oricinaJ s0urc-
es. A1rhoup he ~ mad<: his swe~ts from
1he Roman CadlOtic penpecllw, he """'u con-
cealed h;,. tympadl)' for lhese ancien! cburches and
h.. appruialion for lheir ~ ,kwies.. In conclud-
ing 1M Mary of 1M Copes, he declared dUll "ior the
We of lhese .Ioriolas memories, ior Ute sake, 100,
of lhe lon, line c.i lbeir IfIanJl'l' under bIiun, we
can feel nOUtin, bul lapo<:c1, wi!h nOlhins but good
lO lhe people of Chri~ in E,)-pt. They have slOOd
for Hi. name 10 fallhMly durinS the lone. dark
eenlO.ries now past. May lhey s!lInd for it a1 ..";1)'5 in
happier age:s 10 come:'
1l18UOG~Hl'
i,,,
Leclerq, H. "LlI..'lisu." In OictWn".. .rarcMolo-
ri" clrr~~nn" "r tie'lit"rgi". Vol. 'I, pi. 2. col.
1739. Paris, 1930. ..
Vance, J. A.. and J. W, I!cnesc:uc. AJri"" F",u",,,,,,
A Me",oir, London, 192".
AzII S. ATrn
FORTY.NINE MARTYRS OF SCETIS. The
manymom of Ihe forty·nin" elders of Ihe de"",rt of
SC£TIS, which look pi""" in Ih~ year 444. js com·
m~mO~led in the SYNAXARION "nd~r 26 Tiibah, Ref·
erence is also made 10 lhem in the Illurgy wjlh the
rest of the hQ$t of saints, martyrs, and holy falh~rs:
"Gradou~ly, 0 Lord, rem~mber ali lhe saim. who
hav~ pkaood Thee oince lhe beginnhl3. our holy
Fa!bers the ht,urch$. lhe Prophets. the PT<:IIchen,
Ute EVarJgeli5tS. lhe Many.-., lhe Confesson, ... and
the funy-nine martyT'!!, Ih" ckkors of Shih",l:'
~ slory of their martyrdom, ",hlch it as60Claled
..nth !be Berl:>er raid of -444 on Ihe nasr.eries of
S«Iis. began ..iten Emperor lbeodosi II, ton of
Arcadius, dai....... of havinc a mal" heir, sent 10 the
"kIe", of S<:eIis a ""<fU~ 1o Inl~",ede on his behalf
thal God mighl bless him with ill 5OtI. One of Ute
monks, a de>ouul elder named bidhunI$, WfQIe lO
tho: "mperoT 10 Ih" cllec1 lhal God refu5<:'d him "
50II lesl th<: child associale .,..jlh hemics. Some
lime later u ...... rr:commended 10 !he empeTOJ INII
h~ marry a oecoftd wife, and .'1'1 he senl a m.....
SC'nge.- 10 the desert monl;,s. Ihis I;me addn, if his
offspring from Ute new wife would m.;1u6e a rnaJe
dill"
In l!>e meanlimt:. lsidhurus had died. 50 lhe
monks 1001< the imperial 1<:11"" 10 lhe place .. htte
he had been burie<l and placed II on his CO<pU.
l"hereupon !he am...,... came I"'" ...-en if'T'heodosf.
us had laken fnc himself 1<:rI ..;y.", he would ""VU
haft a mak heir. Accordingly this IUpOIUe ..'illS
included in a idter ..nun by !he monks and pwen
the mtA ~r. .u 1he latter (whose Nune _ An...
mi... and who had broudll hi. son, Dios. 10 Sceti.
..iUt him 10 be blessed by !he eldusJ pUpilred lO
I&an l!>e journey hac". the Berben came .so....
upon them ;" 01><: of !heir .tcurffnl auacks on !he
monastery_ An "I&erl)' monk, A~ John, Ir"pm"....f
of Seelis, called on his brethren lO lake refu,e in
1M nearby fan of PWnoun, un,"" lhey preferred 10
join him in manyrdom. Fony..righl monks, besides
John. _re ma5$iO(.Ted by lhe Berbers.
Meanwhil", AI1"mius and DM>s ..'ltre fast ridln.
a.....y, bon 0;"" saw a vision in ...hich ansels were
conduCling !he M>I.I'" of Ihe manyn 10 paradise and
placing !he c........... 01 manyrdom 011 their heads.
Hc begged hls futher 10 allow him 10 obtain a simi·
lar e.o".... for himself, ... both falher and bon rodoo
Nck and shared th" manyrdom of lhe monks.
When tho: Bcrbers had SO"" away. rhe other
monks came down from lhe fori, eollect(d Ihe reo
main. of lh( rnass.acred martyrs, and burled Ihem
in a ca~e. In 538, durin. the palriarchale of n1l!Oro
SIUS I, their rel;';s wen: n:mo~ed to a n"w cllV~, and
a chapel w"" buill on thc top. In the following
century, when Pope BENJAMIN I _s re,lored ro his
throne following th( ARAB CONQUEST OF EGYPT, he
visil(d Seeli. and lho: cav( ",h(re lhe fony·nlne
wen buried and inslilut(d a feasr day to COmmem·
orate their reimem>enl, 10 fall on 5 Am~hlr,

Wben tbe cbapel was dilapidated, tbe monks reo
moved their relks once again to a cell opposite tbe
lort where tbey remained till 1773, when tBRAHr....
AL·JAWHAllI, a charitable Copt, built a new church in
DAYR AHBJ. MAQAR, where their relics still reS!.
BIBUOGRAPHY
O·Lury. De L. The Sai~u of Egypt pp. 245-47.
London, 1937.
ARCIIBISl-Ior BASILI05
FOUAD I. See Mul)ammad 'All Dynasty.
FOUR liVING CREATURES IN COPTIC
ART. See Christ, Triumph of.
FRACTION. the ceremonial breaking of the con·
secrated bread in the eucharistic ""rvice. As a bask
pan of tbe liturgy, it follows the teaching and ac,
lions of Jesus Chrisl at the Last Supper: "Jesus took
bread, and blessed, and broke it. and gave it 10 the
disciples and said. Take. eat: this is my body'" (Mt.
26:26:..,., also Mk. 14:22; Lk, 22:19: I Cor. 11:23.
24),
Fraction is perfonned in two stages during the
celebralioo of the Lilurgy:
Immedialely after Ihe praye~ "f crossing the
gifrs, known also as the recitalioo of Ihe words of
inslitulion, Ihe officialing priest lakes Ihe Oblalion
and slightly divides it into one-lhird and IWO-lhirds
""clions. without aclually separating them. Using
his Ihumbs, and taking care 001 10 touch the spadi·
kOIl (the cemral part), be holds the one'lhird sec·
tion in his right band, and the two-thirds seclion in
his left band. saying, "He broke it; He gave it to His
own saintly disciples an<il~pure Apostles saying.
'Take, eat ye all of ii, for this is my Body:'" AI this
poim the celebram slightly:breaks the lap part of
the Oblalion "ith the tips of his finge~, and places
it on the paten, carefully removing any loose pani-
cles off his finge~ on Ihe palen. and continues
qU"ling Christ'. words. "Which shall be broken for
you and for man)', and be given for lhe remission of
lin. Do thil in remembmnee of me."
The second stage follows the E.PICUSIS section of
the Liturgy. and is accompanied with special
praye~ known as fraclion praye~.
The rite of fraclion consists of lhe following elo-
men..,
FRANCISCANS IN EGYPT 1121
In Ihe introductol)' pmyer of lhanklgiving for
God's saving graces. Ihe priest prays. "Again lei us
give thanks to God Almighly, Ihe Father of our Lord
and our God and our Savior, Jesus Christ, for He
has made us wonhy to stand in this holy place, and
lift up our hands and 10 miniller 10 His holy name.
let m again pray Him that He accounts us wonhy
of the fellov...nip and panicipation of His divine and
immonal mysteriel:'
At the consignation, the celebmnt taku the pure
Body in his left hand and places his right forefinger
nexl to the ,pGdil:o~. saying, "The Holy Body."
Then he dips the p<>int of his finger in the chalice
and makes a sign of the cross On Ihe Blood. saying,
"And the Precious Blood," to which the congrega·
tion responds by saying, 'We worship Thine Holy
Body" and "And Thy Precious Blood." respectively,
The celebrant then crosseS the Body twice wilh
the Blood, once on lhe .umce and once On Ihe
lower side. saying, "Which belong 10 His Christ. the
almighly Lord our God?" The congregation respond
by saying. "Kyrie, e1eison." These actions are a
symbolic reference to Christ's suffering on the cross
and the flow of blood from His side (In. 19:34).
The fraction prayers accompany the actual proc-
ess of dividing the Body. Each of the three liturgies
in common use (according 10 Saint Basil, Saint
Gregory, and Saint Cyril) has its fraction prayer,
The purpose of fraction prayers il primarily to
se,",'e as a prelude toward attaining the proper stale
of purif,calion commensurate wilh panaking of lhe
Holy Body and Predous Blood of Christ.
BIBUOGRAPHY
Brighlmann, F. E. Lit"rgi.. Easte", alld Wes",,,,.
London. 1896.
Coquin, R. G. ·.....Anaphore alexandrine de Saint
Marc:' u M"$hm 82 (1969):307-356.
Danitlou. J. The Bible and the l.it"rgy. London,
1956.
Jungmann. J. The Early Lil"rg)'. London. 1960.
Leilzmann, H. Mass vI !he wrd's S~pper. Oxford,
1976.
AIlCHBISl-\OP BASIUOS
FRANCISCANS IN EGYPT, The history of the
Frandscans in Egypl goes back to 1219 when Saint
Fmnds met Sultan al·Malik al·Kamil (1218-1238)
near lhe city of Damielta. Francis had gone to Dam·
ietta with the Crusaders. but with the aim of spread-
ing the message of peace proclaimed by Jesus
1122 FRANCISCANS IN EGYPT
Chm.. For a few yeOlI'S he had been Ihinkin, of a
franciKan prr:senoce in lite Mu<lim ....,.-id...-hith he
COl>C'~ "'5 a ptaC<tfuJ waiolence willt lhe native
populalion. FraPCis<':ans' life of ardent ~r, of
brotherly love. of pD'I'UtJ and rn«1a>ess would be: a
InlimonJ 10 the Gospel In that sa...,. year. SainI
f","ciI inau.&"ratt<! the Order Pnwince of the on.
ent to encom~ CypruS. Syria. Palati/le. and
......
EcJpt. later 10 beeo",," the Cwrody of lhe Holy
NOlI fTlUCh is known about the fin! lOur hundr,""
~ of franciscan ~ e ;n ~'J'l. ClOlUinly it
_ noc a conliJJUOU!l one. Artlund 16JO 1""'0 IfOUpS
of frvoc:iscans 5taned IMir life and acl;"-ily in lite
land of lhe Nile and establi5hed a p.,.,..nce Ihal has
/101 since be:en inlf:nupled. Even no.... Ihere are
IWO distlncI groups: 0""' formed by Ihe frilars of lbe
CU5lody of lhe Holy Land. and Ihe other len1 dlrO'CI'
Iy by the Congregatioo de I'ropapnda Fide and al
presenl forming the Vice'pro,'ince of the Holy Fam·
ily.
When;n 19261he apostollc vicariat. of" Suez (lat·
lOr called vicariat. of POll Said) was establi~hed. Ih.
friars Uvlng there cam. under Ih. jurisdlcllon of
Ihe pre....lnce of $;tint Bernardin" In France. bUI
.ince 1957 they ha,~ become again part of 1M Cus·
tody of 1M Holy Land.
As already stal..... F........,is founded a friary al
Damlelta in 1219. bulW. brolhers had to l.a>'lO lWO
)'UfS later. tbq came bKk in 1249-1250. and In
IU3 .......... friars suffered martyrdom in !hat cily.
In 1301 their pnse1>U""'" atleSl.... in Cairo, .......re.
in 1l45. Li>i""s obtained the CI'OWll of manyrdom.
In 1320 a UOUp of frian, In-ed in Akundria at lhe
f"ruJ"'l (hold) of the men:han15 of Maneilles. The
Franciteam rd.umed >pin and "Pin 10 £cpl.
Their ~Iy eonsisl:ed in pro'ridin, spiritual care
10 Cal!)OIic fouianen; in Eml and -'stance 10
pil,rims on their _y 10 and from lhe Holy Land.
and ~Iishi"ll con~ with Europeans who for
one _ _ or another ended up in 1..,a1 pri-...
Arw.nd 1600. leo'era! friars li<red in EaJo'J'l and seI
up 'heir pri>;IIIe chapeb. .Abou, winy b;oplisms ,,~,...
admlniSierN in Cairo belween 1611 and 1630. as
appears from an iOOn of Ihe b'p1Osmal 61es at lhe
Franei$<:an Cent.r for Christian Orienlal Studie:s al
MuskT, Cairo. During Ih. same tim ••ighl marri'a:~s
were regislered,
In 1630. Friar Paolo da Lodi was nominate<!. the
first pr./eer". mi"ionis A2gypri, He arrived. via Je·
nlsalem, in Cairo witb a l.ner from Pope IJrbanus
Vl1l 10 lhe Coptic patriMch John XV (1619-16304 l.
bul Ihe Ianer had died before lhe 1m.r was handed
<»'lOT. Friar Paolo lOOk up l'<'Si<lence ,n lhe V.n.lian
embassy and succeeded in sellin, up residence for
the &iar.s in a house ;US! outside lhe diplomaJ.ic
campau..... FWler PaoH> was appoimed CU5lO5 of
the Holy Land on 22 A\J&USI 11>31. In lite same: )'QT.
&iaries -.-.. founded in Akuondria and R.osena,
both of ..-Nch still ... s. nw, friary of Cairn bc:came
lhe ...... of W J'ftfttl. and aI the end of the c,...'u-
ry. an institute br the S1udy of 0rienIaf languag'"
was opened there.
In 1632 !he eo.,..... p .'llo de I"ropapnda Fide
established a Franciscan prefecture in E1biopia.
which was ent.wed 10 Friar Antonio da ViIVJlena.
Upon lheir arrinl in EcYI'I. lhey appmached ....
CopIN: palliarehate and visiled we monas/.nes of
SainI ..... Iony (DAYI .....8A ...,.'Jl}N'YOS) and of Sain,
Macarius {DAYa 1a.lIlt/oOUj 10 petfe<:1 lheir knowl·
edge of Arabic ·hile "lliting for lhe cara....n from
Jitj;l. to Suakin. or,lnind by tbe pasha of Suakin.
Be:lween 1633 and 1669 Ihe friars mad. three expe·
ditions to Etbiopia, each laslin,a rew ,.,.rs. during
which mOllt of the friars dl.d through martyrdom or
ilIn.ss_ They did not fully succeed III establishing
lhemselves in Ethiopia.
In 1671 lb. prdeclure of EIYPI was unite<! wilh
that of Elhiopia, and at lhe ~nd of I b30 Ihe CUSIOS
of In. Holy Land obtained Ih. litle of p<efect of
EaJopt. He ""e",iled his dull... through a \'ice·
pref..1 res:idin, in Cairo.
In 1697 the prd'eclUre -as di,id«l inlO two part$;
the prdectun: of Ec;)p1, ich remained under lite
CUSlos and included l..ower EcPt. and the New
~lUre of Akhm"lI·Funcl·£.IhIopia•• nrirely inde-
pendent 01 the CI1Wla- In 1716 the jurisdiction 01
the Ntw PrrieclW'l! .... limited 10 l/ppn" Egypt.
",1Ie.-e the &ian already had boo.<aoes aI lirji and
Akhmim. Many documents rqardinC the period
1633-1703 kepi in lhe an:lliYlOS of the CoIIBT'"Plio
de Propaganda Fide ..~re publiahed in the lwo wI-
umes of Elioyi. ""nclOn""" (SomiaJi and Monww.
1928-194S). NOIwi'hnandin, ilS liI~. Ihis publica-
lion gi,.... much infomtadon aboul 1M Fran~
In EgypI.
As the atlempls 10 $ablish a mission in Ethioopia
faile<!, the friars of lhe New Prefecture conc.nl...t-
«I Il>ei' individual approach among Ihe CopIS of
Uppu Egypl. The first adult COm'ell to Ihe Catholic
faith was a cenain $a.hyiln Wilid. at Akhmim in
1715. Th. first two COplS ordained as Catholic
priests w.re RIlf.t·!1 al'TllkbT and YUSIUS Mal1l.ghT.
who were .. nl to Rome by Ihe Franciscans for
sludies and we"" ordained lh.", in 1735. Th. for-
mer lat.r return.d 10 Rom~. where to.. work.d on

an "dition of Ih" Coptic liturgical books baS<ld on
the manuscripts kepI at th" Vatican. 80th priests
were later consecrated bishops.
In 1746 the Copts who we,"" united wilh Rome
had their first cecle.iastica) .uperior. The Francis-
Can New Pref"eture was d..ignated in aw:iJi"m
cop/arum (in aid of the Copts) and Ihe juri.diction
of Ihe prefect was confined 10 his own friars and
non-Coplic Calholic., e~cept fur three short periods
in which he resumed the aUlhority of the Coptic
Catholic Church. The Franciscan superior resided
at Cairo in Ihe small con,',mt n",,1 to the g""'ter
friary of the Holy Land, but the Holy Land friars'
activity was carried out mainly in the region. from
Jirjii to Akhmlm. They set up hou.es in Old Cairo,
the Fayytim, Fidimin, Alexandria, and Rosella,
Among Ihe numerous foreigne... who were en-
couraged by Mul,tammad 'All 10 come 10 Egypt were
many Catholics, for whose spirilual care Ihe Fran-
ciscans opened chapels and church.. in many
towns of Lower Egypt.
Wilh Ihe establishment of the apostolic vicariale
of Alexandria for Ihe Latins in 1839, the prefectuu
of the custos of the Holy Land over Lower Egypt
came to an end. But the vicar ap<><lolic has al""'ays
been a Franciscan, and, four times, a fOl7ller cuslo•.
When the conslruclion of the Suez Canal 'laned,
the Franciscan. established Ihemsel"es in lhal reo
gion as early as 1862.
The Franciscans of Upper Egypt contin""d their
cooperalion wilh the Copts in Ban! Suef, Asy,,,,
Oina, and Lu,or: Ihe friary of the Fayytim was laken
over from the Holy Land fria... in e,change for Ihe
haspic" of Suez. They rebuilt Saint Catherin,,'s
Church in Ale>andria and Ihat of Our Ladys As-
sumption in the Muskl disirici of Cairo.
In 1893 seven of their twelve churches and resi-
dences were ced"d I" Ihe Coptic Catholic church.
The prefectu,"", on Ihat. "ccasi"n, was given Ihe
name of the Franciscan ~ion of Upper Egypt.
The firsl half of the Iwenlieth century saw comin·
ued growth "r the Franci$can pusence in Egypt.
When, in 1921, the responS,ibilily f"r the Franciscan
Mi..ion was entrusted 10 I~e Order Pro,';nce of T"s-
cana, the fria... "f Upp<:r Egypt had nine churChes
and soon added a temh. From lhe.. cenle ... Ihey
depl"yed their a<:tivity in surrounding villages. In
Ihe 1930. the fi ...1 C"plic Franciscans were f"rmally
..tablished, and at Ihat time a major Franciscan
seminary "''as opene<! at GIZA.
In 1909 Ihe Church of Saini ]"seph was inaugu·
rated in Cairo, but the presence of the Holy Land
fathe... Ihere goes back to 1830. After World War I
FRANCISCANS IN EGYPT 1123
the same lathe... built new church.., two in Alc,an-
dria and one in Bul~q (Cairo), Snez, Ismt'Hi})'ah,
Abu Qir, and Damieua. That thes<> large construc-
li"ns were necessary can be deduc"d from the bap-
lismal files of Our Lldy's Assumplion parish, where
in 1909 n" less than 503 infanl baptism. were regis-
lered.
With W"r1d War II and Ihe prodamati"n "f Ihe
Egyptian Republic, many d",'elopmenl. took place.
The foreign communities rapidly decrease<! in num·
ber, and in a sh"n lime the majority "f the parish·
ioners had lefl tM: country. C"ntinuing Iheir spiritu-
al care for the remaining failhful. the H<:>ly Llnd
fria... direcled their aClivilies after th" war loward
Ihe ap<><wlate of the Copts and establish<:d the
Franciscan Center for Christian Oriental Studies.
On 16 September 1954, Pusident MuJ:ammad Na-
guib inaugurated Ihe center. The aim of this insti-
tute is Ibe promoti"n "f knowledge "f the '"3rloUS
Christian communities "f Ihe Near Easl. It publish·
es a yearbook and the monograph seri.. Studia
Orientalia Christiana C"llectanea and Studia Orien·
talia Mon"graphs. In Kafr al·Da,,'W;\r and in the
suburn. of Ale>andria the H"ly Land £ria... slarted
schoc>ls and dispensaries, and organized regular ,'is-
its t" the Coplic families that came in great num·
be... from th" s"mh to Ihe devel"ping induslrial
and urban regi"n, in Ih" Delta.
[mmedialely after th" "'"3r, some churches wcre
built, as in Ma';!.di, a Sc>ulhern suburb of Cairo
where a con'lantly changing group of foreigners
lived. In Kafr al·Daww;!.r a church was "rected for
the C"ptic Cath"lic C(>mmunity in the 1960s and
was enlarged in the 198Os. BU! the friars retired
fr"m Mansurah, Damiena, and ."me olher minor
I"wns. Th<: vicar ap05wlic of Al<'Xandria ceded the
cathedral of Pon Said 10 the C"ptic Orthado, wm·
munity, and the Franciscans ceded their church in
Ismt'Hi}')"ah to the C"ptic Calholic church.
On the olher hand, th. Franciscan Mi..ion "f
Upper Egypt increased it. aclivilies. Within Ihe
framework of lhe legislati"n for the order, il .uc-
ce..i,'ely became a commissariat", a custody, a vi-
cariale, and, in 1987, a ,'ice-p""'inc,,, or ..,If·
8"veming pan "f the Franciscan Order. Tw" of its
members becam" bishops, "ne of AsyU!, the other
"f SuM). In order t" promote wmmunity life, they
Ihen ceded .."enol churches to the Coptic dergy.
818UOGRAPHY
Gulc>bovich, G. S.ri~ cro>!ologica dei uvere"diHimi
."periori di Terra S""W (1219-1898)-with Iwo
1124 FRENCH EXPEDITION
a~~ or dox~1£ llJId llJ\~iled Arabi" de-
...,,,.0
"tee$. Jerusalem, I S98.
ed- 8ibliouCII 8io-Biblioi'4kll ddlll TerTII
San/II e deO'Orien/e F'tJ~tJna. In !.his seriu S
'I'ONmc:I were ediled between 1906 and 1927 in
Qlu,rra.o:clIi, Iwy, e<n"Crins !.he period from 1215-
1400. UndeT- difrffent tilles ~ral Olhe, .'OIumes
_te od&<I ~ 1%7.
LuH:suus v..... ZUl..n, O.F.M.
FRENCH EXFEDmON. s...e Va'qUb, Gencnli.
FRIENDS OF THE BIBLE, Copll" asaociation
founded in 1908 by BasH! Bu!",. who was flS finl
president until his death in 1921. The main aims of
the sodety were to inspire sen'ke in the Coptic
Onhodo>: Church and active membership in it and
to urge members 10 pray and study the Hofy S<:rip,
ture.
The lOCiely paid special allemion la youni peo·
pIe li"inl in the capitaf away from home and in
pllnicular took cau af girl Sludrnt., for whom a
.peclal bn.nch "'... foundM in 1939.
SUu.~ldtl NAslM
FRIEZES. s...e Woodwork. Coptic.
FRUMENTItlS. s...e Elhiopian PrNtllS.
......
F\INERAL MASKf.
.~
s.... "on",il~ and fune....
F\INERARY CUSTOMS. Fun.rary "usto.....
have be.n observed mostly unchanged Ihrough the
aacs by the inhabitants af 1M Nile Valfey, e....cially
in renof a,.....,. Nonethefess, lhe middfe and upper
class.es af the p<>pUlation have curtaifed uce$llive
demon.t"'tions of affliction and have If SO eliminat·
ed some rituals that have become In''ompatible
with moxlern life, especialfy in lhe cilfel.
When SOmeone i. ncar delth, Ihe. bmily and
friends ~r to k"l) v;iil around the dying p"f'o
son. A plYII i. ailed to WPCRSe the bw riles.
When de.arh occurs in dlt momi... burial Wees
place lhal afIemoon; othe7wisc the body lies in
OWe at ........ ovcmichL The body is bathed and
perium.cd. The pnference is 10 clollte ~ in
....hile Ii.......; men are dres5ed either in thrir C'\l'Cf)'"
day apparel. or ill special formal apparel. rcopk
who ~ ..-ie !he pl\&ti~ Ie> the Holy land
son>ttin>C$ k«p for burial lhose clothes _1"1'1 wheft
!hey bathed in the Jonian Ri>'eT In commemontion
oJ. Christ's baptism by John !.he 8apUsI. The body is
then put in I ....~n "askct surrounMd by lIowers.
Two Roor ClfldI~ bum at the Mad and feci.
The news of the dealh is convcyN th~ 1'ltW5-
papers and OiMr news media. In IUral aTcas Il~
can he cOflve)'ftl orally. In villain a woman lead·
inC five OIMrs, III welrini black ....... nde.. Ihrough
the a....; the .ix call 001 the name "f the dec"ased
in their """ling.
Black dress and heldeo.'e .. au the cu.tomary
apparel of female mourners. Unshaved members of
the family !"ttelve men who come to pay condo-
lence. in the home or fn an out.ide lent erected
e.pedafly for the ocelSio<'!. Inside the "'«:>men gath.
er around the cwel. Before enlering the room,
some mourners waif and ullCl'" special shrieks
called -!"..... I and lhen talc I ~al or oil on cush·
ioned f1oors. dependins uPOfl 10C1ll customs. But I'M)
grcetini or talkinl is allowed in the ~nce of the
dead. Neilher co¥.ee nor clprcnes, whkh are re-
quired alIer the burial. an: otrercd at Ihis lime.
The ancient c"""""s art: Slill practiced in the
rural areas. """,h as the ......Iin.. the mythmic beat·
'''ll of ch",u wKh one's hIno.. and thc drrin« oJ.
£ace and hands "ilh indica. The hiri,,! of prell'$-
.ionaJ m<lUmcr$ usinj drums and chant'lll cufoc>cs
in ~ oi. 1M dead is slill to he found. 1'hesc
~ions of en>olion, which arc cornidercd
an honor due to lhe deccued, reach their heighl
when the deceased is aboul Ie> be taken from !.he
home. Members ci Ihe de<J:l' (th... lrealCr the nurn·
her the hiChC'r Ihe lIatuS ci Ihe dco.eascrl), dnsscd
in mouminl pm, !"ttil" Ihe absolulion pr.t.yen. In
rural ........ , a procession led by the clCIl!.Y' followed
by the men, and finllly by the women, follows the
ca!lket, which is carried on men'. shoulders. on a
can, or in a hea~. In chy fune",l., howe,·"r, ....om-
en until recentfy were not allowed to leave the
hou"" to attend Ihe church ",...ice or the burial.
The lavishn,," of I funeral depends on the sociaf
status of the indivldUl1 10 be buried .and of hi.
famify. The hea.... used 10 be pulled by a Il'"lOCt of

horses, and the greater their number the more af-
fluent Ihe individual they carried. A band of musi·
cians playing funerary marches and men carrying
huge arnlngemenls of Ao,'..ers were put at the head
of Ihe procession, followe<l by young o'l'han girls
dressed in white, especially v"hen the d"ceased was
• benefactor of their orphanage (a CUSlom now dis-
continued). Footmen, dressed in white bouffant
pants and shim. ran by Ihe $ide of the hearse. Then
came the deacon holding the processional Crosll,
followed by the church dignitaries. The pall bearers
followed. Relatives. friends, and mourners came
last. The proce..ion wos generally made on fOOl to
Ihe church. but ..her the service different means of
lransporuuion were used to reach the cemeteries.
These paraphernalia have now been replaced by
motorized transportation 10 the church and the
cemetery,
Family and friends conyorgo aft"r lhe burial aI
Ihe home of lhe deceased 10 break the fasl Ihat has
b..en observed sine" Ihe dealh. The food i. g"nero.l·
Iy provided by family. friends. and neighbor.;, a cus·
lam e,pecially observed in Ihe rural arca.~,
For lho firsl three day" people call on the family
of Ihe deceased-lhe women in the morning and
Ihe men al nighl. Now. however. Wilh women
working and other demands of modern life. lhe
newspaper announcement of lhe dUlh indical..
lhal condolence. are restricted to the church servo
ice. Slill, an importam religiou. service must take
place in Ihe house of lhe dec"""ed On lhe Ihird day.
In memory of Christ's resurreclion Ihis ceremony is
called "Ihe release of the soul." In popular b..liofs
lhe soul roams in lhe house until a pricsl pelform.
tho c«emony of release, He arriws Ihe third day
around noon, accompanied by a deacon. He ente...
the room of the defunct and reciles c"nain prayer.;
while inc"nsing a basin of water in which a bunch
of parsley or other green plant is soaking, He lhen
uses the bunch of parsle(l.o sprinkl" the bed On
which Ihe deceased died ~d everyone presem in
the room. ~ A version of the SYNAXARION for 3 Bashans lislS
Other comm.moratlons are Ie..' and less ab-
..'....ed for tho once customary seventh day (when
Christ appeared 10 the Apostles) and for Ihe fifo
t""nth day (when Thomas was also presenl). The
fonieth day commemorati~ the Asc.nsion of
Christ was stricti}' men'ed wilh an afternoon
church .ervice until it wa. recenll)' banned by Pa·
lriarch SHEI<OUDA lll. In popular beliefs il was the
day when Ihe archangel Michael weighed lhe good
and the bad deeds of Ihe doceased, a subslitute for
purgatory. which does not exisl in Coplic beliefs.
FUWWAH 1125
Mourning periods ue long and rigorou.•ly ob-
..rved. Abstaining from festivities lasts at leasl for
one year. The visi.. to Ihe cemeleri"", are made on
the fonieth day and on the ev" of Christmas, on
Easler. on Ascension Day. and on Ihe Coptic New
Year. Offerings for lhe soul of the deceased are
given 10 Ihe needy who gather on Ihe.. occasions
in the cemeteries. The.... consist of bread, sweelS.
and fruits.. In villages the cuSlOm is 10 lay palm
fronds or lemon lree branches on the tombs and 10
sprinkle the tombs ','ith waler. which is belie.'ed 10
quench Ihe thi"t of the dead,
All the.e cusloms have striking similarities wilh
some cuslOm. pracliced in ancient time. as far
back as Ihe Old Kingdom in ancient Egypl. such as
the judgment of Ihe dead by weighing Iheir hearts.
Ihe offering of brEad loaves. lhe libalion of fresh
water. Ihe burning of incense, the sacrifice on
lomb. of b..a.ls to be later distribuled 10 the poor.
the use of palm fronds. Ihe presence of profe..ional
mourners, and lhe use of indigo (blue was Ihe color
for mourning in anliquity), Through the centuries
Ihese cusloms have heen handed down from gene-
ralion 10 generalion while Ihose who praclice them
remain hardl)' aware of their origin.
[See also: Burial Rile.: Mourning in Early Chris-
tian Times.]
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Gala!' Mohamed. Ess"I d'obsetvalion .'ur les riles fu·
niralre. actuels €>I Egypte, Paris, 1937.
l1eder. S. H. Modern Sons of Ihe Pha.oohs. Lan-
don, 1918,
CtRts W'SSA WASSEF
FUWWAH. cily localed in Ihe Deha in Ihe Ghar'
hlyyah pro.'ince about 14 miles (22,5 ~m) northeast
of Damanhur.
th" commemoration o( Eudaimon from Fmw'iah,
But il is uncenain whelher this Fuwwah is identical
with lh" Fuwwah in the northwestern Della. It is
$imilarly uncenain whelher Ih" Paua mentioned in
a founh·century papyrus (Sotbonne. Pan•. papyrus
inv. no, 113) and the Phoua given as lhe home of
the monks addressed in a letter of the patriarch
CYRIL (Epislt</a 81) are 10 b.. idenlified wilh the
modern cily Fuwwah.
The earliest certain aue'tation of Christianily in
Fuwwah is also the earliest evidence IMt lhe cily
1126 FUWWAH
"""" the SCal of a bishop. The 1l1STORY Of y,,~ UTRI_
UCIlS repons thai Bishop CI,,1sl000uloJ from Fuw-
wah was One of IhOM who supponed Ihe CRust of a
J"'rtkub.r parly in ;IS quell lor the ....Iriar<:ha.. af·
leT Ihe o.ath III hutareh (;.tell-Itt. II (1131- 1145).
iht rTMlOt Importanl of the blshllpS of Fu"'wah
was JOSO'ph. who apptan 10 ha~ b«ome bishop
around 1239. As a conltmpontry of Patriarch CYalL
III (l135-124J) Ilt became embroiled in _-arious
church cGn1TO'ttnits. Tosell.cr ",-ith John. lilt b.. h-
op of Madinal a]·l'ayy(im. he spellt lime In jall whh
Cyril during the palrian:h's sec<md Imprisonment.
BIBUOGltAffiY
Cra!, G. "Die Il.angordnung der Bi!chllfe Agyple",,'o
Oriells Christ;"",.. 24 (1927):.299-337.
TImm. S. Dils christficJt./wpIiuht ~e" i" ~,...bl­
scht, Ztil, pt. 1. pp. 961-64. Wiesbackn. 19S4.
RA1<lMLL SnWAllT
GABR'EL Su Elhiopian Prelal~
GABRIEL I. See lerus".lem. Coptic So« of.
GABRIEL I, SAINT, ftfty-sevcnth patriarth 01
the See of Saint Mark ('lO9-920), Gabriel waJ from
the vlll",e of 11m;!.\, (Amtlineau. 1893. pp. 162-63).
in Ihe MinCl~))'ah p.ovince in Lower fs)'P!. He de-
cidC<l 10 become a monk in the monastery of Saint
MacariUli (DAU. ANBA p,uQ.lR) at a l'1IlhC1" early ale.
The 1I1sroU OF THE UTRtAKIlS ,.,..-iews his life wc-
cinelly from the time of his consecl'1llion. but II
tells .... nothlnl about hi< seculn career bcro~ M
tool< the monascic \'OW.
In.he ~ery,~,he is $4id to ~,... had
a lendeftcy . _ d 5Olitllolk_ Ne>'CtlhcIns, a prophe-
t). _ rMdt 10. him by a saintly elder named
DorolhculI, 10 "'born the brethren CGngrqatN for
blo-ss<np. All &at around this. saintly man to hear his
Jc;ss.oos except Gabr;'d. ",t>o uaaJly "';'hdTe-w for
KIlltar)' eon.cmplall",n.. ()r,c,e llorothcm hcId his
hand and, _ilin.. SOoid to him thal a time would
come when he (Gabriel) d d have 10 COmmune
with a gnal muhitlKk of ",en and ..'Omen. So.
when he was Sotiz.cd by the bishops and the del"lY
for tonscc:rallo" ... ~h: Gabriel rcallcd lhe
prophcq of the holy Oo..,lhcus-
Hi. only trouble al the outset of his palrla!":""le
w", IO'ith the CU$lorn of reimbursing the IhOU$.Ond
dinar annuity 10 Ihe people of Alexandria to take
care of their religious institutiOfls; he had nothing
10 give. Consequently he "<IS forced to Impose Ihe
paymenl of a lold caral a }'ear from every episcopal
dio<:ese. which he u...d for paying Ihe Alc.u.ndrians
and for charllable cau..... P'e!umably. however. 1I
1127
conside..,),le pan of lhal money WlO$ .lso used in
paying the slale la.Oeo of the annual "HAW.
It is said that Gabfid spent m<nl of his time as
potriarch In the monB.1lerics uf WW! HABIB, and thaI
whenever he went 10 Alexandria or wandered in lhe
countryside he fell like a slranger. It is also stated
thaI he was Iroubled by his youlhful instincts and
Ihal he was lId\'ised by his eldc ... 10 spend hi. ener·
gy in prolonged wlina. He even Spcnl nighu. con·
enled and unobserved. roaming aroun<lth., monas·
tic cdls of the brelhren clellning and performing
Olhe. ph~ic.al chores in the service of olhel'$. In
Ihis way. and in 1I11 h.. mili1y. he spenl his eleven
years ,.. patriarr:h. He died in pcKe al the Monas-
tUJ of Saint Mlocari.... where he " . buried on II
Am$hl•. He . . . a contemporary of the caliph al-
Muqtadir (903-932)•• lace Abbasid. but it is doubt·
fuI whether Itc had any ene_nlC", with the Isl.amic
administr:lIOon of Ef::rpt beyond the pa}"rMnt of doe
IrJllu~ and the poll1aJl (1I2'l',t,H) le\~ on the Copts.
BIBUOCIUP1Il'
Amo!llneau. E. Cu.,n.phW: de 'Efypte ii fipoque
cOfHe. Paris. 11193.
lane-Poole, S. Hislory 0{ £cypl ;" the MiJldh Ag=
UlllOOn, 1901.
___ TIIc MoJumt.....d,'" DJ'"u'iu. Paris, 1925.
SUMI Y. USII!l
GABRIEL II ibn Tunt}'k. levenlieth palriarch of
the See of Saint Mark (1131 - 1145) (feast day: 10
BarnmUdah). Gabriel ibn Tura}'k was one of three
laymen selected 10 o<:cupy Ihe Coptic patria.chale
in Ihe twelfth and thirteenlh centuries during the
late Fatimid c.liphate and the early Ayyubid sulta-
1128 GABRlEL II
nate. He had the rather anomalous name of Abu
al-'AU'. which could be applied equally to a Copt as
well as a Muslim: however, it!l use is known to have
been more frequent in Islamic communities. Never-
theless, he is known to have deKended from an old
and noble Coptic family "f SCribes in the new EIDp-
tlan capital of Cairo. He ....... brought up and edu·
cated in the Christian tradition and, owing to his
SlriCI religious temperament, he became a deacon
in the ancient Church of Saint Me<curius (~BO s,v-
FAYN) in Old Cairo. where he spent time in ardent
prayer during his youth.
As a mature man, he Ii"ed a celibate life of chasti·
ly and devoted himself to helping Ihe needy, the
sick, and the poor widows and orphans <Jf his com-
munity. [n his f<Jrtie,. he worked as a scribe with a
dual function divided between the office of state
correspondence (diwdn Qi-MukilIQMI) and the im-
portant department of taxation (BQyl Q/.MM). an un-
usual combinalion thaI points to his significanl
,kill.
In spite of hi, heavy invoh'emenl in the stat"
administration, he found time 10 con centrale on the
Sludy of religious lilerature, and he became an ac-
complished copyist of biblical books. He was an
active participant in most religious <Jffices during
the patriarchate of M~C~RIUS II (1102- 1128). After
Macarius' death, the patriarchal seat remained ,'a-
cant for three years. Finally, a leading Coptic ar-
chon by the name of Shaykh AbU·ai·lIarakAt ibn
al-Mabou discovered a solution 10 Ihis national
pr<Jblem by promoting Abu·al·'Ala' to Ihe posilion
of palriarch; and since no one had anything againsl
the candidate, Ihe archons of Alexandria. to whom
the seleetion had fallen this time. decided l<J acCepl
him, Consequently. he was taken to the ancient
AL-Mu'~UAOAH church in Old Cairo where he was
~n<Jinted_ Afterward, he was laken to Ihe tradilional
rdigious capital of Alexandria for formal consecra-
tion on 9 Amshir AI.\'847/'0 [l30 (Hist<Jry <Jf the
PatriaTchs, Vol. 3. pt, Ii p, 26j. In the follo...ing year
(A_D_ 1131) at Ihe age pf forty·seven, he was finally
confinned as the seventieth palriarch of the Coptic
church, e.'en before c'onsulting with the monks of
D'YR ~NBA M~QAR in WADI AL-N~TRON_
These formalities were ~cc<Jmpli.hed during Ihe
g<Jvemorship of Egypt by the famous AJ.tmad ibn
al·A[<Jal ShahinsMh, the son <Jf th'" mighty military
head of Ihe armies of th'" Fatimid caliph al'l;Iafi~
(1130-lJ49). Becoming t<J hi, biog.-apher. Marcus
ibn Zar'ah.
The m<Jn!<s of Day< Anba Maqar gathere<! to con·
sider the consecralion of the new patriarch and
decided to seek the opinion of a saintly recluse by
the name of Yli,uf Ihe Syrian. who appeaud Iheir
feelings about the dection of Gabriel ibn Turayk.
The new palriarch. in confonnity with established
tradition, wem to Dayr Anha Maqar, There he cele-
brated a pontifical mass where he seem, to ha"e
had an argument wilh the monks over the lileral
pronouncement of the union of the divinily and
humanity of Jesus Christ al the consecration of th'"
holy bread for communion. The argument was soon
,etlled by the incorporation of the additional phrase
"without mixing and "'ilhoul confusion," which be·
came pan of the Coptic liturgy,
With the solution of Ihis theological difference
with the c<JJtM"",-ti"e monks. the ne.... patriarch be-
came uni"crully recogni,ed. and his reign lasted
fourteen yeal'5 and six months until his death in
1145.
Gabriel instituted the policy of forbidding the
burial <Jf the faithful within the churches. Thc
church of HARtT ZUV"AYlAH Wall closed f()r a time
beea""e a priest by Ihe name of Psus had been
buried there, C<lnlrary 10 the pontifical c<Jmmand.
The patriarch wilhdrew the body of his predeces-
sor. Macarius II, from al.Mu'alla'lah church and
scnt it to Dayr Antm Maqar in Wad, al·Na!run for an
honorable burial.
The mml importam decision in his imernal poli'
cy, however, proved 10 be the suppression of Ihe
simoniacal practice that his predecessors had used
10 levy fund, from newly con""crated episcopal
candidates in exchange for lheir nomination. He
nominated the eXlra<Jrdinary number of fiftY'lhree
bishop£ withoul receiving any funds from his ap-
pointees.
The general <Iale of the country under Cahph
al·I;IMi" ....... rather confused and fun of conflicts.
Nevertheless. the church enjoyed an undisturbed
period <Jf security and independence when the "i-
~ierate of al'I;IMi~ fell 10 an Annenian Chrislian
named Bahram, who had pre>;ously come 10 Eg)pt
in the entourage of another famous Islamized Ar-
menian, B~DIl ~L-JAM~LI. During Bahram's rule, the
Chrislians. including ooth Annenians and C<Jpts.
fared e,tremely well. The Annenians held nume'"
ous governol'5hips of Ihe province" and the Copts
monopolized the highest posts in the adminisTra·
tion. notably th' offices of oolh finances and laXa-
tion. In fact. there was a tomplete reversal of the
fonnal policies of Coptic pel'5ecution that had ""ist·
ed during the hal'5h reign of al'l;!AKIM (996-1021 j.
In facl, some authorities began 10 fear that Islam·
ittd Copts might be tempted to abjur", their new
faith and return wholes;,le 10 their C<Jptic Chri"ian
beliefs. This, indeed, may have been one of Ihe

facton that precipiGlled lh~ rdoollion of l:luan. aI-
~'. MIn, agailW his £lither. ,",'hieh kd 10 the 'em·
potar}' deposition of 1M alipb and 1M applicuion
of I'$ricti\'t masur~ 011 the Cop«. It _ du"""
this il\~ri"d., that J.iaoan ~ and incan:enlted
Gabriel. Gabriel was ...,It-.t aher p;t.)ing an im·
poA of a thousand dinars !hal had bttn raised by
!he Copl:ic arrhoou and ril;h _rch.nts.
'Jl.., gnovil)' of the ;nternal situation within the
country was inten.. fied by conflicts between the
Suda~ and the Turkish batallions ....i thin the mil·
itary forces of the caliph aIf;!'. This Jed to the oustinll
of 1,la$ll.11 and the rdum of al'I:lAfi~ 10 his throne. A
new lead"" by the name of RudwAn ibn Walkhasl
K~ mi,,;slenal power. Under these circuJTl5tan·
u •. Bahnlom be<:ame uMas)' an<I. ,","Ih his Armeni·
an,. decided 10 wilhdl"llw romp~ldy from £upt.
Rudwin ,..,~ Ih.. former knit"t policy toward
all Chmlw.s. Arn>enQI15 lll\d Cops alike- Legis1&-
tiool ...... mac~ to forbid I~ employment of
Christians in the adminlslnlion. although mls rule
.... n<I'I lilomoJJy applied 10 tM Copts for practical
"'awns. The HISTORY 0# lllE ,ATtLlIlCHS (Vol. l. Jll.
I. p. J I) rttQTds tho appolotn>eOl of Abo Zikr! ibn
Y~yti ibn BU....... lhe Cope. as chief !ilCn1>e logelher
"';Ih 1_I~e oilier Chrlslian usisunt Kn1>es..... hile
the,e were only lWO "'uslims in doe govemmenl
admin;'lr3lions at I later dale. N""enheleos. Chris-
tian il\5litutions in Cairo and .1·Khandaq were e:<'
posed to mob violence, and Ihe Armenian monU'
lery of al-1.uhl1 was destfOY"d. V~lm"nl
restrlction~ on Christians were renewed, and they
were prohibited from riding horses. Whal probably
was ""Or5C wa!l Ihe doublina of the poll WI (JIZYAH)
on all Chn:.tians and Jews. wilhoul exce~ljon.
Muslim< all O1Ier lhe COWltry became more ",.
@"'16i\"e and SOme bnatlcal mobs ~tad,ed Ihoe
churc~ althou&h lbe caliph himself '~ar<led
their llClions with disb\-or. The History of f~e I'"frl·
uclu reconis that a MUllj~l""b attae.ked a church
WI had !>ttn l"ftIorlCd by i!oe bUhop of SaIl. . in
lhe city of Minyat-Ziftl, and IUI"'IIed It in,o a rnooque.
The bishop complained 10 'he adrnin;W;Uion au·
lhonli..... and a writ ""11I5 issued l"Ol'lpIly for its
"""oration &5 • church and an uplicil order was
giwn for its pn-:soer.-ation and $«urity.
In the ""alm of ~gn polk:y. Gahritl II "..alched
O\'er the imer=! of the church in his relallons with
Ethiopia. The Ethiopian emperor wamed Ihe palri·
arch to consecrate numerous bishops for his coun·
try, but Cabriel insisted on the prese"'alion of uld
es,ablished tr;>dilions of nomloatlng lhe usual Cop-
tic AlIuN, The Abyosinian emperor wroce to the ca·
liph 10 bring presoure 10 bnr upon Ihe pauurch 10
GABRIEL IV 1129
rupond b,'-onbly 10 his roequest. Gabriel e:<pIained
10 the caliph thaI such a """"ure miglll lead ,he
Eduopians lO colUeCrate !heir own Catholic.... or
pauian:h, and bttome ""pamed &om the mol'-
church in F.cYPt. ...1Iich u'OUld also be a loss of
f.&yplian influence O'>'er the Ab}'5Sinian Muslims.
~mly .bis argumenl eon.'nced Ihe caliph and
lhe maIler was closed.
In lhe lilerary foeld. Gabriel diAinguished himself.
not "",...1,. as a highly skilled copyi" of biblical and
other religious texts but .Iso as a compiler and
lranslator of works by Ihe falhers of the church.
Apparenlly he commanded considerable knowledge
of Coptic, al.hough it Is doubtful whcther he knew
Grttk. On the praclkal side of his career, he ~
known 10 ha,.., compiled thn:<: impolUm ",riel; of
Canons (Graf, 1947, p. J25) and "'''0 lilUrp:.1 boob
and a Nom""anon In ,"enly-four chaplel'S. This
"''IS long !hou&h' lO ha'"e loefto 10$1. bu. accordina:
10 Simaybh's c;Ulogue (1939-1941.;;f. no. 570). II
"'"11I5 rttleOl1y rediKo,-eroed In Ihe libnry- of dloe patn-
srcloaJe in Cairo thou&!' incomplete. Some of hi•
collection of canons, bowenr, has !>ttn presenoed
in the imp<>nanl Nomoeanon left by MIkHAiL bish·
op of Dam~ua.. during obe pauun::hate of _ III
(1167-11&9).
On thoe ,,·hole. ,hoe patria.rchate of Gabritl II
pT'O>'ed'0 be relalively puaful and, if "..e overloolc
a number of occasional incidents and the interlude
of lhe oppressive Nles of l;Iasan, SOn of al'J:lI~~,
and Rudwan ihn W.lkhasl, ,he Copts lived in rela·
live .ecurity and enjoyed considerable collabora·
,ion wilh Ihe laIc Falimid administration of the
count,)', Gabriel II concluded his reign pt'acefully
In 1145.
InBUOCltAnlY
Bute....., E. L nrc SIOry of 1M CI"",::& of Ef:n1I, 2
vols. London, Ig97.
tane-Poole. S." HiJlfH)' 0{ ED""'-" me MUldie A,ru.
J...ond,o.,. 19C11. Repr. New Yorl<. 1969.
Mrinaro..., O. Clrrisli"" £r:ntI AlSCi..." lind Modem,
2nd ....... cd. Cairo. 1917.
Neale. J. M. A HistMy of tile Holy EIlslern C&,.rr.h, 2
vok. London. 1847.
Roncaglia. M. HulOire tk /'I,liM copte, 4 Wlli... 2nd
ed. Beirut. 1985-.
SUBHI Y. U&!B
GABRIEL IV, eighly·slxlh patriarch of lhe See of
Saint Mark (1370-1378). Gabriel', hiognophy OIl"
pea" in the HISTORY Of' THE PATJUAJlCHS in a mall",r
of a f""" lines. H<: was a monk of the Monauery of
 1130 GABRIEL V
OuT Lady known as IlAYR AWOI.-1;lAIlUQ in Middle
Ec>'PI. "Then' is
no Infonro.;,lion about his secular OT
_ i c : IiJe beyond 1M usu.ol $l.ldtlll.eni !hal M
_ a k:amod. rn3II • ...mUoOUS, and a Ollie. "5telic.
H~ "'. a ~ont~mponry of !he Mamlul sultan, aI·
Mhraf SM'bln (1363-1J77), and he ditd in tlte
early yeaB of the .eien of his ~ccusor 'Ali al-D1n
'Ali (1l77-I38I). His ~nun: lasted righ. ~tarS and
fou. monlhs. and we mUll llSaUme il ..;os uneYe>il·
fuL
&lem Y. L0.811
GABRIEL V. eillhly·eiginh patriarch of lhe S.e of
S.int Mark (1409-1427). Born probably In the
proyince of GILl.. south of Coiro, Gabriel became a
,ovemmelll fun<tlol\llry charted ..~th coll«I'nl
lUes. AI an unknown ace. he abandnncd his ollicial
,esponsibilitilt$ in his provln~e in onkr .0 become
a monk.. He ...,t~ 'M mol\ll5l~ of Anbi $AIoloo.
Of' QoU.UION in lhe Fayyo:lm lHiswry of 1M p..ma;clts
of /he ECJ'i'MlI CltllrcJo. Vd. J, pl. 3. p. ISS (Ara·
bk); p. 212 [F.n&UsJoD. While !here, he _ or-
wr>c:d a priest.
His election 10 !he ~llian:halC ....-;as farililaled by
a prophecy of his pn'd«essor. MATTHEW I (1378-
14(9). 1'be Slory is lold thu~ in the HISJOIl.Y Of mE
'ATlUAROIS (Vol. 3. pt. 3. p. 171):
Manhew had indiCllted to his disciples. before
his death. thaI ,'''' Father AoW Gabriel would be
palriaTch alter him. And wme of the people did
not believe him. unl,1 this FatheT appeared to
them on the da.y On which they called Gabriel to
be onlained HEGUIoI£NOS. Al the time when the
peop'" we.... assembled in lhe CHURCH Of a... ottr.IJ..
IAQ,UI.. one of the Mindy elden; "'ho _re auoem·
b...d on tha. day saw this Father in the spiril
......ding at the aide of the altar. and he .... lay-
ing his hand ..-llh Ihe hand of the Falhen the
bishops on the head tI Anhi Gabriel And whm
the eld« saw thi!., he'lharvelled, and he resolved
10 he blessed by him befon: he ~....,iahed from
him. and M<'>nhoew blesM'd hi",.
Gabriel ..... c<Jn5tquenlly made IJEOJM£NOS of the
Chureh of the Vi~in, al·Mu·ailaqah, iTl Old Cairo.
On 21 April 1409, he _ «>nsecnted pIllTiarch.
Gabriel V faced a difficult period lor the durch.
Polilically, E8YJl'l _ unstab.... 1wa6sinatlonl and
revolts were !'requenl. In 1421 alone, four sultana
held successive rule. Incessant "",r.; made Egypt
economically weak. In a period of thiny yea.... four
plagues l<Ivaged the ~OUntl)'.
More than any Olhe. group...ilh the possible
e>lception of oht Jews. the Copts sufF....ed under
theoe conditions. The M1I$lim hi$lorian of ,hal peri.
od.. AJ.u-d Dllrrij. "TOle:
The persecutions an' the r=ll' of 1O~'el'lImenl
directives.... noese direcliW$ can he claHi6ed
in se,;~ra1 cattlOrie3: (I) prohibition apinsl em·
ploring [CluUliana and Jew5) iTl IO""mmenl of,
fices; (2) conliscalions, conltibulions imp<:>5O'd on
the communily. various Iypes of finaocial obllp-
lion; (3) humiliat'nl measures reprdinl drt!S
and manners; (4) demolilion cl religious edifices.
There multiple halll$$ments, which are periodi·
~ally .... newed. explain Ihe frequeTlt conversions
of Christians and Jews who desire 10 maintain
their posilions In government; Abil a1·Mal:ibin·s
forceful comment on the silualion is lelling: "'l1Ie
0i4I of the ruler is a n:cemly conve<1ed Muslim.
bi. Shaykh is a Chrislian, and his pilgrim is a spy"
(1%1. p. 141-421.
One can compare Il:ardj's o~.......tions wilh
Olhu ,...->dence of !he persecuUon of the Copu ......
der the 8al)rile Mamluk:s. Samir (1979) offen an
analysis of fnur swdlea and mention~ fi~ Olhers.
In 1412. in the pr'eSeOCe of Muslim kadell, So.ol·
tan .... Mu·ayyad lalhered kws and Copts In ,he
M<l$qUC of the caliph al·l:!Ar.lM and lhe.e demanded
lha, l'JOJ\-Musli"" P1'y double the currenl laa (nz.
YAH). In 1413 me35l.lf<'5 be~ame e'..... more $Irin·
lenl. In 1414 and 1419, "'·Mu·ayyad lorblode Ihe
Copts aCCeM 10 his offices and those of his emin;, In
1419. he increaMld restrictions regarding vestments
and Iheir usage (see Oarr:tl.j, 1961,142-43),
PelX'Cul;ons ~onlinued under Ihe rule of Barsbay
(1422-1438). On I May 1422. a new direcliV1! was
issued prohibiling the ~nlplO)mem of CoptS in pub-
lic ol!ic:es. A heavy price had 10 be p"id 10 abolish
this int....diclion (0arYtj. 1961. P. 143).
Because Catalans and eenoese piraJes -.... har-
assing Egypt. in 1422 Banbay forl>adt Chrislian pU·
lri"", acccg to the Holy Sepulcher. In ans"".... 10
thi!.. the fteJU$ y~ Muod:ed the MusJims 01.
Elhiopia in 1423 and ravas:~ ohe Wamic ki",dom
of Jwn. In mum. Banbay look ''''nae:an« on the
Copls.. Only through the Inle.....eTltiOft of Eric: VII.
king 01. Denmark, ....... lhe Holy Sepukh.... reopened
in 1426 (~, 1%1. p. 338; 5« a1w Cerulli.
1943a).
To add 10 Gabriel'. problem•. he and Ihe negus of
Ethiopia "'e.... II(>l on sood lenno. In fact, Yesl:iaq
ceased to send the traditional contribution of the
kings of Ethiopia to the Eg)'P'ian church.
In both Coptk and Ethiopian traditions. Ihe name
of Gabriel V ~malned linked with a ntiracle repon·

ed to have taken plac" at the tim" of the transfer of
th" relics of Saint George to the church in Old
Cairo that bears his name ('AbdallAh, 1%2, p, 34.
fn. 32). Ethiopian tradition mentions Gabriel V in
connecTion with Isaac, Th" superior at The monas-
Tery of Mi;rnAq. who refused to ol>ey his bishop. It
is ~ported that Gabriel restored good relations be-
tween them (Cerulli. 1943b).
Coptic tradition reports that in 1412 MAr Basile
BahnAm was chosen patriarch of The Syrians at
Mardin. Bearing The name Ignatius IX, he came to
EgypT \ia Jerusalem (Ephrem, 1976). Gabriel con-
vened a synod thaT charged three bishop6 wiTh his
con"""ration, Michael al·Ghamrt, bishop of Saman·
nud and dean of the Episcopal College; Gabriel ibn
K!tib al·QU~iyyah, bishop of Asy;i! and superior of
me monastery of Saint Macarius; and Cyril the Syri-
an, bishop of J"rusalem. In addition. AI·A,'ad AbU
al-Faraj (later to succeed Gabriel V under the name
of JOHN XI). parish priest of The churd of Saint
Mercurius ("ofj •• nuN) in Old Cairo. helped with
me ordinaTion. After his con"""ration in The church
of Saint Mercurius. Ignatius IX then returned to
Jerusalem. The~ events have been registned in
two manuscripts of Cairo <kaling wilh Ihe prepara·
tion 01 the holy chrism. one in The CopTic Patriar·
chal Libra'}' (Lilul"gy 286) and the olh"r in Ih" Cop'
tic Museum library (lilurgy 128).
In general. the consecration of Ignatius IX ilIus·
trates that relations between the Coptic and Syrian
churches were strong during This period. In tb"
""ent of intemal troubl"s the Syrians could depend
on Ihe Copts for help.
The notable Muslim hisTorian al-MAQRIZ] (1364-
1441), a contemporary of Gabriel V. summarized
The life of The patriarch:
After having spem some time as one of the
many fun~tionaries he rose in the ranks until h"
reached the patriarchal seal. The Christians were
never so unhappy as du"", his reign.
, appro"alto This ardo and The patriarch consequent-
He himself was subjected. on several occasions,
To prejudicial Ir"aTm"nt and ·humiliaTion. He had
10 go in the streets on foot.' When he presented
himself for an audience with the Sultan or his
emirs, he w,," left standing. He w,," so impover-
ished that. on mOre than on" occasion, he was
obliged To go from ,iIlage to village imploring Ihe
generosity of the ChrisTian population. He was
unable to obtain aid from them since They t""m-
selves were in a stat" of po\'erty and dislress.
In days gone by, the Abyssinian kings sent an·
nually considerable amounts of money to the pa.
Triarch of Alexandria. During Gabriel's reign.
GABRIEL V 1131
however, they renounc"d this cu",om. They had
very Htde consideratioll for this prelate who had
once been a functionary and had thus. in their
opinion. contributed 10 the vexaTions exercised
againsl his own people.
In shon. 1 have never seen any paTriarch who
was less esteemed man this one and who<e pon-
tificate was less honoured,
Here then is the opinion of an outsider. Coptic
tradition will have it maT thLs patriarch was ascetic.
choosing Travel on foot and leading an auSlere and
simple lif" (Kamil ~li~ Nal:hlah. 1954, p. 8, no. 6).
It is apparent that Gabriel had a difficult reign. It
WB.< during this period that Ihe Venetians stole th"
Co"",' chief relic of Ih" head of Saint MARK. an act
that deeply affecled the Coptic community. On the
rdigious front. Gabriel distinguished himself by his
liTurgical reforms in The Coptic church. comparable
to thOlle made by Pius V for the West"rn laTin
Church.
Gabriel V left only one ..... rinen work. Tile ardo
(Arabic, KilJb Tort/b). He thereby reorganized the
liturgy of the church, giving it Th" definitive form
thaT it currently retains. WithOUT creating or modi·
fying anything in Ihe body of the litul"gy, he assem-
bled all ilS elements and Traditions with minute
precision and indicated all g"stures and prayers of
t"" liturgical offices.
Gabriel's method is inStruCTive. being set fonh
identi~ally in the two manuscripts thaT contain
pans of the ardo ('Abdallah, 1962, pp. 113, 290
[Arabic tex!]: pp. 319. 440 [1Talian lrans.]): He stud·
ied a num""r of "xtant older ordas, lists of daily
offices and feasts, comparing them and collating a
single ordo that integrated the maximum sub5tance
of Their original e1emenIS. On Sunday. 3 May 1411,
aT the Church of ~B(J s.o,YHYN in Old Cairo. he as-
sembled The pri"'ts, notables, and deacons of The
entire Christian communiTy and submitted the new
a,do to them. The assembly gave its unanimous
ly decreed ilS exclusive use in aU Coptic churches.
The main part of the anI. is contained in a Paris
manuscripT. arobe 98. t",nscrib<:d at the ""ginning
of th" seventeenth century according to A. 'Abdal-
lah, or in the fifteenth century according to G.
Troupeau. Only folios la-136o contain the a,do.
The rest of the manuscripT contains materials per-
taining 10 oTher authors.
The manuscript, Coptic Vatican 46, Transcrib<:d in
Egypt at The beginning of The seventeenth c"ntury.
contains in folios 136a-143a a single piec.... The
ardo of 'he C,ms<cr"liml of New S"nctuaries. This
1132 GABRIEL V
penicular ordo .. missing in th., Paris ~uKript.
A detailed anai)'Si5 of the whole Vatican manuscripi
_ <lone by A. Hdlbd}nck and A. van LanlS<:hOOl
(1937).
The Arabi<: and Coptic: lexIS of me 0nJ0 ",..,re
~Ied by 'Abda11J.h 0%2. pp. IU-267, 290-315)
Nonll wich an Italian transl.a.tion (pp. JI9-.JJ, 4<'0-
59). 8etweI'ft ~ SO-51 and 66·67 a,.., phoIo-
paphi<: pbtes rl!'producing Pam arabe 98. folios la,
.Sa, I~•. and Vatican CopIic 46, folio U6a.. N~
lhal paces ~64-19 of !be lu'abic luI (pp.•JooI-39 of
lhe ltal ..... lrans.) ~ nol by Gabriel V (AbdallAh,
1%2, p. 51. Il).
The conlents of Gabriel's Omo an: as follows
(pege nurnlxors refer 10 'AbdallAh's .........):
I. Ordo of Nplism (ed .. pp. IIJ-27; lrans. pp.
JI9.J{l); for the ~m on Nptism that follows
II. s.,e below.
2. OTdo of marriage (M., pp. 130-.8; I...ns.. pp.
333-44).
3. arllo on th., anointing of th., sick (ed.. pp. 149_
51; t... ns.. pp. 345-47).
4. a'do of Saint Abu rarllll (ed., pp. 152-55;
tranl., pp, 348-5(1). This lilurgical rile is pRC'
Iked again.. dog bile., ..ill on., of the most
popular ce,..,monies performed in Ihe CopIi<:
church.
S. OTtlo of Ih., vesperal and malinal offic., for lh.,
inc",,,," (ed.. pp. 156-70; I"...... pp. 351-60),
6. Ordo of me ~ of SainI BMiI (ed.., pp. 171_
200: lraJl5., pp. 361-83).
7, Ri,es conc........ing <:lain (ed.., pp. 201-29;
lrans., lIP· 334-404):
L Enthronem.,nl of a new bishop (ed., pp. 201-
IS; lrans.. pp. J&4-9-t);
b, Ordina,;,;", of Ir.~m"noi and priests (fl!., pp.
216-19: lrans. Pr. 395-97);
~ Ordo of me -'crlarnation (uolf"") of a n_
pri$ (ed., pp. 201..2ro; 1nJl5., pp. 398-4(0);
d. Ordo of lhe ~on of m;nisl.,rs: ,..,_..,
IUbdn<:ons. and deacons (ed.. pp. 22.-29;
,........ pp. olOl-40).
8. Riles concerning monks (lelIl. pp., 23O-olO;
lrans., pp. 4115-14):
a. Ordo on the dothing of mon"';
b. Service of Ihe holy Sth.m~ (monllMic habil);
c, 0,",,0 of Ih., veslm.,nts used univ.,rsally,
9, Fun~ ...ry rites (ed" pp. 241-59; lI-anl.. pp.• 1.-
29):
a, fun~rals of patriarchs and bishop! (\!d., pp.
241-52; t... ns.. pp. 415-23);
b. Fun.,rals of lrelJlmerroi. priC$lS. and bi1hful
(ed.. pp. 253-58; trans.. pp. 42.-27);
c. Commemoralion of lhe dead (ed., 258f.; I... ns.
428£.).
10. Ordo to fill 1M chalice. if pouri", the wine
during mass has been lnadvertenlly omiued or-
if the wine has Illmed to vinegar; baxd OQ a
manuscript found in the M~ery of Salnl lot.
c:arius (non. ",... IIA MAOU) (rd.. !'P. u,o---f>7;
lrIlll5.. pp. 430-3J).
II. Ordo of !he <:<>ns«ralion 01 ,he sacred ~1s
(td... pp. 268-88; Ifll/"I5.. pp. H.~38). As ~y
noted. Ihis Ordo did noo doerive from Gabriel V;
;t "''lIS addc:d he,.., be<:luse of its IP~<:<I: in
I"" Paris manuscript and owinllO th~ similari-
Iy of conten!$.
12. a.,J" of the consec....tion of new sanclllaries
(cd.. pp. 1~-315; lral1$.. pp. ,"9-59).
A poem on baptism occurs on pages 12$-30
(Imn•.. Pr. Jllf.). Conlral)' to 'Abdallah', opinion,
thIs poem ........ nOt composed by Gabriel v but by
Athanasius, bishop of 0",. According to G, Grar
(l9sl, pp. 12ll, 129. la), lhi. AthanasillS belong, 10
Ih. fift""nlh-si"t«nlh Centuries and should be dis·
lin8u~hed from anoth.,r AlllMI.t4JUS, bishop of QU~.
who li"ed in ,h., thir1e.,nth-fourt.,~nth C.... luries
and authored Ihe Oil1l401 ,,1·T~;rf' (Craf. 1934. p.
.45; 1947). This diSiinclion, 'ever. is far from
cmain. It is likely. in bel 1 he is on., and th~
sam., bishop who lived In Ih~ Ihinttn<h-foun«nth
cenlnrio$.
Blsuoc;;ltAJ>Hl"
'Abdallah, A., a.r.M. L'Or,m,<1m.,,,lo ufouzj<:<> tii
GUriJo[~ V. U' p<>lritlrc. COfHo (J4Q9-HZ7}
SIudia Oriental;;, ChrUliarta ~1)'Pti<:L Cairo.
1%2_ Gabriel's life appeaT$ on pp. 24-42; his
wort. on pp.•3-73.
CauIli. E. EliDpi m P~lc.<I"'o, SI"';" dell" COMm ...
nira e1iopiCIl di Geruul.""me. Vol. I, pp_ 230-33_
Rome. 1943a. ~ dtaplu B, "II Negus YesJ.taq .,
\a chiusuOl della &silica del Sanlo Sc:polcre nd
14B.'·
-::cC II film> eliopico dt; !oli... co/i di Mana. PI'.
201 202. Rum •• 194Jb.
Daltlj, A. L'£VPlc SU"S I~ "!C"~ d~ 8M,bay (815-
84//1412-1438;. DaIlWCUS. 1961. See especially
chapler 4, "Les E.x~dienti." .nd chapter 8. "~
Ueu,,-SainIS Chrtliens."
Ephrem 1st Ba'¥um, ItI·Lu'lu' al·Ma.uh'" f. IM,kh
al·'ul"m w~ al·dddb "I·suryd"iyy"h. 3.d ed .. pp.
446-47. 8aghdad, 1976,

Graf, G. Calalogue de manuscrlls arabes chrel!ens
co"serv~s au Ca',e. no, 'W. Vatican City, t934.
Hebbelynck, A.. and A. van lamschoot. Codlcos
Cop/lc, Vatica", Ba'beri"la"l Borgi""! Rossla"i.
Vol. 1. CodlctS C"pllci Valle""" pp. 257-306. es-
pecially pp. 280-89. Vatican City. 1937,
Kimil ~ilil:t Nakhlah. Silsilal Tdrikh al·Bdbawdl
B"tdrikal "IKurSI a/./,ka"d"n, VoL 4. pp, 6-9.
Dayr al·Su'1'An. 1954, A well--documented study
on the life of Gabriel V.
Khalil Samir. "Chretiens sous les Mamluks." Bulle-
lin d'Arabe dmit!e" 3 (1979):68-74.
Muyser, J. "Contribution A I'etude des listes epis·
copales de I'eglise copte." Bullel'n de I" Sociele
d'arch'ologie caple 10 (1944),115-76, especially
pp, 167-68.
Troupeau. G. Calaloguo de' ma"u,c,;rs arabes de la
Blbliolheque "alio"ale. VoL I. pI. 1. Manuscrits
chretiens. Paris, 1972,
KH~UL S~I,\IR, S.J.
GABRIEL VI, ninety.first patriarch of Ihe See of
Saint Mark (1466-1475). Gabriel was born al ai-
'ArAbab al·Madfunab and consequently was called
al·'Arabliwl, He was surnamed Ibu Qat!A' aJ'lJsfur.
He became a monk in the D~YR ~NBA ANTONIYUS and
Ialer was its .uperior. After MATTHEW II died Gabriel
was cho.. n 10 be the pope of Ale~andria on 9 Feb·
ruary 1466. He then settled himself at the Church of
Om lady at I;IARrr ZUW~YU.H in Cairo, which had
been the patriarchal seat from the reign of JOHN IX
(1320) umil about 1670.
Little is known of his life, He died on 15 Decem.
ber 1475 and was buried at D~YR AI.XJ-UNIMQ, in the
Church of A"'B~ RUWU$ in Cairo. Accoming to 0,
Meinardus (1965). he w",", one of four patriarchs
buried in that church (d. KAmil, 1943, 1954).
No work by him is mentioned by G. Graf. Howev·
er, one mUSI consider twQ.f.!anuscriplS in the Ii·
brary of tho Coptic patriarchate of Cairo. These
record canonical answers o~ marriage and the sel"
vice of the altar to Questions,' ""ked by .'arious peo·
pie. probably bi.hop,. The questio,," were "collect-
ed in the cell of the patriarch Ghubriy~1 al-FarbAwl"
(Graf. 1934). Thi. last name should no doubt be
",ad al··Arabawi. Tbe two C.ittne manuscripts are:
Theology 294 (1Ogypt. eighteenlh cemury), fols. 501>-
86b (Simaykah, 1942, no. 541/1: Graf, 1934. no,
439/10): Theology 295, dated 22 Abib A,M, 1549 16/
27 July A,D. 1743, approximately fol$. 54-90 (Simay·
kab, 1942. no. 394/1: Graf, 1934. no. 443/1).
GABRIEL VII 1133
These canonical answers are mentioned by Omf
(1951. Vol. 4) but are mi$lakenly attributed to Ga·
briel VII (1525-1568) by Murqus Simaybh and
Yassa 'Abd al·Masl~.
BIBLIOGRA.PHY
Graf. G, Calalogue de. manuscnu Qrabes chrJlims
cOo-lsu"i. au Cai...,. Vaticau City. 1934.
KAmil SAIi~ Nakhlah. KitJb TlJ.rlkh ....a·Jadawil
Ba{arikal al-lskaMdariyyall al.Qib!. Cairo, 1943.
___. Si/,i/m Tankh al-B~baw<lt Ba(iirlkal al-K",>!
al·[,ka"dan, V()l. 4. Dayr al·Suryln. 1954.
Meinamus, 0. F. Chri.tia" Egypl: "nci~"l aMd Mod·
~rn, Cairo, 1965; 2nd ed" Cairo, 1977.
KHALIL SAMIR, S,J.
GABRIEL VII, ninety·fifth patriarch of the See of
Saint Mark (1525-1568), Gabriel VII was born
about 1471> in Minsh~h or Manshi)Yat Abu ·A:i,hah.
near DUll. AI.MUl;IARRAO. we:o;t of AI-Q1l~iyyah in the
province of ,uyU!. He was known by the name of
Ibn MuhannA.
His father. the lIogummo' Jirjis ibn Rufil.'ll. was
tbe pari,h priest of the famous church of Saint
Mercurius (ABO S~Yf~YN) in Old Cairo. At an un-
known dale. Ibn Muhann~ eutered DAYR Al-SURY~N
in the desert of Seetis and took the name Rufil.'11.
like his grandfather. Shortly after he became a
priest, then a HE()UMENOS
A note in the manuscript of Saim Autony, num-
bered Theology 209. describes Gabriel VII as a tall,
Quiet man.•trongly inclined toward an asceticism
that included fasts, long prayers. and stringent aus-
terity,
On 5 Febroary 1524, JOHN XIlI, the ninety-fourth
patriarch, died. After deliberations that lasled near·
ly twenty months, lhe bishops and ~RCHON' of lhe
community chose Ruf.!'i! (lS patriarch. He was can·
secrated on 1 October 1525.
One of the colophons in Coptic Vatican 9 notes
that on 29 November 1525, JUSt two months alter
his consecmlion. Gabriel acquired from masler
Barsilm ibn MikhA'i! Ta)'y Ibn BisAdah this manu·
script. nOW in tbe Vatican, which contains the four
gospels in Bohairic and Arabic (Hebbelynck and
van Lant<chool, 1937).
Gabriel did much to restore a number of mon(lS-
teries. especially those in the Eastern Desert near
the Red Sea. They included Saint Antony's (DAYR AN·
B~ ANTUNIYOS), SainI Paul's (D~YR ANB~ BtJLI.). and
1134 GABRIEL VII
I!IIlvt Al..4oU.YMGl'. H~ rdluilt ~nllrdy t~ mOJla,tt,'Y
or SainI Anl(M'JY. lh~Q Cllll~d Dayr al·''''nbm. which.
al.hooSh tl had be~n destl1»1'd by Ihe bdooins.
th~r~alt~r began 10 bloom. Unfonunately, th~ ""fu,..
bi,Md monastel')' of SlIint Paul wa,
aa:ain deslroy~d
by the bedouins durlng Gabriel'l lifellm~. To his
c""dit. Cahtid al~ ~ored pan" of Dolyr al·
Mul:wnaq. the monasttry near his nall~e village.
Thqe ustorationl r~uirnl a gnal dnl of mono
ey. Morl'OWT. !h~ lUes ~ded by the Slate be-
~ Inc:~ngly 1leaY)'. for these I..... ...-om.
Gabriel ooup;hl I<> oaK funds. But wfailhful in
Cairo subsequ~ntly ac;c..... him of beina: a malen.
a1ilt. a calumnialion ~dialM by lhe fad u.a.1 ...
his death. hts cell was found 10t.ally empty.
I n I S61. Pope Paul IV (1559- I S65) ~nt two Jesu·
in t<.> Gabriel in lh~ ho~ of rusrabHshing a union
btlw«n the two "hurches. Th~ two enV<>y5. Falhers
ChriRophore ll.odricun (Spanish) and ClAMMmsn.
lUA!'lO (a ........-e of f&)'pI). were received by the
pau"rch in N",-embe.- 1561. Their ultimal~ goal
was to join the Copu I<> the Chureh of Rome.. In
this conneclion. W pope "'3$ aski,. lbat the pun.
arch send .. represenl.all«, 10 the Council of Tr,."l.
lila. h~ ddeple a group of ,.,una: mm 1<.> go 10
Rome to be in.tI'\lCI~d in lhe Calholic faich. and
Ihal he &hOllld wrile a l~u~r of submiSSion,
The ilka for Ihi, mission had originalcd wilh II.
c~nain lbrihlm a]-Suryirll {alias Abrlm), who ""y.
~nol yurs earl;"r had introduced himself in Rome
as .~ envuy of Gebriel. H~ had submitted lelten
a11~ 10 be from Ihe pania",h. which indicaled
lh:ao Gabriel l'eC"Iniud the primacy of 1M Roman
pope. II lat~r became clnr thai the Iftler from the
patriarch ...as .-hina: more ....... a letler 01 ~
lfttndallcm. l'bc Olhers had been roraed by Abmn.
Initially, Ih~ Jesuit blhel'l appf'ared 10 be allain·
inll Ih~k goal. The ~lriarch promised to ...nd
someone 10 th~ CouncH <.>f Trent, He a~oided send·
ina: a group 01 youna.foplS 10 Rome by SIl"ng Wt
lhe Turh W<llJld view :suclo a move nepliyel)'. At
lir$!. he :seemed di.spoiled I<> offer allegiance I<> the
Roman pope. bu. In the end he ",hallied lois mind
0tI. the unbvonb1e a<hice oflhe CopIk bishop 01
Cyprul.
Tho palriarch charged "brim and a cerUin
Georse to discuss eYery1hi,,& <>penl)' with the Joull
falhers and 10 work OUI posili<>n$ ac;cepcable 10
bc>ch lides. Wh~n the palriarch was ready 10 sign, a
younll man named Gabriel. th~ future G/leR.a Vlll
(1586-1601), int~lV~ned. counseling lhe patriar"h
aplnll .igninll a document he conlldered heretieal.
The you... Gal:oriel. wt.o aened considerable inftu·
enee on .he eighcy-liwe-yoear-<lld paniarch. _ doe-
scribed by th~ IWO Latin delegales lIS brinll an inlel·
lig~nt b.n bn~lkaily ob$tinale youth.
Th~ palriarch was ben~volenlly disposed toward
lhe lklea:~telo, TM proof is that he willinilly allowed
the Iwo rath~rs to lra""l throughout lhe cO..nlry.
~ who~ IMy pleased arnonc Ihe
laithfu.l who. by and. ~. were much nqleaed by
dt~ nalive bUhops and cloerc'. In faa. thf'Ol.lJhoul
their jcurnty the lwo prirsts were Mton~ by 1M
obsen'alion thaI baptismal lOncs -.e em"", and in
dj...epair.
<:on~h,(;ed of lhe u.d~ of their dFons, th~
two delq;atcs finally returned to Cairo ~nd lhen,,~
to Rom~. According 10 lhem. lhe whole scheme
was a mistake from the bea:lnninll. due not only 10
misinformalion bUI abo to the obslinale lIand of
lh~ )'Qune Gabriel.
This lim oIIiciai Catholic mission 10 the CopI:s
p8.\-ed lhe -r for a lone selin of pom.ilif;al mis-
siom UI a numbn" 01. IlU(ceaaift patriarchs. All
failed. Althou&b al the bepnninl of the dchteenth
cenrnry Rome renounce<! its allempts al iklt.I un·
io.... some dialogue _ ncablishcd with small
groups of Copu. th... &:lvin, bini! to the Coptic
Calholic community of today.
In 1568 the s..han rand bolh Christians and Jews
~~I')' hcs~lIy In order to delTay coslS of Ihe anny
seQI 10 conquer Y~m,." under the l~adership 01
Sinllt Pasha. Unable I<> plhr:r !he required. $<1m.
Go1bricI decided 10 retire lO his lavoril~ mo~
of SainI Antooy. On arrival. ho.e.e•. he died ...,-.
rounde<I by his monks. on 21l Octobe.- 1568. He . _
UWtspOned 10 Cairo on 25 N<M:mber and iJl !he
presence of eighty·li~" bishop& and priesta \018$ bur·
ied in the Church of Saint Me1"<:Urius (Abo Saybyn)
in Old Cairo. These ev~nll are .ttesl~d by IWO in-
scriptions: one. an inscripllon On Ihe wall of Ih.
Ch.a~1 of SaIni AnUlny; and another, lhe manu·
.ocripI: Ul"rc J9J at 1M same monasr.ery.
Bcshah. G.. and M. W. Abc-rpy. 71te Quutitm 0/ 1M
Uniooo of Ch"rcJ.es ;" U<so-ElhiopilUt M.ri<ms
(/500-16J1). pp. 5511. Usbon. 1'J47.
C~l'\llJj. E. EtJriopi in ,."Ium••.
SlorilJ adl" <"()nto
",,,,,itll c/hiqpica di Ge",sIJlemmo. Vol. 2, pp.
419-21. Rome. 1947.
Chaine. M, ['IJ CI"onoloSle des I~mps chreli,,,s de
I'Eopte el d, I'Elltiopl" p. IllS. no. 21. Paris,
1925.

H~e1ynck. A. •nd A. ~.n untschool. Codices
Coplid VII/lcll"j 8IIrberlnill"i 80rgill"; R"uia"i.
V<>l. I. Codices Coptic V'llanl, pp. 321. Vatican
City, 1937.
Kamit M. "J...,lIers to Elhiopia from I~ Coplic Pa-
triarch,. Yo'annas XVIII (1770-1796) and
Mallia. VI[( (1796-1809):' Bulleti" i, I.. Sodhi
d'Atehiologi, COP" , (19<42)'.89- 143.
1.0...... L LII Cot/less..", di CI""dio. Re i/'Eliopitl
(1540-/$59). Palermo, 19<47.
Rabb"h. A., SJ. Doc."..,,,,S /nUi,s /IOMr Ut'"r ..
"!oi=';', ill CI/ristilJ"i_ t:" Ori,nl, Vol. I. pp.
194-Jl;t, Pari" J...,ipzi&. and lDndo", 1901. (As-
sembles nume>0u5 documents, mostly in Italian
or Latin, on tM pOlllilKal misaion of 1561-1561.)
l.ounbe,.. H. ell/Il/orUt: iu ,.,,,n..~rils uhiopku
(ghUt.' "",IIoriqll,) lit: til BibliollK.,." "olionill•.
pp. '4f. Paris. 1877.
KHAUL SAlolIIL SJ.
GABRIEL VIII, nin~K\'etIth J*lriacch of <he
~ oJ. SJ,int Mark (1S86-1601). His name before
tam. the ......-tic \'OW ...... ShinUdah and M
camt from """ 10...... of "kil ;n the provinr:., of
Asyllt. This .. all we can Quatt from the ".!$TO.... OF
ruE '''nLUlCllS. "'hidl in a matter of lhrft lines
ellOOI(OUfIy ~ his !.own lIS .1·Manblr. He Vo'U
a monk in the wildc..- of Shi"", bul the,." is no
iDdica,ion to ... hic:h of its rnorwceria he belo",ed.
although it has be-en RlU=ed thai he ...... a monk
of ""n "''II91 '!SIlO"
This is, of counc. an obscu,." period in the 1Us1<>-
ry of tho: ~JIIian nation and apedally th., Coptic
stelor. Gabriel was a conlemporary of two Ottomllon
sull&1U. Mu~ III (IS74-1S95) and Mul)ammad III
(1595- 1603). He is sa'd to ha.., died In 1603 in lbe
wildemns of Shildt. ,,·he.., he was buried, ...i1hOlJl
mc:mion of any sp,dfic monaslery. He was patri·
arch for lift""" ynrs.
(Su illS(): Gabriel VII,) 0'~ SUIIHY Y.LA~18
GABRIEL, ARCHANGEL. Cabriel can mean
"man of God" or "str,ngth of God" or "God reveal.
Mm..,lf in strength," In a Coptic exorc~m tut it i.
inlerpreted as "man of God" (cf, Kropp, 1930-
1931. VoL 2. p. (65), In the Old Testamenl book of
Daniel, Cabriel appears 10 the prophet in Ihe ilCm·
blance ofa man [On. 8:IS-16) .nd l.s ImagIned ...
having the power 10 fly, a symbol of splriluality (Dn.
GABRIEL, ARCHANGEL 1135
9:21), His mlSS,on is to int""l'ret for Daniel the
apoca\)JIIic vision of the ram and the hc,~ aOO to
clarify the m~ianic maning of the prophecy of
the seventy wee4
In the New Talament he is p"'" the til~ of
"angel" [Lk. I: II, 26). He appears to Zechari.oh in
the Temple 10 announce the binh of 1M forenlllroer
of the Meuiah, John the Ilaptisl, and be Identifies
himself as "Gabriel:. "''''0 sa:ands in the presence of
God'· (ll. 1:19). SI>. monlh.I...,r he appea" to lhe
Virgin Mary in Nazarr:th and announces lhal ~e is
10 be th, .....,.ne,- d the Mtuia), (Lk. 1:16-38). Al·
though his name is nOt mentioned, ~ is supposed
10 be the angel "00 appean in Rewlalion 10:1-11,
since: be briJtp a masage of good tidinp.
)n Jewi5h ulr.lbiblicallileralu"" ~riel is riven
the titH, ol··arthant;el" (I EnoclI 21:3) and Is con·
sidered 1o be one of tho: four rn:ai.. angelic princes
l"&"'Im with Michael, Uricl (Sand). and Raphael
or one of the socvell archaneels (I Enoch 20:7; d.
Zec:. 4:IOb).
II is said thaI Gabriel is OtatM a1 the Idt hand of
God-with Micn..",l a1 tb., rilht-and that he has
Enoch for u> acoI)te (I Enoch 24:1). As his name
indicates. Gabriel ..... auu-tty O¥U all tho: ~
(I Enoch 40:9). He has.....,en.! misoioll5. such as to
watch <>Vel' Puwli:se, the "'""1""n15, and the che....
bim (I Eoocb 20:7), to inlen:ede for !he jusl (I
Enoch 40:9), to be- Pf"'"1 at the hour of death (4
E.sd. 6:1f.; ,tpoc<t1~ of MDSa 40), 10 take pan in
the Us! Judgmenl (I Enoch S4:5), and 10 Pl'nish
the impiood (I Enoch 20:9£.).
10 postbiblical Jewish literature Ihese R\I1le cha...
aC1eriMic!I an: maintained. and M is also cons'd-
ered 10 be the angel of the harvest. This lilel;lllUre
otres5eS the inlen~tions d Gabnd ..ilh lhe pall1.
arths. Woth ),licha,l."d Raphael, h, .....its Abnoham
(Cn. 18:2). and ..-ilh Michael ~ destroys Sodom
and Como"""'. He in!>trocu Joseph in Et;ypt: on Ihe
dea;:h of Mosco he hel ... Michael", 1'1'<)1"1 llis soul,
whiclt Sama'el ..;sltes 10 snalch away. He S''''C5 the
three young men in tlte fiery furnace,
In Gn"",tic lite"'tu", Gabri,1 i$ shown as the an-
gel of JuMice. anned with a sword and bow. and he
;,. in~oked against Ihe demon., He is identified with
Christ talking 10 Mary and laking fiah in her
womb.
In Christian literalure many of th, characteristics
mentioned an: included, others a~ de~eloped, and
}'et others an: introduced for the first time. Gabriel
is still considered one of Ihe archangels. and It is
also said that he ",as created before ,It,other an·
1136 GABRIEL, ARCHANGEL
gels, together with Satanael, who was later trans-
formed into Ihe Mvil, and with Michael, and that
he lead. the heawnly hosts. He i!; oaid to have
spedal power over Satan, whom"," torments con·
stantly with the help of other angels. Since he is the
angel of powers, he has authority over wars (Origen
De principii, J. S, I). At the end of time Gabriel will
blow the he3"enly trumpet, at the sound of which
the dead will ri.e. Gabriel is also cre<li.ted Wilh
oaving Daniel from lhe den of lions (On. 6:23), and
it is thoughllhat he is the angel in Daniel 10 (The<>-
doretus 10.20), Since Gabriel was .em 10 Mary to
announce the forthcoming binh of Christ, he is
thought also to bave been senl to announce the
death of Mary (Tischendorf, 1866. pp. 95-112).
In Coptic literature Gabriel £re<tuenlly appears in
works dedicated directly to him but also in those
dealing with the binh of Jesus and in others of a
different nature. He always takes second place be·
hind Michael. There are several encomia dedicaled
to the archangel Gabriel. One is auributed to ATIl"'·
NASJUS, patriarch of Ale""ndria, in honor of Saint
Michael and Saint Gabriel, and is included in a
codex in the Pierpont Morgan \Jbrary (Hyvernat,
1922, VoL 25). The Encomium in Gabri"lem Arch-
angdum of Archelaus of Neapolis is also presen'ed
in the Morgan \Jbrary (Hyvernal, 1922, Vol. 41),
and in a codex of [)AYR ANllA SHINUoAH (the White
Monastery), which is in lhe process of being recon·
structe<!. This same encomium is also found in 80-
hairic in two codices from DAYR ANllA MAQAl (Saint
Macarius) (Vis, 1922, pp. 246-91). It w,," composexl
for the feast of 22 Kiyahk, and it tells of the appear'
ance of Ihe archangel to Bishop Abba Nikolau.,
who was initially reluctant to build a church in his
honor, and of other apparitions while the church
was heing built. Gabriel appean; as an eighteen·
year-old youlh, an old doctor, and a royal soldier.
In this encomium he is also considered to be the
guarantor of contrac~ demanding thai they be ad·
here<! to,
There is also lhe EIt';"mium ilt G"brielem MchGn·
go/um allributed to eeleS!ine I of Rome and pre·
sen.·ed in a Sahidic codex shared heMeen the Brit·
ish Museum and the Freer Collection (Worrel, 1923
pt. 2, sec. I). Here Gabriel appears as the defender
of Ihe just in their struggle in this world again.1 the
devil and is held to be'the angel of peace.
The In,wll,,lio of Ihe "'-rchGugd Gabriel, presen'ed
in the Morgan Library (HJ"'ernat, 1922, Vol, 23;
MUller, 19(2), is secondaT)' to an l~slGUario of Mi-
d",d and is a poor imitalion of it. But it add. data
concerning Gabriel. He is called the bringer of
good tidings of the eons of the light. The lnstallatio
includes legends: with Michael Gabriel appeared to
Adam in the wateTS of the Jordan to pread Ihe
good new. of repentance and forgiveness of sins; he
appeared to Abraham to announce the birth of a
$On {MOller, 1962, n. 7); and he appeared to the
Virgin Sibylla, si'ter of Enoch, to save her from the
attacks of the de,il (MlIller, 1962, n. 8). It is Gabriel
who consoles the martyrs in their lrials (Milner,
1962, n. 8), Hi!; aUlhorily in heaven is shown by his
ha"ing being placed by God aI the head of 240,000
angels (MUller, 1962, n, 4).
Gabriel al.o plays an important role in the homi·
lies on the birth of Chri.t as, for example, in lhe
Sermon of Damianus presen'ed in Sahidic (Crum,
1913). Some fragments in Paris and London appear
to belong to a homily of this kind (Lucchesi. 1979).
The editor attributes it 10 SEVEIlIAN OF GABAlA, There
is also a Rohairic homily attributed to Saint JOHN
CHRYSOSTOM dealing with the annunciation by the
angel Gabriel to Mary (Vatican Library, Coplic 57;
d. Hebbel)'nck and Lmlschoot, 1937). Some dozen
homilies in Arabic on the subjecl of Gabriel have
also been presen'ed, They recall his appearances
and miracles, The most important is one anribUled
to John Chrysostom (Gmf, 1944-1953, Vol. 1, p,
544).
We 6nd references to Gabriel in olher Coplic
works, especially in those in which Michael ap·
pears. Thul in the Instal/ario Michaelis "'.changdi
(Miiller, 1962, n,3) it is state<!lhat Gabriel "'.... the
third archangel to be created after Saklataboth and
Michael. He appears wilh Michael in the Marlyrium
of Ih~ Apostle Simo~ (ZoC!ga, 1810, p. 137), aCcom-
panying Christ, who leads Simon to the Mount of
Olives. With Michael he is responsible for receiving
lbe souls of the jUllt at the momenl of dealh, ac·
cording 10 ApophlhegmaiG POlrum (Zotga, 1810, no,
169). In this role he appears in the Hislory (Jf )o,"ph
Ihe C"rpe~le. (Lagarde, 1883). In lhi. Coptic apoc·
ryphal work, Gabriel is the "archangel of j<Jy," who
appears to Joseph to announce the Incarnation of
the Word. Wilh Michael he also protects soul.
against the terrifying powers that attack them after
death, and in panicular he accompanies the $Qui of
Saint Joseph until il bas passed the seventh aeon of
darkness. In the Latin version of this work the lwo
archangels wrap the soul of Joseph in a c!03k of
light; in the Coptic text they place it in a delicate
silk tissue.
In the Marlyr;um of P",se a~d Theda, Gabriel

attends the t.....o many!"!; before Iheir death and
leads them safely 10 heaven (Till, 1935-1936, p. 99).
In a Sahidic Encomium to the Archangel R<>phael
(Budge, 1915, pp. 526-35), the name of Gabriel is
th'en the meaning of "God and man:' and it is
stated that this is why he is the messenger of Ihe
Incarnation. As in all Coptic literature and especial-
ly in Ihe Coptic G05pd 01 Bartholomew, Gabriel is
the bringer of good lidings. IT is thought that Gabri·
el is also the angel who revealed 10 Enoch Ihe
mysteries of the judgment, according to the "Coplic
Fragments of Enoch" (Pearwn, 1976. p. 223). In
the Coptic Apokalypse des Elias (Steindorf, 1899).
Gabriel appears leading the jusl to the Holy Land
(10 Parad;,;e) al the head of Ihe angel•. In the Testa·
men! of Jacob. it ;,; stated that he com.. with Mi·
chael and many angel. to bear the soul of Jacob to
the tabernacles of light. Gabriel also plays a part in
the magic Coptic lexlf;, in which he is invoked to
awake the lo,'e of a certain person, 10 deliver peo-
ple from serpents. and to cure fevers. He is closer
and more apprrnlchable than Michael, and his name
frequently appears on amulets.
In the Coptic liturgy, the archangel Gabriel is
celebralM on 30 BaramiJdah, feast of the Annuncia-
tion; 22 Kiyahk. <by of the consecration of the
church of Gabriel in Cae:;area; and 26 B.a.'olnah,
feast of the dedication of Ihe church. More than
twenty doxologies and hymns in honor of Gabriel
are known. They recalllhat he is Ibe bearer of good
tidingt and the protector. He is credited wilh reo
vealing the dream of Nebuchadnenar to the proph-
el Daniel (Dn. 2,19). Particularly celebrated is his
appearance to the Virgin Mary, and the care he
took not to trouble her. A. wilh Ihe other angels. he
is repre!oented with a sword of fIre in his Iuo.nd,
The churches dedicated to Gabriel were few in
number, particularly when compared 10 th"",, dedi.
Clued to Michael. There is a shrine on the mountain
of al·Na.qliln loulh of the ~Jl'yUm, and a church in
the city of Ion!. Coptic tradition preserves "",'eral
appearances of Gabriel 10 certain saints-for exam-
ple, to encourage Apa Hamoi (Kahle. 1954. pp. 433-
35). to Diocol"l.lS and Aesculapius, 10 Hezechiel of
Annant. et celera, The case of Poebarumon (27
Tubah) is unique: he had a vision of ChriS! with the
Holy Virgin. Saint Michael. and Gabriel.
1I1111.10GRA.PHY
Budge. E, A. W .. ed. Miscellaneous C",uic TexIS in
Ihe Diolecl 0{ UppCF Egypt. London. 1915.
GAIANlTES 1137
Crum. W, Eo, ed. T1leologicol Texts from Coptic Po-
pyri. Anecd<lla oxoniensia; Semilic Series. Orlord.
1913.
Hebbelynck. A.. and A. van Lan\$Choot. Codices
coptici Voticoni. Vol. 1. Vatican Cily. 1937.
H~"Vemat. H., ed, Bibliolhecae Plerpom Morgan Co-
dl,",s Coptiei PhO/agraphice Exp"ssi, Vots. 25.41.
Rome, t 922.
Kahle, Eo 8010'I,oh, Vol. 1. London. 1954.
Kropp, A. M. "Prayer of Gregory." Ausg".....iJhlle
Iwplische Za"berlcxte. Vol. 2. Brussels. 1930-
1931.
Lagarde, P, de. ed. Aegyptioco. COningen. IS83.
Lucchesi. E.. cd. aUn Sennon copte de s"verin de
Gabala sur Ia nalivit'" du Christ." Anoleero Bollan·
diana 97 (1979):117-27.
Meinardus. O. F. A. Ch"stio" £gypl, Foith ond Life,
pp_ 265-1)6. c.iro. 1970.
Michl. J, "Engel VI (Gabriel):' Reall,~Ikon IUF A,,·
like "nd Christenrum. Vol. 5. cols. 239-43. Stull'
gart. 1962.
Milller. C, Dellef G. Die Engel/ehre der koptlsche"
Klrche, pp, 36-48. 217-39. Weisbaden. 1959.
___. Die Bucher d'T Ei"sell.ung det Enengel Mi-
chtul und Gobriel. CSCO 225, Scriplor" Coptlei.
31 (text); cseo 226. ScriplOres Coptici. 32
(trans.). Louvain. 1962.
Pearson, A. "Coptic Fragmenlf; of Enoch." In Stud·
ies 0" the T"t"menl of Abmham, ed. G. W. E.
Nickelsburg. Missoula, Mont.. 1976.
Spadafora. F.. and M. L Casanova, "Gabriele arcan-
gelo." Bibliotheca Sane/orum, SCT. 5. pp. 1326-
36. Rome. 1964.
Stcindor( G.. ed. Die Apokalypse de, Elios. Text"
und Untersuchungen 17, 3a. Leip,ig. 1899.
Theodoretu•. "/merp,etotio i" D""i.,o",:' In PG 81,
cols. 1255-1546, Pari•. 1864.
Till, W. Koptlsch~ Hej/jgen- und MiJrtyr~r/eg~ndm:
Tute, Obersel,."g.n und 'ndice•. Rome. 1935-
1936.
Tischendorf. K. von. "'ohann;,; liber de donnitione
Mariae:' In Apocolrp5~S Apocryphae. pp. 95-112.
Leipzig. 1866.
Vi•. H, de. H"milie< .opte< de I" Vaticon., C<>ptica
2. pp. 246-291. Copenhagen. 1922-1929.
Worrel. W, H. ed. "Homily on th~ Archangel Gabri-
el by Celeslinus. Archbishop of Rome," In The
Coptic Manuscripts in Ihe Freer COlleCllon. pt,
2(1). New York and London, 1923,
Zol!ga. G, Catalogus codicum copticomm monu·
sen'plO"'''' qui in Museo BOTgiono Velit", ads",·
vontur. Rome, 1810.
GAIANlTES. See Gaian"",
 1138 GAIANUS
GAIANUS, rival patriarch of Alexandria in 537.
When THEOOOSlUS I. the official candidate for the
patriarchate, appeared for his emhronement. a pop'
ular movement of all classes in the city swept Gai·
anus. who had been an archdeacon under TIMOTHY
HI, imo his place. Against the Severianism (see se-
"ERlAN OF HllAlAH) of Theodosius. Gaian,", repre·
sented the more extreme Julian;st doctrine that the
flesh of Chri.t was incorruptible b)' nature. He had
been in power for 104 days when The<>dosius ","'as
restored by military force. Gaianus was exiled to
Sardinia, where he later died. The Theodosian pany
gJ71dually prevailed in Egypt, but the Gaianite< con-
tinued with their own episcopal .uccession through
the ""venth umury and perhaps e"en later.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Hardy. E. R Chrisri~n Egypt. New York, 1952.
Joannes. Bishop of Nikiou. Ch,onicle of John, Bish-
op 01 NiHu, lrans. R H. Charles, 92. 1-5, 10; 94.
2-6; 96.10-11. London. 1916.
Jugie, M. "Gaianites," [n Dicri,mn~ire de thi%gi.
earholique, VoL 6, cols. 999-1002. Paris, 1915.
JUlicher. A. "Die Liste der alexandrinischen Patri-
archen im 6. und 7. Jahrhunden," Fesrg~be J, K.
Mueller. pp. 22-23, Tubingen, 1922.
Maspero, J. Hi'lOire d<5 par'i~'ches d'Alexandrie.
pp. 110-17. Paris. 1923.
E. R. HARDY
GALACTOTROPHOUSA, Su Christian Sub·
jects in Coptic An.
GALLERY. See Architectural Elements of Church·
<•.
GALTIER, EMILE,.~JOSEPH (i864-1908),
French Orientalisl. He studied at the Ecole des
Hautes Etudes and was:
a member of the Institut
fran~ais d'A<cheologie orientale in Cairo. He .uc·
ceeded. Uon Barry as I;brarian of the Cairo Muse·
urn. His bibliography can be found in A Coplic Bib-
liogFaphy (Kamme<er. 1950, 1969).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Kammerer. W., comp. A CopEle Bibliography. Ann
Arbor. Mich .. 1950; repr. New York, 1969.
Maspero. 1. Roppan, Sur 10 rn~rche du Service des
~tltiquitb; de {'Egypte, p. 279. Paris, 1912,
Atl'. S. ATln
GANGRA, COUNCIL OF, founh-century coun-
cil that opposed extreme asceticism. The traditional
date is about 340, although the eccle.iastical histo-
rian Socrates Scholasticus (1864, 2.43) indicates
about 360. under the presidency of Eusebius. bish·
op of Nicomedia. The fourteen bishop:s present con-
demned the vie"", and practice. of Ell'lathiu., bish.
op of Sebaste in Armenia, and his follower'S, which
tended to be extremely rigorous and ascetic. They
included contempt for marriage. holding thaI no
married person "had hope with God"; refusal to eat
animal flesh; refusal to pray in the houses of mar·
ried people; rejection of church wor'Ship in favor of
worship in private com'entides; belief that the rich
c"uld not be saved; and encouragement of slaves to
de.en their duties on the pretext of taking up an
ascetic life.
Though the canons of the council had no direct
bearing on Egyptian monastidsm, they ,how the
increasing distrust among many clergy of the mo-
nll$tie movement and especially lhe cenobitic form
that was developing then in Egypt under the inllu·
ence of Saim PACHOMlUS and Saint AMUN,
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Hefele, C. J .. and H. Leclercq. HiM"ire des coneiles
d'cpres In documents origin~w<, Vol. I, 2, pp.
1029-45. Paris, 1907.
W, H. C. FREND
GASELEE, STEPHEN (1882-1943). librarian.
Coptologist. and connoisseur. He lectured On Cop·
tic dialects, cataloged the Coptic manuscripts in the
University library, Cambridge, and published
articles. mainly on Coptic bibliograph)' and litera-
ture (Kammerer, i9S0. p. 178). In 1916 he entered
the Foreign Office. was made librarian and keeper
of the manuscripts in 1920, and in 1932 became
president of the Bibliographical Society.
BJBLlOGIt"PHY
Georgy Sobhy. "Sir Stephen Gaselee." Bulle/in de
la $ocieli d'~'chiolog;e cople 10 (1946):211,
Kammerer. W., compo A Cop/Ie Bibliography. Ann
Arbor, Mich.. 1950; repro New York. 1969.
MARTIN KRAUSE
GAVET, ALBERT JEAN MARIE PHI-
LIPPE (18.56-1916), French Egyptologist and
Coptologist. He was born at Dijon and studied un-

Mr G. MASl'D.O in Paris. His works .ouchin, on th~
6~1d of CoptoJosy can be found I~ed in .4 Coptic
BibJicvtlplry (Kammerer. 1950. 1969) IlTid Wit.:> Was
Wit.:> Do EtyplOlou (Dawson and Uphill. 1972). His
colle<.l>on of IlTiliqunia ";10$ idt to the cily of Dijon.
whicll ccdN It to the Lourre "tusno....
IlIBUOGIAPHY
Davo"SOn. W. R.. and £. 1'. UpllilL WlwI W&,I W100 in
Emroloc. p. 115. L.ondoft. 1912.
KamIM1'ft'. W., eomp. .4 Coptic. Bihl~.phJl. Ann
Arbor, Mkh., 19SO; rtpr. New Y<>rk,. 1969.
~IZS. Ann
GEMINATION, VOCAUC. See .4p~"di.t.
GENUFLECTION, the act of kncelinll in pnllyer
Q a $llln of reverence and venel<ltion. It was &
common pl<lctice in the Old Testament (El<. 12:27;
ISm, 1:19: 1 Kgs. 16:39; I Chr. 19:20).likewiR, in
the New Testamem we learn that JeS\lli knelt down
ar><! prayed &1 the Mount of Olives (M!. 26:35: U,
22:0U). The A<:ts of the Apostles rdales vaMOU$ In·
$Unces 01 knedi"l in ...........hip (Ac" 9:~; 22:36;
21:S).
The foIlowinl posIu= 01 Ilenullecdon are 00.
$Crved in wonhip: (I) SWKli.. "priebt with the
head and booek ben! s1i~tly forward. when the dea·
con says, ".Bow your heads before the Lord" and
thl' pril$l SlI)'S the p ~ 01 indinarion and 01
absolution: (2) knedinl on both kneel" durin,lhe
mominl Jen'ke of the IitufD' m the &fUl iMl 01
unt and the fasl: of Jonah, and aI the ~nd of the
praycB of tht canonic1d hours <lurini Holy Wft"-
T!>l' soervi« oIlenuflection on Whiwln<by cOMIsts
of three sections each ir.e1uding a $O/~n pra)~
duri... which the whole """llrqaUon kneds: and
() 1tn«1i", with the head touching the 6oor. du..
in, the pr,>ycr of 1M descent of the Holy Spiril,
when th~ dn.con SollJ$. "Worship God In a_ and
trembling:'
In the t"SlilIlIU of John CASSlAN (c. 360-435). in
which he describes '"the canoniCll! syll~m of the
nocturnal prayers and psalms, obs.erv<:d by the
servants of God throughOt1t the whole of EiYPt."
he pa)'$ spedal tribute 10 the distincti\'e C,,$tom
of the desen monks in pr2lClicins genuflection:
"... before they hend their knees lhey pray for a
few momcnu. and while they "re $landinl up spend
the greal~r part of the time in prayer, And so, ali~r
GEORGE, SAINT 1139
this. for 1M briefest $pa<:e of time, lhey pn)$",ste
theonselttS to th~ ground, l$ ir but adoring the
divine mercy. and as lOOn .. poos&ibk riOt up, and
again $tanding ertcl with oulSpfead hanlh-jusl as
th~ had been MandinlJ to pray before-remain
with ~ u intmt UI'O" tOOr praycrs.~
Some early £:others ailXhed Sf'Kiai syrnbotical
s~ilic:an<:e to lh1' acl 01 emuflec:oon in its reIa-
tions,bip to man's fan prior to his redemption. Thus
)"".....us of Lyons (c. 130-200) states, ~SiJtce iI
l>ehooYtd US aiWllYS to re~beor both our own &.II
into si... and the grace 01 our Christ th...,...h which
we ha\'e ariMn from tilt fall. tberefore OUr k""",liol
.,., the ..... daJ$ is a si,.. or OUr fall inco sl .... but our
nQI kneeling.,., the Lord's Day is " sign of the
risin~ again. through Which. by the IV"ce of Christ,
we have been delivered from our sins :and from
deatll."
Jolin C"",ian refers to this tradition as ohserved
by the Egyptian monlu. "This, 100, we ought to
know, thai from the even;nl ()f SalurdAy which pre·
cedes the Sunday, up to the £oI10wins evening,
among the £.iyplians they never kneel. nar from
wter to Whlt$Untidt:·
BIBLJOCurHl'
C..mming<. D. J1Ie Rudder. pp. 196. 755. Chicago.
1957.
GEOGRAPHY, DIALECTAL. Sre AppendiL
GEORGE, SAINT, There I n \;V;OUS accounts of
the hmary of Saini Ceo,.. knowr> in Arabic l$ Mar
Jlrjis....."" is held in JJUl "tmra.ion b,. Copes as
an dticacious inlen:asor. Many stories _re hand-
d down by tradillon, and are popIIlarly a<:<:qIled as
hlsloric;l.l.
Accardinl to the Copt\(: 5Y~IUOII. Saint c;..orge
was born in Cappadoc;a to Anastasi..s and Theo-
pisla. His father. ""ho wv a governor. died when
Ceorge was twenty yUB of aac. He therefore be-
took himself to Em»f'l'Qr OlOCttnlAII (2114<lO5) to
claim hi$ father's positiCln, He wa.s di$In:S$ed b}' the
emperor', P"i"nism &lId his persecution of Chris-
tians, and delermin~d to d~VOIe hls life a.s one of
Chri<l's warriot'$. He la~ hl$ pos.sesslans to the
poor and diiICha'lled hi$ f':rvants.
As George was incenM'd 10 '1ft the imperial edicts
again", Ihosoe ,,'1>0 profeJ6td Chri.stianitJl. he tore
1140 GEORGE, SAINT
them down. He was taken to lhe emperor', court,
whe.... he proclaimed thai he was a Christian, cry·
ing out in anger. "When will you stop torturing
innocent Christians and fordng them 10 .... cant
their religion? If you do nOl wish to embrace their
faith. at least do not perse<;ute them."
Magnentius, one of the emperor's courtiers, lrie<!
to placale him, but to no avail. The emperor inter-
vened, and reminded George of the favors he be·
stowed upon him, promising him more if he were
to renounce his Christ, George declined the emper·
or's offers Wilh disdain. and was therefo.... subjected
to torture thaI he endu....d without wavering.
A sorcerer named Athanasius was asked to ad·
minister him a poisoned drink on ,,"'hich he uttered
some magical incantation. George rna<\<, the sign of
the cross on lhe cup and drank il wilhout being
harmed, Thereupon the ""rcerer accepted the
Christian belief. and ""IS consequently put to dealh.
receiving lhe crown of mal1}'rdom.
The emperor was deeply infuriated and ordered
George to be crushed under heavy rollers, until he
gave up the ghoSl. He was casl outside lhe city. But
Chrisl restored him to life. and he returned 10 the
dty where O\'er 3.000 peopie saw him and em-
braced Christianity, They were all beheaded, will-
ingly seeking lhe crown of mart)Tdom.
After further miracles accomplished by Saint
George, his lorture was intensified by Diocletian.
Finally, the emperor tried to Coax him by offering
him his daoghler in marriage if he would bum in·
cense for the gods. George prelended to accept, and
was allowed into the palace. While he was pray·
ing and reciting the Psalms, he was overheard by
the empress who asked him 10 ""plain the meaning
of his pntyers. When he did, she belie,'ed in Chri.t,
and e"entually the emperor had her beheaded,
Finally. Saint George's head was cut off and he
won the crown of manyrdom. The Coptic Sy"QXQri-
"" gives ~.D, 307 as the""ar of his manyrdom,
Though not a nati"e ~gyptian, Saint George is
one of the most beloved:and revered saints of the
Coptic chorch. His feast day i' 23' Baramudah. The
churches that have been dedicated 10 his name all
over Egypt are too numerous to counl, Besides,
there is hardly a church in the country that does
not contain ooe or mOre icon' of Ihi' great martyr.
On the anniversary of hi. martymom, and on olher
dates. celebration. and muNds (religious festivals)
atlract many thousands of pilgrims and patients
from far and wide. Among the most famous church-
es are the lwo al Mit Damsls. nonh of Mit Ghamr,
in the Della. where celebrations are held annually
between 22 and 28 August.
A particular event connected with Saim George is
the commemoration on 3 Ba'unah of the consecra·
tion of the firsl church in Egypt to be dedicaled to
his name. According to lhe Coptic Syna.arion lhat
church was at the town of Bil'l11a in the Ba~ariyyah
oasis. The saint's decapitated booy was brought
from Lydda in Palestine to the Bahnasli. Another
church at Bil'l11a near Tan!! in the Delta wa.o; al""
consecrated to Saint George on a similar date. The
S)'",,,,arion gives an interesting story lhat throws
some light on the similarity of the names of the two
towns.
A young man lhed near a well, in the area of
present-day Binna, together with a community of
Christian soldiers. He had heard of the mirade.
wrought by God at the hands of Saint George. so he
collected details of lhe saint's life story. wrote them
down. and found great spiritoal enjoyment in read·
ing them. On the ew of 24 Bashans. while he was
praying. he saw a group of saintly men singing and
praising God around the well. One of the group, in
military dress, stepped fOlWard and lold him thaI he
was George and thaI he was martyred by Diodelian.
and commanded him to build a church on that
spot. The youth kept wondering bow he could af·
ford 10 do so, But Saim George appeared 10 him
again. pointed out 10 him tbe exact spot where the
church was to be built. and explained to him where
he could find the necessary money, In the moming
the young man went to Ihal place, where he dug up
a pot full of gold and silver coins. The church was
,oon buill, and wa.o; consecrated by the palriarch on
3 Ba'unah. Afterv'iard many houses were buill in the
,idnity of the church, which acquired the name Bi'
rna' (i,e .. ,,"'ater well), after the well near which the
church was buill.
The Synaxarion goes on to say thaI the relics of
Saint George were later translated from his church
at lhe town of Blr rna' in the oases to lhe Monastery
of Anbi ~lm""ll during the patriarchate of M~TIHEW J
(1378- 1409). Later, during the palriarchate of G~BRJ·
EL v (I409~1421), the saint's relics were translated,
once again. to the church dedicated to his name in
Old Cairo.
BIBLJOGRAf'HY
Delehaye. H. Les Legendes grec9"es des sainI< mili·
lair«. New York, 1975.
Holweck. F. G. A BiograpMca/ Diclionary 01 Ihe
SainlS. Repr. Detroit, 1969.
Meinardus. O. Ch,-;slian Egypl Ancient and Modem,
Cairo, 1965.
O·Leary. De L The Sa;>l/S <>f Egypl, London. 1937.
Fu~D MEGAUY

GRAll, finance minister for MIJI;t.UlW.U) '.uJ 8c>m
in the laic eighlttnth ttntwy. Chlll was emplo,d
by Mul;>ammad ~ ai-All\. " leading ..... re among
I~ Mamluu' He w;u a co.llemporary of I~ french
Eapedidon (see n"QllB. GENEllL), during which lhe
J_'!w1 br<>thtrs rO$<! to nninence- When Mul;>a,...
mad •All b«amc Khedive, CMII inherited .be post-
tion in !he finance admin...ration fonnel1)' held by
Jt~rs 4L-U"'·llAlli. Appannll}' Ghill's me(hod of noi5-
i... funds for the kbcdi,.., ""'5 mono conciliatory
I~n rlllll of Jirjis, who _ forced 10 ftN his ......
maslCr and his compdiror 10 w.., refuge in Upper
£CYP1. In 1105, !he khWi.... enlru5led Chill with the
Iotlil arlminil.tration of the finances of Egypl, Hc
rcorpnlud the finances on a firm basis by taking a
compkte survey of Ihe counlry and panilioninllhe
arable Klil inlO IlUable sqrnenl5-lhus utablishing
a p~o.e bud&,,!, which incnascd cO"'liderably as a
•.,wh. Hc alw divided the country into provlncC5
and districl5 with a Boyernor, lilled a81la, responsl·
bl" for each district,
In lhe meamime, Mul).ammad 'All was cBBcr 10
secure armamenli from Europe bul round Iii<: cOli
loa high. When he consulted his generals, they IoIIll
recommended European military hardware. Chin
made the coUmelpTOposilion thaI armantems be
manUfaclured locally, uplaining lhal lhia would
bols.e. !he economJ and proWde the people: ...~th
opponuniti<es for work. 1be khedive accePled
Chill', proposal.
Durina GhlIrs administration the French Imbu·
aador pl'<lpOlC<l 10 the kbcdive thai be order the
Copu of E&YPt 10 phI Rome under lhe ~l*Cy,
Mul;>ammarl 'All onlcred Mu'allim Gh:dl, who...-as I
CopII. to tell the Cos>'ic pat:riarch 10 a«ede 10 the
f~h amb"nd "'s rcqUQt. Chill, who knew well
thai the palriarch ..ould I>CTC. do .... loid the \.hc-
dive that the best .....,. to attnellhc Copts to Catho!·
iciNn "'lIS limply to adopc the RoIlUOD faith hlmscff.
The khedr.~ acccpced m.:.J"'U"'lion. "'hleh proved
ro be the bqinnlnl of !he very $lIlail Calholle con-
,...pion In Eafpt. This is'probably the only S1Jrvi...
in,lcpcy from the Chj]j family. who ~ante Calh-
oIic on ItUII occasion.
A"""r~nlly ChAIrs SUCCCM in discharging his duo
lies cnated ;calousy. and hi. c<>mpctlllOQ began 10
fomem lrouble behind his back al cOlIn. For hill
rlilurc to meet the khedi,'e's requesl for utraordi,
nary funds, he was incarcerate<! and ultimalely was
killed by IBllAH1M PASH~ in the town of Zift' in May
1822, ahhough the immediate causes for lhls act
remain a mystery,
Jal».nr. 'Ah<kaI·RaJ:"nAn ibn ~n ihn !brlhlm .k
GIZA 1141
'Ajd·ib QI-Ath•• fi Q/·TQriji", .......,I-AlcltlHlr. 7 vol..,
ed. 1:1_ MuJ:tammad h,"TIN" al. Cairo. 1~58­
1%7.
Ram21 Tadrus. AI..AqH! fi QI..(Jam al-'uJntn, ] voJs..
Cairo. 1~10~1911.
Ya'qilh NillWt Rufa)iah. Tjrilclt ,d·UmmQIt Q/-
Qib!&Y.n. Cairo. 1899.
GIRGIS MATTHA (190S-1%7), Coptic: Egyptol-
ogist, papyrolosist, and I specialist in ancitnt Egyp-
lian philolOC·. He ..._ 0'" of the carlJ lradua<:c.; of
the """"Iy established Institute of £r;ypwIogy in
FOlWII Uni"e",ity in Cairo. In 1928, M ..... sent 10
complele his higher cduc.. ion It lhe Institul cad....
lique in Paris. Liller he studied in England al
Queen's College. Oxford. under 1M famous Egyptol-
ogist and C""toIOS;"t Fnncis L CRIFFrTH, who s\>·
pc",i... d his doctonl thesis on the editing of the
Bodleian collection <>f demolic ostn-ca,
On his rclllrn tQ Cairo Unlvcrshy in 1937, he was
appointed lecturer, then ,ss1st.m professor of phi-
lology. He Wl\5 nominaled \'ice-dcan of the Faculty
of Letter> in 1949-1950. and bcC'ame dire<;t<>r of
the In5lilllte or Archacolog)' in the Uni~e..ity From
I~SO 1<> l'Hi5.
Mmh...·• producth'ily In lhe field or Eg}l'lology
"'"85 enonn""s in quanlity and quality. He collabo-
rated with ocher ."".... an 10 the publication of de-
mock ostraea. notably ...·lIh Griffith, who spoke
hi&hl)' 01. him in the prdKe 10 his CQlQlope 0{
lk1JW6c G.IljfiIi. In Cairo. Mattha made a g:re&l
llI11nber of contributiona to the B.J/~ri" de n"srillL/
f"'l1fw d'MchidofW; ~"":h. the A""<tIes du
Suvk~ d~. ",,,tiqJoitts. the B"iJuf" 0{ die F.~..1rt 0{
Ullin, and the &1l~ri" de ""JllU<1 d'EtfPlc. main--
lJ .,.. lcpl and economic tubjccu from oripw
demotic """,rclC5.
Apan from his colLaborat:ion with his mentor-,
Griffith, in the pnx!uclion of the Cal.lo",e of the
Dcnroril; C ffiJi in Oxford, Mattha .... rote many jour-
nal artid.....
MUNIR BA:STA
GIYORGIS, See Elhiopian Pnl.lcs.
GIZA (aI-Huh), city ju.. out$ide and a~rO$! the Njle
rtum Cairo and perhaps but kno.....n a. a pagan ,ite
with it. three pyramids and the Sphln~. The city has
some ,ignificance in the history of Chtistian Eg}l'l
85 ,...ell.
AlthouBh the many monasleries and chun;:he, in
Ihe vicinity of Giza argu~ th.. Christianity gained an
1142 GLASS, COPTIC
early foothold in the area, the region is not men·
tioned in the Coptic martyrological literature for
the pre·Arabic period, and the first bishop of Giza
whwe name is recorded in historical sources did
not live until the ele.'enth centu'1'. It appears that
Giza lay for centuries in the shadow of Memphis
and Wasim.
The record of bishops in Giza begins with Bishop
Hezekiah, who attended a synod in Cairo in 1086 as
the bisbop of Wasim and Giza. Bishop Mark, Hezek-
iah's successor, is known for a trip he made to
Abyssinia under patriarchal commission. In 1299,
1305, and 1320 another bishop Mark of Wasim and
Gi,.a attended the consecration of chrism (see
C~II.IS"1, OONsEcItATION or THE) in Cairo, This bishop
Mark is also known as the copyist of ~arious manu·
scripts. In a colophon from a manuscript that he
wrote in 133S. he calls himself the bishop of A.wslm
and Giza.
~BO ~L11;1 THE ARMENIA>! said that there were fifty
monasteries at the foot of lhe mountain al Giza
flabal ai-Giza), all of which had been destl"O)cd by
the Bemers,
BIBUOGRAPHY
Amelineau. E. lAJ- Gt"gr"phie d, I'Egypte a Npoq",
cople. pp. 190-91. Paris, 1893,
Graf, G. C"lalogue de ma""scn'/s arabes clrrillens
conse""s a" Caire. Vatican City, 1934.
Mun;er, H. Recl'e" des lisle. episcopales de Ngli."
COple. Cairo, 1943.
Timm, S. Vas chrlsl1iclr-kopllsche Agyple" in arabi-
sclrer Zeil, pt. 3, pp, 10S5-60. Wiesbaden. 1985.
RA"D~LL SnwART
GLASS, COPTIC. The glass of the Coptic period
-third to twelfth centuri~.-was the heir to a long
tradition of glassmaking.\ln Egypt. While Coptic
glass exhibited some regi"1'al variations. it did not
differ substantially from glass in neighboring area..
Glass was manufactur~ in Egypt from about
1500 B.C" it reached its acme of boeauty in the luxu-
ry glassware made at Alexandria in the Ptolemaic
and early Roman periods (JOO B,C._A.D. 100). Sand,
soda. and lime, the ingredients of gla"s, were readi-
ly available ;n the de.ens 01 Egypt. These compo-
nents were heated o~er wood fires until they were
molten and were worked while ~iscous. Early glass.
laboriously made, "'IS rare and expensive, By the
first century B.C., however. glassworkers had discov-
ered the technique of picking up a blob of molten
glass on the end of a hollow tube and blowing air
into il. This glassblowing technique revolutionized
glas=aking, since glass vessels could be manufac-
tured much more speedily and therefore became a
common and in""pensi~e item. Although this
change came slowly 10 Egypt. by the Coptic period
glass was found in abundance.
Technique
TIle glass furnaces of this era ba... not ~n
found; n""ertheless. the quantity and simplicity of
most glass used in Egypt sugges. that a number of
small factories produced glass articles for local usc.
E"idence from other areas around the Meditenane-
an shows that glass factories could be quite small
and simple. For example, the scanty remains of a
third-cen.ury glass furnace at present-day Salona,
Yugoslavia, compri... a re<;tangolar melting tank
about 2.5 by 5 feet (0.80 by 1.50 m) within a small
furnace stmcture. Glassmaking installations in Gali·
lee also used built·in rectangular melting tanks,
while in other areas separate day pots ha~e been
found.
Since early glass furnaces do not survive above
the foundation le~e1, we must depend on descrip·
tions and illustrations in medieval manuscripts for
the appearance of complete furnaces, Those of the
southern and eastern Mediterranean seem usually
to ha~e been circular structures with the fire at the
lowest level. the melting pots and work area at lhe
middle le~el, and the annealing space for gradual
cooling of the finished glass at the top,
Ordinary ancient blown glass was blue-green. yel_
low·green, pale blue, or amber in color. Added dec-
orative elements were often in darker blue or
green. These colors were easily obtainable from the
batch materials. Impurities in I1lass sand. for exam-
ple, impaned the characteristic greenish tone to
ancient glass. Truly colorless glass. achieve<! by the
addition of manganese or antimony, was rarer and
more expensive,
The blowing process imparted both thinness and
translucency 10 glass, qualities that made it usable
not only for .'essels but also for windows. jewelry,
and lamps. To make a vessel. the glassblower would
pick up a gather of molten glass on the blo,",,,ipe
and shape it with simple metal and wood tools
while constantly reheating it to working tempera-
ture. A second, .solid metal pipe. the pontil rod, was
attached to the base of the vessel. and the rim of
the ~essel was knocked off the blowpipe when han·
dIes and decorati<;>n were c<lmpletcd.
Decorati~e effects were achie.'ed by adding trails
or blobs of hot glass, by pinching and pulling the

_ I '0 form indenfalions or ribs, ~ blowing Ibt
Jlass ,nlO a mold. and by eng...,ins. Glass _ of,en
blooon in'o a mold '0 imparl. for uample.• nbbtd
desilll. ,btn withdr;lwn :;rnd funhn inft;>,td. sohen-
ina .nd somet,mes J\Ooi5lin~ ,he ori8inal p8uem.
Glass Monntd .. ilh cui beets .,.. ensnvecl .. "h
~ figural and llor.al motJh wM a 'P«iaI,} or
lhe ear.... Roman 1J1Msmakft"S 01 A... und ...... Th"
,radmon COtllinuw in ..,..,.".-hal dimintloh«l lonn
I'or oevcnl e",,'unes. Horilontal .. heel..:ut lines
and be", ntmnlJ decora,td !>tUM'll and bo.>ls.
..iii'" Jt'O'l1ffnc palle""" of a shallo-r ".." oma·
me'l1ed jup and booties-
B, ,he nin,h cenlUry. aller lhe Islamic cooquesl.
nC'W .. Oft. shapes. and deeon,;"e ,e...-hniques
ehanctd Eg)'P'ian glass inm some,hin. diAincli,..,I,'
dillCffn, from earlier wori. Techniques ...ell :Ii
painl,ng in IUiler (melallie glaze) .....,..., used :u fi ...,
fur Coplic mOli&; and ,uOsequenlly for the hlamk
rcp<:'l1oirc, PineerN! designs ....ere applied '0s",all
vessels wIlh pallerned longs. and white marvere<J·in
,nreads decora,ed glass....are of purple, red. arid
.....y. In Inc ninln .nd ,entn ccnmries, glass ""lIS
lkeplv elll fron> blanks in imitation of rock cl1''S,al
"e", UStS fo' glass incl..dtd coin ",..ighls am! ",..di·
cal ..'ensils such as cupplJ1g glasst:s.
The mos, imponan, archaeol<>&ical ."'id,,nee of
COplk Ilau comes From ,he Greco-Roman ,own of
Karanis ,n ,.... Fayyiim, e"ca"a,ed from 19H 10
1935 bv lhe Uni"ffSily of Michigan; infonnalion 011
,he .1_ "'"&$ publiWd by D. B. H",rden, Usted bu,
IlO'I full, pr't'$('n,1NI is ,he glass from ,ne 1905-1909
e"ca'-",ions 01 ,he "'onasIe". or MY" MA J£lE."',U1
al Sooqcpra. Iklwcen lhem lhesc slles Spanlhe peri-
ods of lhe second througb fifth c~.uuries and !he
..",h Ihroup mid-nin,h Ctrt'U~ More tleC'en, C)·
ca,~ions:ll Cairo con,i""" the hi:ot"", of J!assn>ak·
inl after ,he l.lamic cooquesl. AplIl1 from lhesoe
stles. thc e,-.&nee ~ 01 scMl~ refCTellCes
10 finds, musnom g~ "i,h p.-obabfe E&YJ>lian
pro,enancc. and brief m"",;ons of glass and cJass.
maken in plIptT1 and manuocripts.
Tablewa~ and Stonge Vessels
Karanili pm,'ides the best evidence for ,he "pes
of d<>mcs,ic table glass u""d in Rom;tn and Coplic:
E&>l'1; simil.r c><amples come From OIner ",I<'"S.
Amongth" moil co",mon .nape. In use were ~Iain.
blo"n, snallow and deep bowls on nigh foo, ,-inss.
made in a wide range of ,ius, The bowls "ere
often 0.... 1. a chamc,e,isti" of Egyplian glass nOl
found elscwncre in piain blown glass. Another dis·
Ilngu"ninl fealure of 00\\\. and other foo,ed
GLASS, COPTIC 1143
er p of lliass and household objoects found ,ogtther
on ,ndMt llNlge of H""lot 8C 61. Kannis. Fifth
cenlun' Co.. ruS'J A.e/ln \.Iuse..... 0( Arc-Iule%v',
L'lIi,'e,.il}· of ~flClti.f<m. Am, Arbor.
shapcs is lhe clead}' ,;s,ble crissel"O$lo marb ollhc
'001 used '0 ""II QUI and "hape Ihe base rings..
The common form of lale anliq"" drinking ~es­
""I. in ~'pl. a. e1se.. hrre In ,he IMdi'crran..an.
",as a deep--bo .... led Soblcl On a .. em. liimilar '0 lhc
m<><l..rn wine gla.. ., The EI)'p,ian "eesion was di.·
linguishcd by ,he tnin wall. of Ine oowl and Ihe
fool·.haping ":chnique menlioned abeve, Storage
,'essel. included lall cylindrical bellies. genc1'ally
dark olh'e·grcen, sometimes decora,ed wi,n ,hal-
lowly engra.ed IIcc",e";,c p311ern'-<JV'..Js, dia·
monds. and lin.... Handlclc:u nasks we'e al", in
ust, a ,ypical fonn ha"lnll a 1I1Gbula, bod,'. l<Jng
RarTOW ned ";In cons"ic,ion a'l .... base. and flar-
ing folded rim, This shape ..-as oflen decom,ed ",i,h
:;rn added crimped collar or darter &lass- The bodies
".",.., $Om~,i""," r.haptd in a mold ,n produce"
"""irlins ribbed plIuem. Small;.on ....,'" oft.,., dec<>-
...ltd .. IUt .. jour (opcn-",..m.) ,hreads Inilcd from
rim '0 sl>ouI...... and .. Ilh ..'Crt1Caf lr:aik belo th..
sidt' Iutndles- Altltouch lhese fea",.~ :lR ..,.,n
on e_em MtdilerDnean sJau. ~l'lian enrnpitS
........, dNinll"oVtcd~· ,heir ,hin bbric ..nd crimped
bas.e rin~ As a, otloer ,""". btF numben of 'UI-
pntfttritt (ptrfume bootles) ....e..., found. The earli·
.....hapeo ,,'" similar 10 loag·"ed,cd 1\-pots in booh
East and Wesl:. "11K- .mall, squal bot,les mOSt com·
mon at Kar:anis, art. he".." ...., qUlle cliffe",,,, from
,nose made elsc....he...
Some Gnl:< llLa.5, probabl... made a, Alexandria.
....... found a, Karanis and a, o,ner ~l'1lan si,,,,,
ano ""lIS ...-ideh· exponN as ....dl. FR)m ,he Sttond
and earlier Ini"l cemuriel eome sm.ll mundN!
bo..... ls of colorless Itl.."", engn..."d either witn m}1h·
ological ddigns and Greek inscrip,ions or wi,h
o"erall faee'-eul pallem,. TWQ fac"''''Ill bcakers
fmm an "''en earli..r period were eartfull ... pre·
"''''co as hei,l""ms in a K:tranis nou..,hold, Facel-
elll "d<>lpnin belllcs"' whit globular bodiL"S and ''''0
small handi"s "','..., made in Ine ,hird cen'u"',
1144 GU\SS, COPTIC

ioe. More frequcntly One or two examples of each

shape WeTC found along with glass lamps (discussed
later] and small fiash. Tha' Ihis plainer hlown gl3ss
was u>Ilsider.d the finer lablewa"e is sugges'cd by
its sl<m'ge along wi,h pieces of imponeJ redwaTc
pOlleT)',
The gbsswaTe fOllnd at the Saqyam monastery
corresponds to glass of earl)' Islamic t'l'C from clse--
whel'e in Egypt. Prominent an" small bowl, wi,h
r~ised design, applied wilh patterned longs 10 the
hoI glass, Flash ha\'e globular bodies and tall, ,ery
nalTOW necks, whilc other gJ"-""S e~hibil ,he char-
acteristic Islamic decoralion of mar..eTed·in while
,hread, in a brillianll)' colored malri~, There are
al"" glass coin weighl. stm"pcd wi,b dotes ranging
from Ihe carl}' eighth to the mid-ninl;' c<·ntut).
The recent excavalions at al·Fu'l"! rc"ealcd ,imi-
lar typcs of glass in slleh quantity as to indicate
local manufacture ,hero. Gi,'cn the pro~imily of
Saqqara to al·Fu,W.'. il scem, likely ,hat ,he monM-
tel)' obWined i15 glasswaro ITolll Ihis nearhy souree,
since the highl}' skilled gla.. making crafl "'a> ntlt
carried on in the monasteri"" Inem""l\'es.

Lamps
From the fnunh cenlu')-' on, lanlps of glass were
in wide use. The earli""t twe in Egypt, a, else-
where. is a long, conical sltape ",iln a hocked'off
or fiTe-poli,hed rim, pointed or knob base, and dec·

Jug with eng'd,ed designs, Karank Founh celllu~,

Cmm~s)' Ke1sev Ml<se"",J'/, Archawlog~, U"iver£i'~ of
Michiga", A,,,, Aroor,

while in ,hc f"unh conlul)' 'all cylindrical bouie'S

were d«onllcd wilh shall<>wly ",,,.tohed facets, dia-
monds, and olhe" paltern •. The rebli"ely rare ap·
pearance of su,h glass on EIOT'tian siles sugge>!.
,hal 'hey wore an e",pensi"e ilem deslined more for
,hc export 'rade than for common domeslic use.
Groups of glass ,'('s.. cl, slored in Ihe Karan,s
housLos ..ugg'''' how glassware was u.....d in the a\Cr-
age hous"h(>ld, In (>ne inSlance a group (>f si~ ("'al
di.h"" and .ix shallow bowl.. found 10gether with Polycandclon wilh sh glass lamps. SiXlh eighlh cen·
other shapes indica'... a completo glass 'ablc s.er\- turies. CO/mes." Waller; Art Galler". Ballimore_
 GLASS, COPTIC 1145

oration of horiwmal wheel-cuI lines, zigzag Threads,

or applied blue glass blobs. Al K.1ranis small vcr·
siam aboUl 4 10 5 inches (10-13 em) in heighl
were in u,e, probably 'upported ;n I"w wooden
lripod >lands. Larger examples, "bo,a 8 in"hes (20
"m) and over in height, were generally suspended
from ,he ceiling in groups by means of melal hold-
ers, These hulders wn<iSled of melal di.<ks wilh
,,'uiliple openings for the insertion of ",>'eral
I"m!>'. They were hung holiwmally and suspended
from chains, Dcsclipl;':'ns of carly church.... include
mcntion uf ,uch chanddiel'S. The ~hapcs of lhe
gb" lamp, evoh'ed lhrough t;me. Some were deep
bowl, with Ihree handles, used frce-,wnding or
hung, while the lype most often hung in chande-
liers had a wide bowl and heavy 'lem. Clay )a",ern and 81a", lamp in wooden holder.
Kal'3nis, Fourth ernlu,)', C ~,,"e.,y Kd.<ey M,ge,,,,, at
Windows and Wall Decoration Archaeol08." U"i...";ly of M;c/';ga~, A,,~ ArboF.

Glass in winoow, in Egypl is nol definitelyallesl-

('S and fa",ened with day inll> ~ircular- "r r~""langu­
ed before ,he sixlh cemury. From Ihis lime il has
lar'palt~rneJ limes"'ne windqw fr~me,.
been found in the SainI Jeremiah Monaslery 'II Sa'!-
>\lw al the Saqq"ra monastery, m""aic glass
'lara in Ihe form of small panes of t;«ula, nown
cubes were fOlm<l f"lI~n from th~ ''3uiled dome of
gl.,;" oolorle", purple, orbl,,", cu' ialU small piec-
,he church. Among Ihe "ariegaled opaque and
lranslucent colors, lh" mosl imponam were dear
gla" ~ubc< cn<a.,ing gold leaf. the same le~hniqu"
u~ed in lhe Christian gold gla"w"re of the <ala-
combs.
Glass wall decoralion is seen f1"Om an carlier peri-
od in ",,' fragmentary C"pli~-Myk figures fOlln,1 at
'\n,ino<' (~NTINOOP<J'-'S). The.. were made of glass
inlar:sia, th"l is, large, sh.ped pieces of glass glued

Group of Islamic glas,"s fTom the Fay""'" Eighlh-

Glass imarsia picture of "lung man. ,\nlinoe Coune- len,h centUTie~. CO,,,"")' Kd.<ey Muse",,, a{ Archae"l-
s." Slale Col/eClio" o{ £/:.,'p"a" ArI, Mm,;ch 0ty, Un;w"i',' vf Michiga", A,,~ Arbor,
I 146 GLASS, COPTIC
F.....gmentary glas, mosak in opus sectil<. Bearded man obseT"\'ing mo~ogram of Chl'ist
wil b panial inscription of Sl, Tl1orn"". Reputedly fou"d in tile Fayyiim, F-l£r1'l. Probably
lhe second l1alf of tile founh centU';r Length' 7'1.5 crn. COHcle.'y The (omi"g M"seum
()f Cia,." ("rning, N~w York. Rene Oghia" drawing after a photograph taken befo",
restoration.
to a backing, Outsid~ of Egypt. at Kench",ai in
GJ'~ece. many large glass wall pands in lhis tech.
nique have been found; these we", undoubtedly
imponcd from Egypt. A fragmen,ary glass imarsia
piclO'e of Saint Thomas with a cro" uo;<"\ thi< ,ech·
nique fOT a Christian subject.
Luster Painting on Glass
The dccorati,'c t"chnique of luster paiming on
glass seems 1<J have begun l~ pre-Islamic Coptic
Egypt and was laler adapted to "lamic last. with
new mOlifs. In lusler painting. metal salts of sil"e,
and coppe,' were painted onto the glass and kiln·
fired at low tempe..-alurcs to produce ,...oslucent
colored designs. E'-cntuall)' this Egyptian gla..." nak·
Lu<tre·painted glass h'agments, Leh: head "f saint;
rigl1l: arm of sain' holding en"", Da}'r Apa Jeremiah.
Saqqara, Egyptian Museum. Cairo, Drawing ahe'
C. J, 1..,rnm. Orle~lal Gloss of Medlae,-af Dale F",,,,J
I" S"'eJ~" a"d Ihe Early Ili>lory vi L"s!te·Pa;~II"g.
ph. VI. I and VI!. J. Courtesy The Ne"'ark Mu,eum.
Newark, New Jersey,
ing techniqlJe was adapted for lus,e,· p«inting on
[X'ltory. The cnl<i.1 evidene< <"me, prirnaril}' from
glass fragments, notably from Saqq.nl.. An im[X'r-
tant h'agment shows the head and arm of a saint
l10lding a no" with the inscription "~8ios" to one
side. Thi< must ha,-c heen one of a proa"ion of
<aint< su~h;lS are f"und "" "hen in C"ptic pai",illg.
A complete beake" in ,hc Victoria and Alben Mu,",'
urn, London, represents in luster tile lre~ "f life
growing from all urn. a ft'equent textile motif. Fur·
tiler fragm~~ts with Coptic figural all" noral designs
in ,he Benaki Museum, Athens, the um'TC Muse-
um. Pat'is, and elsewhere suggest ,h a , this 'eel1-
nique was known 10 glassmake,-,; in £&)-1'1 as early
a, the .<i,tl1 century or, as the gla« scholar C. J.
Lamm surmiSJ:d, e"cn earlier,
Religious Uses of Glass
The <maTI pendant crosses worn by the Christians
"f Egypt often had colo,,,d gla« inlays, a ,,,ligious
adaptati"n of ,he widespread USC of gia.<s in ",cula,
jewelt},.
The Coptic Acta ",arlyr~"" wrillen .bout AD. 300.
records tcstimony from one Apa EPt.'M. who when
orde,,," by ,he magi<t ...tes at al-Bahnas~ to bring in
his pre<hy,er-., deacons, and altar "esscl< rcpiied
tnat "Ollr ~"rnmunion ,'es.~c1< are of gla,", for we
are IlO"r men who liyc in • small ,-illagc' These
yessel< probably ",sembled con'cm[X'm'~i glas., ,a-
bleware or imitaled lhe silver wsscls lJs~d in
wealthier congregations. The colored glass win·
dows, glass lamp" and glass mosaics that lit the
dim in,eri",.. of the d,urches undoubtedly en-

Beaker with lust,.,,·painted tree of life. Height: 14 em.
Vidoria and Alben MU$l!um. london. Drawing after
W. B. Honey. lIiclMia a"d Albert M~uu",. Gla,s: "
Handbook, pi, 16 D, Co~m,y The Newark M~,e"""
NewaYk, Now Jersey.
hanced the ,."Iigiou. experiences of these early
Christian worshipers.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Chaneston. R. J. "Glass F"rnaces Through Ihe
Ages," Juurnal of Glau Studies 20 (1978):9-33.
Clairmont, C, W. BeMki Museum: CQ1alogue of ..1,,-
cient a"d Islamic Gla..... Athen•. 1977.
Harden. D. D. "Roman Glass from Kanmis."' Uni·
,ersity of Michigan Studies. Humani~tic Serie~,
Vol. 42, Ann Arbor, Mich .. 1936.
-;:;--c. "Ancient Glass, I: Pre-Rom~n"'; "Ancient
Glass. 11: Roman": "Ancient Glas~. Ill: Po~t-Ro­
man'" The Archaeological /2"rnal 125 (1968):46-
72; 126 (1969):44-77; 128'0971):78-117.
Klein. D.• and w, Uoyd, eds.:The H~lOry of GI~".
iIlus. pp. 13. 32. London, 1~84.
Lamm, C. J. Orienwl Glass of Mediaeval Dale Fo"nd
in Swede" a~d 'he Early Hislory of Luslye·
Paimj~g, Slockholm, 1941.
Pi"d....Wilson, R, H.. and G. T. Scanlon. "'Glass
Finds from Fu~tal: 1964-71." Journal of Gla$S
Studi" IS (1973):12~30,
Quib.ll. J. E. £U;avatwns at Saqqaya, Se..'ice d.,
Antiquit's de l'Egypte.l (1905-06). Cairo. 1907; /I
(19OtJ-07), Cairo. 1907: l// (1907-08). Cairo,
1909; IV (1908-09). (1909-10), Cairo, 1912.
SUSAN Aum
GNOSIS 1147
GLASS RESTORATION. SU An P,."""",ation.
GLORIA IN EXCELSIS, opening words of tile
Latin version of the angelic announcement of the
binh of Christ. "Glory to God in the highest. and on
eanh peace among men ",ith whom he is pleased'"
(Ue.2:14).
Known also as the greater doxology. it wa~ incor-
Jl<lrated into the eucharistic service since the early
days of the church, as anesled by the Divine Liturgy
of James the Hoi)' Apostle and Brother of the Lord
and by Sain. ATHANASJUS (326-373) as pan of pray·
ers to be said at dawn. Exten$ive use is made of the
angelic doxology in Coptic ""orship: in the Divine
Liturgy, where, in the prayer of r.conciliation, the
celebrant addresses God. "TIJou hast filled Ihe canh
with peace from heaven, for which the ho~ts of
angels glorify Thee, !aying; 'Glory 10 God in the
highest. etc ....
In the office of morning incense, the Gloria is
said befo,." the celebration of the LilUrgy and fol-
lowing the intercession for the sick and for the
lravelers. On Saturdays, this doxology follows after
the imerCeMion for the departed, which r"Plaees
the O1h.r two interce""ions.
In Ihe canonical hours. it appears as pan Qf the
morning pra)'er: "Let us sing with the angels sayi"g:
'Glo')' be to God in the highest, On eanh peace,
good will to men:"
ARCHBtSHOP BAStLlOS
GNOSIS, a Greek word, derived from the Indo-
European root g~". also preserved in English
"know"' a"d Sanskrit i~<l~<l. "knowledge." "Gnos-
lie" comes from the adjective gnrwiko, (SCienlific).
which in classical times was "ever used as a sub-
stantive. The only ones who called themselves
Gno'lics were members of the Jewish, later superfi-
cially Chrislianized. group of the Gn05tiko;, which
abandoned the personal God of the Old T.stament
to find the Unknown God, According to I,."naeus
(Ag"'i"st Heresies J.ILl), Valentinus took the princi·
pies of this "heresy'" of 'he Gnostics and adapted
them to his 0 ....." bra"d of teaching. Neither Val en-
tin us. Basilides, Marcion. nor Mani ever called him-
self a Gnostic; gnosticism is a modern invention,
Gnosi' was used in Greek to i"dicale s.lf-aware-
ness. The inscription on the temple in Delphi reads
g"Qlhi ,e<luron (know yourself). This could be ex-
plained i" different way'!!. The Pla.onislS imerpreled
1148 GNOSTICISM
it as m~anin, thai nun. by (umin, h1$ au~nlion
in..,.rd. could abnr'lM:1 rmm ""1M<: perc~ption and
pusiofllO UrK:O,'eT" pur~ reason. ",hieh coold know
Bcin,. Apinsl !hem the Stoia arpKd lhal man
could onl)' kl\OW himsdf by lookinl OOlward to Ihe
ptO>-ldtnu and hannony of the C05"'05 aM 50 Ita-
CO"u lIw man is pan of a ..-hole (1M Sto. is holis-
cie). Apin~ both lIChools !he "~Iic 9:'"'Plia
pro'o'td oM man could oat know an)1hinl ...nh cu·
cainI)'. tsp«ially about Cod. an<! ,hen:'fol'l: should
h.."nlMy Kknov.·ledgc his l""i""lions. Undtr cheir
'nll.... ~ lhe Pblonisu admilled lhal ch~ One Cod
oi Parm~nidts. ",ho is Bcinl itself. cannOi l'OS'ibly
be known and cherdore is invi5i.ble, .. nulL~ ... b1~.
unk_,.ble. The only Cnosis of lhis AgnOSlOS ~
(Unknown God) is lhe a..,.reness lha, He eannoc be
known. In Creek, euin lIulou GnoslJ ~f IIQllJSIi<l.
This in lurn led many al che belinninll of OIJr era
co che ",aliucion thaI the God or g<:><k m~c reveal
Himself or themselves in order 10 be perceived.
Gnosis Ihus became an imuiti,'e knc>wledge of im·
mediace revelalion or of an esoteric tradition of
such re.~lation for the elect
This .iew is fOtlnd in the Oriental my-l-lcry reli·
giol1ll of the Roman Ernpin:' and malical papyri.
and abo. wilh th" equivalent dll'ut for S"6sis, in thc
Dead Sea Sl:rolls of the E'.$scncs. Man ch~re kfiO>',"$
Cod dlr«cJy. bul Ihrougb lhe 1~ller of che Law, as
,,"'ilh ch~ bier rabbis. MI mow 1'be~. 0 my Cod. by
lhe Spiril ..."ich 11Iou hast givcn 10 m"n, and by
Thy Holy Spirit I ha,.., faitJ-.fully heartened 10 Thy
ml.,,~llous counsel'· (Hymn 19. col. 12.... ~nnes.
197_).
Tho: ... me concept is found in !he Go&pel of Jo),n
17,), 'This is (not: will be) etenW life. that thty
know n- (r>oc: btI~ in 11>ee) and know Ja.as
CII.... (M", and now). wborn Thou ~ Knl,- Aho.
jJl che Jewish Merbbah ",>",iei:sm of lhe tll'Sl cen·
luriel lNIn is pennined 10 behold direcd)" the Clory
of Cod in che funn li~ the aPJl'C"'nncc of man
(Ezekiel 1:26).
This was Ihe grvundinj: upon "'Mch the "<>no:.
lies" of AleJUtndria buih:lheir ")"S1~m, whieh was
known 10 and Chrislianized by "'at~nlin.. s. The COn·
fercnc~ on Ihe origins of gno5i.s in Messina (1966)
distinl"ishe4 becween gnosi•. an e50leric knowl·
ed~ for che ele~t. and ,nOlStieism. which is chara.::·
lerlled by a 5plil within Ihe ~ic)"; lhe fall of a
spiritual being, called AmhroJlO!l or Sophia; and Ihe
identicy of the human spirit with che Deil)", Valen·
tinus, in his Gospd of Trulh (32. 38, Allridge and
Ma~Rae. 1988) call. his followers "child,~n of Ihe
Knowledge of 1M hean:' "H~ ""'0 chus ~
che gno5is [Coptic: l4u.. el. knows "'hence he is
come and .....hither h~ is goina:" (22.13-15). Such
gnosis does not abolWl che sacramtnl but COm-
pleles il. acconlin, 10 . . . . .lencin;"n quoted by
Clement of Alexandria in ~rr-pu /Tom Th<'oJoflU
(7.8.2. Sac-nan:I, 1970l: ~Noc onl)'!he bath of bap-
lism doeliYers fr-orn Fat~. but abo the G~. ""'0
"'e .......... what we haw become. where ...., wen:. in
..'hal sort of a worid we ha.~ been chrowtl down.
"'..... is hirth. whac is l'l:binh."'
BIBlJOGAAPHY
Allridge. H. W.. and C. W. MllcRae. ·'The Go5peI of
Trulh.- In The lillie H(l/ffmlldi Llbr",.,. pp_ )7-51.
ed. J. M. Robinson. Rev.~. San Fnnc-iso:o. 1988.
Kine!. G.. ed. The%pe'" Dieli<>nary 0/ Ih" N,w
Te5lame..'. Vol. I. pp. 689-719. I...n,. and ed_
C, W. Bromiley, Grand R:!pKIs. Mich .. 1%4.
QuispeL G.. cd. Gnostic St"dieJ. 2 .ols, I>lanbul.
1974-1975.
Rudolph. K. G"osis. San Franci""o. 1983,
Sagnard. F. L. M. M. Extrai,. a~ Theoaol<, Clem",'
a'A/u,andne, New cd. Pari" 1970.
Vermes. G. Tu Dead Sea Scrolls in Eng'i,h. Lon-
don and New York. 1987.
GIlLES QUlSI'EL
GNOSTICISM, a modem lerm in.... nl~ by schol·
ars 1o indicate amitDriI)" all !IOOU oi elllTCnlS of laiC
anliquily thaI S1r~ I"osis. an inluit;"e knowl·
edB~ of .--..vcaJed mysteries. It should be limilM to
..Titings of the ".:>up Chal called lhems..""'" Gnos-
tics (e.g.. the Apocryp.\o>I ci John) and produclS of
thinkers lik Basilide:s (AI~JUtndria. e. 120). "'alen'
linus (c. 1'iO. Alcundria and Rome). and Marcion
(SinDP'" and Rome. "" ISO). who..-~ bmiliar ",ith
the conC1tplS or lhe ~Gnoslics·· and Christianittd
<h<~
Dripl works rilJhll)' aclribulM 10 gnOQici5rn
aa all in Coptic...ilh lhe u«ptioon of Ihc ,""",ond-
een'u,," Gr"",k uller 10 FIoTtl. by a eertain !'tol....
maeus. pr~n'ed in Ih~ Pa"arion 01 Epiphani .
The oldest ollh~m ar" lhe COOu Askewian~ (con-
taining Ihe lwo Boob of Jeu) and lhe Codex Bro·
cianu.< (wilh four books or the /'is/is Sophia). Bolh
a", wrtlt"n in Sahidic, th~ dial~cc of Luxor; ",ere
probably acquired Ihere in th~ ~lghleeltCh ~entury
1>y Ihe Scottish traveler Jam~s Bruce: and were no,
translaled bul ",ritten direCII)" in Coplic. The Pi,,;,·
Sophill lell,. among other chings, how Mary Magda·

10M inlerprets Ihe I'saIms aulhoritalively. ., if she
were an nrly Chrislian proph"leslO. and is crilieiud
fur tNl by P"I.,.. This may refI«1 lalSions In Ih"
local COIIV"P''''' ofw:wr btlwec:n a GnOMk rac-
lOon 1....1 had prcsc","", lht: primiti« offi<:" of
pms>Iw!Cns) and a Catholic- faction. inspired by
Il.om"••hal fa.'Of'fd an ~ c.....rch ord«.
In lB% lhe German Kholar Carl Schmidl
announced lhe aocquimio<l d a CopIic eodn. Pit..,.·
NS !kroli.... 1llis 8502• ....t.ose "Tilinp ,,-ere DOl
published IInli) 19S5. ], contains Ihe followina:
I. Th" pi"Olal "riling of the rightly oo-<:aUed GnotI·
lieS. Ih" Apocryphon of John. whkh. notwilh·
standing il$ Christian .....m". is originally. J".....
ish ""riline of Alexandrian origin and doos<:rihes
the Unknown God and the spiritual world. h
Ihn continues In lell In., SIOry of lhe creation of
the world and Ihe history of mankind as a con·
stant st!'\lggle helw""n Wisdom, which beSIOW'
frudom of the spirit and consciousness, and a
foolish demiurge calied Jaldabaoth, who forbids
eating fruil of the tre<: of knowledge.
2. The Go,pel 01 M~..,.. in ",hleh Mary Magdal"ne
tells h"r visionary ""puie""" of the Ii"".. Christ
and apin is crilid'M by Petn.
3. 11le Soph'" 01 Jesus, a Christianized n.'islon of
1II" non-Christian letter of F.ugnoslO1 lhe BltIS'
ol.
4. A fr.tgmel1t of the Acts of Pe'rr. which an not
gnostic III all bul only ascflle and minculous.
and bdo.ed by lhe Calholks. For thai ~n il
is just I'O"ible chat Papyrus Btrolinel1$is SS02
,,-as ......nlfll ill 1M sctiptorium of a Catholic:
~"'.
In tN: _ d half d lht: thin! cenlury. the ,.eal
GnoAk Mani (216-277) senl his misWonllries Papos
and Tttomu 10 £opt. whmo thry setlled in Lyeop-
olis. on the Nil~ abow: the ~ in Middlt' fcypt.
Thtt~ IMy PI'OI"1ytiu:d amonl the pupils of the
Plalonic philosoph"r Al~ of Lycopolis. who
"TOI" • preset"¥fd treatise against them. iMre they
oeem also 10 have t",nslated. or 10 ha•.., hsd Inn..
laltd. Ih" Manichaean wrilings fOtJnd al Madlnat
Mad; in 1930-19)1 (bph~l~i", I'saIms. homilies,
etc.) from East Arsmaic into sub-Akmimic, tilt Cop-
tie dialNI of Lycopolis and .urrotlnding!l,
In 1945, M",hammad Ali al·Samman. an E,yptian
farmer of the NaS Hammadi region. found a jar
comalnlnS • co;>llection of about thirte~n codices,
fifty-Iwo wrilings in Coplic. that is incorrectly called
GNOSTICISM ) 149
a GnoMic library. Codo II ends wish lhe typically
monkish invocation ··Il.em"mbtr me. my brtthTfll.
in ,.,.,.. pnytf3,. ~ This aloo" is S<lfficitnl 10 suggar:
thtu I"""" mallUX'Tipu were c~d in OM of 1M
nearby, R:Ctody lOu.nded f'achomian monasteries.
And il is thinkabl" lhal _ o/d·fMhiorle<l monb
v.oJUotd these p>ous boob and indi&nanlly left the
~ef}' when archbishop Alhanasius!lU'e:<5oed thr
imporunce of thr canon (361) and m., abbot ~ed
thrm 10 su.-rtr>dtr their precious treasures. laler.
wh_ pru.sure increased, they did not destroy lhe
boob because lhey had an inMrent quality of boIi-
_ . bul buried them careNlly. jusl Il$ J""".,; pul
t1n-alued manw;criplS in a hidclen place. called the
pttivJ. Ali furthn stories sboul lhe disc<n"''Y are
umnJSI""'..... y_
Nor art all Ihe writings Gnoslic. Ralhe.-. they re-
flee' the silualion of lilt ~on<l-e"ntury Alexandri-
an church and can be used 10 iIlustntte the histO<),
ef gnoslicism. which is laraely an Alexandriao phe-
nomenon. Just as Alh"ns is a symbol of logo, (rea·
$On) and Jerusal"m of faith, SO Ale>:aodria is the
cradle ef lhe lhird componenl <;If lhe Wf\<lern cul-
tun.1 tradilion. gnosi" in""r e1perience and imagi-
nati"e thinking, It li~ed en in ManienaeL..... ,,""
n"nsmined 10 the Csthars ef southern France
Ihrough the intenntdiary of Arm"nlan Paulician.
and Messalians. re>ivtd In 1600 with the upetir:nce
of lhe ohoemaker Jacob Boehme. and sunives in
lhe idns of Johann Goe1h" and George Htg<:l. Ru-
dolf Steiner and C.... JlIng. William Blake "tt<!
R.aiph W.ldo Erntnon.
At the beginning of OUr en. Ajeundria ""'" a
"rucibk of Ef;)ptiall, Greek, and J.".is/t lore. Th"re
lhe Platonic pIillosopher Eudon>s (first cenlury kq
m._
had giwll .. raip:-. opIimiSllic inlerpret<uion of
the MasIn- thai cannot be nconciled. wRh the lragK:
of Molinus (lhird cenlury): God is Mind
(nol beyond Mind and thouahl); God brinp forth
malleT <>til of Himadf (.....II"r is no lower b>tanI-
lion. i. nOi ""il); Ideas art: IhoughtS of God (nol I<>
he foutt<! in Plato). One of these Id Man
(which Mal<> curiously deni", in h.. PIJ ~ltides
nO') lUI this is relevanl for ~uenl gt>OS1icism.
Especially Ihe Iheme thaI the shining figure of Man
i. manifesled as a ptOIQlype tn the angels, who
funion th" body of Adam. «cun .galn and again,
It i. nol without reason IMI a fragmen, of PlaIO'.
Repulflic ,,"'as found among the ""riting. from Nag
Hammadi (VI. S).
Of Ihe approximately 10 million Jews then living
in Ihe world (ef whorn 6 million we,e in the diaspr>-
1150 GNOSTICISM
ra o#,~ Roman Em"'"" and only SOO,OOO in ral_
,ine), h.. ndreds of thousands lived in AI~dria.
MOIl of lhem "'Crt '"efJ difft'r~1 from lhelr I~w­
abil!inlJ I"alolinian COLInlerpar15. ..-.on liberal even
lban <heir compalriot Philo. 1M: Ab..andri.lon ptlikJo!.
opheo-. Their rtligiooity can be toou.nd in ,he Sop";'
S-""""is, in <he Roman CachoIic BiWe. anod in !he
N:oc Hammadi writillJ VI. 2. n..",u•. 1'0rt«:1 Mind
Of S..,."i. in ""hieh " godkss t;<><ldes5. Sophia. rr-
-'s her plIndo...icaJ nalu~_
In facl. Aleundrian JC'I>"5 ..,.~ in sp«Ului......
about Sophia, ,"'hose rdaliomhip wilh ,h wanWn
Aslane is mini,. .'rikd. Mo...,.,.,er. ,he fnlgrnenlS 0#
,he Alexandrian Jt'Wisb pot! &rbel ~U5 ~vuJ
,hal by Ihe second cffl'ury a.c- ,!le...,were celU;n
cin:les in Alexandria lhal meditated abou, Ille "like·
neM lik. Ihe appearance of 8 Man" 01 £.>••;el 1:26.
""hl,,11 '0 ,his day r.mains Ih. main ,h.me of Jewish
mYS'lcism. Som. idenli6.d ,lIis "Glary «God" wilh
lhe Idea of Man,
Gnaslic A"'hropos and gnaslic Sophia are of Jew.
ish origin. There: wert aiso Egyptian COplS in Alu'
andria al lile Ii"",. They. 100, contributed 10 lhe rise
of gl\OSlicism. According 10 Egyplian •• Iigion. Ihe
Nile oricinal~ from ,h" lears of lhe sun goo Rll. In
olher word.. maner is an .man.a1ion of lhe deity.
So Valentinu. can S¥J thaI lhe _rid came Into
beinll from the lears and III" smil" 01 creativt' W~
<10m. Sophia. The Egyptians spoke wilh i~~
freedom about Ihe SIe..uallives of oItdr p>ds. So did
Ille GII_iea.. According 10 Ihe ~ogy of Henna-
polls. a Nile I"""" (Ihe Greal Caclder) laid her eu
in th. moor; from it "'.... born d>e ,..n p . ...t.o
funelions as" d.mn.l"J. "'M a~" ,he world. In
lit. ume _y. lhe Orphi<3 of Aleundria laUchl d)al
lItrir <kmiul"J'" Pha~. ""as born from lhe CGUnk
eel fDnned ill ch_. and Basilides lauchl lhat <he
vnt .....,hon. Abruas. came Ionh from .... chaotic
world seflI. According. w the Ecl'lians. lht' G0d-
head was ~ather and Modloer al lhe
.Qme lime. lht: Gnoslial. Valenlinians. and Manl·
cltaeam had no diIIerent opinion.
V.ry m",,11 tile >.ame:is found in lhe $l'Venteen
hel'TTte1ic: wriling>.. the I'rodUCIS of a mrst.ry com·
munity in Akundria. a son of Masonic: I~, of
Which Gree.... Jews. and COJ'U w"re "",mbers. In
the Prayer of Thanksgiving. a' lasl understandable
owini 10 a fragment fn>m Nag Hammadi (VI. 1),
lh. fem"le half of Ihe androgynous God is invoked
wilh Ille words "We know Thee. won,b conceivinM
through the phallus of lhe Falher." Much of the
Egypllan inAuenc. on Gnostic:ism seems 10 have
been uerc;"...j through lh" intermediale channel of
the hermetic: Iod&e. This encourages us to see. lhe
origin of gnOiillki$m in lhis Aleundri.lu:t congrega·
tion at Ihe be&innina of Ille Christian era.
According 10 th. lhineflllh lreatise of lhe Cofl'US
Herme:ticum. the Anth~ is bam from the "'OIJIb
of opiritual W"Moo'n in sile1>c•. betoI1tJI by 1M:
opemt of God- This Anth,.."..., of COU~. is abo a
penonaI figure..... lil<mels as the appearan<:. of
Adam of &rud I:26. and Ihe Idea of Ioblt. Accord-
inl W the P"'....."dru. .... 6rst lrfttise of the Car-
pus Ht'nne<icrtm. this Amllropos is b.-oughl forth by
God in a pro«ss of panuritlon. This cod Man d ....
aired 10 xl as a detrli....... bul fell in I",'. with
10",'Cr Nature and wo/I; his indwelling in a body tIuol
Nal .. re: had brougln fanll after lite beautiful fonn of
Man. W. must suppose lhal some J..-ws of Alexan-
dria had fonned a looge of ,heir own. a sen of
B'nai B·rilh. for in N.a.g Hammadi have be.n found
purely J.wish and complelely un·Christian ""rilings
like lh. Lme. of EUinOSIO$ tho Blustd (lit. 3. and
V. I) in which lite concepl is amplified lhal Ihe
eternal Son of God is Man. In Ihe Ihru Siele> of
Seth (Vlt. 4) lhis divine Son of father and Malher
is caned Ge~mus (Cera;as Adarnas or Primordial
Man). none other Illan lhe Adam Oadmon of m~i·
".'lll cabalism. Thi, is lile bask mY'1I of ,he "Gnos-
liocs." wlto producM ,II., "'pocryphon of John, the
HJ'PO'rasis of ,he ",,,,It,,,,, (II. 4). 0.. 1M Origin of
111. World (II. 5). and many similar wrilinll" of Naa
Hammadi. II lived on in llle Manic"""an Trinity of
Father. Mother. and Al'Thetypal "bon.
The Chrislian church of Alo:undri.lo of lhe 6m
two cenlUnes .... p1urifonn and 10leranL Accord·
in& 10 a InoSlwonlty lradltion cOllI&in.d in ,he potU-
d<H:!em.,nline hoonilies. "a Hebnw man c:aJled
Barnabas. ~ a Jud1ic:-c:hriit:ian lIIi:ssOoaal}' from J ....
rusa!e111. had be<::n dw fim 10 p~h lite Gospel
I""'.... The letend that ),brk. the inu:."...,IU of
P"'er. came from Rome 10 AJe..andria p<m«:s ~
Rome later lried w cover up lhese heterodo.. ori-
ains and 10 impose lIS authoritarian. ep~""",1 Or·
der. "The J"wis!><hril;lian ~p"'1 of the Hebrews
"''lOS still discussed "';111 sotne $ympathy by C1emenl
of Aluandria and by Origen. lht: Acl.l of Per".. (",d
1M Tw.lv. ApcUll.s, 300u1 1M City of God (Nag
Hammadi VI. I). reveall lh. re:1Jg;...ity of lhis J""'
ish-<:hrislia" faclion. Moreo~t.•• Ih.re ""ere: Enera-
IiI••.•nual ,eelOUllers (as II were) wllo aboli.hed
marriage and whose views can be fnund in lhe
Gosp€l of Thom~s (lJ. 2). Tile Book of Thomas the
Omrend.,. (II. 7) and Exeiesis On the Soul (ll. 6).
Gen,i1e·Hell.nistic Christianily il evidenced by lhe
Sentencu of S4tus (Xil. I) and lhe ret/chi"g. of
 GOBIDLAHA, DADO, AND CAXO, SAINTS
Si/v"',,u (VII, 4). Calholic'sm ehan<:tertzed by the
con","ion of bith, !he canot:l, and the monarchic
episcopacy _ a Ialecomer in Ak:u.ndria. Until il
took OVa'. O_ic tnche" like 8al.ilidn. Carpo-
eBtes. and Valentinus could easily remain memo
ben: of the church. l1>e fine two uugltt relncama·
tioll (like the "G_ics~ of thr PUlis SopJ!i.). All
mlft ...'tft nty frr:e about sell (thal ...... lhe influ·
eMe of f.IypUan relipon and the IoxaI Hermetisu).
and lhe Iaot t"'O held lhat Otrist had come to make
man, $pirit....1 man, comcious of his deepesl sell,
Thills most impresU\'t:1y delIcribed in the Gospel 0/
Tn"" (I, J).• sermon ai,= by Valentinus in Rome
(c. 140) and dewloped in a complicated, wry ''he'
reticai myth about Soph~. '"'00 tries unsu«:es.sful·
N
Iy 10 penetrate to Ihe depth of the Godhead, fall~.
and brings fonh lite ......rW but is brouaht back to
her oriain by Christ. the di,,;ne Savior. l1>e Implka'
tion was thaI only spiritual men could be loaved.
The leade" of Ih W""tem school of valentlnl.an·
isnt, Ptolemaeu. and Heradeon In Rome, took a
more favorable ,iew of rising Catholicism and Ihe
ordinary churchgoer. whom th<>y called "psychic"
becau~e he had a soul but no .pirit, They thorough.
ly modified the system and even Imrodu.::e<l Ih"
novel concept that evil is I>Ot a t.-gic concomllanl
of ",..,Iution bul a c0ll5C<luence of free will. Their
views are alttSled in Th.e Trip"I1;U T.e.li$e (I, 5)
from the sehool of Her.ocleon, which deKribes al
anat lengtlt how the Logos (Sophia) has to pass
through Ihe inferno of matler and "",poism, vUo the
purpwry of (Jewish) ..,Iigion and ethics. to ""hi""..,
the freedom of !he $pirit and complete _ ~
n""" --'''ItO the com;n, of Ollis.l. II thus prepares
the way Jar Orig:m. woo a1... strnsoed pos" for the
ekel and faith for the belin·en..
Gnosdclsm ..,.ms '0 ha..... much in common y,ith
Neopbtonisltt and CathoIkiom: it prtaC'!les an un·
it"
known and unk"""",'llbIe God, ..,je<:ts the world. and
aims at ..,l.,.tion. In fact, nOl. more ~mls.llc
than Ne-oplatonisltt as far as malter and the ..;sible
......lid are OOOlce:med. and like C3tholictlm r~
anthropomorphism_ But when one looka more
closely, its di.. incti,'e feature is its concept of God.
Ac:c:ordinlto Valentin .... "''''I)' man has a guardian
anael or Self who gives gl>mis to hIs counterpart,
bul also nteds ,he man or ....,man 10 whom he
belongs because he cannol enler the pleroma. the
spiritual world. Wilhoul his other ha.lf, Manl tea~'hes
Ihal eveTy Manlchaean has a Iwin. who Inspire' him
and leads him 1<> the lighl. but at the ...me time
Manl holds ,hal lhe "'erna.1 Jesus suffens In mailer
and is 10 be redeemed by the Gnosllc. And Jacob
1151
Boehme: sa}$- thai God is an ocean of lighl and
darkne$l" love and Ire, who wanU to bttome COIl-
seiou!; in man.
The God of g-';c:ism ill Bein& in movement.
,,,euOG....l'1Iy
la)'on. B. T1te C .....li< Scri",..res. New y<><t. 1m.
ht;ek, E. The G>tOUic eosp../s. New yon., 1980.
_ _ Adam. E"e, .,,4 lJw: Strpctl. New yon.
''''.
Qui"""l. G. "Gnostidl"" from the Middle Ages 10
the: F'resen1." In Th.e E"c,doJ1#:di. of Re/ifion,
Vol. 5, pp. 566-74. New Yorl<, 1987.
Scpl, A_ F. T..... P""''erJ i" He.""", I.cide-n, 19n_
GII..l.£S QIJISI'U
GOBIDLAHA, DADO, AND CAXO,
SAINTS, three carll' Christian marty... In f<>unh·
century Persia. They helona 10 a minor tradllion. so
II I. remarkable 1<> find a COpllc l<:stimony 10 their
death. The 01'11)' Sahidic codex 15 "'ry fr3gmentary,
but it allows a u",ful comparison with lhe olher
W'rsi<>ns thaI ""is.l in Greek (AcI" S'''lclO'~m, Sep·
lember, pp. 129-J4) and in Syriac (Bedjan. 1890-
1897, Vol. 4. p. IbJ, wilh the peoralkl Passion of
Dado. pp. 210-21). which aUO\OII reconstruclion of
lbe events, a1on, with an . t....t ;1'1 the Copco-Ara·
bic SYIOOWUON.
Dado, llCM'mor of a Persian province, is x.Jmowt·
edred 10 be Chris.tian. He it denounced by the Per-
.ian kin, Sh:apiIr II....too sends a kpte: to UU him.
Shiptlr's ...... GobidIaha, ...·Ito Is Dado's friend. goes
10 ......... him and convntl 10 Chris.tianicy himself.
Wllen ShIpir disC'o>-"CT$lhis, he summons Dado and
GobidIaha to hia co,,,t, The king lrif:l 10 persuade
Gobidlaha by means 0( his siSler Cuo. bul she aIs.o
......
conver1S to Christianity. All three are lhen mar·
As can be SC'eII ;n the n~nin, ~nts, the
Syriac and the Coptic versions perfectly agree.
...·hile !he Greek redaction shows some di/Jerenc<'5.
In the Greek ~ion Dado is. senator, whereas lhe
<IIMr versions specify IMt he is the lovemor of
Media. In the Greek "".,.Ion lite Itull1yrdom of Dado
is daled !:>efore tlte m","yrdom of Gobidlaha and
Ca>o; in Ihe other venions the lhree are killed
10i\ether. The Syriac ",ralon gl,'eo a sepam.. text
for Dad<>. which agrees almOSI complelely wllh lhe
pan concerning the passion of Gobidlaha. Possibly
lhe original language ...... Syria<: wllh lhe differillg
Greek version appearina prior 10 the Coptic. Per·
1152 GOBLETS, BOTTLES,JUGS
haps the Greek ..,rved as an intenne<!iary, even
though the two texts differ.
BIBUOGII"PHY
BOOjan. P. Acta Martyrurn el Sancta,urn ,iriaa. 7
vols, Paris and Leipzig, 1890-1897. Repr. Hilde,·
heirn, 1968.
Orlandi, T. "Papiri copti di conlenUio teologico."
Mirteilungen aus der Papyrussamrn/ung du 0,1<"
r<ichischen Nationa/bib/ialhek. new .er. 9. Vien-
na. 1974.
TfI'O ORLA~OJ
GOBLETS, BOTTLES, JUGS. See Metalwork.
Caplic.
GOOD FRIDAY, the Friday preceding Easter. 00-
sc ..., ed a. a day of mourning in commemoration of
Chris!". passion and crucifixion to accomplish the
miracle of redemption.
Thi. day has been kept "ith due solemnity ever
•ince the apostolic age. "It is therefore your dUly,
brethren, who are redeemed by the precious blood
of Christ, to ob.erYC the days of the Passover exact-
ly. with all care, after the vernal equinox. lest ye be
obligated to keep the memorial of the one passion
twice in a year. K~ it once only in a year for Him
that die<! but once" (Apostolical Constitutions, Vol.
7, p. 446).
Good Friday is a day of total ab.ention from food
and drink. In early time. this fast extended through
Holy Saturday until dawn On Easter day, a pmctice
referred to by Irenaeu. (c, 130-2ooJ. According to
Eu..,bius, quoting lrenaeus, " ... Some think that
they ,hould fast one day, others two, yet others
more: some moreover, ",,*-,nt thei, day as consisting
of fony hours day and night. And this variety in its
obsc ..., ance has not origi~ated in our time; but long
before, in that of our an,'estors:' The Constitutions
of the Holy Apostle. enjpin a resui<:ted diet
throughout Holy Week: "Do )'ou therefore fa,t on
the days of the Pass()\'er. beginning from lhe second
day of the week until the preparation, and the Sa\>-
bath. sh days. makini use of only bread. and salt,
and herbs. and waler for your drink ... Do ye who
are able fast the day of the preparation and the
Sabbath-day entirely. tasting nothing till the cock-
crowing of the night: bUI if anyone is not able 10
join them both together, allea${ let him Db.ene the
Sahhath-day:'
Highlights of the Coptic Service of Good
Friday
Following morning prayer. the church i. decked
with crosses draped with black material. The icon
of the Crucifixion i. placed on a rai..,d stand in the
na.'e of the church, surrounde<l by crosse•. candle.,
censers. and the New Testament, The priest. con-
dUCI the ..,nice in black vestments as a symbol of
mourning.
The Icction. and pra~rs. which are all directly
related to the theme of the Crucifixion. ate deliv·
ered in a mournful tone. At the end of the Prayer of
the Twelfth Hour. the senior prie.t (or the patri·
arch, metropolitan, or bishop. if present) lifts up
the cross. and all the clergy and Ihe congregation
repeat the KYIUE ELTllSON a hundred times, in each
direction successively. fiT'!lt facing east. then we.t,
nonh, and south, each time bowing their heads and
making the sign of the cros., Finally, they tum
again ta the east and chant lhe Kyrie eleison twelve
times to the accompaniment of cymbal•.
Then the priests and the deacon. make three cir-
cuits round the altar, descend from lhe sanctua,)'.
and go around the church in procession three
time•. They enter the sanctuary again and go
around it once. chanting the Kyrie eleiso". This is
follo.....ed b)' the Sen-icc of the Burial of Christ. The
..,nior priest takes the icon of tbe burial. places it
in a white linen veil on the altar, .....ith rose. and
aromatic spices spread around it. while the deacons
sing the Hymn of Golgolha. The icon i. then cov-
ered with the ibrusft<rin veil (a rectangular red or
white silk cloth with an embroidered cross in the
center). Two candles are placed on the altar, one at
the nonh and the other at tbe south side, represent-
ing Ihe two angels who sat. one at the head and one
at the fttt of Jesus' body (In. 20:12).
Next follow. the reading of the entire Book of
PsalTIl$. witb one notewonhy feature in Ihe course
of the readinl' after the first two Psalms have b-cen
read by two different prie.ts, the firsl five verses of
Psalm 3 are read. stopping at "I lie down and
sl~." Here the priests and the deacon. descend
from the sanctuary. and the cunain is drawn. The
reading of the rest of the Psalm. i. then resume<!
oul.ide the sanctuary.
By way of funher reminiscence of the agony of

Christ on the crou, many P"ople bruk their lasl by
drinking a mt~lu"" of vinegar and myrrh (MI. 27:48;
MI<. 15:36; In, 19:29),
Good Fmb,. CC'leb~Uons 10 J«vsalem
The Copcic cdcbracioo of Goo<! fri<by a1 !he
Church of lhe Holy ~lcher in Jerusalem .. eof>.
ducled in Ihru di$tinC1 &lain,
I. Morn;ni pra~r and th. r",yer of the Third
Hour are p"rformed br:lween 4:30 and 7:30 Ul.
1. A pmcessiO<l Ie<! by !he Copcic m"tropoIitan
lUru a1 aboUI el"""" o'c1ock ill the morninc from
!he Coptic pauiard>lOle. On the ...."3)'. it Slops bridly
at lhe Sroon.. of Anoinlin, and I"" Holy ~Idler
and then ~mn iu roule lo.....anllhe Copcic chap-
cI in the Basilica of I"" Holy Sq>ulch" •. Th",..,. th"
pray.,.,. of the Si~th. Nimh. El"""nth. and Twelfth
Hours a,.., said, At about 4:30 in the aflemoon. they
~um to !he patriarcl>ate.
J. At 6.-e o'clock in the """ninio lhe burial pro-
CCSJion Slal'U l1wu the CopIic e~1. Slopping en
rotlle at the c~1s of s.lm Mary ~ . the
Prison of Christ. Saint lonpnus, lhe Divi...... of !he
Rai""'"I. Ihe Moclin,. Cal""ry (",..them and
nonhem parts). the Slone of Anoinling. the Holy
Sepulcher. and b;>ck to the Coptic chapeL At each
MOp a priest laYS Ihe Inrercession of lhe Gospel; the
metropolitan ,..,ads the Gaipel in Copcic i""ide !he
chapel followed by the Arabic nrM>n read by a
d O(M' at the enlra""e; and finally a short senaon
to deli..-eucl. Tbe procession ends aboul aeven
o'dod in Ihe evening and ret.. ms 10 the patnal'
ehale following lhe same itinerary.
BIBUOGJlAPHY
Btlntlesler. O. H. E. The Eopfirm or Coptic ChUTC".
Cairo. 1967.
Phlliilhlwus al-Maqirt eI al. Kit4b 0411~ ....·T.1'116
1"""<11 rd.J.t.........··Ii1 ..t.FUh ..t.M<IIjUI HIIStlb
T"qrrd W/I T",tib III.MrtniSGh "/·Oib(iJy..h "t.
U'IItt<dlti1r5iyyQh. pp. IIll:-«. Cairo. 1920.
William Sulaymtn Qi~h, Kitdb al.Di,quliyyllh
TII'lIlim II[·R",,,I. PJ'. 34(1'-41. Cairo. 1!J79.
Vilhanna Sa/jmah. K.j'db QI.L<l'dl;" ..I-Naftso" fI
SJurr1J r"qiiIs ....-M"·I~... ,,1-KllnlJ<lh, \'01. 2.
pp. 319_43. Cairo. 1909.
GOSPEL BOOK. SU Lilu"¥ical Instrument$.
GOSPEl. OF THE EGYPTIANS lIS]
GOSPEL CASKET, a r=langular bo~ use<! 10
house Ihe Gospel m""u",ripl on the altar inside the
chuTch sanctuary. '1M Gospel ia. remove<! from i15
casket only lOr reading. whCfl il is place<! on •
leclern in II", choir area,. and is returned 10 i15
easket immediately ah« the Te:adiTli i$ compkted.
Ttooup the It5e of such nceptacles is known to
date from remote Cbril.tian antiquiTy. ancient sam.
ple... do nOI niOl. and the oldesl &uch items pre-
served in the Coplic Museum are from the fifteenth
cenlury.
Gospel ca5kC'15 are made of solid woo<! .1.nd coY-
efe'd with nnbosse<! ~ of sil...,•• bronu. or
brass. Genoet1olly the metal shcfl on the Ul9 of •
casl<el bean an embossed inscription in Coptic wilh
the Grttk CharaclC't$ .. Iphll and ..... c,.. One ... mple
pre$l<rved in lhe Coptic Mweum (no. 1526) bear-.
Ihe opening vene of lhe Gospel of Saint Mark On
the upper sheet. On rhe botlom sheet. it bears the
opening ."tne of the Gospel of Saint John. On the
,ides of the cl6kel. the,.., is an Arablc inscriPlion 10
lhe .ffecl that this ol>ject is bt:queat.hed in perpetui-
'Y to the Church 01 Saint ilaftMra in Old Cairo.
COtlplC'd wilh • pra~rful phr.ose for the soul of the
donor.
Anolher sample in lhe Coplic Museum (no. 1527)
has Similar embossed. COPI;" inscriptions 0<'1 both
faces, an Arabic inscription 0<1 the ~, the name
nI the donor. and a bequnl in perponuity to lhe
ChtJrch of ~m Serzi'"" In Old Cairo. coupltd "'i!h
the usual pra)'etful phrase lor the soul of the lio'tt.
BIBUOGRAPHY
Btltler, A. Th. Ancienl Coptic Clt"'ches of Egypt. 2
ml,. Oxford, 1884.
Hablb. R. The Coptic M"se"", (F.n&li:Jh Guide). Cai-
ro. 1%7.
SI..... yWo. M. a"iric 10 tM Coptic M",c"", _d rJt..
",..,imt Copr;e Chuulou. 2 W>ls. AtWMc cd., Cai-
ro. 1!J30: F~r>ch td.. Cairo. 1931.
SlnylO"''$ki. J. KopiUclte K",Ul. VicnJlSl. 1<"l(K.
HrSIiMAT MESSrHA
GOSPEL OF TIlE EGYPTIANS. Two .... her
fragmenwy '·enio.... of the Gospel olthe; f.«yptisns
~ Sound in lhe NAG IIUOlUll UBtlUY. the Onot .1.p-
purina: as Ihe second lractate in Code1 III and the
other as Ihe Hcond piece in Co<le~ N, In their
present form. they de,;,.. from lhe same Greek
<:>riginal of rhe cIocumenl, each o'erslO<l possibly de-
pending on an earlier, varianl CopIic tran.lation.
1154 GOSPEL OF THE EGYPTIANS
Both copies are written in the $ahidic dial«t of
Coptic, with ""m~ orthographic and syn1<>ct;c varia·
lions In the texl of Codex III tlmt ha"e ~n ex·
plained as either predassicaJ fealUres of the dialect
(Bohlig and Wi..." 1975) <lr influences from the
MewkemiC dialect (Belle!, 1978, pp. 44-651· These
Coptic versions of Ihe Gospel of the Egyptian, ex·
hibit no discernible connection with the texl of the
same name that Is known reliably onl)' from refer·
ences and quotations pr"",,,,'ed by Clemenl of Alex-
andria (Schneemekher, 1963-1965, Vol. I, Pl'. 166-
78).
The proper lille of the work is The Holy Book of
the Great Invisible Spirit, an indicator that lhe work
originated outside of Christian circles, In fact, it has
~n argue<! peouasively that because of the way
ChriSlian coloralions are introduced in the text,
they are to be thought of as additions made by an
editor wilh Christian interests (Hedrick, 1981),
While the Christian louches are lighl and late, Ihe
strength of the conne<:tions wilh Seth is solid. In·
deed, il i~ possihle tlmt the associalion of names
belween Seth, SOn of Adam, and Ihe Egyptian god
Seth has led to the naming of the work The Gospel
of the Egyptians, since, as Bohlig and Wisse Imve
noted, during the Hellenistic age con.iderable ef-
forts were made to improve the image of the deitl
Seth in Egypt. Moreo\'er, the use of the tenn "go<.
pel" in the colophon probably does not refer to It'
added Christian features but rather to the facl thaI
the treatise chronicles Seth's role in Ihe drama of
sah'ation, much "', the New Testament Gospels
.peak of the ministry of Je<uS (Sohhg and WiS«!,
1975), For in'tance, the work relate, Seth's pre·
monal origin as son of Adamas, his slalUre as an
important celestial personalily, the origin of his
poslcrity, Ihdr preservati<ln by heavenly powcrs ap-
pointed fo< Ihis f'UT"pCI$e, and hi~ descent into the
wodd as the hing Jesus.
The work itself dividc,1. rather neatly into four
main sec lions, a fact lha;lnay
, illustrate the separale
origin of the trarlili<:>ns embedded within them. Tbe
lirst and long.,,;t bas to J., with the origin of the
cel~tjal realm that begins in the .i1ent wodd of
light, with the "Great Imisible Spiril," who is Ihe
"inconuplible Falher" and lhe "Mother, the virgin-
al Barhelon," emanating from themselves a trinity
of powers, namel}', "lhe Falher, the Mother (and)
the Son." By the end of the crealive process, some
fOlly aeons or emanatio,," have come fonh, not the
least of whom is "the great inconuptible Selh, Ihe
soo of lhe Inwrruptible man Adamas." The <ec<lnd
segmenl treats the need for Seth's salvific act;\·ily,
which i. to counteract the e,'i1 elfons of Sakla., the
god of this world, who ~eeks to e",lave the divine
.eed of Seth, The thi<d division consist' apparently
of two hymns of five slmphes each, lhu. presum-
ably exhibiting an origin independent of that of the
rest of lhe tractale (Bohlig and Wisse, 1975). The
last ponion consists of the notation that Seth
authored the work and '....a s respon,ible for hiding il
on the mountain named Charaxio and lhe colo-
phon, which provides nol only the litle..... igned 10
the traCtate but also Ihe name of the scribe (Bellel,
1978).
The document c1eady conIes from lhe world of
so·called Selhlan gnoslicism, possibly exhibiting an
earlicr form of that mo.'ement lhan is represenled,
fo< insmnce, in the THREE STUf's of S(TH or in the
SECONO TIl-EATISE Of THE GREAT SETH, While one may
be lernpted to poSiulate that this text was composed
<lutside of Egypt, there .eems no compc:lling reason
to hold such a view, even whcn it is underslood
lhal the lille Gospel of Ihe Egyptian. is secondaI)'.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Bellel, P. "The Colophon of the Cospd of rhe Egyp-
tians: C<lnCe5SUS and Macarius of Nag Hammadi."
[n Nag Hammadi and Gnos;s, ed, R. M. Wilson,
Pl'. 44-65. Nag Harnmadi Studies 14. Leiden,
1978.
Bohl'g, A. "Die himmlische Welt nach dem AID-P-
tuevangelium \'on Nag Hammadi." Le M"s~on 80
(l967):5~26, 365-77.
Bohlig, A" anJ F, Wi...,. Nag Hammadi Codices lll,
1 and IV, 2: The Cospd of the Egyplians. Nag
Hamrnadi Sludies 4, Leiden, 1975.
Doresse, J. '''Le Lh're sacr;, du grand esprit invisi-
ble' ou 'L'Evangile des Egyptiens': Toxte copte
edit;', traduit el commenl;, d'apres ]a Codex I de
Nag'a·Hammadi/Khenob<>skion," Journal As;a/;-
que 254 (1%6):317-435, and 256 (1%8):289-386.
Hedrick, C. W. "Christian Motifs in Ihe Cospel of
tho Egypr;ans: Method and Motive." Novum Testa.
mentum 23 (1981):242-60.
Schneemclcher, W. "The Gospel of the Egyptians,"
In New Testament ApfHCrj'pha, ed. E. Hennccl:e
and w. Schneeme1cher, 2 yol,. Philadelphia,
1963-1965.
Wilwn, R. M. "The Gospel of the Egyptians." [n
Studia Palrist;ca 14, ed, R. M. Wilson, pp, 243-
SO. Texte und Untersu~hungen 117. Berlin, 1976,
___. "One Texl, Four Translations, Some Reflec-
tions on the Nag Hammadi Gospel of the EID-p'
tian.... In Cnosis: F'srs~hFift fur Hans JonaJ, ed,
R. M. Wilson, Pl'. 441-48. Gallingen, 1978,
S. Kt;NT BROWN

GOSPEL OF MARY, an apocrwhal Gnostic gos-
1"1 originally wrillen in Grul. probably during the
",,~ond century A.I>, Two pages (John Ryland. U-
brary, Manchester, England. Pap}'rus 463. 21r and
22v; Ihis papyrus, from Oxyrn\'Ilchus, was acquired
in 1917) of the Creek lext survive from the third
century. Pan of the text i. preserved as well in a
Coptic (Sahidic) translation at Ihe beginning of the
Papyrus ~rolinensis 8502, The lranslation differs
in places from the original Greek and may be a
some....'hat condensed veTS;on. The Coptic rnanu-
s<;tip! consists of eighteen pages, of which len (pp.
1-6 and 11-14) au lost. The litle of the wod is
given in a colophon at lhe end of each version.
From the extant pages of the lext it is apparent
thaI the original gospel consisle<l of two discrete
patU: a conversation between Ihe risen Savior and
His disciples and Mary Magd.al~nc's account of her
vision of the Lord.
Dialogu~~ betwun the ri.en Savior and Hi. disci·
pl~s ar~ common in early Christian lit~rature, b ....
ginning with th~ post·Resurrection accounts in lh~
Gospd., Ulll~ of th~ dialogu~ in th~ first pan of lh~
Gospe! of Mory remains, only a discussion of lhe
nature of mailer and lhe limited reality of sin, At
Ihe c10.e of lhe dialogue, the Sa1l;"r wams His dis·
ciples again.t fal.e proph~ts, forbids them 10 create
new laws, charge,; th~m to preach the gospel, and
depa"",
At this point, a transition has been creat~d to
c()nnect the two otherwi.... unrelated se<:ti"ns, It
consists of a few word. of consolation, in which
Mary remind. the other disciple. thaI lhe grace of
th~ Savior will continue 10 ~ with Ih~m, pmlecting
them, Peter th~n asks her to share with the others
her se<:ret ,nos;'; ("knowledge").
The second pan of the Go.pel 0/ Mory presents in
t~nns of a vision a revdation about the llimmels-
rei" du S'ele ("the soul's heavenly ascent"), Simi-
lar accounts are known {!RIO the Hellenistk period
in both Christian and nom·Christian writings, Ac·
cording to Mary, th. soul', l~aves th~ body and en·
counters hostile powers that include, among OIhers,
Desire and Ignorance. These must b. OVeT<:ome be-
fore lhe soul can procee<l, transcend the cosmos,
and lind its place of rest.
The other disCiples' receplion of this r~v~lation is
not completely positive. Peter's reaction is outright
hostile: "Did [the Saviorl really speak prival~ly with
a woman and not openly with us? . , , Did He pre{~r
h~r to us?" Pet~r's repudiation of Mary's spiritual
l~adership is n"t uncommon in Gnostic ....,ritings: it
i. found, for example, in Pisris Sophia, where Mary
GOSPEL OF PHILIP 1155
i$ the major character in dialogue wilh Jesus de·
spite Peter's complaints, and in the concluding log;·
on of th~ GOIiPEL OF mOMAS, wh~re P~ter-having
tried 10 have Mary s~nt away as unwonhy of sal-
vation-i, o1l... rruled hy Jesus, who promises to
make her mal~ SQ that she can en1~r th~ Kingdom.
More unusual is the presenc~ in the gospel of a
contradictory "iew of Peter; in the transitional panl.·
graph, he acknowledges Mary's authority and asks
her 10 share h~r ,~cret knowl~dg~. Possibly, this is
the work of an editor who did not share the belief
in a conHict between Mary and Peter hUI who did
not dare alter the original le~1 and SQ softened the
effect by presenting a milder picture in the con·
necting lines.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
The Gre~k lut has b~en edited, with an English
translation and nores, by C. H. Robens in his Cata-
logue of 'he Grtek o~d La';~ Papyri In 'he John
Rylands Library Manchester, Vol. 3, pp. 18-23
(Manchester, 1938); and by C. P. Carn>lelli in La
Parola del PaHala, fasc. 2, pp. 22M., (Naples, 1946).
Th~ Captic t~xt has ~~n ~dit~d, with a German
translation and introduction, by W. Till, in his "Di~
gno.tischen Schrifren des koptischen Papyrus Bero·
linensis 8502," Tex,e und Unursuchunge~ [fir Ceo
schich'e der altchri.,lichen Literalur (\() (1955);24-
32, 62-79. An English translation by F. Wi,s< has
been included in The Nag Hammadi Library i" E~·
gUsh, pp. 471-74 (New York, 1977),
For """ondary lit~rature, see th~ following stud·
ies:
Henne<:ke, £. New Tes/amem Apoc'J'pha, VoL 1, pp.
340-44. Philadelphia, 1963.
Quispel. G. "Das H~h~revangelium im gnosti-
schen Evangelium nach Maria," VigilIa. Chris,-
lanae 2 (l957):l39-44.
Schmidt, C. Ern vorirenlilsches gnosrisches Origina/-
werk in kOplischer Sprache, pp. 839-47, Berlin,
1896.
Wilson, R. McL "Th~ New Testament in the Gnos-
tic Gospel of Mary," New rcslamem Studies .3
( 1956/1957):236-43,
BEVERLY MOON
GOSPEL OF PHILIP, titl~ apparently of two
separate and ind~pend~m Gnostic texIS of the sec-
ond or third century. The first is mentioned only hy
Epiphaniu$, who also provides the only known ex·
tract, a clearly Gnostic passage dealing with the
asc~nt of the soul to h~a1l'en and how it must an-
swer each of the an;hontic powers it meets on the
1156 GOSPEL OF PHILIP
way. This passage does not appear at aU in Ihe
second text, comained in Codex II, Tractate 3 of
the NAG HAMMADl UBRARY and first made available in
p, ubib's photographic edition in 1956. The first
tran,lation, in Gennan, was publishe<l by H. M.
Schenke in 1959, and independent English transla-
tion. by C. J. de Catanzaro and R. MeL Wilson
appeared in 1962. The absence from this te,t of the
passage quoted by Epiphanius has led most scholars
to think of two separate work., but Schenke has
suggested that there was in fact only one. The Nag
Hammadi te,t is $0 unique in character that it is
difficult to imagine another beside it with the same
title. In addition, the theme of the quotation occurs
frequently in the Nag Hammadi document. The
quotation itself could well be an insertion, such as
is not unCommon in Gnostic literature, singled out
by Epiphanius as a particularly telling illustration of
the content of the work, The issue is not so dearcut
as might at first appear,
The Nag Hammadi text is extant in full in Coptic,
apart from lacunae at the fOOl of nearly every page.
The title is appende<l at Ihe end but may be secon-
da",. In all the other documents in Ihis codex, the
title is centered and well spaced off from the text,
whereas here it is squeezed in as if it were an
aftenhoughl. Ascription to Philip could have been
suggested by the fact that he is the only disciple
mentioned (Go,pel of Philip. sec. 91). but there is
also tho fact noted by H. C. Puech (1963, 1973. pp.
27Jf.) that in the Pis/is Sophia (chap, 42) Philip,
Thomas, and Mauhew are the three disciples ap-
pointe<! to wrlle down all that Jesu. was to say or
do. Pu""h (p. 277) thinks it may he assumed that
this was the document mentioned as being in use
among the Manichees. In some sources it is associ-
ated with the Gospel of Thorn"s, which. in fact.
immediately pr""edes in Nag Hammadi II.
Schenke in his original translation. possibly influ·
enced by the e~ample ~ the Gospel of Thomas.
divided the text illlo 127 'sayings," but he subse-
quently modified this term:to
, "paragraphs." (In fur'
ther refinements he reckons with no Fewer than 175
units.) The original division is commonly retained
for corwenience of reference:but the work is not a
collection of sayings. Nor is it a gospel in the ordi.
nary sense of the tenn. Rather it is a rambling and
disjointed lreatise. Schenke'speaks of a florilegium,
spiraling around a number of themes, to which it
relurns again and again. Some continuity of
thought is maintained by means of aswciation of
ideas or through catchwords, but allempts to trace
such cOlllinuity throughout break down. There is
no deariy organiud .tructure, which makes ;t im·
possible to summarize Or outline the contents. All
that can be done in brief compas5 i. to indicate
some of the leading themes.
One such Iheme is the consistent disparagement
of the world and the flesh (ef. sees. 62, I I 2). The
world came into being through a transgression (sec.
99) and i. dominated by archons. who wish to de-
ceive mankind (sec. 13). The)' think they do every·
thing of their own will, but In fact the Holy Spiril is
working through them (sees. 16. 34; d, Sophia in
Valentinianism [see VALENTlNUS]). The very names
used in this world are d""eptive (sec, 11); its good
i. nol good, and its evil is not evil (sec•. 10, (3).
The only true realities are those of the other world,
the "kingdom of heaven" (sec. 24) or "the awn"
(sec. lJ).
In this world the soul is captive to the "robbers"
(sec. 9). Like a pearl dropped in the mud. however.
it does not lose ilS value (sec. 48), even though il is
imprisoned in "a despised body" (sec. 22), The con·
dilion of natural man is bestial (sec. 84. d, sec,
119) or is deserihed in terms of sla,'ery, In contrast.
he who has the knowledge of the truth is free (sec.
110). With the coming of the light. the slaves are set
free and the captives delivered (",c. 125). but if a
man does not receive the light in this world he will
not receive it in the other (sec. 127).
A .ignificant place is given to Christ. tlte perfect
man (sec. IS). whom the Gnostic must put on (sec.
101). But the fundamental evil in the human situa·
tion i. not sin but ignorance. Deliverance comes
through knowle<lge (gnos;s) (d. sec. 110) not
through the cross (although Ihere are references.
d .•ecs. 72. 91). Christ comes not to giw: His life
but to restore things to their proper places (sec. 70)
and become the father of a redeemed progeny
(,ec•. 74. 120). Death is not the wages of sin but the
result of the separation of the sexes (sec•. 71,78. d.
""c. (1); hence Christ came to restore the primal
unity.
A notable feature is the frequent reference to
sacraments, apparently five in number (sec, 68:
baptism. chrism. Eucharist, redemption, and bridal
chamber; d. Gaffron. 1969). The highest of these.
the bridal chamber. must be interpreled in the light
of Valentinian theory (Irenaeus, 1957. J. 7. I): at
lite consummation. Achamoth is to enter into the
Pleroma as bride of the Savior, while the "spiritual"
beings who derive from her become brides of the
Savior's angel•. Thi. cosmic event is in some way
s}'mbolized or prefigured in the sacrnment, al·
though no details of it. nalu,"" are given,

The document is clearly Valentinian, and a
knowledge of the Valentinian system is wmetimes
~ential for understanding certain allusions
(Schenke. p. 153). It is not yet possible to id"nti!y it
with any particular branch of the school, but the
closest affinities appear to be with the Mareosians
and the Exce'pw ex Theodow. Knowledge of the
New T..tament is clear but difficult 10 asse... ,ince
the evidence ranges from unmistakable quotations
to possible echoes and allusions.
One ~nal point is the glimpse that this text affords
of what g"osi< meant 10 a Gnostic: the sense of
release and liberation, even a sense cf exhilaration,
which is particularly clear in the dosing lines.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Catanzaro. C. j, de. "The Gospel According to Phil-
ip In Journal of Thwlogkal Smdies 13
(1962)'35-71 (English translation).
Gaffron. H. Studien 1J<m kopti,chen Philipp"s·
evangelium. Bonn, 1969.
Isenberg. W. W" "The Gospel of Philip," introduc·
tion and tmns[ation. [n The Nag Hammadj Libral)'
i" English. ed. James M. Robinson. Leiden and
San Francisco. 1977: 3rd rev. ed., 1988.
Labib, P. Coptic Cnostic Papy"; in th. Coplic Mu,e·
um 01 Old Cairo. Cairo, 1956.
Menard, J. E. L'Evan,ile ,elo" Philippe. 5trasl>ourg,
1967,
Puech. H, C. "Gnostic Gospels and Related Docu·
ments." In New Testament Apocrypha, Vol. I,
Cospels a"d Related W,iti"gs by E. Hennecke, cd.
W. Schneemelcher. Eng. tmns. ed, R. MeL. Wil·
son. Philadelphia and London. 1963: 2nd ed.,
1973.
Robinson. J. M. The Facsimile Edition ollhe Nil'
Hammadi Codices: Codex 1I. Leiden, 1974.
Scholer, O. M. Nag Hammadi Bi/,fiogrophy 1948_
/969, Lei<len. 1971 (with supplemems in Novum
Tes/amentum).
Wllson. R. McL The Gospel of Philip. London and
New York, 1962 (with co"",ental)')'
R. McL WIlSON
GOSPELS, SYNOPTIC, the Gospels of Mat-
thew, Mark. and Luke. The similarity of consider-
able segments of their .ubject maller and even their
phraseology may be explained by on. of two theor-
ies. The Gospel of Saint Mark is supposed to be the
earliest of the three Gospels and could have bun
utilized by the other two. This imerdep.mdence and
the pooling of knowle<!ge in that era is a common
GOSPEL OF SAINT MARK 1157
trait of that age. SainI Mark w>I$ the most highly
educated of the evangelists. Another possibility ad-
Vllnced by sOme theological s~holars is that the
th,,,,, Gos!>"l, drew upon a foum source. 0"" loS!
and unknown.
In the meantime. one must bear in mind that
Matth.,.· and Luke used .ome material peculiar to
ea~h and without pa.... net in Mark's GospeL Wheth·
er each e\'angelist had his own independem source
on cel1ain matt"rs. in addition to their common
knowl"dge. i. debatable. In this .ituation of uncer·
taimi.. and multiple probabililies, the Coplic IheO'
logian. insist on the seniority and superiority of the
Gospel according to Saint Mark the Evangelist. the
fuunder of Egyptian Christianity an<! the fiTSt pope
and patriarch of their church,
BIBUOGRAPHY
Thomp&on, J. M. Th~ Synoptic GO.'p<:ls. Oxford,
1910.
Taylor, V. The Gospels: A Short r"lrod"ctio". Lon·
<Ion, 1938.
AZTZ 5. ATrYA
GOSPEL OF SAINT MARK, felt by man)' 10
be th" most cohesive. the b~S! wrinen, and the
moot eloquent of the four Gospels. Mark'. narrative
styl~ is simple and unadorne<:l, yet compelling and
vivid,
Although Mark's work was the least appre~ialed
of the four Gospels in early Christianity, there is a
mu<h greater amount of anciem testimony con-
~erning its authorship, origin. and date of composi-
tion than for any of the other three Gospels. The
earliest extant reference to the Gospel of Mark was
wrinen by Papias. bishop of Hi~rapolis. in a lost
treatise from around 140 and i, preserved as a quo-
tation by Eusebius:
This also the Elder said: Mark, who became Pe-
ter's interpreter. wrote accurately, though not in
order. all thai he remembered of the things said
and done b)' the Lord, For he had neilher heard
the Lor<l nor been one of his followers, but after-
ward, as 1 said. he had followed Peter. "iltO used
to compose hi. discourses with a view to the
needs (of his hearers), but 1101 as if he were com-
po_ing a systematic account of the Lord's sayings_
So Mark did nothing blameworthy in thus writing
some things just as he remembered them: for he
w>I$ careful of this one thing. to omit none of the
things he had heard and to _tate no untruth there-
in [His/ona ecc!esiastica, 3.39].
1158 GOSPEL OF SAINT MARK
Th., anti.Ma~iQnite prol",,", to Mark, dal<X! by
mllJlY 10 the period 160-180, ~Qn$til\ll~ lhe n",,1
"';II"'SS:
... Mart ekelared. who ill ealled ".rum~
fin,.,.ed:' becaU$e he had ralher small fing.,,,, ;n
comparison ....lth Ihe stalure of Ihe rnl of his
body. H., was the inlerpl'l'let of Pel"t. Aftu the
c1rath of P"tltt" hiTn)e1f he _ e do"'T1 this saIDC
I""pel in II", teJions of haly [quotN in Lane.
1974. p. 9].
lrenxw.. writi"l around 17S. con~cyed lhe: fol·
l_in& inionn3tion aboul the ~
MMt""'" compos«! hill Gospl'I amon, tho: He--
l>r<:w. in their _·n "n~, ..·hik Petitt" and
....1 proc"imed Ihe Oospel in Rome and found-
ed the communiI)'. Alter lheir delluh [Jru<>don}
Mark. the disdple and interpl'l'lcr of 1'10'1<:1", InnS-
milled his preach;n. 10 us in written form. I\nd
Luke.....ho WlIIS huI's foIlcrwer, Je't down in a
book the J05PI'I vmi~h he pruc:hftl.. Thtn John,
lhe LonI'$ disciple, who had reclined on his
hruse. himself produc:ed the Gospel when he ....
Sra.Y;nl al Ephesus. in the proYit>Ce of Asia
[At"io1$1 Hct~nu J.I.I).
Tht Muntorian Canon (plobabty ""ritten in the
period 110-1110). in a badly mutibled section that,
... indiare<l by the cont""t, m",t reftor 10 ~rk.
otaIO$ thaI "&I some thhlp Ile wu prCSCnl, and so
be recorded lhem" (quoted In I..anoe, 1974. p. 9).
Three somewhat CClnl..mcIO'1' statements an:
found in CLDlE...,. "" AtLlIANORIA (lale .IoKond-nrly
Ihird CCTIIU'1'):
Whe1I PlHer had publicly preached lhe word 31
Rom... and by the Spirit had proclaimed the Gos-
pel. lhat Ih..... p'<'$enl. who were .....ny, ""honed
Mark. as one who had followed him for a long
lime and ~em~red whal had b«n !pOlen, 10
make a record of w.....1 "'as .said: and thai he did
thii, and dislribuled I~pel amonllhosc ""'I
asked him. And Ihal "'~en 1M mailer carne 10
P~ler's kOO"'lcdge he nehher alrongly forbad.. il
n<>r urged il forward [quoted in EusebiUi,l.IS.l).
So 'orillianl was lhe n,hl of pielY Ihal shone
upon Ih.. minds of Peler's hearers (In Rome). Ihat
Ihey were not conlenl 10 be uIisfied with hearing
him on~e and no more, nor ",ith Ihe unwritten
lea~hing of Ihe divine me_goo; bul besoughl wilh
all kinds ..,f enlrealie5 Mark, whose Gospel ii e,-
lanl, a foll..,wer of Peler, Ihat he would leave
them in wriling also a memoir olf lhe leaching
they had =~i,·ed by word of molwh; nOr did Ihey
relax Iheir ..ff,,,"s untll lhey had prevailed upon
lhe man: and lhus Ihey became the otilinalOnl of
Ihe bool< of the Gospel ""~ortling to Mark. as il is
caliM. Now il is said lhal ...hen lhe apostle
leaml, by .."",lalien of lhe Spirit, wluol "'as done,
he "'as pleased with lhe men's ~eal. arw:l aulhor--
ized the book to he read in Ihe churches [Euse·
bi...., LI5.if. quoting C"'menl. Hypolypos.eiJ 6).
Mark, the follow..r of Peter, ...hi... Peler was
prcachi"8 publicly the &OSpel &I Rome in Ihe
presence of celUin of Caesar's knig!>1$ aPd ....
pulling fono'ard many t<:$lirnonie$ con«minc
Chrisl.. heing rcquntod by lhem WI lhey mlchl
he able 10 commit 10 memory .he lhines "1lich
were beln, >pOken. "TOO" from the thinp ..... ich
we.... spoken by Peter Ih.. Gospel which is called
..,..ording 10 Mark [C"'menl, " .....mb... riooIu ;"
pnoum 5:1J). •
The an.;""1 lradition is u ....n......... in iu cxpIiclt
3lltibution 01 th~ secorw:! Gospd &0 Marl<. Thls lesd-
mony pins credibility from the fact lhat II or\t:iMl-
oed in 3.11 "D thai ~ lIlpOItOI.ic authonhip dille
Go5peIs, and cannot, therelOre, ~ 1iV><1y dismm.ed
'"' rithtr coc>,,,,nienl or apolocetk. Thus. lhere is
little, if any, rrason 10 doubt thai lhe &u'bor dtlle
XCClnd Gospel is John M1rIt. tile associale of Peter,
the Mark of the I'wlillC ~pisr.l~ and of Acts..
Any allempt 10 dale lhe Gospel of SainI Ma••
",W( bqin with the rebti..e wealth of aneient 1<'$1;"
",ony.1'bese 5OUt<'ts unani_ly repon lhal Mark
'N35 ..ith Peter in Rome and heard the a"",",tle
preach aboul Ih.. U),np ...d d~ of Jnus and
thaI if 'N35 on the basi:i of lhis aposure 10 Peter's
leaehing WI Mark wrot.. his Gospel. H_.."er. the
tradilion ii divided on whether the work ... <:om·
posed before or after the death of Pt1er.
who &Cctpt Ihe l<'$Iimony of 1M anti·Mat<'ionite
Sc"""'"
prologue and lrenaeus, as _lias lhe impllcatlon in
Pa...... lhal Marl< penned lhe Gospel after Ihe mar·
Iyrdom of Peter, lend 10 datt lhe work 10 lite period
65-70. Ttnltd in Ihis camp a~ such Sl'holars as
lane (1974). Htngd (1985), and Cranfield (1959),
In support ..,r th~ Itrminus poll quem, lhey ~ited
the lradition Ihal Peler ...... killtd durinllhe Nero-
nian persecution of 64-6S. As I\Jnher evidence for
the view that lhe Gospel "'llS eomposed after Ihe
d..ath of Peter, Cranfield (1959, p. 8) argued lhal
Mark's descriplion of Peter's failures could only
have been wtillen after the apOSlle had died a rna..
I)"r's death. for lhe frankness Ihat would have
.....med malicious during Peler's Iifetlme was weI.
corned after his manyrdom as affortling encourage·
menl 10 weak disciples.

To bUll"''' the terminus anle quem, they argued
thai use of Mark by the later sylloptists malce$ a
date after 70 unlikely and that Mark's ~ompl.le
.iIence 011 the events thai look place al the end of
the Jewish Revolt is explicable only if the work was
completed prior 10 69-70. Cranfield (I'. 8) thought
the Gospel was completed in 65 or 66 before the
war began. Hengel'. interpretation of Mark 13:6-13
as a r••ponse 10 the Roman political upheaval of
68-69 and 10 romo ... that lhe hated Nero would
return to life led him 10 conclude that the Gospel
was ",Tinen within lhe narrow p"riod belween the
winter of 68-69 and the wintu of 69-70 (1985, PI'.
1-28). Lane (1974, PI'. 12-18) adduced Marean r"f-
.unces to trials and tribulation as evidence that the
Gosp"] w3$ wrillen between 65 and 70 as a product
of the Neronian persecution, it:5 purpose being 10
.trengthen Ihe Roman church againsT OUTside ago
gression.
Those who believe the Gospel was wrillen before
the death of Peter either ignore as err<>neous the
witness of lrenaeus and the anti·Mar";onite p,.".
Jogue or obviate the difficulty the)' pose by inter-
preting them to mean the Gospel was wrillen after
the "depar1ure" of Peter (Le.. from Rome), nOI af-
ter his dealh. Among Ihe proponents of a date prior
to the death of Peter are Robin.on (1976). Zumz
(1984), Reick< (1972), and Allen (1913). Robinson
leveled ",me of Ihe inconsistencies in the ancient
te"imony by explaining that (I) the "nonchronolog·
ical" record to which Papi... referred cannot be the
cohe.ive, well-eon.tructw Gospel of Mark known
today, but must have been merely a compilation of
Jesus' sayings and deeds, a compilation that hI'
dates to about 45; (2) in the mid·~fties. Mark may
have composed a prolo-Goopel; and (3) the formal
Go.pel that w... later accepted into the canon and
that has .urvived to the presem was wrinen in the
late fifties or early sixties.
Allen (1915, Pl'. 2. 4-6).~rnainta;ning that the
Gospel of Saint wke was ~ten around 50 and
that it was dependent on Mark's Goopel, suggested
that Mark rna)' have been wrillen hetween 44 and
49. Reicke (1972, Pl'. 121-34)' argued that the pas-
sages in the synoptic Gospels that are cQmmQnly
accepted by modem scholars as ex eveMlu prophe·
cies of the destruction of Jerusalem have been mis·
inte'l'reted. He found no hint'in the synoptislS of
any knowle<!ge of the Jewish Revolt. Accordingly,
he conduded that the.e Gospels muS! have been
written before the war. Then arguing thaI the
abrupt ending of ACTs w;lh Ihe events of 62 indio
cates lhat the work was completed in thaI year, he
GOSPEL OF SAINT MARK 1159
deduced that the three synoptic Gospels.•ince they
antedate Acts, were writlen prior to 6Z. Zuntz inter·
preted Mark 13:14 as a reference to Ihe emperor
Caligula's threat 10 place his statue in the lemple al
Jel"U$3.lem and dated the Gospel to 40.
Jf the best solulion to the .ynoptic problem (~
below) i. Ihe thwry that Ihe lhree .)'noplk Gospels
developed over a period of time, the allempl 10
establish a fixed date for the composilion of each is
an endeavor donme<! to error. Robinson's theory
doe. much to hanooni'e the e..emial elemem. of
the ancient tradition with the evidence Ihat some
portions of the Gospel of SainI Mark were wriuen
long before Peter's death. A.< Robinson suggested,
the Gospel probably began assuming ilS rudimenta·
ry .hape in the early fonie. as a colleclron of the
sayings and deeds of Jesus. After Peler'. death,
Mark, realizing That Ihe eyewilnesses of Jesus' min-
istry would soon be gone. may ha.'e fonnalized his
Gospel and preserved the preaching of Peter for the
world. Thus, the Gospel WQuld have reached its
final rorm around the mid·.ixtie. and it would be
Ihis form thaI is mentioned in Irenaeu. and in the
anti-Marcionite prologue.
On the issue of provenance the tradition speaks
dearly, With the .ingle exception of IOHN CHRYSOS-
TOM (d. 407). who averred that Mark wrote his Goo·
pel in Egypt (in Mallhaeum homUiae 1.3). every
ancient source that Slates the provenance of the
Goopel name. Rome as its birthplace. Chrysostom's
assertion of Egyptian provenance has gamered little
.uppor1, .ince it is belie.'ed to have arisen from a
misunderstanding of Eusebius' statement that Mark
was in EID'Pt "preaching Ihe gospel of which he i. a
compiler" (Hisloria ecc!esiaSlica 2.16). Though Je-
rusalem (Allen. 1915, Pl'. 4-6), Galilee (Marxsen,
1969, pp. 54-95), and Syria (Kee, 1977. Pl'· 100-
lOS, 176) have all 1>«n put forward as the p<>ssible
provenance of the Gospel, no other lheory has been
able 1O discredit the ancient testimony and win a
large b<>dy Qf fQlIowers. The tradition and the inter-
nal suggestions of a Roman origin are simply too
convincing. In addition to the evidence adduced by
lane, Cranfield, Zunl2. and Hengel thaI Ihe Gospel,
Or s;gni~cant parts of it, may address various politi·
cal and .ocial .ituations in Rome. there is linguistic
evidence that il was wrinen for a Roman audience
and a theological·historical argument thaI il had its
birth in Rome.
The Gospel contains a great number of Latin
technical tenns such as l.g;o (5:9), specula/or
(6:27), denarius (I Z: IS), quadFan. (12:4Z), pagel/are
(15:15). praetorium (15:16), and Unfurio (15:39),
1160 GOSPEL OF SAINT MARK
While it is true that .uch tenn;nology was in use
throughout the Roman empire, the fact that Mark
twke uses a Latin word to explain a commonplace
Greek expression is telltale, At 12:42 he give. quad·
ran. (a quaner of an as) as a gloss for the widow's
mite (lepla duo) and at 15:16 he offers pmewti"",
,.. an explanation of "in.ide the han" (uo /eS
aules)_ These lexical aids would be more des<:rip·
tive than the Greek phrases that they elucidate only
to a speaker of Latin and, since the quadrans """
not in cirClllation in the eastern empire, only to a
Latin speaker in the western empire. Use of such
words points tl)",'ard a Roman provenance.
B. W. Bacon (1919, pp, 34-43) wem beyond
these linguistic considerations to reason as follow",
Mark's Gospel, since it possesses so liltle pretense
of authority, could not have gained the high stand-
ing and wid" currency that it must have obtained to
he so respected by the later sl'noptists, Matthew and
Luxe, and it could not have maintained this respeci
after the larger Gospel of Matthew, with its higher
claims of apostolic aUlbority, Came into wide circu·
lotion, if it had emanated from some obscure re-
gion undi.tinguished as the seat of an "apostolic"
church. Its """",,;ation with Peter would not have
been sufficient 10 secure for it such eminence. In·
stead, the cause of its high standing must be soughl
in its pro'enance. There is no ancient tradition to
link the Gospel to either Antioch or Ephesus,
which, in any case, had their own gospels, and a
Palestinian pro"enance is unlik.e1y because a gospel
with such sntall pretensions 10 apostolicity could
not ha,'e won in Palesline the place that Mark came
to occupy, These arguments, he says, lend support
to the established tradition of a Roman provenance
for the Gospel.
While the ancient tradition is faidy consistent in
its lendency to give the canonical order of the Gos-
pels as their order of composition, a volatile dehate
rages among modern ·.~holars on the question of
priority. Historically, tire view that Mark. was writ·
len first and was a soUree, for Manhew and Luke
has been dominant. BUI opponents have fired nu·
merous deslructive, if not crippling, voll"')', against
the bulwark of this "Marcon Ilypothesis." At pres·
ent, if one is to judge from the ferocity of the on-
going debate, no satisfactory solution to the synop-
tic problem has been proffered,
Those who maintain Illat the Gospel of Mark. was
wrillen first employ tile following arguments to
show that it was copied by the olher synoptic Gos-
pels, particularly by Matthew, whose account is
most often advanced as Mark's ri,al for priority
(see Kee, pp. l4-16; Cranfield, pp. 6-7): (I) The
respecti,'e accounts of Jesus in Manhew and Luke
are completeiy divergent until they reach the first
point of parallel in Mark (Mk., l:2; MI. 3:2; ll. 3:4),
and they diverge again after Ihe best tc.>:t of Mark.
ends (l6'8). (2) Of 855 sentences in Mark., 709 are
reproduced in Manhew and 565 in Luke, and of
these, Malthew agrees verbalim wilh Mark in 136
semences. (3) Mark's style i' simple and vivid, but
often crude and awk.""ard, while Mauhew's Greek
shows a much higher degree of sophistication. (4)
Doublets (passages or sayings that occur twice in
the same Gospel) in Matthew and Luke result from
the combined use of Mark and another collection
of sayings as sourees. (5) Mark. contain' theclogical
diffioulties and stylistic flaw. not found in Manhew
and Luk.e. (6) In Mark. Ihe theclogical affirmations
are weaker and the indications of fulfillment of
Scripture are less explicit than in Manhew, (7) Pos·
sibly offensive or perpl""inl1 pas.<agcs in Mark are
either omitted or given in a less provooati.'e fonn
in Matthew and/or Luke. (8) Mark's Gospel is much
shorter and less inclmive than Malthew's. 11 does
not have Ihe Sermon on the Mount, the birth and
infanq stories, the posl·Resurrection narrative (if
16:9-20 are non·Marean), and much of the dis-
oourse material round in Manhew.
Opponenll of the Marean hypothesis, most of
whom believe Mark to be a conflation of Matthew
and Luke, with Manhew being the first wrinen, ar-
gue in the following manner (see Fanner, 1976, pp.
159-69): (I) The Gospel of Saint Mark. does not
appear in either of the other lwo Gospels as an
intact and continuous narrati"e. There is no
'"thread of narration" that is common to the synop·
tists. (2) When one Gospel accompanies another. it
cannot be determined which accompanies and
which is accompanied, (3) The passages that have
been adduced as evidence thaI Manhew and(or
Luk.e soften or omit offensive Marean material
prove upon closer examination 10 be capable of
other, equally compelling inte11>retation._ (4) The
fact thai the Gospel of &lint Mark. provides the mosl
unified and consistent account of the three synoptic
Gospels prove. not that it was wriuen first but that
it represents a later development, since Manhew
and Luke, if copying Mark, would not ha,e chopped
up Iheir source and added disparate material to
create a less cohesive whole. (5) The vividness and
freshness of Mark's account is not proof of its priOT'
ity, since there is no established principl" in literary
or inteileClual history that clarity of presentation is
a measure of the sequence in which lilera.,. ac-

counts originated. (6) Doublets in Manhew and
Luke do not indicate Mar~an priority, since such
doublets occur even in Mark'. Gospel. Further-
more. _one of Ihe doublets in Matthew (15:24,
10:5-6) has a texll1al equivalent in neither Mark
I
nor Luke. (7) The Petrine origin of Mark', Gospel-
and, hence, ;IS authenticity as a primary hisl<lrical
source for the life of Jesus-is subject to serious
doubt. since the WQTk of Mark dcs<:ribed hy Papias
(quoted above) cannol be the Gospel of Saint Mark
known today and Peter i. nol more prominent in
Mark than in Mallhew or Luke. (8) One must resort
10 psy<:hological reasoning that is subjective and
unconvincing 10 show Ihat each lime Ihc synoplists
diverge it is Mauhew and/or Luke who ahere<! the
malerial. (9) The Marcan hypothesis cannot explain
why Mauhew and Luke in 180 cases omit eXIra
malerial found in Marl, why in 35 cases Ihey add
e"""lly Ihe ...me word 10 the Ie" of Mark, wh)' in
anQlher 35 cases they replace the text of Mark with
the same alternate wording, and why in 22 cases
they undertake the same small modification of the
very same word thaI Ihey and Mark use.
The proposed solutions 10 the synoptic problem
, seem to share the fault of being 100 simple to re-
solve adequalely the convoluted riddle, The difficul-
ty may lie in the fact that the theories tend In view
the writing of ead Gospel and its p<:>ssible use of
any olher Gospel(s) as a synchronic phenomenon
ralher than as a diachronic process. 11 is probably
the case thaI each of the three synoplic Gospels as
nOw known represents the final stage of a develop-
mental process thaI may have spanned a period of
as many as fony years in the middle Qf the first
century, ThaI period began with an oral tradilion of
the sayings and duds of Jesus and it ended .....ith the
Gospels of Mallhew. M'lTk. and luke "" now
known. The development of eacb was parallel 10.
but not independent Qf, Ihe OIhe,.". Along Ihe way,
each account may have flayed both the role of
borro.....er and the role of :.turce. Strictly speaking,
none of the Gospels in its pfesem form can proper-
ly be said to be prior 10 any olher, Ihough il may be
the case Ihal one presenoes'the underlying oral tra·
dition more faithfully than the OIhers.
In the Codex Sinaiticu$ and the Codex Vatican us,
as .....ell as in wm'; manus<:ripts Qf Ihe Sinaitic Syri-
ac, EthiQpic, and Georgian versions, Ihe Gospel of
Saint Mark ends with the eighth verse of chapter
16. In many other manuscriplS. verses 9-20 are
marked with lISterisks. obeli. or critical notes ex-
plaining lhat their aUlhenticity is SUSpecl, On the
basi. of its poor manuscript suppon, Eusebim and
GOSPEL OF SAINT MARK 1161
Jerome believed ,his ending to be a later addition
to the Gospel. No references to Ihese verses occur
in the wor"'~ of Clement of Alexandria, ORtGEN. Cyp-
rian. and CYall_ OF JERIIS~LE.M, Internal considera·
lion. nOl only cast doubl on Marcan authQrship of
Ihis ending but also run counter to the Iheory that
it was written later spe.:incally as an addition to
Ma.k·s Cospel, Verse 9 does not continue the narra-
tive of verse 8, but ralher introduces a lisl of Jesus'
post·Resurrection narratives in Manhew. Luke, and
John. Concomitant with this rather abropt change
in the sto'l' line are a jarring change of subjeel and
a sudden formalily in rdemng to Mary of Magdala,
Whereas Ihe subject of verse 8 is the women, verse
9 has JestlS as its understood .ubject. and when
Mary is m~ntioned later in the .-erse. she is intro-
duced as if for the first time in Ihis narrative, de-
.pile the fa<:t lhal ,he has been a major panicipant
in Ihe lomb encounter described in the previous
eight ,'erses, This stylistically anomalous change of
subjecl and the unnece....rily formal introduction
10 Mary lead to a suspicion thai verse. 9-20 were
bolTOwed from anolher a<Ocoum (perhaps a cate·
chetieal .ummary of ResurreClion events) in which
Je.us had already bun explicitl)' named as subject
and in which Mary had not yet been mentioned,
However. the citation of verse 16 in lrenaeus
(Again., Huesie. 3.10.6) and Ihe inelu.ion of the
longer ending in Tatian'. Dialessaron show Ihat
Ihese verses had been appended to the Gospel by
the middle of the s«ond century.
There is also a shorte. ending for Ihe Gospel.
which i. found in the Codex Bobiensi. (founh-fifth
century) and which appears in combination with
Ihe IQnger addition in some uncial manuscripts of
the seven,h, eiihth. and ninlh centuries and in
some manus<:ript. of the Harclean Syriac (as a mar·
ginal reading), Sahidic, Bohairic, and Elhiopic ,'er·
sion•. 11 can be translaled as follows: "But all of the
thing, that had been announced Ihey reponed con·
cisely 10 those in Peter's circle, AftelWard Je,us
himself sent out through them from east to wcst the
holy and incorroptible pJ"<)(:lomalion of eternal sal.
vation. Amen."'
The dice ion, syntax. and coment of this passage
mark il as patently spurious. Its ob,'ious intent is 10
provide a rounder, more complete ending for the
Gospel and to show thaI the women nrried oul the
angelic instru<;lion to report 10 Peter and the di,ci-
pIes thai Jesus .....ould corne to them_
If neither of these Iwo endings can legilimalel)'
claim to be an original part of Mark's Gospel. one
must assume that Mark intended his ""count 10 end
1162 GOSPEL OF THOMAS
with ,'e,-..., S, that the conclusion of the Cospel has
been lo,t, or that the work was never completed,
The second ""sumption i$ problematic, For ,uch a
10M to have gone unrectified, it must ha"e occurred
very early in the transmission of the te~t, bdore
other copies were in circulation from whiCh the
lost material could be restored, But if the mutila-
tion OCCUlTed so early, one must ask why Mark
himself did not rewrite the lost ending,
The abruptness with which the account would
end if verse S were Mark'. final statement militates
against the theory thaI the Gospel was imentionally
concluded at that point. Attempts to show that
"e<:se 8 is not only a satisfactory, but a powerful
and effective, ending are n01 persuasive (e.g., Lane,
1974, pp. 591-92). The theory that Marl< newr
completed his Co5pel appea<:s to be lhe simplest
explanation of the fac15.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Allen, W. C. The Gospel According 10 Saint Mark,
wilh fHlroducrio" and Nores. New Yorl<, 1915.
Bacon, D, 1£ Mark 0 Roman Gospel? Ha""ard Th..,·
logical Studies 7. Cambridge, Mass.. 1919.
Cranfield, E. E, B. Th" Go£p<l Acev.ding 10 Salm
Ma.k. Cambridge, t959.
Farmer. W. R. The Last Twelve Vases of Mark.
Cambridge, 1974.
___. Th" Synoplic Problem: A Crilical Analysis.
Macon, Ca.. 1976.
Hengel. M. S'udiu i" Ihe Gospel of Ma.k, IranS, J.
Bnwden. Philadelphia. 1985
Ket:, H, C. Community of !he New AEe: Siudies in
Mark', Cospel. Philadelphia, 1977.
Lane. W. L. The Gospel Acwrding lQ Ma.k: The
E"glish Texr wilh Inlroduction, Exposition and
NOles. Crand Rapids, Mich., 1974.
Marxscn, W, Mark Ihe Evangelist: Siudies 0" Ihe
Redac/i'm HislOry of Ihe Gospel, trans. J. Boyce,
Nashville. Tenn., 1969.
Reicke. B, "Synoptic).::rophecies on the Destruction
of Jerusalem." In ~udies in New TesMmem and
Early ChriSlian U"I"lure: Essays i" Honor of AI·
len P. Wikg.e", ed. D. E. Aune, pp. 121-34. Sup·
plements 10 Novu":' Testamenlum 33. Leiden,
1972.
Robinsnn, J. A. T. Redming Ihe New Tostam.nl. Lon-
don. 1976.
Swete. H. D. Th" Gospel Acev.dl"g 10 Mark, Lon·
don, 1902.
Zuntz, CUnther, "Wann wurde das Evangelium
Marci geschrieben?" WiHenschoflliche Ume"uch·
ungen zum Neuen Tes'lamem 33 (1984):47-11,
RANDMl. STEW~~T
GOSPEL OF THOMAS, an apocryphal gospel
of Cnoslic origin, pessibl)' from the late .second
century. The most "popular" of the Coptic texts of
the N~G HAM.\lAD/ UBM~Y ([I. 2), the Gospel of
Thomas has been translated Into several languages
and circulated v.'idely in learned circles among spc-
ciallsts both in gnosticism and in New Testament
studies, as well as among the general public. 11 has
even been considered a fifth canonical Go,pel.
An infancy gospel under this name was known
before the discovery of thoe lexts in Nag Hammadi
in [945. Preserved in its original Creek ve<:sion and
in various translations (Lalin, SyJiac, Georgian. and
Slavonic). this gospel has nothing to do with the
Nag Hammadi lext, ",hich con'ists of a c01ltttion
of "sayings" of JC$us, Hippol}1uS (R.!w..rion 5. 7.
20) memions a "Gospel according to Thorn""" used
by the sect of the Nassenes (Ophites), A phrase
quated hy Hippol),us may deri.·e from the c.,ptic
collection, although the aM'ription is uncenain. It
has been argued that it may instead have corne
from the infancy go,pel just mentiooed, which ",as
also perhaps used by the Manichees (see MAN/CHAF.·
ISM). In any event, Ihe quotation does not follow
word for word, and lhe identification remains prob·
lematic.
11 is cena;n, how",·er, that three Creek papyru'
pieces discovered al O~)'rhynchus in 1897 and 1903
are related tn the Coptic version. The Coptic texl
appears to be a witness to a late redaction. repre-
senting the end of a literary evolulion. MoTt: "gnos-
tic!zing" than Ihe Creek fragments from O~yrhyn­
chus, of which il is not a direct translalion, the
Coptic tvt may date from the end of the second
century,
Among the known Cnostlc works, the Gospel of
Thomas approaches the canonical Gospels mOSt
closely. According to modem editions, it contain,
114 "sa)'ings" of Jesus, which are neither numbered
nor separatcd hy any special punctuation in the
manuscripl. After some vacillation in the earlier
publications. schola<:s nOW generally adhere to the
numbering of the edlrio princeps (Cuillaumont el
aI., 1959). These sayings-logia, as thoey are corn·
monly called-are introduced for the most pal' by
the simple fonnula "Je'us said." There are no nar-
rative elements as in the canonical Gospels, al-
though there is an occ""ional hint nf such (e.g"
logia 13 and 22). In other instances, a question-
generally posed by the disciple,-lead. to the sa)',
ing of Jesus, passages that tend to take on the ap-
pearance of a dialogue. It was precisely the literary

feature <Jf the saying. that 'l1ra"ted so much allen·
lion 10 Ihis leXI_ Nev.' Testament exegetes hav" p0s-
tulate<! tha. underlying the canonical Gospels of
Mauhe", and Luke was a source, O. which con,iSI_
ed solely of sa}'ings of Jesus. The GfJ,pd of T~ornas
offers for the first time a representat;ve of this liter-
ary genre. "". it has come down to us, II is nol in
ilsdf the hyp<JIhelicaJ source 0: btl! it could deri,-.,
from such a collection.
Some sayings of Jesu. in the Cospel 01 Thomas
are found in similar fann in (he New Testament.
This is true, for e.ample, with the pamble. con·
cerning the Kingdom of He."e,,: the grain of mus-
Lard seed. the lares, Ihe pearl of gJ""al price, the
leaven. the lost sheep, ,h. ',..,asure hidden in a
field. But the Coptic text almost never cOIT~pond.
word for word with that of Ihe canonical Go,pd•.
And where the Synoptic. differ, this author pre-
~erve. the reading that can most easil)' be interpret-
ed in a GnO!ltic .en.e. If he has perhaps preserved
here and there an authentic .a)'ing of Jesus-
unknown through lhe canonical tradition-we
must alway,- take into account Ihe nuances that the
author may have introduced in Ihe interest of hi.
own views.
The Gnostic character of the Gospel of Thmnas is
generally recognized. The center of interest is gno·
sis, a profound knowledge that depends on the in-
terpretation of the secret words (logion 1) and
begin. with knowle<!ge of oneself (Iagion 3), The
person of t~ Revealer is himself a mystery. To
know him will make Thomas the equal of Je.u.
(log ion 13). It is this gnQ,is that Jesu. bring., "that
which qe has nOt ~een, and ear has not heard"
(log ion 17). The disciple. already po,;se ..~ Ihe begin.
ning of the tntth (Iogion 18), but Ihey will have to
"work" in order that gnO';$ may produce it. fruit.
in Ihem (Iogion 20), They will be watchful with
regard to the evil powers, those "robbers" who
threaten them (logion 21). Let tbere be among
them "a man forewamed:"that i. to .ay, a Gnostic
sage.
,
, Evangeliu"" "" s}'noptlschen T,,,dltim' "nd zu
The question of the reJadon between the Coptic
t..t and the canonical Gospels is nol )'el entirely
resolved, The new document po~e••ome points
in common with other apocryphal gospels, for ex-
ample. the Gr>5pd of Ihe Hebrew. and the Gospel of
the Egyptians (quoted by Saint CLEMENT OF U~XAN_
D~I~). Moreover, the presence of $emitism. and
some striking contacts with Syriac literature-
especially the Libu gr"dum" and the Dt'atessaron (a
tbesis defended principally by G. Quispel)-ha""
GOSPEL OF TRUTH 1163
led scholars to think of a Syrian origin. perhaps in
Edessa. A._ a whole. the Gospd of Thoma. may be·
long to the milieu of New Testament apocrypha,
which depended upon the canonical Gospels and
wbich came to t~ Coptic translator in a Syriac
version. But the problem remain. complex and
opinion is divided.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Baker. A. "The Go.pel of Thoma. alld the Syriac
Uber Graduum." New TeS/ament Studies 12
(1965 -I 966)'49-55.
Ehlers. B. "!Canll das Thomasevangelium au,
Edessa Sl;UlImen) "-in Beitrag zur Frlihgeschichte
des Christentums in Edessa:' Navem Test"men·
t"m 12 (1970):284-317.
Fitzmy'er. J. II. "The Oxyrhynchu. Logal of Jesus
and the Coptic Gospel According to Thomas:'
Theologkal Studlu 20 (l959):505-560.
Garitte. G. "Les 'Logoi' d'Oxyrhynque et
l'apoc'1'Phe copte dit ',,",angile de Thomas.'" Le
Museon 73 (1960):151-72.
Grant, R. M .. and O. N. Freedman. 111e Secret S"y-
Ings of Jesus. with an English tran,lation of the
Gospel of Thoma. by W. R. Schaedel. Garden
Cit)'. N. Y.. 1960.
Gttillaumont, A,; H.·C. Pouh; G. Qui,pel: W. C. Till:
and Y. 'Abel AI·M,,"i~, The Gospel Acco,ding 10
Thorn",. Coptic text establi.hed and tran.lated,
New York. 1959.
Janssen., Y, "L'Evangile .elon Thomas et son ca-
ractere gnostique:' L. Mustan 75 (1%2):301-
325.
Marcovich, M. 'Textual Critici.m on the Gospel of
Thomas:' Joum,,' of Theologlc,,' Studies, new
ser" 20 (i 969):53-74.
Menard, J.·E. L·Ev"ngil. sel<m Thomas. Nag Ham-
madi Studies 5. kiden. 1975.
Quispel. G, "The Gospel of Thoma. and the Gospel
of the Hebrew.:' New Test"menl Sludl" 12
(1965- 1966):371 -8-2,
_ _~, euostl" Studies. Istanbul. 1974-1975.
Schrage. W, D"s Verhiilmis des Thom"s'
de" koptischen E'·angelienilber>etzu"gm. Ikihefte
lur Zcitschrift fur die neutestamentliche Wissen·
schaft und die Kunde der alteren Kirche 29. Ber·
lin. 1964.
Wilson, R. McL St"dies in Ihe Gospel of Thomas.
London. 1960.
YVO~NE JA~SSR<S
GOSPEL OF TRUTH, an apoc'1'Phal work
probably of tbe second century. The Gospel Qf Trulh
1164 GOSPEL OF TRUTH
sul'\'iva in lwo ""rsioM from ,h~ s.w HAMMAII/ u·
BAAlY; a -'I~rved copy (I. 3) .. nd a ....,. fn.&.
l\'Ioetluo.,. piee~ (XII. 2). While the oririnal tille ~
.....ins unkn'w 1tM. initial phrase ('"Tb1C ppcl of
lruth") may ha 5eI"'Cd ao. an incipillhl~ and c~r·
uoinly has been ..:iopttG as iu tille by modem in_
'ip,on. One mip,t ~n hazard a CI>nI tha, lhIC
manina of ,his le"'l is el~ ~lsewtIe~ ...ithin
,he- 6r3t pan.anPb: "lhIC name (of] !he IlO'JId is IhIC
~""bdon of hope" (L 17. 1-3). Whclloer mil. d0cu-
ment bu any lilcrazy connection wiIh 1m "Gasp'1
d T.....m.. mlCnlioncd by lunaocus (Ad""rUlJ om..cs
1k>~r(~S 3. II. 9) cannot be dcmoMinled in a
deeish-e _yo allhough il would not be surprising if
lhe 1Wl> were ,elalat.
NaiuBily. since this t~",t WllS Ql'IIC of ,he finl to be
published from IIIe Nag Hammadi coUeclion. II tIM
be~n widely Iludie<l, as Ihe spc<:ialiud bibliogmphy
p,hlCrcd by H. W. Anridge and G. W. Ma<::~
(198S) aucsu. Furthtr, ilS language consi$l$ of the
",b·Akhmimic dialec'. and ilS lex, is 10 be rcprde<l
.., a ,ranlla,ion from a Greek original. Thi$ eSllma,e
Is not altered by either a few ,rac~s or Latin Influ·
enee or afJUments that i, exhibits characleristics
bell unde~ood as (\erh'ing from a Semitic (Nagel,
1966) or Coptic (Fecht, 19(1) original.
In IfIile or jill 'itle. it ;s no' a ll:ospel in ,h~ 1'1.......
T~lamen. ~. dexlibinl the lif", of Jesus or ~n·
dering his ...-ords. II is, in be,. a channing. sophis'!·
a'tG mNllalion or bornily about JIC$U" ",he e ......
nIIl and diYine Son, lhIC Word who ~wal$ !he
Father and ~ on lno,,·"'dge, panicubrly soelf.
knowJedee" (MacRae. 1m). At. a revealer of !he
falMr. h:wI is Ren impaninl ans.,,'ICf'S to Ihe bluic
~ions abou, !he na,ure 01 man. his oripn. and
his dcslin,. This gosptl or r;ood ......... whkh in·
~ rcveaIi!13 tM d[vine characler ollhoso: who
an able 10 rue;.-e Jesus'" uee. &h'cs joy. or, as
the opening words aJIinn, "!h~ 8O'P'¢1 of lI'\,lIh is
""." :;
AI fil'Sl glance, !he I.-::hing abou, Jaw setms
closer to the ,... di.ion·of the put church ,han the
viICw commonly exprcss.ed in Chril.lian GlI05Ik
•nlll, But a clOlft" uaminat>on ~~ca.ls clear if sub-
tle conoedions wilh the GlI05Iic lMologicat "'orld.
In. r(1.,tG vein. ifv",uNTl~llS hinuelf is ,he aulho,
or Ihe documen" as some have sul~"e<I, i,s .each·
Ins does nOl seem fully 10 agree wilh Valen,inian
sources, Bu, Ihe discn:>pandeo may be due simply
'0 Ihe fae, ,hal ,he .eM·s author was nOI In'ere.ted
in spellinS oul ,hlC full dimensions of his own belief
(Altndae and MacRae. 1985). In ,his conn«,lon,
whether or no! one main!aiM that ValcnlinllS wroIe
the documem. !he dale of compooi.ion is likely 10
be in lho: middk: or bllC second «nt",)'. In facl, ilS
Ihoughl ~u _her _11 into ......1II is known of lhal
lime.. One thinks. for ill$lanc:e. of the ddwe of Ircn·
...... "ith Gnostic dua.lislS eonc~min. wbeIhe. thrir
doeity encomJ'l'Oi4lC',i all !hinp (Adv..,.",.. -."u h".,..
OICS 2. I. 2-3). The flOIIIlel la, clearly holds lhat
the Fad",. included all ~cs and emarwlons..,;m.
in HilMelf. spe<:ificall, speaking of Him ~ "the nnc
who encirclcs all Il)aCCS ",hUe lhere is none thai
encircles him" (I. 22. 25-7).
In the ,nl then:' are no clear quou..ions from .he
Ok! or New TeslaR\lCnlS, E~n so, a number of ref·
crenccs and allusions 10 Ne'" Tesu.n>en' p'pgn
nisi, ",hieb have b«n COllecltG by J. E. Mb>ard
(1972. pp. 3~9) and W. C. van Unnik (19S5). H......
e""'. one 5hould 110I pos'ula,e lhal the au,hor 01
Ihi$ tTCalise somehnw d~nded dir~ctly on one or
another of lhe New Testam~n1 documents fnr hi.
inspira,ion (bu, sn TucklCn. 1984), Funhe,. ther~
seem 10 be alll1$ions in Ih~ ,~x, to ,he ini,ialion
rites of baptism and chrism bUI hardly to ,he "bigh·
er' ri,es known from. say, Ihe OOSPEL OF PHIUP.
BI8L100UPHY
AHridgc. H. W.• and G. W. MacRae:. "NHC I. 3: The
Gmpcl of Tru.h." In H"I H"........"di Codex I (The
lu~ Codez). Na& Hammadi Sludies 22_ l.riden.
1985.
F"csiJtlik Edilio.. 01 11K H., H"....,.u..1i Codices: Co-
.ocu Xl. XH. XIII. l.riden. 1973.
FtJc:simih Ed/liem of Ille N., H_....tJdi Codices: Co-
da I. I..ridcn. 1977.
feeh!. Go -n..s erRe 'Td' des 5OI<'"""nl", Ev.tngtl-
ium Veriw•. ~ QrWttaliil JO (1961):311-90-
Grobe!. K. 1M Gos~1 of t,.",1I: A V.lcntmitJn MetJi-
I.mem. "" 11K G<npel. NasbYllle. Tenn.. 1960.
Helderman. J. Die An"p.ouJis im EWUlvliMm Voil,,·
lis. Nag Hammadi Stum.s lit Lridcn, 1984.
MacRae. G. W. '"'TM c..:...,cl of Truth:' In Th. N<>g
H"...."""di Ur"ry. at. James M. Robin5on. New
Yorl. 1971.
Malinine. 1.4.; H.<. ""ech: and G. Ouispcl. <:<Is.
E'·tJngcliu", Veri,,,,... lunch, 1956.
Malin;ne. M.: H.<. Puech: G. Qui""",l: and W_ Till.
cds. E~ ....geliu,., V.ril.. IiJ (Supplementum). Zurich
and Stungan. 196\.
Menard, J .. E. L'EvtJngile d. ~ril~. Nag Hammadi
Siudies 2. [.eiden. 1972.
Nagel, p, "[)ie Herlmnfl das Evana:e1ium Verila,i. in
.prachlicher Sich,:' Orienl"lini.che U,ual"'7..ei·
lun" 61 (1966)'5-14.

SIOry, C. I. K. The N"ll<re 0/ Tn<th ;" ''The CO$~1 0/
Tru/h" Imd I" Ihe "Wriri",s 01 J.. sri" Mil"",,"
S..pp/eme"lJ ID Ntw..m Teu","e,,'um 25. uiden,
1970.
T"deu, C. M. ''Synoflic: TrWilion in Ihe Gospd of
Tnrth alld !he Teslimony of Tnllh." J""",.,,/ 0/
Theo/OfielJi Si..J~s J5 (1984): IJ I -45.
Ne... Testament:' In The J.. n,
Unnik, W. C, nil. '1lle 'Gospel of Tnllh' aJ\d lhe
C/"OS$. pp. ,,- 129. London, 1955.
Codu., ed. F. L
ERIC StGWlUG
S, KUlT B_,.
GMF, GEORG (1875-1955), Gnman theoIoPan
aJ\d Orientalist. In 1898 h b«anw a pric$l, and in
19lO, bonorary professor d Cbrisoian.Qrienallile!'"'
aNre at the UnI...enlJ)" of Munich. An eminenl
....thorIty on Chrisoian·Arabic IItCfatUTe, he _ edi·
lor of the journal on..... Christill..,", edi_ of lhe
!Lnbk seccion of the Corpus Scriptorum Chris·
Iianon.tm Orientalium from 1933 10 1955. and
the lIUlhoc- of Cesclli€J"e der chriJrliclH.nhUclwn
UleTlUUt (5 ...xs., VIltic:an City. 1944-195J).
M.AlTtN K..... USt:
GRAFFlN, RENt (I15'-I~I), Fr~h pn:ble
and OrientaliSl. He was born al !'onlvalllOin. Sanhc.
He gavc a dedsi~ ImpellA 10 lhe study and edi,ing
of Easlern Christian IaIl(U'lei and li,eralures.. He
s..>died at the French Sl:minary in Rome and then
completed this -..1< al Inrn.bruek. In charge of
Syriac Sb,od;es at the InSliM catholique in Paris, he
conec;"ed the projecl of an "Oritntal Migne."
which was at 6nt con6ned to Syriao: wilh lhe Patn)-
Iogia Syriaea series, COnsisli"l of lhree ....Iumes
only: ApIrr,um (I197), 8Ilrtku..e (1901), and livre
des deph (1921; Book 0/ Steps/, ... ilh 'o'OCaliJ:ed
1e:>1S and latin lranswion\: 8cglnnil18 in 1')0), in
lhe Patrol08ia OrM:ntalls Mies, he published le~..
in Arabic, Annenian, CoPli<:, Elhiopian, Creek,
Geo<-pn. Sillvoni<:, and Syrb~, ",iln 1... lI$l.aliOM Oll
lhe bcing palle (usually Fren~h), From Ig% 10
1940 he edited Revue de /'Orit!:m ehrbi... (29 vol·
umes), which unfortunalely lenninalM wilh Vol·
ume )() in 1946. His Indefaligable and principal
collabo"'lor was Abbot F...n,o;s N~U, followed by
Abbot M, Bri~re. The PalrolOiia Oriemalis ~ con·
linued by bis nephew, Fran,ois C...flin, S,}., and as
of 1984, il ~omprised some 191 bsdcles.
FRANCOtS CRAFFlli, S.J.
GREEK LANGUAGE 1165
GRAFFITI, inscriplions lhal are SCTat~hed, p.u,ic'
ulady on walls bUI also on vessels and clay shards.
We find them alongside inscriplions Ihal ~re ",rll'
ten with different colored in4 on lhe walls of mon-
asteries and SCltlemenU Or worked inlo roc:ks or
mlae. Sin<:e the older publicalions mostly do nOl
distinguish be1ween jraflili and iMcriplions, both
arc dcall ,,~!h "nder 1J<SQtll'n()folS. especially since
they arc not di",inct from one another in terms of
content.
GRAPOW, HERMANN (1885-1961), German
~ . He ;os a pIIpil of Adolf Erman and
GeoI"z StcindorfJ colbbontor ....;Ih Erman in the
Agyptuche~ W6r1erbueh. and succeasor of K. Sethe
Illl Berlin Univttsiry. He wQrbd also 011 ancient
f.&'!1>t.... mcdici_ and medical lUIS. Hi:! ime~
in Coptic t.:d to V"", Hicog/whisch·DenrcxUdte"
lW'l K~f1 (Berlin, 19)8) and "Untersucft.
ungea ubcr Stil und SpBcbe des kopt:iscMn
lUmbysesmman$" (uilsdtrift fUr IJDpliscllc
SF"ehe ..nd A/Jer/Wf!sh",de 74, 19J8. pp, 55-68),
BIBUOGIlAPHY
Dawson, W. R., and E. P. Uphill Who Will II'ho I..
Et:>'PI<>lOfO·. pp. 12111. London. 1972.
Fir<:how. 0 .• ed_ ADPf<>JocUche Sl"dK". Berlin.
19.\5; lhis iestschrilt contains Grapow'a bibli"'...·
phy tw- i~-"'iv).
W~endotf. W. u~hrifr fUr lIPPlUche Sp,"lre
.",d Ahmrmuk....<h 95 (1969):7-10.
MARTIN KItAO$ll
GREEK LANGUAGE. 8e",-een Cl"ftks and
Ef.)l'tian •• contaC-ts of cssentiall)' cOfflmeKial na-
lUre """ aueso:ed for the Mycena....n period (c,
158(1-1100 IIC) ar>d lhe ninlh-eighth eenl"'ry H.C
Unambiguou. evidence for Gl"ftk presence in EcYPl
is available from lhe ..,~nlh century 8.C. on.
P$llmmetichos I (664-610 II.C,) gave lhe Ionian
and Cari;In men::enaries (the "bronu men" of He·
rodotusll.152, 31J.), who h~d helped him ~ome inlO
power, se((lemenu in !he Easlern Delta (SITatope·
da). He enlruste<:! Ihem wilh leachinj Ihe Creek
language 10 Eg)'pllan children. Herodolu~ considers
lhe>se ...ho infonned him about Egyptian t ... dilions
10 be Ihe descendants of lheir pupils (1l.IS4). The
Greek mercenaries look pan in the Nubian exped;·
1166 GREEK LANGUAGE
tion of Psammetichoo II (593 B,C.) as members of a
separate contingent (allogl6ssoi, the foreign speak-
ers) led by Potasimto (see, e,g" R, Meiggs and D,
r..e",s, A Selection of G.eek HisWrlcallnscn.pl;On,< ro
Ihe End oflhe Fiflh Century B.c. [Oxford, 1969]. no.
7). Shortly before 570 BC.. when they numbered
about 30,000, they were defeated by the native sol-
diers under the command of "masis_ Subsequent
measur~ of Amasis improved the relation. between
Greeb and Egyptians. The Greek mercenaries were
withdrawn from the Stratopeda and s",tioned at
Memphis. whel"<' they would soon mix with the na-
tive population. Naucratis. founded by Greek-
mainly Milesian-merchanl$ about 650 B.c.. was
de",ined to become the only C.eek trading point in
Egypt. The polis consequently grew as a center of
Creek civilization.
By the time- Herodotus visited Egypt (c. 449/430
B,C,), the Greeks bad established a series of focal
points for trade along the Nile (e.g., Neapolis in the
Akhmlm area, a kind of early protOtype- of the Hel-
lenistic politeuma). Herodotus acquired his infor-
mation about Egypt from Greek inhabitants .s well
as from lower priests at Memphi, and, to a lesser
extent, at Sais and Heliopolis, who must therefore
have been ablo to speak Greek. Among educated
Egyptians, the Greek language had aroused $Orne
intol"<'st very early. A ,triking proof is offered by
demotk literary produdions such as the PetubaSlis
Romance, an ad.ptat;on of Horner's /liad to an
Egyp'ian milieu, of which the extant versions date
from the Hellenistic and Roman period but whose
oldest components go back to the seventh centurJi
'L
Before Alexander the Great conquered Egypt in
332 B.C" Greek had cenainly been used among na-
tive traders aod administrators, especially profes-
sional scribes. On 'he other hand, ~ns of the
Greek population, like the mercenaries at Memphis
(Karomemphites, Hell~!OmemPhilCs). were already
thoroughly Egyptianize . Marriag", between Greek
soidiers and Eg)ptian wOmen promoted the process
of cultural and linguistic assimilation. Still, Eg)'jr
I;an society on the whole remained unaffected by
Ihe Gl"<'ek pl"<'sence, for natives as well as foreigners
kept ,heir ancestral identities.
Afte. the Macedonian <:onques', the country was
overlaid with a dominaling Greek~peaking elite,
which gradually assimilated with its surroundings.
The Greek language 'hat spread throughout the
Hellenistic world is designated as Koine, Its basic
component, the Attic dialect, was enriched with
(mainly lexical) Ionic and a few Doric elements
(Eolic influences wore ex,remely rare). In Egypt,
Koine Greek remained the language of the adminis-
tration fur more than 1,000 years.
One has 10 distinguish between literary and collo-
quial Koine, The former-the Koi~ 01 the literary
texts and of the official documents l"<'dacted at the
higher echelons of bureaucracy-remained mol"<'
or less faithful to classical models, The colloquial
or popular Koine, however-osed for internal offi __
cial, administrative, and pri.'ate maners-waS es-
sentially practical, and thus adaptable to ,he chang-
ing political. «onomic. wcial, cultural, religious,
and technical realities. The continuous develop-
ment of this form of Greek in Egypt is abundantly
testified, especially by some 40,000 pieces of papy-
rological evidence (papyri, ostraca, mummy labels,
etc.). The orthographic variants occurring in these
<!o<;uments marl: the evolution of phonolog}' toward
Modem Greek (e,g.• itacism). The careless spelling,
grammar, and s}'ntax (particularly obvious in ostra-
cal l"<'f1ect the linguistic habits of the lower classes,
whereas mistakes like the confusion between lamb·
da and rho inform us about the way Greek was
pronounced by Egyptians. In the subsequent ~T1l­
graphs, the evidence will be considered from the
following points of view: (I) diachronically-when
and how did the Greek language spread in EID-pt?
(2) linguistically-the influence of Greek on Egyp-
tian (demotic and Coptic); 'he influence of Eg,'ptian
and other languages spoken in Egypt on the Greek
used there.
The Spread of the Greek Language In Egypt
Ouring the Ptolemaic period, Creek remained the
appanage of the ruling class, whereas the majority
of the populaliofl spoke (and wrote) EgJiptian. With
'he exception of Cleopatra Vtl, the P'olemies were
unacquainted with 'he Eg}-plian language, When,
for practical reason" decrees had to be published
in hieroglyphic and/o. demotic versions as well as
in Greek, a ,ranslation was d",wn up by members
of the native priesthood. Since Greek-and Creek
onl}'-was the language of the king's entourage and
the higher official position. as a whole, ,hose mem-
bers of the native (military and sacerdotal) aristoc-
racy who wished to ri", illlo the ruling class had to
loam G<eek. Thus, the firs' move toward bilingual-
ism was .chie,·ed by educated Egyptians (e.g., the
prie5' Manetho, who wrote a hiSlory of Egypt in
Greek),
From the second century B,C, on, the higher bu-
reaucratic echelons became increasingly penneable

to the native population. After about 150 B,C.,
Egyptians infiltrated even the MOll.eion at Alexan-
dria, the .tronghold of Greek scholarship founded
by PlOlemy I.
Among the Greeks and Macedonians who li,'ed in
Eg)'Pt. the lower weial d ~ tended to adapt
themselves to their surroundings. The process of
assimilation started in those areas where the first
PlOlemies had gh'en plots of land in tenure to mem-
bers of the Greek(Mace<lonian aony and civil offi-
cials (e,g_, the Fayyiim area). As these domains and
the neighboring-sometimes recently founded-
villages (e.g., Philadelphia) allracted Greek and
EgJ'Ptian workmen and inhabitants, they formed a
new, mixed population dass. Egyptiani2ed Greeks
were eager to adopt the native deities, often identi-
fying them with their own gods and calling their
children after them, but they rarely renounced their
own language. Hellenized Egyptians, On the other
hand, remained faithful to their religious roots
while learning Greek (su, e.g., the numerous bilin-
gual, demotic-Greek contract.) and reading Creek
literature (see, e.g" the Egyptian m}lhological te,ts
compose<:! at Idro. in the second centul)' B.c.. which
display Homeric inAuenee),
kJ far as language i. concerned, the Jewish popu-
lation in Egypt hellenized e,'en more readily. Under
Persian n,le they had wriuen their documents in
Aram,uc (see, e.g., S. Port en, Archive.< from Ele_
phantine: The Life of an Ancient Jewl,h MI/ilary Co/-
ony [Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1968]), From the
Ptolemaic period, when a great number of them
settled in Egypt, the Jews generally used Greek and
lOOk Greek nameS (see COYPU, papyro",m iudal-
ca"'m, ed. V. A. Tcherikover and A. Fuks, 3 vols.
[Cambridge, Mass., 1957 ~ 1964]). It was On behalf of
these Jewish circles, particularly those at Alexan-
dria, that the Greek ,'ersion of the Old Testament
(Septuagint) was compose.d (under Ptolemy ll, ac-
cording to the legend in ~ Leller of Aristeas; but
see, e.g" E. Van 't Dock" "Ul Date de la lenre
d'An.tee," in Anlidorum W, Peremans sexagenan'o
al> alumnis oblalum, pp. 263,~ 7g, Studia Hellenistica
It> [Lou,-ain, 1968]).
The politics of tlte Roman emperors in Egypt in-
tentionally emphasized the distinction between the
Egyptian and the Greek/Jewish inhabitants, for in-
$tance, by granting the lauer 6scal privileges and
curtailing the political and economic power of the
nati,'e priesthood.
Though pari of an empire of which the official
language was Ultin, Egypt-as tlte eastern provinc-
es in general~continued to handle it. official af-
GREEK LANGUAGE I 167
fairs in Greek, the more so since most of the pro'
vincial prefects originated from the h.llenized East,
The ratio of Ultln to Greek papyrological docu-
menlS from E'ID-pt is Ie.. than 1 to 100.
During the 6rst three centuries of Roman rule,
the use of Latin in Egypt was confined to corre-
spondence between Roman magistrates or individ-
uals, the army, the COt1rt~as far as lu' civile wa,
concerned-and edicts or decrees of the central
gO"emment_when dealing with the categories
mentioned above. Greek, moreover, preserwd its
supremacy as the language of the educated. Aleun-
dria, with the Mouseion, remained the unrivaled
center of Hellenistic culture, but the nome capitals
such as Oxyrhynchus gradually developed their o....n
institutions for Creek education and the tradition of
Gruk (and, to a much lesser e~tent, Latin) litera·
ture. In educated milieus of the second century,
Auic literature: (lyrics and tragedies) "nce more
aroused interest and, accordingly, "archaic" termi·
nology revived in the Greek language they u""d.
Parad",ically, the Roman conquest of Egypt rein_
forced lhe rapprochement between the Egyptian-
and the Greek-$peaking populations, both group'
being henceforth treated as subjects of 3 foreign
ruler. The popularity "f double names such as "Dio-
nJ5ios [Creel] also known 3$ Petosiris [Egyptian]"
marks the increasing hellenization of the nati"" in-
habitants of the nome capilals, especially of the
educated and official strata. Demotic-Greek bilin-
gualism was more than ever current among mem-
bers of the middle elass (see, e.g., J. Quaegebeur,
'"Mummy·Labels: An Orientation," in Texte, gr.cs,
demotlques el billngu.s, ed. E. Boswinkel and P. W.
Pestman, pp. 244-47, Papyrologica Lugduno-Batava
19 [leiden, 1978J).
The interaction between Greek and Egyptian is
particularly revealed by the fact that Egyptian writ·
ing adopted Greek characters, thus resuhing in
Coptic. After an unsuccessful al1empt to u.<e the
Greek alphabet for Egyptian (mainly magical) texts
about ~,D, 100 (Old Coptic), Coptic proper was de·
veloped in the course of the second cemul)'.
Though Chrislianity had gained its first converts in
Egypt among the Greek-speaking inhabitants (e.g.,
the Jews at Alexandria), Coptic-first emplo}'ed f<>r
translation of the Holy Scriptures from the Greek-
became the chosen medium for the Christianization
of the native population of the chora from the end
of the second centul)',
The third centul]' and the reign of DtOClEThlN,
introducing the Byzantine period in Egypt, ",it·
n...ed fundamental linguistic transformation., The
1168 GREEK LANGUAGE
spread of Christianily and socioeconomic chang~s,
sud as Ih~ agricultural crisis in the first half of th~
fourth century, brought about semalllic e"olutions
in Creek language. Thus, for example, anacIr6ri.• i$
us~d for withdrawal (in order to evade tal< pay-
m~m) acquired th~ particular m~aning "withdrawal
from th~ world" (in ord~r to devote one'. life to
God)-thence the designation anachoreu. for
monks: and geouclro. (landowner) acquired the
specifically social connotation "pos""ssor" about
340-350,
Literacy (the ability to read and write Greek)
gradually receded with the impo,..,rish""'llI of the
middle classes, c~used above all by the Roman li-
turgic rystem, The decline had se1 in at the end of
the second century, as shown by, for instance, the
case of Petaus, who learned to write Greek after
having been nominated as village scribe of Plole-
mais Honnou about 185 (.ee Va. "'chiv de. Pcrau.,
ed. U. Hagedorn, D. Hagedorn, L. C. Youtie, and H.
e. Youtie, Papyrologica Colonensia 4 [Cologne and
Opladen, 1969)),
Diocletian's attempts to latinize the administrn-
tion had littl~ influence on official practice in
Egypt. Latinisms intruded into the Greek vocabu-
tal)' but did not neee.....rily supplant the ~~i.ting
Greek equivalents, and Greek writing increasingly
followed a Latin course. Still, these phenomena
prove that the Gruk language kept its vitality.
There even was a reviva.! of some classical Greek
literal)' words (e.g., ht rhrl!psament, the nourishing
[soil]) and Ptolemaic terminology (e.g., p"'gramm<l,
pmsragma in.tead of the Roman teno diaragma for
ordinance, ediet). As an e~pression of the Byzantine
mentality, petitions of private perrons to official.
assumed a tone of pronounced suhmissi..... n..... and
:a flowel)' wordiness. The laner may be considered
evidence for th~ writers' e~ten.ive Imowledge of
Greek vocabulary, bu.t it also indicates a kind of
inflation and devaluatiW' of the Greek words (see,
e.g., the frequent use ,?f superlatives and the long
lists of honoral)' titles in the addresses). The gram.
mar of Koine Greek was simplified more than ","'er
before (e.g., the disappearnnce of irregular ten,,,,
and of the dative case).
Though Greek remained the official language un·
Iii well into the Arab period. it ,'.-as grad....lly sup'
planted by Coptic in administrative. private, and-
above all-religious affairs of ,he chora. The expan·
sion of Egyptian monasticism, organi2ed by PACHO·
MIUS (d. 346), the first known author of original
Coptic works, played a major part in the diffu.ion
of the Coplic language and the denigrntion of HeI·
leni,tic culture (e.g.• $H~Nvm. abbot of Dayr al-
Abyad [c. 385-451], who used the term Heiltn as
.ynonym for pagan: J_ Barne•• "Sherrute as a HiStor-
ical Source," in Aeru du X" Congres in/emallonal
de papyTalogie, V"Tsavie_Cracovle, J-9 .eptembre
/96/, pp. 15i-59 (Warsaw, 1964]).
Yet, the ,tudy of Greek language and literature
prospered in Egypt umil the end of the fifth cent'l-
l)'. Many scholars of the fourtb-fifth century were
.«roited from Greek-speaking enclaves in the me-
tropoli.e. and sUITOUnding villages of Upper Egypt.
Th",e groups organized the last countemtl-ack of
Hellenistic (i.e., pagan) culture, comprising Greek
and Egyptian elements (see, e.g., the Greek treatise
on the interpreta,ion of hieroglyph' [HieroglypMka]
by HOIlAPOu.or< of Phenebytis (end of the fifth centu-
ry]), against the Coptic (Christian) trend_ The mem-
bers of thi, Greek/helleni2ed intelligentsia trnveled
widely in the Byzantine empire, temporn.rily gaining
influence at the imperial coon (e.g., PAMPREPW$ OF
PANOPOUS. who supponed the re"olt of 1II0us
against Emperor Zeno in 484). But this flare-up of
the Creek language in Egypt was confined lO a mi·
norily; in ordinal)' social milieus the knowledge of
Greek had gradually faded. Many lower officials
were said to be "grammaloi (illiterale" in Greek).
From ,he age of Justinian on, more and more offi-
cial documents had to be published in Coptic a,
well as in Greek, in order to be understood by lhe
population.
The exception proves the rule: the papyrological
archive of D,OSCORUS OF A1'HRODITO sho...... a contem-
porary of Emperor Justinian writing Coptic as well
as Greek documenlli. This bilingual notal)', who
owned copies of Greek literary t""lIi, is the last
inhabitant of the chorn known so far who
comJ'O$"d-how,ver poorly-Greek poems.
The A....B CONQuEST OF EGYI'T (MI) caused no sud·
den change in the uSe of Greek as the offidal Ian·
guage (see, e.g" Ihe archive of Qurrah ibn-ShaT1k
[698-722]). But, as Coptic had introduced the de·
cay 01 C.eek in Egypt. so Arnbic completed the
process. With the Abbasids in the tenth cenlury,
Arabic became Ihe predominalll language in gov·
ernment administration (the last Arnbic-Greek papy·
rus da,es from 996).
Mutual Influences or
Greek and Other
Languages In Egypt (332 B.C.~A.D. 641)
Since Creek ",as ,he language of the rulers, gov·
ernmelll official., and magistrates. it naturallyexer-
•
~ised mOre influena on the native language than
vice versa. NevenheleM. there are some mainly le~'
leal foreign comribmions 10 the developmem of
Creek Kolne in Eg,pl. Among these the latest, Lat·
in, ....as the most important.
Greek Influence on the Egyptian (Demotic.
Coplle) Language. Demotic wriling (cuITent in Ihe
""venth century B,c.-third century A.D,; latest anes-
13tion, A.D. 452) always rem.aine<l quite resi'tant [0
Greek influence. The Gr«k·,peaking administntion
under the Ptolernies inevitably caused The intrusion
of technical Greek lerms imo the professional lan·
guage of demo,ic «:ribf,s (",g., official titles and
legal lenn.). In the private sphere. l>owever, Creek
loanwords were rare and generally referred 10 hab·
its, animals, and objects thai were known 10 the
Eg,plians only through Creek impon or literal"",.
On the other nand, Greek commercial terminology
had probably "nt"red into spoken demotic from the
S'OVenth c"ntury B.C. on. Th" change of gender of
$Om" demotic words presumably occurre<l und"r
Gr""k influence. Apart from demotic ,'ersions
(translations) of Greek decrees, there is nO ""i-
<knee for stylistic influence.
Coptic-using Greek characters and first used for
tlanslations of lhe Bible from the Gr"ek-was per·
fectly suited to adopt Greek words. The laner can·
stilUted about one-fifth of the slandard Coptic v0-
cabulary and were related to all spheres of life. It
rna)' be assumed that many of them were already
used in everyday conversation before written Cop'
tic emerged with the spread of Christianity. The
naturalization of Creek words did not exclude the
usc of their Coptic equivalents, as allested, for in·
Slance, in the Psalms and-mainly-Bohairic traM'
lations of the scriptures with their marked prefer·
ence for native words. Gre<:k influence led to minor
syntactical changes but did not affect the basic fea-
tures of Egyptian/Coptic grammar.
Foreign Influences on ~"k In EIYPt. Prior 10
the Macedonian conquest of EIDPt, the Greek Ian·
guage had adopted a few Oriental werd.<, most of
which belong"" 10 the agricjillural and commercial
sphere. Some Semitic and Persian loanwords prob-
abl}' entered the Greek language through the inter.
m""iary of demotic.
During the Greco-Roman period, the number of
Egyptian loanwords naturally increased (e.g.,
weighls and measures, to]XIgraphical and personal
names-which wer" either .ranscribed or translat-
ed-and months). E.~cept for the laller category,
most loanwords wer" natualired by taking a Greek
ending and following Greek declension. Gre<ok writ·
GREEK LANGUAGE 1169
lng, moreov"r, adop.ed scme Sj'mbols that were
current in d"motic documents.
On th~ whole, Egyptian inlluenc~ on Greek was
very limited. Yet the Greeks took over Egyptian
literary last~. Th~ Gr~ek romance owed Its origin at
l~ast partly to Egypt: th. Dr~am of Nu'anebo, the
firsl piece of prose fiction in Gr"ek (second century
P.<:.) was translated frem d~motic. Another popular
g~nre in Egyptian literature, the prephedes, also
inspired Greek writ~rs in Greco·Roman times-see,
e.g., the PQlIU'5 Oracle, com]XIscd in demotic be-
tween the fourth and the end of the second century
p,e" and known from Cre~k extant versions of the
second-third century A.D.: there is a strong pre·
sumption that th" thirteenth book of th" Dracula
sibyllimi (between 241 and 2/>5) was wrillen by a
eontem]XIrary authnr (Jew or Christian?) at Alexan.
dria ('N. Scan, "The Last Sibyllin~ Oracle of Alex'
andria," Clo5,,'-cal QuarTerl,. 9 [1915]:144).
Latin had a greal~r impact on the Greek language
in Egypt. About one·fourth of the Latin teons auest-
ed in Greek papyri mad~ th~ir first appearance at
the "nd of the thirdlbcginning of the fourth c"nlU·
ry. They were particularly numerouS in military vo-
cabulary, but also embrac"d the spheres of adminis·
tration, fiscal maners, law, agriculture, and textile
manufacture. The adoption of Latin words followed
several patterns: (1) transcription: (2) translation:
(3) metaphorical usc. When t.--anscribed, the Latin
words gen~ra1ly un<klVlem phonetic and morpho-
logical transfoonations in order to adapt to Greek
declensions and conjugations, Others were used as
part of new bilingual composites. Through Greek
and Coptic, scm" Latin words intruded into th"
Arab vocabulary (e.g., ctlStrum, kastm>t, qafF; d. the
to]XInyms Q~r Qanln [i,e .. Dionrsias]: Luxor (Ara-
bic al·Uqfur, the camps]).
To a l=er ",tent, Latin influenced Gre~k mor-
phology (e,g., the incr"asing popularity of the suffix·
es ·t()F and .arlos), Symactical influence was practi-
cally nonexistent. Latin literature played a minor
role in Egypt (about 100 ..tant Latin literary papy.
ri).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Barnes, J. W. B. "Egypt and the Greek Romance."
In ..lb." des VTr/. Imernatio"alen K<mgre","" fi'F
Papymlogie (Wi." /955). Milleilungen aus der Pa-
pyrussammlung der Oste=ic!tischen National·
bibliothek, n.s., Vol. 5. Vienna, 195/>.
Bowman, A. K. Egypt After ,he Pharaoh... 332 B.C.-
A.D. 641. From Alexander to tlr. Arab Conq"""t,
PI" 157-/>4. L::>noon, 1986.
1\70 GREEK LANGUAGE IN CHRISTIAN NUBIA
Cadell, H. M. "Lc Rcnouvellemenl du voeabulaia
au IVe li""'le de noltt m d'apres les pllpyrua."
In Aile" des Xlll. lnlemaliorfalm P"/'Yro1ot.,,*'m·
,.uses (Mam...-y'l.ahn. Z -6 A"P''' /971. Muni<:h.
197•.
e-ron, A. "wandcrirtg Pocu: A Uln-ary M~·
Int!'RI in 8yJ:antine EgrpL ~ HiSJOria I. (1965):
470-509.
Cbl)$$'l!. W. "uu,rary ~ in Documenlal)' 'Ar·
ehlves.·" In Eml ."d IlIe H~l1e ..i5lie W",,1d. SCu·
dia Hellenillka n. Lou,~n, 1913.
Cosuos. P. S, An Outline 01 tiN: HiSfo.., 0{ riI" C","
l.arfp.~ ",ilh P.ma.1J>. Emplrtui. on Ill" J(oin~
and Ihe S"bu'I"ent p~riod•. Chiap, 1979. Re-
print of 1936 edicion_
Oatis, S. II knico Idl;"O nef 6'UO d'EgiflO, &tl:elo-
na, 1971.
Doel ("<>mo, D. "La lel1eratura popolare nei """iri."
In P.-oceeding. of Ihe XIVth Inte..."tio .. ,01 C01li,.n
of Papyrol0/O' Oxford 1974. London, 1975,
GIgnac, f, A G,,,mma, of Ih. Gre~k P.pyri of th.
Romon and By;."nl'... P.rWd•• 2 vols, TeSli e doc·
umenti per 10 studio dell'antkhitoll 55, Milan,
1976-1981.
Girgis, W, A, "Creek Loan Words in COplle," 8"lIe·
tilt de la Suciit' d'drch.olotie eOI'M 17 (19B-
196-4):63-73: 21 (1971-1973):33-53.
Kaimio, J. "Latin in Ronan Egypt:' In Acte.s d..
XVe Coni.-t.. irrtern"ti"".1 de p"l'y'Ou.re, Vol. 3,
ProblOttu r''''.alU~Papyrolo,ie lilt/ra;,e. 'llpr'
rolo&ica 8",~ellensia 18. 8n>sJeb, 1979,
Uoyd. A. B. -n.e Crttb in Empt lTom thf Bronze
Ace 10 the Time of HerodOl:m:' Hrrodot... Book
11. InlFOd... ,ion. Etude$ preliminairta lUll; Rei..
cionJ, orientales ~ l'Empi..., romain 43. Leiden,
1975.
_ "Nacionalisl P~ndo in P10lemaie
£cypl." Hiswn. 31 (1982):13~55.
Ulddecbns. E. "XIYP"'n.~ In Di$ SjOTt>C/l... ;m
rllttIisc1lUl Rrich du K<lisen.ril. fU>/loq.. iurtt ..,...
I. bis II). April 1974, cd. C. Neu...."n, Bonner
Jahrblkher, 8eihdt 40. Colov!~ 1910.
MacMullen, R. ~P'rovincial LanKW'ge$ in lhe Roman
Empire." Amuic1lnJol#ndofPlrilol<>o87 (19M}: I -
n.
M:lndila... 8. G. 1M I'e'" ;., llu G.,,1r. Non·Lil..
ro,., P"pyri. AlhCP!l, 1973.
Manfredi, M. "Cultun Ietleraria nell'lOcillO gaco •
romano:' In Egitlo e .wculil ...tica. Alii def .010....•
1"08/9 Yf-lJ/24 Xl /984. Milan, 1985.
Mayser, E. G''''''rtlotik du griuhi$<Clrerr Panri ....
de, Plolemderzeit ",if Ei~$<Chlu" d~, ,Ieichuitigen
O'I,4k<! .. nd de' i", Ag)'pl~n .... rfM.I~U JtlSch'iflerr,
6 vola. LcipziS, 1906-1938. Vol. I, La ..t· und
WO'lleh,~, Ei",leilu ..g ,md L"ull~hre, rev, H.
Schmoll. Berlin, 1970.
Meulelllere, H, de. He,odotos 0"'" de 26.M d)'no./i.
(/U47-fff.15l: Biidra~e fol he! hiJlorisclr.lr.riti$<C1r
_d~rwdc. ~a .. H~rodolo,' pp"OOJ in h~, IH:Id
...... de Ecypfiseh~ ~n a"kr~ CO"femporair~
,""""~,,. Biblioth~Uoe dOl MU5Con 27. Lou,-aln.
1951.
Mortte\'eCchi, O. u. popimlOfi-. pp, 73-85. Turin,
19a
---C~ "Fpani e Creel: La coesisl~Jml delle We
culture ndl' Ecitto romano." III EfZlID e Jt>ciail
""Ilic'a_ Am d~J roo.vtf"o Torino 8/9 Yl-D/24 Xl
1984. Milan.. 1915.
Pack. R. A. n.~ Gre" ."d LoI;"UJerlJry Tutt from
Greco--R''''''1n £01", 2nd cd. Ann Arbor, Mich.•
1%5.
Palmer, L R. A G...""",ar of u.~ I'oIl.J>lokm.ic P.·
pyri. London. 1946.
~. W. "Sur Ie bllfngul'rne dans l'Eg).pt d~
u.g;des:· In SfUdia Paulo Nast~r chi"'''. Vol. 2.
Ori~nlalia antiquo. Orienlalia L.ovaniensia Anale<>
Ia 13. t..o:>u""in. 1982.
P~migotli, S. "I ph) napporll Ira l'Egitl<> e i Gr""i
(secoli VII-IVa. C.)." In EliI/O ~ .oci~lir antica.
Alti d~l conv~, .. o Tori"o 8/9 V/-2J/24 Xl 1984.
Milan, 1985.
P.otman. P. W. Greek a..d D~mOtic Texl' from the
Z~ .. o" Archiv•• esp, p, 8, Papyrol<'>l!ica lOlgduno·
Balava 20. L.eldon, 1980,
Pr.aux, C, Lu Crus en Ecpte d'.prt. Ie. archil'~'
d~ Zenon. Brouell, 1947.
Schmitt. R. "m., S.,..,..:hvul\lillnlsse in den 6Qlic-
hen Provinun des rtimi~hen Reiche..... In ....,-
meg .. tUl Niw""", II" I'tlnri.ch... Well. cd. H.
Temporini, II. N. 2. Berlin and Ntw York. 1983.
Me pp. 578_80 for the stClion On Eg}Jll.
Sijpesleijn. P. J. "De in,'~ ..... hel lalijn up he!
Grieb:' UmtlHlJ, TijdJChrift ....,.". Nwrla~
CI.ssici 15 (1982):31'-30.
Th......n. H.·J. "G~o-AsYPtiJChe Lileranor." In
(erike... de. AcPlOiocle, Vol. 2, .0.... 873-'78.
Wirsbade... 1977.
WIll.., W. H. "A CenwJ olthee Lilerwy P"I"'ri from
Ec>-JIl-" Gred:. R"",.... tUl Bytlilfline Smdic 9
( 196'):203~141.
GREEK LANGUACE IN CHRISTIAN NU.
BIA. Of lhe lemtol)' in whi<:h the Ih.-ee Christian
Nubian ldnsdorP\< <merged in Ihe $i~th cenlury,
only the Oodcka5choenU'!l had a tradition of the use
of the C...,ek language, Ihe mOSt eloquent remains
being the proskyne..,afa left by soldi.~ of the R".
man imperial army garrlllOned In this frontier rone
(e,g., P,ei.igke, 1915, 8462-8509, 8514-8533: Ber·
nond, 1983, n<)$, 13}o-73). The Meroitic Kingdom,
In ,pite of its H.lleniution (DeNnge" 1983), u>ed-
its own language and developed its own writing
 GREEK lANGUAGE IN CHRISTIAN NUBIA
system_ There is no evidence even for a parallel use
of Greek alongside the native language for monu·
mental inscriptions, as was the practice in Axum
(e,g., Preisigke, 6947-6949, 8546; Bernard. 1982,
pp. 105-114). Accordingly, the two fragmentary
founh..:entury Greek inscriptions discoveroo at
Meroi:' (Supplemenwm epig'aphicum GFaecum 24,
1246; Hagg. 1984a) are remnants of victory monu-
ments set up by Axumite kings,
Prolo-Christlan Period
In this so·called X·Group or Ballana period (c.
300-550), evidence for the use of Greek is still
confined to the Dodekaschoenus, LIcking written
languages of their own, the Blemmyes and Nobadae
used Greek for monumental inscriptions as well as
for communication both between themselves and,
no doubt, with their neighbors of Byzantine Egypt.
In the former category, the most imporomt item
historically is the fifth..:entu'1" Silko inscription in
the Mandulis temple at Kalabsha. proclaiming in
bombastic language the \'ictories of the Nobatian
king Silko over the Blemmyes. Silko's Greek (or,
rather, that of his scribe) has been \'ery differently
judged: according to upsius (1876) and his follow-
ers, it is Copticil.ing all through, According to
others (most radically Kapsomenos, 1953, pp.
25Iff.) it is pure Greek vernacular. Two further in-
scriptions, in rather ungrammatical Greek, concern
cult associations in Tara and Kalabsha, and four
others at Kalab<ha .eem to record some royal dis-
positions, Among the late antique adoration inscrip-
tions from Philae, there are several ca["\'ed by, or
for, Nubians.
Tbe use of Greek as a lingua franca is exemplified
by the fifth..:entury letter from the 8lemmyan king
Phonen to his Nobatian colleague Abumi (best edi-
tion by Rea, 1979), remarkable both for its linguis-
tic form (a kind of "Pidgin Greek"; d. Hagg, 198i,
1986) and for the insights-:~ranted into th" rdations
hetwe"n the two peoples; Thirteen leather docu-
ments were found at Gebelen in Upper Egypt (Sat·
zinger, 1968). ' seems 10 be specific to Nubia. The oldest dated
Some documems were written in Greek and
some in Coptic and Greek. and they show that
Greek was used in the sixth century by a Blemmyan
tribe apparentl)' living within Egypt. They recorded
both internal economic transactions and royal di.-
position •.
Finally, memion .hOllld be made of the Greek
title. and honorific epithets consistently applied to
Nobatian and Blemmyan official. in booth documen-
tary and literary .ources, for instance, Ixlsilem or
1171
basilisJws for "king," phylarchas for "tribal chief,"
hypmyrannos for ".ubd.,,;pot," prophtlts for
"priest," HimJrcho. for "head of cult association,"
and epiphanestatos for "most noble" (see Hligg,
1990),
Christian Period
The most imponant category of texts i. tlte in-
scriptions, now amounting to approximatdy 300
published items, dating from the sixth through the
twelfth century. In the absence of a comprehensive
c0'l'us. the... aeo the principal collections; lefe-
bvre, Recueil (1978, comprising only one·fifth of the
inscriptions now known); Firth, S"",_y (1912, pp.
45-50, inscriptions from Ginari); Mina, In.'cr;p';ons
(1942, inscription. from Sakinya); Shinnle and Chit-
tick, Ghazali (1961); Tibiletti Bruno, {scrivoni
(1964, selection of inscriptions): Kubiti,ka, Fares IV
(1974), See funher the topographicall)' arranged
bibliographical list In 2:abkar. "Gra,'e Stel.." (1967,
pp. 16ff.). More than 2oo oftbe in-"aiptions derive
from Nobatia (approximately 20 differ"nt places),
fully 60 from Makouria (a dozen places), and aboout
25 are of unknown or disputed provenance, The
soil of 'AI",,;! is only beginning to yield Greek texts.
Few of the Nuhian Greek inscriptions bear dates,
Most of the dated ones belong to the eleventh or
twelfth cemury. Besides a few foundation or build·
ing inscription. (e,g.• Prelsigke, 10074. from Ikh·
mindi, sixth century), the majority are epitaph. (for
the formul ..., see Junker, Gmb$leine, which is fun-
damental but in need of updating; d. Krause, 1975;
see also Tibileui Bmno. 1963, pp. 492~5i7),
The most conspicuous type, at prescnt represent-
ed by nearly forty specimen. (list of eighteen in
Oates, 1963, supplemented by Hiigg, 1981) di.tribut-
ed all over Nobatia and Makouria. and even 'AI""a,
di.plays a long text based on the Byzantine pmyer
for the dead <If the Eueh<llogi<ln Mega, beginning
'"God of spirits and of all flesh" (Bruni, 1912, pp.
146-58), The use of this prayer on tombstones
instances are late eighth-century (Jakobielski and
Ostra>z. 1967-i 968. p. 133). the latest on.,,; twelfth-
centu'1'. The persons honored with this elaborate
fonnula are mostly bishops or high officials.
Other textual categorie. include legends fo< wall
paintings, notably from the cathedral a1 FarA.S
(eighth to thineenth century; Jakobielski, 1912); nu·
merous, mostly unpublished, graffiti on church.
monastery', and house wall. (see, e.g., Jakobidski,
1972; Bernand, 1969, Vol, 2, nos. 205ff.): and some
1172 GREEK LANGUAGE IN CHRISTIAN NUBIA
texts on papyrus. parchment, or paper of a lilurgi·
cat. administrative. commercial, or private charac·
ter. This last category, though still rather modest in
size, has been substamially increased through the
excavations at Q~r lbrlm. The "barbaric" charac-
ter of Nubian Greek has often been exaggerated.
Much of this impression is due to phonetic·
orthographic phenomena welt documented in con·
temporary texts of the same calegories from the
Byzantine wodd. Certain peculiarities remain, how·
",'er, on both the phonetic and the syntactic le.-e1
(e,g .. nominati,'e or accusath'e for genitive in ce.·
tain position,; for a preliminary analysis. see TIbi·
ieui Bruno. 1963. pp. 517-29), It remains to be
shown to what extent any of these peculiarities,
,orne of which occur in the proto·Christian texts,
may be due to bilingual imericrence from Coptic or
Old Nubian and whether the language is merely
"conserved" in the Christian Nubian kingdoms, in
comparative isolation after the Islamization and
gradual ambization of their northern neighbors. or
whether there are nstiges of later direct contacts
with Byzantium (or with Jerusalem or Sinai; cf.
[}onadoni. 1986. p. 228). The series of Euch%gio»
M.g~ epitaph,_ is inSlruetive, in that late specimens
(e.g., stela of Bishop Martyrophoros. A.D. 1(59) are
not nec..>aril)' more emotic than earlier Ones (e.g..
the stela of Mari~o, 1032), Rather than witnessing a
gradual "debasement" of Nubian Greek th.ough the
centuries, we probably ha,'e 10 reckon. on the one
hand, with a rather conservative wrinen tradilion of
this prayer formula and. on the other. with isolated
instances in which the text carved on the stone was
based on the recitation of the prayer fo. the dead,
with ensuing phonetic spellings and misunderstand·
ings (d. the discUS1ion in Oates, 19(3).
Medieval Nubia was a multilingual societ)'. As a
written language, Greek competed lirst with Coptic,
then with Old Nubian. and later with Arabic. The
competition with CoptilJis witnessed, for instance.
by the lind of double fo"ndalion slOnes for the ca·
thedral at Faras (707) and the subsequent alterna·
live use of the two la"guages for bishops' tomb-
stones, by the intenningling of Greek and Coptic
epitaphs in the cemeteries 'of Sakinya and GhazAlt.
and by Coptic liturgic fonnul", in other Greek in·
scriptions. Clearly. Coptic had its strongholds in the
monasteries. 1Qme of whose inhabitants no doubt
were refuge.. from Egypt. Old Nubian, written with
the Greek·Coptic alphabet (extended by three extra
lellers), is inserted in Gcc.ek inscription. from the
eighth century on (e.g., stela of Stephanos, 797),
juxtaposed ",ith Greek in the memorial "lray" of
King Georgios from Wadi al·Na!rUn (1158) and
mixed with Greek in the legends to the Faras wall
paintings in the last phase of decoration, All three
languages, wriuen with the same palaeography,
meel in the graffiti, Out of 250 registcr<:d graffiti
from Ihe calhedral al FarM, 23 ore apparently
Greek. 26 Coptic. and 62 Old Nuhian; many, ofren
consisting jusl of a name and perhaps a title, defy
such classification. On the walls of the tenth-
century church at Sonqi Tino. Greek and Old Nubi.
an dominate.
For adminislrative. legal. and commercial pur-
poses. Greek seem. 10 have yielded to C<)p1ic, Old
Nubian, and Arabic. at least to judge from earlier
published documents (see Griffith, 1928) and from
what is known at this point about Ihe rich texlual
finds from Q~r Ibrim. H<)wevcr, it is worth noting
that Greek was sometimes used for the outside ad.
dress of dispatches Ihat wecc. Ihemselve. written in
Coptic or Old Nubian, an indication that Greek rna)'
stilt Mve been in some use as a lingua franca in the
Nile Valley. as it wa, in Ihe proto·Christian period,
The cuntinued use of Greek litles for higher offi·
cials. such as "parchos, cxaychos, ~a"aychO$. mei·
<ill!, (proto)meiwteros and (protoJdomeslihJ, cer-
tainly shows a Byzantine inAuence. but we are
hardly entitled 10 conclude from that e.'idence
alone that the Greek language aelUally remained in
other than ceremonial use at the courts of the
Christian Nubian kingdoms,
What is clearly evident, on the other hand, is the
continued use of G.eek for ecclesiastical put,:>oses
throughout the Middle Ages. at least a.. far as the
United Northern Kingdom (Nobatia/Makouria) is
concerned. The applic3lion of the whole set of ec-
clesiastical titles is a matter of course, but more
importalll. the Greek epitaphs. supplementoo b)' tbe
legends and gnlffiti, cover the ""hole time span
from the sixth through the twelfth cemu')'_ Greek
manuscripts (biblical, patristic. and limrgical texts)
found in Nubia confirm what we already knew from
Oriental literary sourceS about the use of Greek in
the Nubian church. Compare the infonna,ion aoout
'Alw1 deriving from Selim al·Aswani (tenth centu')')
that "their books are in Greek and they translate
tbese into their own language" with lhe reported
dlsco"ery of bilingual Greek·Nubian limrgical lexts
at Q~r Ibrim (cf. also the tenth-century bilingual
graffilo from O~r e1·Wizz), There also survi¥<'. in
fragmentary fonn, translations from Greek into Old
Nubian of biblical books. homilies, and other whole
worb (see Browne, 1981). The last indication that
Greek was. in a sense, a "living" language in thc
Nubian church dates as lale as 1312, The letter
testimonial sent by the Coptic patriarch of Alexan'
 GREEK LANGUAGE IN CHRISTIAN NUBIA
drill In (onne.:llon ,.,ilb the (on5e(lalion of II NubI-
an. nm01~ as bOshop or nru. although wrillen
in Copcic: and Alabic:. begins wilb an addrlt$ll in
Grffk diretled 10 the Nubian conl"eplion (I'lwn-
!hen still rqam.
Icy, 1975b): apparently, Gr«k
cd III Nubia', e.:clesiasrical Ian~e of (hoic:e.
B1BUOGIlAl'HY
Barnes. J, "" Tn! cI. the Boredidle in Gree.k and
Old Nubian I'n>m Kasr el,W=." lot<,.".t of EvP'
mu. ATCItD<'fI/oo 60 (191.):206-211.
8emand. E. Lu inu:riplitm$ VUIl"a el ["Iina de
l'Itil"e. 1 ...... ~ Paris. 1969.
_ "Nou~~lles .~ons de b ampagne du rol
bana conUe Ies Bedja." uiIscitrift fiJ' Papyrok>-
tie "ml Epigrapltik 45 (1982):105-11 •.
_ 1~$i;ripli<MJ frecque.o d·EmI. el d. N"bie:
IUperlO;,t bibli"t'ap!tiJ;ur dn rGRR. Paris, 1983.
Browne, G. M. "Greek imo Nubian." In Nubi...
Cullu .... Pa" .nd P'eJrnl, ed. T. HJiIlll, pp, lO9-
24, Stockholm, 1987.
Bnlni, V, Ilunu./; di u~ saa,dou ,,,I tita bh.",i.
M .econdo gli cucolog; m.~oscrilti di Ii~gua
g,tCO, Pubblica:cioni d.llo Siudium Blbllcum
FranciJcanum, Colleclio Minor 14. Jerusalem.
19n
Oeslonges. J. "l'Hell"ni._ da... Ie royaum. de
M~I'Qi!." C,uco-Ar<d>ic.. 2 (1983):275-%,
Donadoni. S. '"I.e inscriptions grecques d. Nubl....
Grouo-A,,,bic,, 3 (19$4):9-19.
_ "Trois nOU".lles Sldes. de Gha6.l1." In N../?'
i1c1oe S'udu... cd. M. Knust. pp. 223-29.
am RIlei". 1986_
""'ira.
Eide. T.: T. ftiu: and R. H. Piero:•. ''G«<k. Latin,
..d Coptic Sources fur Nubian HiSlol)' (III): 'The
Blemmyan Documen'" from Gebelh. ~ s...J""
Tem Bulk';" & (198-4):1-15.
Finll, C. lot. 711, Arclfluol~ ../ S.......". 01 ...."lU:
RePM'IOIT 190&_1909. Cairo. 1912.
f~d. W. H. C•• ,Coptk. Cr=k ....d Nubian ;lU O~r
Ibf'lm.~ BWnliJH>J/.",;c,,- JJ (1912):2H-19.
F~d. W. H. C.. and I. ~uirbcad. "'Th. Gr«k
Manuscripts from Ibe Cathednl of Oafr Ibf'lm. ~
LA Mu.1oft S9 (197&):<13-49_
Griffilb. F. L "Chrillian Documenlll from Nubia."
...
PToceedi~. 01 lite BtUish .4cademy 14 (1928):111-
Hig. T. "Two ChriSlian EJ>itaphs in Cr-eek of,he
'E.ucholoslon M.p' Type:' In Lote Nubi,.~ Ctm,·
le,,'tJ.•d, T. sa,'.-SOderberth. The Scandin~vian
Join! EJ<pedilion to Sudanese Nubia 6, pp. 55-62.
Solna. Sweden. 1981-
_ . "Som. Remarks on the Use of Greek in
Nubia," In Nubia~ Sludies, .d. J. M. Plumley. pp.
103-101, Warminller-. Pa., 1982,
_ "" New ""umi'e lT1$cription in C.....k from
Me'~," Mt...",i£.. 7 (1984a):<l36-41.
1173
-cc- "Nubicograea I-III: Bemtrkungen zu grie--
chi$o::heu TeXlen ...... Nubi.n." ZeiISCIt'ill 1.., p,,"
roIop: ""d £pivaphill. 54 (I98llb):IOI-lI2.
___ ~'Bkmm)'aIl GI"ffk' and the Ltller of Phon-
.n. In NubUcJre Slud~", cd. M. Krause, pp. 282-
N
286- Mainz am Rhein, 1986.
-0-- "Tttl" and Honorific. ~etS in Nubian
Gnd< Texu- ~ Symbol« OsJOUItl 65 (1990):141-
"
Jakobielsii. S. Fal'" /fI: A HiSlOrf allJoe Bishop,*- cI
PtultrK... oro the &om of COPn'c JrucTiplWms. War·
_ . 1912.
"Inscriptions." In F""IS: W./t p.,irt/ings i..
lhe Co1J«tiotr. of Ih. 1'141;0.,01 Musc_ in W<U$Q"'.
ed. K. Michalowski. pp. 2n-J.09. Warsaw. 1914.
Jakobielski. S-. and A. Os....asz. "Polish E>.ca",uions
al Old Dof13Ola." Kush 15 (1967-1%8):125-42.
Junker. H. ·'Die dlri.dichen Crabsl';ne Nubiem. N
Zeitsclt,-jfr liir iigypti.clte Spr""h, " ..d Allerlum>-
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 1174 GREEKS IN EGYPT
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Malnt am Rhein, 19l16.
GREEKS IN EGYPT. Greek contxU wilh
EI)'pt had bcocn frequent and varied bdore A\eun·
door Ille Great ooll<lucrcd tho country in H2 I.c..
inauilUrtlling the Hclknistic period of Ec>l"Lan hjs.
lOfy. As early as the limes 01. the Sea. Peoples and
1M OI>rk Aies 01. G~ Egypt uper!efK:ed Gr«1r.
invaders and ...itkrs, bUt me counlry was not ae-
ceuible .0 la~alc colonizalion ....hen Gr«u ~
pn. In 1M eighlh c.mury RC.. 10 s~ad Iheir Kille-
menu and .,,,ding S1a1ions over the Medilernncan
and the Black Sea.
Howe..r, with Ihe <:onsent 01. the pharaolts of the
IWenl)"si~lh Orn... w, G~eh were able to establish,
perhaps around 650, a wlony al Nau<:rtItis In the
Deha, Milesians were prominent among the foond·
ers of Ihal ileulement, which was deSlined to faclli·
Utte and d,annd commercial actlvilies, bUI mher
Croch .lso had aCcess 10 Ihis lawn and iu, sanclU'
aries, Equipped with lhe Iypic:al set of Greek city·
stale inslilUlions. Naucnl", ,,'as able 10 p.....,rw: ils
Hellenic ch.a~ler well down inlO me GrttO-
Roman period. II "'as O"VW M'le<:led as a rnooie!,
parliallyal 1<:tiI., for Uo"TINOO/'OUS ...·h..,., Ihal G.ee/<
ell)" was founded in EIYJII by Hadrian in A.D. 130.
E£yptian rdations Wilh Grc:fts. sometimes I<:ns<:,
""""' oftC'fl friendly, _~ especially stro<1K under
the rulcn of the Twenly-6lxth Dynasty (11064-525
tu:.). " ..... used Gr~b and Carians (the laller from
...uhwesl.Cm Asia. Minor) as mercC1l&rics, for cxam-
p~, 111 PclU§iwn on Ec>'Pl's eastern bo<dcr. Uller,
Amasis esablisbed lhese 1M1"Cen:aries at Memphis
in q~rs of lheir own (Hellenom.mphilcs, ea......
memphilcs).
MOlheT :aspeCI 01 lhese conlacu ....as lhe ION:
"".rciscd by EgypIian ~Iigion. "isdom, and instilu-
l;ons on Gr«k philosopltyand Idenee, Herodotu.,
spcakinl 01. "l'.lJyptlan 10105" In book 2, stands oul
;os a unique and inlrisuinl tesllmony of Greek inter·
est in Ihini' EK)'ptian, and il 51ill is, lhough IimitM,
a predous contribUlion of a fifth<entul)' Greek to
our knowledge or Egypt. ils hislOry and it< life.
The conqursl of Egypt by King Cambyses of Ihe
A<:ltaemenid Dynasly In 525 B,C, made the eounlry a
sal"'py of 1M Pcrsian empire, bUI Ihal did not end
Gfi:,ek conlacts wilh Ec>pt, since many Greeks of
Asia. MirtOr had becom~ Iltlbjeclll 01. the Achaeme·
nids lIlId Egypt was Sli1l open ~'en to Greeks from
outsi.... th~ P~nlan realm (will1C5S Ihe visil or He-
rodorusl- The Slrue:gle 01 the Greeks againsl lhe
Persians in 1M f;fth et-ntury led 10 Gra:k mililalj'
c~lion."idt ElYJllian dynaslS ...,...,lIing againsl
lbeir Achacm.nid OV1'riords. The ficht for Egyptian
in~e "u f;~lIy Al«esslul in the very 1_
yean of the fifth cenlury \"ilhout Greek military
aid, acconfi,,& to Salmon, 1%5, p. 239). Bul in 343.
F.t;ypl: came ap.in under Persian dominatio-D- The
Achaemcnid 1'\"Sl0"'lion was. 1loweYe<, a sbort-liwd
aJb.jr; in ]3;t, the Macedonian linl, AIn:andeT th.~
Grcao., in>'aded lbe tenitories of 1M Penian Darius
III and conquered Eol" In H2 B.C. 'rhough leading
10 lihcr.uion from the Pel'lians, Ihis conquesl "''35
aI5o, in a cenain scnse at leasl. the ,Ian of a new
foreign domination.
In Egypt, Akund.r posed as ph;mooh and was
",,<haps e ...........d in Memphis according 10 the
Egyptian riluaL He al"" 50uShl confinnalion of his
divinity by con,ullini Ihe oracle of the god Amon
in Siwa Oasis, N~v.nh.l~.l$. h", $Iill ""'" a foreigner,
ruling Egypt from outside. In 331, h~ founded ALEX·
ANDRIA to commemorate his name and 10 open
Egypt to tl.<: Medilerranean Sea and to hi. naseenl
empire. The fonner £sypIian village of Rhakoli.

now l>ein, one of the quartets of the n~ town. iu
local pop"lation btame inhabil.anlS of Aluandria.
but _ ~cluded from u.", riJhts of Aluandrian
ciliuM.
AMr m.. ""ath of Aksandrr in 3H.lhe "U1Ipy oJ
f.cypI '"'lOS utributt<l. to tht Macedonian ,.,nulll
Pto~m, ...-no. .ttu the Ulmclion of AJuanWs
family,libented bim>elf rrom...n.. retMlned of tht
Mxedonian imperial .... thority. Alter he usumed
tilt- lide and posilion d a kmg in JOS, EoP' ......
ruled for nearly th...-e hu....nd yean (305·)0 a.c.)
by lhe Plokmies. a '"Greek" d)""""Y (Macedonlans
then beinl considered. lhough somev.-ha' relucliU'l"
ly in.som.. quaners, as Gcecks). But at leas! il was a
dyn;uty firmly anclt<>red in Ell}l'1 and keq>inl Ecl'l
at 1M cen,cr of the Ptoltmaic .. mpi........hiell ..~.
tended. in the thin:! century. O"<'t regions of 1M
eastern Medil",mo""an (en'IUS, Gyrene, pans of thoe
Syrv-Phoenician coast, and terTitories In IO\llhem
and western Alia Minor). Rath.er WOn .fter his 'n·
.tall.lion in Egypl. Ptolemy I abandoned EllYJ'lian
Memphis and clime Alexandria as his c.pital. BUI
btsi~s beinl Hellenistic kings in the Macedonian
and Creek tradition •. the Ptalemies were viewed
and repres-ented as pharaohs by their EaYPlian wb-
}«ts. Whereas E~'Plian. had .till played leadin;
roles under Ale....nder and Ptolemy I (d. 28)-232),
Greeks occupied. under Plolemy II and his succes-
"'~ in the third celllury. nearly all lop-Ie~el pooIi·
lions at the coon, in !he anny. and in the d"il
adminl5'lnlion. Immigration <Ji Grub and Hell,..
niu<! Inhabilalll$ or Thrac.. and A>.ia Minor .....
ponicubrly .... bs'anlial in the Ihird CeTuury &c. AI.
oandria thus became !he rnosl: populo.... center of
the Me<litICrranean world. Nolwithslandi"l tlte
Ef:ypcian se<lkt-$ of Rbakali< and a fast·lro"";n.
oommunity of J"",.. A1eut>dria .... and rema.ined a
<:reel< eiry. resen,'mJ' full ciliun richlli 10 a core of
Greco-Maudonian TC:5Klenlli only. but spradlnSthe
Greek b"flUlle to ID06l ~ illi inhabitants (the lin-
l"isricaI Hellenimtion or A'feundrian Jews prompt·
ed lhe Gruk 1",,,,I;>tion <Ji !he Hebrew scriplUl'es.
the Sepluasinl).
Bul Creeks in E,:ypI "'"e~ by no means reslrlclICd
1o Al9andriL They SClded in large numbers in Ihe
EcYPlian hinterland. the cho.... above all in the Fa)""
ylIm (Arsinoile nome), as well as in numerws pi",,·
es In lhe Delta and Upper Egypt- Amon; the l.ller,
Ptolemals (modern al·Minshah: see '001), a founda·
lion of Ptolemy J, .Iands out as the only Creek cit)'
in Upper EllYPt provided wHh the full Set of po/iJ
in";tution,. The Egyptian nOIm caphals-that II,
meltvpoles like Memphis. Arsinot, HerlilCleopoHI
GREEKS IN EGYPT 1175
Magna. e1C.~were no! orpnized It! Greek ClUes,
but wer"C. in constitulional ~. mere "vil1ages,"
lhough ......,.;n. as the aclmini$\.....ift and rdigious
cen",rs <Ji lheir tflpt'clive DOD\eIi. Many <Ji th~
nome capita" auraeled Cruk IoCttle... ...·ho lived
there as soldier'S (that ., veteTVl$), aniAr\s. busi-
n<ssmerl, and lanOowners. They brO'lghl wilh m.,m
not only their 1an~e boll also erttk nt:ligiouI.
c:ni<:. and cultuBl insd1udom. amona !hem !he
.cJ"1'1asium. Thq' mi""d .,..;th tht local popularion,
many Egypban _ rt>aolT)lns Gre:fl: men. ~
<:reel< population may hoi"" had a surplus <Ji mal.,..
"",nly a a e<>mequen<:e of immpion and also of
lemale infamicide. Com"'}' to EiJplia... and Jews,
Grotb. wishing 10 k~p lheir bm~ieI omall and
lheir property ..ndiminished. "'"ere not ..,IOOm in-
dinw. to nesleet their chi1d~n, espttially <hugh.
lers.
Egyptian women, e~en "itlle adopting the Greek
lan;uage and cenain e1emenls of the Greek way of
life, would not generally ha~e abandoned all Egyp-
tian traditions, and Ica~l perhaps their rdigiou~
con~iclions. On Ihe olher hand, numerous Egyp-
lian" above all in the loc.l administration, had to
be acquainted with Greek. however imperfeclly, in
order to tun their offices and to enhance t.....ir sla-
t..... Greek was the domlnam official lansuage in
Plolemaic Egypt. KIlO",;n. Gruk .nd adopling. in
ceruin res"""lli. a GrffI< way of life ....... a prerequi·
aile for talrinll higher S1ep5 up lite socbl \adder, '"
ICIW as bJ- ;IS the C~k·domina,ed spheres of life
"'"ere coocemed (.,.peciall,. In lO"em1llent se",ice.
military and ch·i1ian). !knee lhe con,iclion of for·
mer """"""'in,,,of hisIorWu and papymJosisu thai
Ptolemaic Ec'JII ....... Chanocleriud by a mixed ci\,.-
Iizalioa ...-+ten: Ef;ypI:ian and Greek eleme.n.......,,..,
tbought to have iarFly blended. Since. the. end of
the Sttood Worid War. this ,..... hal been S1rondY
chalJ..nged and replaced by an approach S1ressing
lhe fundamernal and often irreconcibbk difftn:nc-
ItS between E«>-plian and Cru. traditions-
II is cauinly lNe lhat Creeb in Ec>-pI, a small
minority convinced of ita superioriry. S1ro,,,,, to
maint2in ,he uniquenoeu of their culture. whereas,
on the other side. the masl of ~p1ian peasants
lacked opportunity .nd will to forsake their own
",,,Iitions and to assimilate the ",ays of fo~igne....
BU1thc reaction againsl the concept of mixe<! civili-
zation, partly prompted by the experience of mod-
em decolonization, may have gone lOt> fur. R""en,
progress in the siudy of Demotic papyri and of hie!'"
Ofllyphk in",riplion$ in the Emtian temple5 of the
Ptolemaic and Rom<tn period, as well as a new
l! 76 GREEKS IN EGYPT
awarcnes,; of the perfonnance of Egyptian Late Per-
ioo art, are c....ating conditions for a fre.h look at
the relations between Egyptians and G.....,ks in Ptul-
cmaic and early Roman Egypt. The question of
mi~ed civilization should be reexamined on a larger
and morc systematic scale including all aspects of
life and carefully distinguishing places, perioos. s0-
cial strata, and ethnic groups.
It is evident that there is at least one group of
Egyptians. occupying positions in the administra·
tion and the ann}', who tended to become partially
hellenized. The same will apply to many G"",ks and
Egyptians mingling racially and sharing commun
values. Not all the.. cases need to be ,'iewed as
examples of unilateral Hellenization, that is, Egyp.
tianization (the laller to a le..er degree), because
some people. then as today, belonged at the same
time to two cuhures. for example. persons serving
as Greek-speaking soldiers in the Ptolemaic army
and oIIiciating simultaneously as Egyptian-speaking
prieslS in a native cult. This graduall}' and partially
hellenized group certainly represented a minority
only of aurochthonuus Egyplians. hut it was a high·
ly active, fairly propertied, and politically important
segment of Ptolemaic oociet}', becoming ever more
visible and assertive after Ihe third century B.C
Such person. often boore two names, one Greek. the
other Egyptian. That means thaI names, aboove all
from the second century B.(;. unward. cannot be
considered any more as reliable indications of eth-
nic urigin. Anyway. after more than a hundred
years of mi~ed marriages in Ptolemaic Egypl. the
queslion of ethnic origin had ceased 10 make sense
in the corresponding milieux. On Ihe olher hand,
e"en outside these intennediary groups. Eg}']ltian
and Greek traditions were not totally impenneable
to each other.
Instead of focusing the debate on ethnicity in
tenns of "nati,.., Egyptians" .'erous "foreign
Greeks." il seems mo'li.rewarding to detennine the
rcspeetive slrength of EID']lllan and Greek traditions
in Hellenistic as well .os in Roman and Byzantine
Egypt. That approach is·of great relevance for a fair
appraisal of boolh Greek' civilization in Egypt and the
part pla}'ed in ilS developmenl by native f.gyptians.
Comparison wilh mooern colonialism will not do.
One seems justifiecl in saying that Greek civilizalion
in Egypt is not only the mark of an occupying
force. bul also. and not at least. an achievemenl of
hellenized Eg)ptlans. Additionally and simultane-
ously. the aclivily of Egyptians is on reeord in na-
live Eg)l'tian religion. art, and litenlture in Ptole·
maic and Roman limes. Far from being one long
iOlennecllate period interrupting the continuity of
Egyptian hi,tory. the centuries between Alexander
and the Arab conquest Inily belong to the heritage
of Egypt'. people and have made a great. but often
underestimated. contribulion to booth Egyptian and
classical d,'ilizalion. Nevertheless, notwilhstanding
contacts and common performances, difference.
even opposition. belween Greeks and Egyplians did
not disappear in Ihe cou""," of time, the dividing
line being. ho....'cvcr. not one of race, but one of
cuhure and social class. As there was cooperation,
there also was hoslilily. clearly evidenced, for in·
stance. in prophedes foretelling, like the POller's
Oracle, the ahandonment of Alexandria and the end
of foreign rule in Eg}']lt.
After the conquest of Eg}']lt by the Romans in 30
Re., the country entered Ihe Roman empire as a
province administered by a representative of the
emperor. the praef<elus Aegyp/i. Roman citizens.
active in the administration and in the army, doing
business and owning land. were hencefo"h Ihe suo
preme cla.. in Eg}1't. soon reinforced by Egyptian
Greeks. that is, hellenized Egyplians who acquired
Ruman citizenship, espedally Ihrough service in
Ihe Roman army. The rest, Ihat is Ihe majority,
were "foreigners" (puegri~i), al leasl in Roman ju·
ridkal construction. In fact, Greek remained the
ruling language, rIC,'er replaced by Latin e~cept in
the highest ec:helons of governmenl .en.;ce. in legal
procedures in,'olving Roman citizens, and partiall}'
in official military use.
Analyzing the relevant te~1S of the Roman period,
Montevecchi (1935, pp, 339-53) reached the con-
clusion that the term Aigyprios had a twofold mean·
ing: (i) in highly official language, it designated
both Greeks (including hellenized Egyptians) and
nonhellenized nati.'es as oppo...d 10 Roman citi-
oens: (2) in everyday life, and even in court. "';gyp.
rios could characterize the nonhellenized nati"e. in
contrast tu Ihe Greek. Ihat is, hellenized Egyptians,
That is not to say that Ine Romans established no
official dislinction belween the Greek and the "tru-
ly" Egyptian inhabitants of the country. Both
groups had to pay the poll ta~ (/aographia). but the
gymnasial elite (those "Greeks" whose status had
been verified by as<:ertainment of Greek ancestry
on both maternal and paternal sides and who had
been given access to Ihe O'mnas;um) wa~ treated as
a privileged class and so were, though to a lesser
degree. the other cilizens of the nome capitals as
opp<>sed to villagers. The members of Ihe gymnasi.
um as well as the m"'r<>pOlile. paid lower rates of
p<>ll ta~, Thes. favurecl groups. partially a blend of

"pur"" Cre<>k; and helleniled Egyptians already on
record in Ptolemaic egypt, inserted themselves be-
tw"en the Roman dlizens and Ihe "true" Egyptians.
that is, {~ peasant mass.
Under the inAuence of the melropolitc "Greeks,"
the nOme capital. eva]'-.,d into Greek·.lyle citi<:s. It
was a recognition of that development when. in c,
200, lhe emperor ~plimius Severns granted a lawn
council nol ooly (0 Alexandria but aloo (0 the me-
lropoles of the Egyptian chora. His son, Marcus
Aurelius Antonius, popularly called Caracalla, wem
one sup further when he accorded, in 212, Roman
citizenship to all inhabitants of the Roman empire,
excep' to a group designated as ddilicii (literally
"lhe capitulated"). whose precise identification is
sll1l debate<!: they are pwbahly equi,..lent 10 pere·
grin; deditidi who were excluded from the benefice
of Roman dtizenship ...< defeat.d rebels or enemies
of the Roman•. The category of deditici; mUSt have
been <""resented in Egypt and Can pernaI" be di.-
tingui.hed from the beneficiariC5 of Caracalla's
grant by th. l.d of the imperial dan of Aurelius
(on a further differentiation between "'ureUi and
mOre privileged MQrc; "'urdi;, $<'e Hagedorn, 1979).
The fonner di.tinction betw""n Roman citi:ren.
and Greeh in Egypt had thus been aboli.hed, but
by the same token, the dividing line between Ihe
privileged groups and the Egyptian peasant mass
had b<;,en drawn more sharply. Thi5 iine, along with
other divisiollS, became brutally visible in an order
of the same Caracalla eXp"lling from Alexandria, in
215, "all Egyptians ... and particularly wuntry folk
.. ,Among th. linen weav.rs Ihe true Egyptians
can easily be recogni7.cd b)' their .peech, which
reveals that they are affecling the appeara""e and
dress of others. What i5 more, in the wa)' they live
their mannen, the opposite of urban. behaviour,
reveal th.m to be Egyptian rustics" (extraci from
the translation cited by Lewis, 1986, p. 202).
The", "Egyptian rustic.'" .bad no or only in.ulli·
dent knowledge of Greek,":' when the Christian.s
began to bring them their ntessage,
, the mission had
to operate in the native tongue. The'u$<' of Coptic
for the diffusion of the scrip(u<es had nothing to do
with an opposition to the Greek., .ince it "''''', after
all. from Greek that the gospel and liturgical texts
had to be translaied into Coptic. Thus, in a first
phase lasting from th" third 1o th. middl" of th"
fifth c"otu')', the new b<;,lief. fur from dividing
Greek- and Coptic-speaking Christians, pro,'ided
COmmon ground that separated them from their
combined adve,.,;aries, whether they were Greek or
Egyptian.
GREEKS IN EGYPT 1177
TIte same is true for MONASTICtSM. which was, in
the fourth cemul)' and beyond, a shared eXp"rience
of Greek· and Coptic·speaking groups that held 10-
gether under the common direclion of the Alexan_
drian patriarch. The drifting apart, amidsl the dog.
malical and ecclesiastical conflicts of the Byzantine
period, of Christian communities in Egypt, above
all of Monophysites and Mdchites, rna)' not simply
be equated to a division between Greeks and Copts.
1l is well known that not only Copts but al", many
Greeh, that is, Greek·speakers in Ell)pt (and el",-
where) adhered 10 the Monophysite church. Bul
one may .unnise that the Meichilcs had few sup-
porten beyond the ranks of the Greeks in Alexan'
drill. and in the chora, the Chrislian Copts thus
fonning, together with Greek·speaking Monophy·
sites in Egypt, an opposition to non·Monophysite
authorities in Alexandria and Constantinople.
In other respects, too, the cultural diversity of
late antique Egypt does not always correspond to a
divi5ion between Greeh and Cop,". This holds true,
for instance, for G"osrIClSM and MANtCHAEtS.lol. both
having had Greek- .... well as Coptic·speaking adher-
ents. With pagan "Hellenes" in BY".antine Egypt,
",me dividing lines are perhaps clearer, but again,
they reveal no fundamental opposition in tenns of
Greeks "e.-sus Copts, The~ "Hellenes" ..ill che..
ished the traditional Greek paideia (education) and
were its acti.'e heralds. That is eSp"cial1y true for
the astonishing number of Greek, often pagan,
poets that Egypt brough. forth in the B)7.antine per·
iod, one of the most fumous being, toward the end
of the fourth century, the Alexandrian Claudianus,
who wrote Greek verse before becoming a cel"brat·
00 Lalin poet (Camerlln, 1970). O.ber Greek poets
followed during Ihe fifth centul)', many of them
coming from Panopolis deep ill Ell)pt. Establishing
wntact with the court at Constantinople and the
leading men llf the Brzantine empire, lhese poets
bear wilness to tlte profound and long-lasting Helle-
nization of the Egyptian chora throughout the
Greco·Roman period.
But these "Hellenes" were by nll means alien to
Egyptian culture and religion. One can deleet, in
thc works of these Greek-writing Egyptian poet.,
manifestalions of an Egyptian patriotism that often
tends to be overlooked but has nevertheless a long
tl<\dition reaching back to Ptolemaic and Roman
times, Some of these poets show an interest in typi·
cally Egyptian cults, That is surely natural enough
for Greek·speake,.,; who were brought up, as thdr
aocestors had been, in metropoles of the Egyptian
chora. But the same interest for Egyptian cults may
1178 GREEKS IN EGYPT
k conjec'ured, a furtio<i, fo< "true" Egyptians, that
is, for Cop,ic-speake~, Egyplian pagan sanc,uaries
of ,he chora survi,'ed in fairly large numbers Ihe
fourth century, some of ,hem s,ill holding out in
the filth and a few, like PH' ..... e, even lasling well
in,o the sixth century. II may be reasonably as·
sumed that Uoptic speake~ were numbered among
the adherenlS and the prieslS of th""e pagan Egyp·
tian culls. Those COplS stHl clinging 10 ,heir native
paganism would ,hus ha"e .hared common reli·
giou.' com'ictions with pagan "Hellenes" still very
active in founh· and fifth·century Egyp' and recep·
tive to its tradition •.
As already in Ptolemaic times, the phenomenon
of Egyptian. belonging to twO cultures can be ob·
""n'ed in the Byzantine period. But n()w as then it
.urely wm ha.'e ken limited to a rather .mall mi·
nority. ~TH~N~SlUS' familiarity with Cop,ic seem. to
ha\'e ken exceptional among ...leundrlan patri·
archs, but ecclesiastical as well as civil adminlstra·
tion must have requi<ed bilingual officials. One of
them w"" ,he .ixth·century laWJ-'er and poe' [)jo·
scoros of Aphrodito, Interaction of Greek and Cop·
tic traditions is also discernible in Coptic an. 1be
bicullural herirage of Greco-Roman Egypt surtlived
the ARAB CO"QU!'.ST OF F.GWT and so did, for a while,
the Greek language in Egypt.
To view the history of Byzantine Egypt in tenns
of a struggle between Greeks and Copts would k
uller simplifica'ion. But to say that cooperation pre-
vailed would be a grave error, too, since indiffer-
ence anJ even antagonism are evident on many
occasion•. The problem is one of balanced and in·
funned judgment, but it is, abo"" all, one of clear
methodical approaches and of .-erifiable concep·
tions. Modem research has as yet not agreed upon
a satisfactory definition of what exactly, other than
the language, is to k considered Cop,ic in Egypt
before the Arab conquest, To clarify that basic
problem more work hts to be done Oil late antique
Egyp" work tnat woull blend, more Ihan Was the
case in the past, Creek and Coptic stodies and
would bring together the r"l;ullS of historical. theo·
logical, papyrological, and linguistic research, More
than any other cpoch of Eg)-pt's ancient history, the
Byzantine period i. in need of a fresh approach and
a ,horough t<eatment.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Austin, M. M, Gruu a"d Egypl in lh~ Archaic Age.
P<oceeJings of the Cambridge Philological Socie-
'y, Supplement 2. Cambridge, 1970.
Bagnall, R. S. "Creeks and Egyptians: Ethnicity,
Status, and Culture." In Cl~opalra'. Egypt: Age of
lho PlOlomios, ed. R. S. Bianchi, pp. 21-25. New
York, 1988,
Barns, J. W. B. Egyptia~$ a~d Creeks, Papy<ologica
Bruxellensia 14. Brussels, 1978.
Bianchi, R 5.. ed. Cleopatra's Egypt: Ate 01 lhe
Plo/emies. New York, 1988.
Bothmer, B, V., I'd. Egyplian Sculplur~ of tho Lale
Period, 7()() 11.,. 10 A,D, 100. New York, 1960.
Cameron, A. Claudia~ Poetry and Propaga~da allhe
Court of Ho"orius. Oxford, 1970.
___ . Lilerature and Sodety in lh~ Early By<a>l/i"e
World. London, 1985.
Davis, S. Rau.Relalio~s in Anci~nI Egypl. Greek,
Eg)'prla~, Hebrew, Roman. London, 1951.
Fraser, P. M, Ptolemaic Alexandria, 3 vols. Oxford,
1972.
Hagedorn, D. "Marci Aurelii in Agypten nach der
Constitutio Antoniniana," Bulletin 01 ,h~ Ameri·
can Society of Pap)'rologlsts 16 (1979):47-59.
Koenen, L Elne agonislische Imchrift aus ;';gypt~n
und friihplOlem~jsche Konigsfesle. Bci'rligc "'If
klassischen Philologie 56. Meisenheim am Clan,
1977.
Kmuse, M. "Das christlkho Alexandrien ond seine
Beziehongen mm koptischen Agyplen," In Alex·
andrie~. Kultur1>egegnungen drcier Jahrtausende
im Schme!Ulegel ~i~er m~diterr~n~n Cro$S$wdt,
ed. C. Grimm, pp. 53-62. Aegyptiaca Treverensia
1. Mainz, 1981.
Kmuse, M., and K. Hoheisel. "Agyptcn 11 (Ii'era'ur·
geschich'lich)." Reallv:lkon fur Amlke ,,~d Chris·
remum, Supplement-Ucferung 1/2, cols. 14-88.
Stullgart, 1985.
Lewis, N. Lifo i~ Egypi under Roma~ Rul~. O"ford,
1983.
___. Grub i~ Prolemaic Eg)'pl. Case Studiu I~
lite Sod,,1 HiJlory of the Hdlenistic World, Ox·
ford, 1986,
Lloyd, A. B. Herodotus Book If, 3 vols. Etude<
preliminaires aux rdigion. orientales dans
l'empire romain 43, Leiden, 1975-1988.
_ _ . "Nationalist Propaganda in Ptolcmaic
Egypt." Hisroria 31 (1982):33-55.
MacCoull, L. S, B. Dio>corus of AphrodllO. His Work
and His World. The Transformation of the Clas.i·
cal H~ritage 16. Berhley, Calif.. 1989,
Meleze·Mod,-zejewski, J. "Lc Sta,ul des Hellene.
dans l'Egypte lagide: bHan et perspectives de rc-
cherches." Revu~ d~s budes grecq"~s 96
(1983),241-68.
__ . "Fra la cilla 0' il fisco: 10 statuto greco
nell'Egilto romana." In Studi i~ o~ore dl Ce.ar~
Sanfilippo, Vol. 7, Pl'. 463-86, Milan, 1987,
Montevecchi, 0, ..... igyptiO!i-Hellen in eta romana."
In Studl III o~ore de Edda Br~S<'ioni, cd. S. F.
Bondi, Pl'· 339-53. Pisa, 1985.

____ "Egil.iani e Cree;: la coesistenza delle due
cuhur. nell'Egillo romano." In Egi/IO • .<ode/il
an/lea. Alii dd Convegl'" Torino 8/9 VI_2J/24 XI
/984, pp, 233-45. Milan. 1985,
Nagel, P., ed. CroecQ·Coptko. Griechen und Kopun
1m b)'wn/i"ischen Agyplc". Martin·LUlher·Unh'er-
sitat Halle·Wilten~rg. Wisseos<:haftliche Beitrage
1,29, Halle. 1984.
Peremans, W" and E. Van'! Da<:k. Pro.lOpographio
Ptolemaico, 9 vol•. Studia HelleniSlica 6, 8. il-
13,17,20,21, 25. l<mvain, 1950-1981.
Preanx, C. Le Monde hell;"isliqu". U1 Cr_a " 1'0·
r;",,' de 10 morl d'Alexondr. Ii 10 co"quer. ro-
main" de 10 Gt'a (323-146 av. J. C,), 2 yols.
Nouvelle Clio 6 and 6 bis. Paris, 1978.
Salmon, P. LtJ Polit;que i-gypti."". d'Ath."" (Vr .1
V" slede. avmll I ..C.). Academic 'oyak de Bel·
gique. Classe des l"l1res el <ks ,cienc~ m"ralcs
et J>Olitiqu~, Mem"ire. 57, pt. 6, Brussels, 1965,
Samuel, A. E. From Alhe~$ W Alex<mdri~: Helleni,m
a~d Socu,1 Goals In Ptolemaic Egypl. Studia Hel·
lenislica 26, Louvain. 1983.
Th"mpson, D. J. Me'nphis ~rlder the P/ol~miu,
Princeton. N.J.. 1988.
WiPS2ycka, E. "La Christiani""tion de l'Egypte aux
IV'-V[' siede•. AspecI' sociaux el ethniques."· ,Ie·
gyptus 68 (1988),117-65,
HEINZ HElNI'.N
GREEK TOWNS IN EGYPT. Long before the
<onqu~'1 of Alexander the Great, Greek< had come
10 Egypt a, merchants, soldiers. and <elliers during
Ihe era of the "Greek coloni7alion'" (seventh centll·
ry B.c.). As a result. N~UCRATIS, in the Delta. was
established under the Twenty·sixth Dynasty as a
Greek town complete with Ihe traditional ",t of
polis (city) instituI;ons aod d"$lined to focus and
control Greek commercial aCli"ities in Egypt. It
was to ,..,ma;n for a lon¥ lime Ihe only Hellenic
lown on Egl1'lian soil. ~~
When Alexan<ler conque.;e.J Egypt in 332 B.C .. he
foun<led the famous cit)' ~ring his name. Alexan·
dria was to btcome, under Ptolemy I. the capital of
Egypt (replacing Memphis). and the leading eco·
nomic cenler of lhe easlern Mediterranean. Jrs or-
ganitAlion induded many of the characteristic fca·
tUTes of a Greek polis, but as capital of lhe
Ptolemies and, laler on, as ,..,sidence of the Roman
prefect of Egypl. Alexandria w,,-" nOi free 10 develop
full polis autonomy. Only in H'. 200 di<l it recover
ils lown council. probably abolished by Octavlan
(AugUStus), bUI at that late stage the reslilulion of
this body was no exceplional p<ivilege becau,e the
GREEK TOWNS IN EGYPT 1179
nome metropoles were granted town coundls at
about the ",me time.
The Ptolemies, content to develop Egyplian re,
sources and their owo income along lhe lines of
pharaonic traditions and Hellenistic planning. did
nearly nothing to funher the spread of pole;, in
Egypt. Ptolemy I founded only one Greek city com·
memorating his name. P'olema;s in Upper Egypl.
His suCCes"ll'$ did not add a single G,..,ek dt)',
probably not wishing to establish more "aulon<:>-
mom" centers In a country where monarchic abso·
lutism prevailed. After Ihe conquest of Egypt by
OClavian (AuguStul) in 30 fl.C-. the Roman emperors
maintained lhat tradition. While prolecllng Ihe
"Creeks" (i,e" both native Greeh and Ih"""
Egyptians who had joined their ronks lhrough mar'
riage and Hellenization) and IheiT institutions, Ro-
man authorities refra;ne<l from cTeating new pol,is.
wilh the one e'Cepjion of the phil hellene emperor
HadTian. He founded the Greek city of ~~'TlNOOPOus
in Upper Egypt to honor the memo,y of his youlh-
ful companion Antinous, wOO had drowned in the
Nile in ~.D, 130. Except for these fou< polei' and for
Pametonium (but Ihe latter's status is dubious; see
below), there were no other Creek lowns in Egypt,
This pictuTe changed completely when, at the be-
ginning of the third century, the emperor Scplimius
Se>'eru. accorded the privilege of lhe lown council
not only 10 Alexandria buI also to lhe metropoles
(nome Capilals). In the p"-"t, the lauer had gradually
developed several featu,..,s typical of Greek lown"
such "-" magistrades and I<-"mn<'';;'' (schools). In 200
they became pole;,; In Ihe Hellenic sen"", complete
with a scI of town inst;lutions, but without proper
autonomy. This evolution was taken one step fur-
ther when the ,..,forms of DIOCLETIA>ol. beginning
about 296, tran,formed the melropoles into po/els
(civllate.) and established the nomes "-" the eIIoria
(tem/o";um/ of these new cities, These measu,..,.
deliniti"ely blurred the di.linction ~1Ween the old
Greek lowns of Egypt (which had long protcttcd
their privileged slatus, exening a careful control on
the be!;towal of citizen righls) and 'he metropoles.
in the past, the lauer had 1::>«n considered as mere
villages (komai). technically speaking. notwithstand·
ing Ihe central functions of the nome capitals in
religious, administrative. an<l economic respeclS. Al
the same time. the oyerall eSlablishment of civilalcs
and temto,;" in EIDl'l by Diodetian contributed to
the Ie,'cling of differences between that country and
the Olher provinces of the later Roman Empire. But
pemaps the most important conclusion to be drawn
from the evolution of the Greek town, in Egypt is
1180 GREEK TOWNS IN EGYPT
the gradual dissolution of "pure" Hellenism in Ro-
man Egypt. paralleled by the fading away of the old
traditions of native Egypt and the rise of a new, late
amique EgypIian civili.ation with its t}pical blend
of Christian and pagan, of Greek and Egyptian ele-
ments.
Naucratls (modern Kom Gu'alf)
A colony of Ionian MilelUs, founded perhaps lJl
the mid seventh century in the Saite nOme on the
Canopic Branch, Naucratis was a dourishing cemer
in the archaic and classical periods. It li.'ed on as a
Greek poli, throughout Ptolemaic and Roman times
bul was overshadowed by the nDl-so·distant Alexan·
dria. Naucratis pw;erved its purely Hellenic char·
acter, intermarriage with Egyplians being otill con·
sidered illegal in the second century A.D.
Alexandria
The lown "'... officially styled as a separate entit}',
Alexandrea ad Aegyptum. When Alexandria was
conquered by Octavian in 30 JI.c.. irs lown council
was abolished (or had already been abolished under
the last Ptolemies). NotwithSianding the effort. of
Alexandrian Greeks to recover that symbol of polis
status. the Roman emperors. such as Claudius (A,[>.
41-54). refused to cede on that point. But Alcran-
dria did have a wide range of munieipal institutions
and magistracies. among which were the exegeles.
gym~asi/1.rd!Q$, kO.I",ete$. eUlheniQcchos. and "gor-
anomos, A distinctive feature of polis organization
was the subdi.'ision of Alexandria's citi""n corps
imo tribes (phyla!) and deme. (demo!). M a privi_
lege, the Alexandrians were exempted from the poll
tax (laographia) and from liturgie, in the l'.ID'Ptian
chora (on the Alexandrian chora, cr, Jabne, 1981).
Besides ilS citizen population. Alexaodria was in-
habite<l by pe<>ple of "ery different prownance.
Apart from the native ~tians. whose innux into
the town v.-as checked. ;sometimes brutally, by the
Roman authorities, the largest segment of the non-
Greek population was ~ade up of Jews who had
corne, or had been brought, to Alexandria since the
beginning of Ptolemaic times. Like other nationali·
,
ties, Ihe Alexaodrian Jews had their own civic corn·
munity (polil"uma), complete ""ith a council of eid-
ers (gaol's;,,). presided over by an "Ihnarch, with
tribunals and archi"es, The Jewish drive to obtain
full parily with the Alexandrian Greeks led to severe
tension, and occasionally to "",vage killing during
the first anti second cenlUries A.D. During his visit to
Egypt in ~.D, 200, the emperor Septimi.... Severns
conceded a to""n council to the Alexandrians. Ihus
satisfying their perennial request. !!.xca,'alo", have
discovered a building with ranges of weli·pr~r...ed
seats (the so-called ,mall thealer), which may per-
haps be identified a.s the hail of the town council
(ef. Baity, 1983~ see also AUiXANDltlA IN LAn A....-r'OlJl·
H).
Paraetonlum (modern Man.a Matrul,)
In the nome of Libya, Paraetonium was first men·
tioned in the period of Alexander the Greal. and it
ranked in Roman time. as a pri,'ikged. perhaps
Greek town (eI. Jones. 197 f. pp. 305f.J. One of the
few harbors between e:,renaica and Alexandria. Pa-
raelonium served as Ihe obvious starting place for
the journey to the desert o",de of Zeus Ammonios
in the oasis of 5i""a. which "'as much frequented by
Greeh from Greece and the Aegean. Hence the
name of Ammonia equally can be anested for Pa·
"'etonium. The place had an impo'lant garrison,
bloding the access 10 Egypt from tlte west. As a
consequence of Diodetian's reform" Paraetonium
belonged to the newly created province of Libya
Inferior and served as its capital. Under Justinian iI
""as the reside nee of the dw. Um;"s Ubyci (general
of Ihe Libyan border). In 325, Paraetonium is men·
tioned as the see of a bishop (Roque" 1987, pp,
1101.).
Plolemals he Hermelou (modern al.Man~ah)
Ptolem ..is was founded by Ptolemy I Soter, and as
the southernmost Greek city in Egypt. it established
Greek presenee and Ptolemaic control (by way of
the SlraUgos [general) and other royal officials) in
Upper Egypt, where nath'e traditions and opposi·
tion to Alexandria and foreign domination were es-
pecially strong. Ptolemais had a town council. a
board of pryumeis (leaders of tri~), and the usual
set of municipal magistrales. but it stood, like the
other Greek town•. under overall Roman supel'Vi·
sion. There are some Gre<:k inocriptions illu,t"'ling
ci.'ic life and Hellenic eulture at Ptolemais during
the Ptolemaic period (Dinenberger. 1903. no•. 47_
52). but the source malerial for Roman Ptolemais is
rather meager. compared with that of Antinoopolis,
We learn aoout the maintenance of civic and reli-
gious institutions, even detectable in the faellhat in
Roman tintes many people still gave their sons the
name Ptolemaios or Soter. thus commemorating
the Ptolemaic founder of their town. The carefully
nurtured tradilions of Greek paganism weI.., eel"
tainly responsible for the resistance to Christian it)'

in Illller Ronu.n PlolelRai... The lown Ihu. did not
become: the ~ of a bishop, this role bein, aMUn ..."(!
by neiJllborins Th;.. Ptolema;' seems 10 ha.'e been
ootrored in the course of me Anb ~onquest.
Anllnoopolh (modern An.tInaJ
In A.D. 130 fUdrian fwndoc<l AminoopolLl on the
UlI l£dt of the Nile. faci"l HcnnopoI;. Ma&na
(modem ai·A.hmllnayn), ill Upper J:cypI. The ~I)'
_ in ~ rnpccIS a purdy Greek lown, Anlino-
opoli$ hNl a Hdlb';"ic IlIyOUl, wilh .I<UU inler-
sectinc lU righ, angles. the main llTUU bein,
adorned ..·ith ~oIonnada lIiII Yioiblc in Ihe days of
Napoleon'$ £Coplian expedilion. The conSlilution
..... fnomed on lhal of Naucnllis, a &bItk Il'minde-r
oll~ lonse~il)' an<l S1unglh of Gt~k ci~k instltu·
tions in lite midst of the vel")' diffell'nt patterN 01
Ei>pTlan lraditions and of \>o(h Ptolemaic and Ro·
man monarchic rule. l1tc colonisu well' alll"l.CIM
from Ptolcm.. i~, but also from the Greek or Htllen·
ired dasses in the A",inoites and from '·eltTlln. of
Ihe Roman arm)'. Many of These had IonS .Ince
minsJed whh lhe Et>ptian population. Jl was cuicr
to ddend and spread Gtffk ci~i1ization than to pre'
""rve nldal puriTy. Ali a consequence. and contrary
10 the Laws of NaUCTllI;', the citw.n. of Antino-
opolis _te ,n....,n the rishl 10 marry £optian. fep;·
lamia}, many 01 whom Ji~e<l in lhal town without
be;", fW' of I"" citizen corp$- The ~k commu·
nity of AlUinoopol;' ..... di.idcd into Iribe5 and
demes. and from their ranks well' recruit..d th..
lMmben of the IOWn council aod th.. munici~
maeislra1e5. Ali a COflM:<l.ucnce 01 [);OCle'lian'. re-
loons. .he sp«iaIliWuS of Antinoopolis as .. Greek
IOWJI IosI much of its oignific:ance, bul the city"" ....
....ps Increased its impt>ttance by l>eco:nin, the seal
of the tl.... of In.. 7hcbaid. The .... th..,.. mury ad'>oo-
cate and poe'! DIOSCOIUlS OF AI'tIlilOrtO. lluenl in
Gr~lt and Copt;" as ..'dl-as Latin, "';101 a remart·
aWe nponel1l of lhe GIl'~k society of ble
amique Ecfpt.
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Ce"et.1
Calderlnl. A.. and S. Daris. Dhio"arlo tl~; "omi ,eo·
,ra(j.:1 d~II'E,;lIo iTtco·",m/l"o, 3 vols. Cairo. Ma·
drid, and Milan, 1933-1981.
Jone., A, fl, M. The Cities of th~ EIIJtern Rom."
Pr,,"inc,", 2nd .,d., pp. 301-306. Oxford, 1971.
JouqU<:I, P. La vic m""idp"l~ da". I"ECpu ro-
main., pp. 113-201. Paris, 1911.
GREEK TOWNS IN EGYPT 1181
Montcv«chi, O. La P"piro!QfiIl, pp. 141-43, 149,
156-53, 163. TlII'1n, 1973.
W~den, U. "0;., Gri..dwtlS'idt..... In C,..~
u"d Clr.nslOmlJlJlie tl~r Pa,.,rus/cund~, cd. L Mil-
",is and U. Wild",n. Vol. I, pi. I. pp. 43-33.
l..riIJzic. 1912.
"'~ .....
Abbadi, M. 1>. H. d·. "1'lIe AJeundrian Cuiz=ship.-
Journal uf ElJ1'n.n Ivduo/OO 43 (1962):106-
on.
Balconi, C. "A.lcsandria nell'eti augu...,,,, Aspftli
di .ita-" In Ednll ~ liJI)(;eJb ."ne.. ..ttti del c".,,'~~
n" Torino S/9 VI-Up. XI19B., PI'- 181-96. Mi-
bn. 1983.
BaI.y, J..c_ "Le 'boulcuterlon' de l'AI~Dndrie .eve-
""nne:' In Eludes ~l /tI"'au~ D, pp. 7_12. T",,·
\';lUX dll Centll' d'Arch~losie mMilernn~.",n.,
de l'Academic polonaise del .cie~ 26. Warsaw,
1983.
Jlihne, A. "Die '.uf(al'6pt.. ~ X"'-"'." Klio 63
(1981):63-103.
Wolff, H. "Die Conllilulio Anloniniana und Papyrus
GiMen.i. 40 I:' 2 vols, Dissenalkon, Cologne,
1976. Sec e.pecially pp. 239-71, "Zur Rechtsstd·
lung der XlYJ'Ier. D/I$ Beispiel docs flal'J'O"ras:'
AntlnoopoIb
Bell, H. I. "Aminoopolis: A Kadrianic FoundaTion
In Ecl'1." Ioumlll til R"n"", Stud;,. 30
(1940):133- 4 7.
Bemand, A. us porT.S du di~n. ~CU.,i1 <Us in·
scripOOots uecqueJ tl'..t"tiroooupolis Mllpa. pp.
23-107. Paris, 1984.
BrauDett, H... G......,htK~ Un<! romisclw: Knmpo-
n..ntelt Un Stadtrecltt ...... Anlinoopolis.·' Jo.<mal
of Jurislk PII(71tOIOO 14 (1962):73-81 .
DonadoJti, 5.. ed. Allti>roe fl965-1968', Rome, 1974.
KUhn, E. Antinoopolis. Em !kilt", tot' Ga€lr.iclru
ks H~nerrisntus in! r6mjJC~.n ADP/en. GrilnJunS
_d Y~rf""""f' lriptis, 1913.
MacCoull, L 5. B. '''The Coptic Archive: of DioM:o-
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n. Dioscmttion, Leiden, 1939. In Afrikaans with
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Timm, S. D"s cltri.uliclt.!t;()pti.u;lrc AgyptCrl in a,a·
bisclt." uit, Vol. I, pp. 111-23. Bc:iheft., zum
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Nau"ratls
Bernand, J.. Le Ddt" <Cptic" d·ap,~. itS tutes
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1182 GREEK TRANSCRIPTIONS
M~mo<,es Publlts par les Membra de l'ln.lilut
fran~is d'Arclteolocie o""nUlle du Caire 91. Cai·
roo 1970.
Bissinl. W. yon. "Naukratls lIS an EcYPt~ and a
G.~k Seule....enl,'· B",IIt1ln de /" S«ill£ 'o)'<'le
d·,,,-cI.loloCle d'AIUtlndn', J9 (1951 ):JJ-82.
CouIK>ll. W. D. E.. and A. Leonard. Cilia of Ihe
D,/Ill. pl. L Nlluerlll'J. Prdiminary Report .... lit'
/917-78 .. nd 1980 SeaJ<><l'J. A_,kan Research
CM''''' in "cpt. Rrpo<u •. Malibu. Calif., 1981.
M""'knar:re, H. de. "Naukratb." In lLrik"" de.
Ar,ypto/oci" Vol. 4. \\'~~n. 1931.
h ...d_luIII
Keel', H. """'railonion." In R • .u,..
cydop<tdir de'
d"UfJCMn Altf>f..mJ...uunJd"fr, Vol. 11.3. cob.
1182-M. S!ullpn. 19049.
Roqucs, D. S,,,lJitu de Cyrble ., 10 Cyri_iqw, d..
s.u·Empi7,. Eludes d'antiqui~ afric:aincs. hri5.
1911.
DitttnberpT. W. Orienm 6111«1 ... JCriprio....J _
lee,,,,. Sl<pP/_UlIwm Splops i.ucripno....m
V« ......... nos. 47_52. 10). 70J. 721. LeipDlo
190).
FntOeI". P. M. "hucripcion. from Pto[..,maic: Eg)pc."
a'ryfws I) (I%O):ID-61. See especially pp. Il)-
)) wilh pl. XXIX. I (a decl'ff pessed by 1M bo<-h
and the thmf>. 01 holemais lhal is ;mporunl fur
the cOIIIfIO'ition oIllloe lewm population).
;:;ceo Pro/en";'; Aluandria. ) WIts. OJ.fo.d. 1'112.
Jahne. A. ~PIolemals and h. Place in ~ SUI"" 5,-s.-
I""" oJ. hokmaic EcY\l''' (in R~ian). Vrsmtl:
d _ j "'om (1910):19-)1.
Pbumann. G. l'lQ/,tmIlU In Oknlopfrn. Ein £kilr",
1Il1 G,schldll, du H,lIe.. lsm"'J i.. Al)plrn. Lrip-
rile. historis<:he Abhanc!lunllen 18. LripziK- 1910.
Hf.I.~z HfJSL"I
GREEK TRANSCRiPTIONS. See Appr..du.
GREGORY II, fou"~nth..:enlury Melchite p~(ri­
arch of Alexandria. Very little Is known about Cn:g·
ory II. V, Crum..l and J. Nasrallah dale his el..ction
around 015, As IIOOn lIS he Wlll5 el"~led. he .em a
•ynodal lelte. to hlJ colleagu .. of ConsUlminople.
Palriarch John XIII Clykys, announcing hi. ele~·
lion, Thi. letter was published by F. MikJ05i~h and
J. MUller along wilh a ,eply from John XIII. Invit·
inl him 10 come 10 COnst.a.nlinople,
Nallrallah (1981. p. S6) Slales lhal the patriarchs
of Ale:undria durina the P<'riod between 1250 and
1516 .esided most of the lime at ConsI.anlinopk.
Ho,.,.,,'er. il seems lhal Cresol)' II us....lly resided at
Cairo. ;l$ is 1l11es1ed by Ih, manuscript ~opied by
lite hierodeacon SAM ¥I.$A in 020 al the JIlluUr'
"hal residence in Cairo (Si,..i Arabic 102).
At an inletmediale dale. Cn:gory C09Ied lne large
Gre<:o-Arabic ..ucltologion (Sinai Arabic: 251: fob.
12Ib-l7b are ,,'tillen exclusi\'Cly in Anblc). He
glI\'" this manu'iCri", lIS a ""gacy 10 lhe church oi
Mir SAbi. which is in the pan of Aluandria.
Of panic:ular not.. in this manuscripl is lhe office
of con....muion oJ. the " ...1..... of lne Nile. penormed
on Ih.. Sunday More Ihe fnst d PtnteeoSl (rols.
127b-7.5bl. 1br Cr<'d: 1<:>'1 diMs office has been
e<!iltd b)' A Dmilncmij (1901) and M. Black
(1938). 1br Chris!ilt.D Pala1inian Aramaic: lUI has
been ediled by G. MarzoIioulh (1896). The Ar!lt>tt:
lelll h... not yet bttn edited.
Grepy -.. _II \..,~ in both Arabic and
Greek. ... Sinai Arabic 138 all<'$S. Bul abtwe all. h<:
bqan to trwrslal.. the T~Oft of 54...' StJIM from
Gred< inlo Anbic:. with an Arabic COmmenl&f}" on
the part oo<>c",ming the a,.,.".. itJI (a nlelu SC't'\"ice
before ceuin feasu, in the EaR,m chun:.h) only.
as he had no time: 10 do more.. This aplains .....Ily.
.bonl)· ancr..'aTd,. in 1315. Ahtl al·F~ 0I.ISI.......111l IIIi
ASI AL-.!lA'M.J 1.."1 "III .Q..F"T\:I .... did.he whole Inn$la'
"'. Fun"""""",",. a nol'" in a manuscript .. o~
in 1.594-1.59.5 (Mir £liM ShuW3)')"l' [Lebanon] Matt·
uscript 30) .ecords tha' Pauiarch Crepy was
mo....n as Grqory al-51n",,1.1 (lOis. 2a-2b). This
ind>t:ateS thai he had bttn a monk al Sinal and
....pla:;"" ..... hy some oJ. his manuscripls are found
lhere loday.
Accoming '0 GlUm"'. Cre",., II died ~fo..
13.54. allhough Grume! adds a qUC:Sflon mark. Ac·
cording 10 Nasrallah. he died wro.. I33S.
BIBUOGRAI'HY
A,iy>.. A. 5.. and J. N. Yotlt$ef. Call1log.. , Raiw.. nl
of lh, MOUn! SI"ai Manll.criplJ (In Arabic). pp.
203-204 and 4B~84. Alexandria. 1970.
Black. M. "Rituale Me!chilarum. A Christian Pales.-
tinian," Bo...... orlen/aUKhe SllIdien 22
(1938):28-3.5 .
Omilrievskij. A. Opi.", ..ij, IirurgiC'$kh ,ukop;J~j,
Vol. 2: Elfcholv~;'" I'f'. 684-91. Kiev, 1901.
Engberdin8. H, "Der Nil in de, lilurgi'chen Frtlm·
migkeit d•• chri.dichen Osten.:' Orl,,,,
chri'li".
.."'s 37 (19.5)):.56-88.
Gmmel, V. LII cltro..olori... p. 144. I. I!. Paris, 1958.

Margoliouth. G. "n..:, Liturgy of the Nile," Journal
of the Royal Asiatic Society 0/ Creal Brito;n and
[rdand (1896);677-731.
Miklo,ich. F., and J. Muller. ..lela el dip/ornata gro_
eco medii aevi .acra el profono. VoL 1, PI', 20~2~,
Vienna, 1860.
Nasnollah. J, Ristoir. du mouvemenl /i11'raire dans
rEglise "'e/chite. Vol. 3. 1'1. 2, PI'. 62 and 149.
Paris and louvain. 19SI.
Kw.UL S,u,IlR, S.J.
GREGORY THE ILLUMINATOR, SAINT,
or the Armenian (c. 240-332), bishop and patriarch
of Annenia .....ho is a "martyr without bloodshed"
(feast days: 1$ Kiyahk and 19 Hit), His is venerated
in the diptychs of tbe Coptic church. where hi'
name is mentioned together .....ith two other
Gregot)'<, Thaumaturgus (c. 213-270) and the Th.,.
ologian (c. 330-395). He is also called the "Apostle
of Annenia" for having evangelized the country.
although. historically, he was preceded in this mis_
.ion by Saint Bartholomew, one of the twelve disci·
pie. of Christ.
According to an Armenian tradition, Gregory was
the son of a Parthian nobleman, Amak, who assassi-
nated King Chom>es ! by order of Ardashir. The
dying king commanded that Amak's whole family
be put to death. But the infant Gregory was saved
and se<:retly taken to Caesa,..a in Cappadoda,
where he was brought up as a Chri.tian by a foster
mother; later he married a devout woman who
bo,.. him two sons. A few years afterward. the mar·
ried couple chose to forgo their conjugal relation·
.hip. preferring to de"ote their live' to worship and
prayer.
Upon his return to Armenia, he was attached to
the coult of King Tiridatcs, who succeeded his fu·
ther, Chasroes. to the thr.,ne. thanks to the effons
of Emperor DIOCltm~l<. N"'!.\fmowing his tnte identi-
ty, Tiridate. orde,..d Gregol}' to offer incense to the
idols. but the laller persist'ently rero$ed. and was
,ubjected to extreme aCt, ottonu,.., which came 10
be known a.~ "the tweive tortures of Saint Gregory,"
and he was finally thrown Into a pit. He,.. he was
se<:retly fed by an old Christian woman named
Anna for a number of years.
The legendary life story of"Gregol}' is inten.o.'o'-en
with an episode about a community of nun, who
had been living in Rome. but Iled to escape from
the designs of Diodetian upon One of them. Rhip·
'ime. They took refuge in the capilal of Atmenia,
but Ihere they fell prey to Ihe harassment of King
GREGORY OF NAZIANZUS, SAINT 1183
Tiridate. who. befo,.. returning Rhipsime to Din-
detian, allempted to seduce her. However, she
managed to escape. but was later caught by the
king', men, who put her and her companions to
death.
The story goes that, by divine retribution, Tiri·
dates was transformed into a wild boar and hi'
subjects were smillen with the plague. In a dream,
hi' sister was told that only Gregory could bring
about her brother'. recovery. Gregory was therefore
released from the pit, and his pr.oyers produced the
miraculous recovery of the king and his subjects.
all of whom embraced Christianity. Gregory waS
thus able to preach in public, and was consecrated
bishop of Armenia by l.eontius, bishop of Caesarea_
Having reached an advanced age. G,..gol)- conse-
crated his son bishop. and retired to a life of soli-
tude and meditation. In 325, he Was called upon to
lake pan in the Council of NtCAEA, but he delegated
his son, Bishop Aristages. to go in hi. place_
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Davidson, L "Gregoriu. (7). St:· tn DCB 2, pp,
731-39.
Ulnglois, V. Collection des histori"ns ancien.. el
modern". de I'Amreni", Paris, 1867-1869.
Peeters. p, "5. Gregoire l'IIluminateur dans Ie ca-
lendrier lapidaire de Naples." Analcera Bollond!-
"no 60 (1942);91-130.
At<CHtIlSKOf BAStUOS
GREGORY OF NAZIANZUS, SAINT (329-
389), known as the Theologian. Along with Saint BAS·
t~ THe GREAT and Saint GREGORY OF /lYSSA, G,..gory
of Nazianzus is one of the three: Cappadocian fu·
thers, He was born in Narianzu•. For a few month,
he was bishop of Constantinople. bUI he then with·
drew to private life. Among his principal works are
a collection of fony·Ii,'e homilies, induding five
theological homilies on the Holy Spirit; the Philo·
kalla, a collection of passages from ORICf.N: a col·
leclion of 425 letters; and a collection of poems.
Although Gregory is a .aim in the Onhodox and
Roman Catholic tradition •. the Coptic church did
not ,'enerate him panicularly. Indeed. he has no
individual feast in the Copto-Arabic SYNAXARION,
nevenheles., he is mentioned. for example. in the
Gre"l Euch%glo" of DAYR ANBA SHm(it>AH (the
White Monastery). The Coptic literary tradition at·
tributes eight nomilies to him; four are authentic,
one is erroneously attributed, and three are later
spuriOU! worh.

1184 GREGORY OF NYSSA, SAINT
""'" ."Malie homi..... (Irambted from 1M
Grl'f't) include Homily 14, ~ c;'."'4IIC. " ..hien SUe·
rives in Bohairic: In a compkte codu (Vatican U.
b,.,..,.. Coplic 66. 12) and in JODM: fncm.eIlU from
anoth coda (La(onlaine. 1919); Hom,1y 21. I"
...""'PI which .........."" in ~"""l.5 of a codcK
of lhe Whi"" M~el)' (Orlandi, 1910); a nl"'enl
of Homily 4). In S.sili".... hum a papynl.5 codcK
lBro......e. 191'1); .00 5(>IrJe' unpublished fl"lIglMnu
from Homily 45. Dc Puc;'". in a code~ of lhe While
Monaslery.
The erroneously al1r1buled homily is in feci Greg·
ory of Nyssa'. De deilale Filii ci Spiri"'. Sa"eli.
pardy rewo.-kcd.
The !hru .purious homili... show all Ihe signs of
being lhe froil of oriJinal COplic produclion of
abo." lhe se>'tl\lh cenlul)', and an: allrib!aled 10
Gl"Cpy for reasons of co.wenience.
Dc Mich.,c1c ArclNl",Uo cl de di4lbolo (Lafon",;ne.
1919. from \he .... IlUICripi ;n the f'ie''POtll Morpn
Ubrary. New Vori<. M591. hi.. 8-16: al'racmenl in
the British Museum, 0... 6782. fol. 9) is a ~1allon
of a doclrinc altributed 10 hcnlks and .l.bnict--
ilD$ COt\ttrllinc Ihe .in commiut:d by SaW! and the
IaIb $Ubf,eqU(:ntly IaftrJ on by Michael. Accordinl
10 Ihe hereties, SaW! ..... hani$ht:d foe hAvin. re-
fused 10 adore man when lhe Ia"er ..... erealt:d.
Againsl Ihn view. !he aUI""," .lalCJ lhat Salan. lhe
fitst .,f the hea~el\ly crealures, .inned by pri&c be-
fore lhe ea"h was even crealed. and II was Ihen
lhal he was .epleced by Michael. The leKI lhen
speaks.,f Michael's role as imerces"'" for men wllh
GOO.
Some papyrus fnogmenu (Pierpom Morgan U·
bBl)'. C7; Crum. 1913, no. 7) con\8in a COmmen·
tary. I" Rom. • :/5. thaI deal. princi..lly with bap-
tism. Also concerninl bapri5ID, we haw .- homily
that ........ ni\'ed in IQmIC unpublished fnaments
froon the While MOfIMlery.
Ursl. _ o}w;)uIdofnelllion oov liwrti<:ll1 .........
(Plcyte and lIocM=e. 1'91, pp. «IlL). called "Pnl~r
and Exorcivn." of m1'ltri<>us conlent. It ts nor .,ee-
lain, ......~r, thaI the Grqory given as lhe ... thor
n 10 be, idenlified .. Grqory of Naziarau$.
• IBLlOG....'HY
Brown.,. G. M. Michi~d" Coptic Tut•. Papyrolot;ica
Caslrocla~iana 1. Barcelona. 1979.
Crum. W, E. "Theol"aical Texu from Coptic Papy'
ri."' In A"ecdm.. Ox.,,,ie,,si... Semilie Series 12,
OKfo<-d. 1911.
---
Lofontaine, C. "Une Homtlie eop1e IUr Ie diabk CI
sue Michel auribuk , G"q:oi". k lMolopm.~
I.e M"-SIooo 92(1919)".31-60.
- -;;;c:-, "La Ve........ coplf: boNirique du discoun
'Sur" I'amoue de. p&U......... de Gcip'" de Nazia...
~.~ I.e M".Io>r 9) (1980);199-230.
UrIne. E.. ed. I.e a,,,nd cuelto1ose d ...Won"-Slc-.t
Blanc. PO 28. 2. J'aris. 1958.
Orla.... i. T. "La. tradul.ionc copra. dell 'Encomio de
AIan..-io' di C".gorio Nazianuno." Le Mum" 8l
(I970):lSl-66.
Plcyle. W., and P. A. A. Boese•. M"..u.uits copus
d" Mu.te d'Amiquiti, d .. Pdy.·8o. iI !.tid•. Lei·
den. 1897.
TITO ORLANDI
GREGORY OF NYSSA, SAINT (c. l30-395),
.. thoologian. With Sllint GU'OlIlY OF N.UI...."ZO,IS and
Saini &toSIt nit GlEAT. his older bmrher, he ..-u one
of the Ih~ c.PI'*docia" &u.ers. He IlC'l our 10
bccocne .. rhetorician. but Crqory of NN:ia.Nw
con.-inced him 10 dedicale him5elf rather 10 lhe
ccdesiallica! lif1l!. Basil oominaled him 10 be bt.bop
of Nyssa., .- .mall city in CappadociL He ...,,;ded
there o"ly al ItTeg\llar iruen'ak. at firsl be-c-all$C cl
the Arian concrowny and then bee.-UK of hts lon,
VO)"i'ICS- He panlcipated in lhe Fir$l Council of COi'<.
STANTINOf'U! in l81.
M an opponent .,f A/lIANI!>M. Gregory fo.>nd favor
in lhe C.,pllc Church. but was not regarded as a
saint. ahhough he Is in lhe R<:>man Calhollc and
Onhodox churches. He is besl kn<lwn in Coptic
lileralure by .- few lranslalions of his philMOphical
worla. These lranslal;OIl$ eKw .. folloW!:
I. Vii" CrtfCrii 71t""""'lurri ..... sulVI,~ in a
Sabidic code. ITom DAYJ: A.'1DA 5HIJlOD.OH (the While
Monasrny). clatinl fcom the tenth and eleventh ce...
.un..., and in .. Bohairie eodn by SainI NACUCU$ of
Sce1is.. datiOl from the ninth CeOIUl')'. BoIh talS art'
in fn.cmoenta.
2. ~ Uil.le Filii ~t Spirilwi S4lJ1Cl'i ill .. readapta-
tioD of !he GrHk tat in a Bohairie code>. by Mac-
arius (Vaciclln library. Coptic 61, 6), auributed in
Capric '0 Gregor)' of Na>ianntI. 1be oritinal Int
has b«n .-hered '" as 10 tmpkJy only lhe pari th;ot
is eMC'nllally CUBelical :and moral in dU'1'aC1CT.
). lk "ni",.. el =..
ruclio"e is a dialogue found
in a fn.l"'ental)' SaIImc c<><k. from Ihe While
MOn"'5lel')'.
4. C.,"''''Uldry 0" Ecde.id.l.S is compriwd of
eighl homilies. found in a fragmenlary Sahidic CO-
deK fcom the White Monaslery.

The.., last two work.<, which are distinctly philo·
sophical (particularly the dialogue), coming from a
PIMonic-origenist s~hool, seem to have been lrans·
lated into Coptic and spread Ihroughout Egypt dur-
ing the period of the Origenisl controversy (fourth-
6fth centuryl- a time when it might be supposed
thaI Egypt should have sided with Patriar~h lHED-
PHlLUs OF ~LE.x~"'OR!~ agains! Ihe OrigenislS, It
migh! ha,'e been po!oSible, however, that one pan of
the monastic 50Ciety had been and remaine<! under
Origenisl influence, including those monasteries in
Upper Egypl where some of the translations into
Sahidic were made, These same groups might also
have translated the colle~lion of writings attributed
10 ACUHON'CUS OF TARSUs,
BIBUQGRAPHY
Chaine, M, "Une Homelie de S, Gregoire de Ny",e,"
R,v"e de 1'0rie"l chrhi", 17 (1912):395-409; 18
(1913):36-41.
Coquin, R,-G" and E Lucchesi. "Une Venion copte
du De anima et resurrectione (Macrinia) de Gre·
goire de Nysse," Oriml~lia wva"ie.uia. Pe.iodic~
12 (1981):161-201.
Fsbroeck, M. van. "Fragments sahidiques du Pa·
negyrique de Gregoire Ie Tllaumaturge par Gre-
goire de Nysse." Orimlalia Lova"iensia Periodic~
6-7 (1975)-1976):555-68.
Orlandi, T. "GTegorio di Nissa nella letleratura
COpt3.." V.IOTa ChriSlianorum 18 (1981):333-39,
TITO ORlANDI
GREGORY OF NYSSA, SAINT, CANONS
OF. See Canons of Gregory of Nyssa.
GRIFFITH. FRANCiS LLEWELLYN (1862-
1934), British Egyptologist. As longtime profes·
SOT of Egyptology at Oxfo~ University, he was a
pioneer in the slUdy of medieval Nubian archaeolo·
gy and philology. Between 1410 and 191 2 he direci'
ed lhe excavation of sew",l chur<;hes and other
Christian archaeological remains at Fa,.,..s in Lower
Nubia. At Faras and at 'Abd al·QMir he al.o made
the 6nt imponant discoveries of medieval Nubian
wall paintings. This work produced "OxfOTd Ex~a·
vation. in Nubia" (University 01 Liverpool Annals of
Archaeology ""d A"lhropology 13, 1926, pp. 50-93;
14, 1927, pp. 57- 116; and 15, 1928, pp. 63 -82) and
"Christian Documents from Nubia" (Proaedings of
Ih. Brilish Academy 14, 1928, pp. 117-46). Griffith
GROHMANN, ADOLF 1185
was, in addition, one of the firsl students of the Old
Nubian language, publishing a translation and com-
mental")' on three documents that he found in thc
British Museum and in the Royal library in Berlin
as The Nubi~n Texl' of the Chrislian Period
(Abhandlungen der Koniglichen preussi$Chen Ma-
demie der Wissen.chaften, Jahrgang 1913, Philoso·
phisch·hislorische Classe 8, Berlin, 1913).
Griffith was also a pioneer in the study of Ihe
Meroitic language .nd culture of the pre-Christian
Sudan. He excavated a number of imponanl Mem·
itic sit.., chieRy at Faras, and published many
anic1es on the Meroiti~ language.
B1BUOGltAPHY
Adams, W. Y. ""ubia. Co",idor to Africa, pp. 77_79,
486-87. Prin~eton, N,J" 1977,
Gardner, A. H. "Fran~i. U.,...'ellyn Griffith." Journal
01 Egyplia" Archaeology 20 (1934);71-77.
W'LUAM Y. AOA\iS
GROFF, WILLIAM N. (1857-1901), American
Egypt"logi.t. He studied Egyptology in Paris under
G. "AS~ERO in 1878. He lived in Cairo from 1891 to
1899, A nUmbeT of his published anicles were later
collecled and edited by Maspero, with a biographi-
cal notice by hi. sister, Florence Groff.
BIBUOGRAPHY
Bibliolheque igyplologique conlenmll les oeuvre<
des igyplologues /"mfai, (OeuYFe. de W. N.
Groff), pp. 1-4. Paris, 1908.
Dawson. W. R., and E, P, Uphill. Who Wa.s Who in
Egyptology, p. 128. London, 1972.
Kammerer, W., compo A COPI;C Bib!iagraphy. Ann
Arbor. Mich .. 1950; repro New York, 1969.
Az'lS. AT'YA
GROHMANN, ADOLF (1887-1977), Auslrian
Semitic ,cholar and philologist. In Vienna he stud·
ied Semitic philology and EgJptology. He took in·
structlon in old South Arabic and Arabj~ papyrolo·
gy from D. H. von MUller and J. ,'on Karaba~ek.
After his habilitation at Vienna in 1915, he became
an editoT of the texts in the Erzherwg Rainer Coi.
lection. He wa.~ professor of $emitic languages at
lhe Gennan 1Jni~eTSity of Prague from 1921 to 1945
and at lnn.bruck from 1949 to 1956. He was also
pTofessor of Muslim history and archaeology at the
1186 GUARDIAN ANGEl
Un"'~nily of yin) from 19.9 to 1956. His ~~n'
live edl,101U of Arabi<: pap)-ri in VknM. Cairo. and
CieMoen, along "ith hi. works on Anobic peleogno.
phy...re his priJnary conlribulions 10 5Chobnhip.
As rqMds CoptoIoc. his w<>rt on SUDovn is _
thy of menllon. His m:ajoo- ......:wb IllClude "Die im
Alhiopischen, Ar:abischen unc! K.opcisehen ertW·
tftM!n Vioioa.... Apa Schenules YOn Alripe" (bit-
.KIrrif' .I.". de..uche" 1ftO~7I1ii7u1~"Ceu/lschJ:l{l
67. 1913. pp. 187-167. and 68. 1914, pp. 1-*);
Crifflrisclte. koprioche .. t<J uUi-Khe Tale ;:ur
Reav- .. ".I ,elp'/tm U'U'ilI'" i7I .lD'lnellS
SpilUil, with F. Bibbel (Hridelhel'J, 19~);
Einfwhr"", ""d Cltruto,m"Jrie!Ur .,,,bische" P.py-
",sk....de (P"'l"e, 1954); SI>.dien tN' hu,o;i.Khl"
GeOf'o"hie ....d Ve,.,.,..lt....&: de. frUh",,'''e/o/,u/lche ..
i(Vplert (Vienna, 1959); A,,,oische CIt'Otto/otie. Aro·
bi.che P"pynttJ"mde (Ho"dbuch dc' Orie"'O/islik,
Err~"~ ..nrsbo,,d 1, !.elden, 1%6, pp. 63-9().
BIBUOGRAPHY
loeb,msteln, H. Fest.ch,ifl V'''' lQO./illr,lge" Be·
,,,Ire,, dt, Papyru.sa",mlu ..g d" O.lernwJr;,ch."
Notio ..olbiblil>lhek, Papyrus Ert!terzpr Ra,,,er, p.
JO. Vie""o, 19&J.
GUARDIAN ANGEL, anglJ ass.icned to wonhip.
glorify, and awl God co,,,inuousJy. and also 10
miniweT 10 sainu and 10 prot«l, _u:h owoer, and
inlercW. on behalf of pc<lple. As God's invisible
CTftlulb and messengn-s, ruardian qeb are
called "POn 10 carry ~ souls 01. lhe 6ead. 10 fishl
IpiMl !he power1I of Satan, and 10 aceomplish vv-
...... «her ertands, as _ Ieam fro<n innumenble
installCeI in the Scriplures. We shall sin&le OUI a
h aam-ples- ..
1M belief lhal ..n,els ",ard human beiTl&l Kerns
10 have been known 10 the I.."cliles- 'While blessing
the lwo sons of Joseph, Jacob said. "The anlel who
has redeemed me from all evil. bleH Ihe lads" (Gn.
.8, 16). AI!<l Ih~ holm ..' says, ''The anrel of Ih~
Lord encamps around Ih~ who f~ar Mm, and de·
liV<!rs them" (Po. 34:7). In Eedesi;utes. Solomon
says, .. ....,1 nOl your mouth lead you inll> sin, and do
nOI say before Ih~ messenger thaI it was a mislllx....
(EecL 5:6), Ii ..... as also a common hellef among the
ancl~m Greeks.
Jesus Chri.. cI>nfinn~d the idea of the guardian·
t.ltip of angel. in the use of children. "$oee that you
do nOi despise one of these lillIe ones; for I leU you
thai in hea.~'en lheir angds always behold the fac:e
of III}' Falh........ ho is in hea~<'Il" (lolL 18:10). Uke·
"is<:, when Peler "'as rel~ h-om prison, and
knocked al lhe dono' of Ihe house where the disci·
pies "'ere rneelinl- Rhoda. the maid who answered
the dooo', announced lhe r>n>-s 10 them. "You are
mad.n!hey loid her: but she ill$iJte-d thaI i\ " .... so.
lMn lh<:y said. ~It is his ansd" (Acts 12;15).
Many of th~ early fatMn 01. the c;hucc:h spoke of
the guardian lUIJlb, for <:>.ample. (Pseudo) Cle"""nl
in Ruopifioru (2.42, 1951. pp. 108-9) and CIem-
el\/: of Alenn<!ria (St""""I" 7, 1956. p_ 533). Prn-i-
ousIy HEa.-S (c. 101() had indieate-d in 11re Shep-
lterd Ihal e~ery human being Is <'Illmst:e-d 10 an
..ngcl 10 -proteel him (H~rmu, Mllndlilu 6.1, 1934,
1-3). The wbjec:1 was also discl'ssed by medicval
lMoIogians. like Abbot Bemard of Clair.-lux (1090-
115.1) and Saint Thomas Aquinas (c. 1225-t174).
Th~ latter maintaIned that guardian angels ~­
longed 10 the loweil order of angels, while Dun.
S<:OIUS (e. 1265-1308) held the belief that the lask
of guardianship could be carri~d out h)' any angel,
regardless "f rank 0975, pars. 9. I-53). Olhers wen'
beyond lhis and _re of,he opinion thai guardia..
angels we,e amnnilhe ch~rubirn and Ihe ""raphim
who ""Incos Ihe maje~1y of God all the time; heoce
lhe ~ of Chrisl rdene-d 10 e.....ier.
Nol only indhiduals bl'1 also "oole countries and
nallons ....joy lhe -prote<:llon 01. angels (el Ex. 14: 19;
J.... 5:13. 14; and On. 10:12,13). So do ehusches,
which arc: the bousa 01 God. The Coptic drusell
beI;n-es in I'" -panle\llar prdiaMhip of a eenain
..nI"l 10 the oblations offered in Ihe InuTD. Acrord-
ingty, lhe I... woeds said after washing !he veMds
and whi!., sprinklint: • Hille " .. ,e; on I'" altar are,
HO angel '" Ihis oblation ascendinl unlo the H;v.-
C$I. with our praisoe: ",",""boer IZS in !he~" of
~ Lnrd, NI He ma~ forti'~ us our"';'n$. ~
BIBUOCUPHY
Asad Ru5tum. Ab.l:' "/·#:.lInis<>Jr If ./·0..",...I-n,,·
101110010 11/-011., pp. 41, 47. Beirul. 1961.
Duns ScOlIZS, John. G<xJ lI ..d Crellll<,n, lrans. Felix
AllunlO!l and Allan S, Woller. PrinceI"", N.J.,
1975.
Mlkknl Mini. 'Jim al·Uhfll, Vol. 2. pp. 91-93. Cai·
m, 19.16.
ARCHBtSHOP BAstuos
GUIDI, IGNAlIO, llllHan Orn:nlaIiSl. bom al
Rome in 1844; died ,hef~ in 1935. He ,,'Oded fiBt

In rt.e Varkan MuswJJU, :and from 1376 M laUlhl
Hcbrtw and $emilie IaIli""8'n al 1M Uni..~ity of
Rome. He publishftl1C~t5 md m<>Ilognopns rtlad....
10 tht ABbo-lsJamic, Syria<:, Ethiopic, and Hebrew
litenllur"tS- His main contribulioM to Copt:ic ~udin
Me me followinc: "fl"llmmotnli C<lpIi." RtrtdkOftli
Au..de..... dn Liften IV, J.I (I!S7):47-f>J, l,2
(11S1):I'I-lS, 65-31, 177-190, 251-270, 368-].84,
4.1 (IW):60-70; "Gli Aoi Apocrifi dqll Apo$IoI;
nci reslll copIi anbi td H;':'1,id." Giorn.k ddl..
Sodelii arid,.... ,'..Ii..... 2 (I ISJ): 1-60: "Dl alculW
~pmnw ""idick della coIJcnone BorCiana,·
R."dicO<ln Aadd.miJI dn lincei V 1 (I 89l):5 I 3- J();
"11 testo copoo d.l Tnull'M;JlIO di Abl1ll'AO," R...·
dOcon,; Meddemilo de, U"cei, V. 9 (1900): I57 -80: "II
TatamenlO di l.sacco e il Testamento di Gi.cobboe,-
Ibid" pp, 223-64; "Vic tt o'ttll$ de l'abW ~niel de
Seele (VI Ilede): Ill. T.",le cople publi~ et lraduit:'
Rt..u. dt rOm"l chrilun S (I900):5l5-64. 6
(1901):51-53.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Amon BaUmllark published a bl"iI1lphy of Guidi In
o ..'trtJ ChriS/JllnUS, ..,r. 3, 10 (1935/:23Q-44: and
GUIMET, EMILE ETIENNE 1187
Richard Goubtil presented a ....«ted hibliogno
phy of his ",'Orb in .knmtlll III ,he Americ..n on-
.,tldt Society SS (l935):458-61,
GUlMET, EMILE ETIENNE (1836~1918).
french ir>dw.lrialill. Bam ;n Lyons, he succeeded
his father III 1M direction of his factor). at F1eurief>.
sur-Sa6ne. hI 1579. be founded the An:hatoIogk:aI
and Anlhropo1osica1 MUSotUm at L)'Of'S...il;el> " ...
handed o""r 10 the Freneh ..,wmmem and rRnS'
rerred. to Pam in IUS. Its eontenlS are mainly
I'mm the far EaM, wilh a fair a,,-,n. or Greek.
Roman, ar>d Eg,}'J'Cial\ antiqu~i". It sponso<ed a
line series or publica.ionl, including a numbtr on
E,.yptology and CopIOlOlY.
BIBLlOCllAPIIY
D;owson, W. R., and E. P. Uphill, Who Wos Who in
Egyplology. p. 129. i..o:>ndon, 1972.
Kammerer, W.• compo ,4 Coptk Bibliography. Ann
Arbor, Mich., 1950; rtpr. New York, 1%9.
,uIZ S. ATIYA
.
·
-
HAASE, FELIX (1882-19??), Gennan Catholic
theologian. He was prof"ssor of middle and lale
church hislOry at Br.slau. He aho worked on Cop-
I;e sour<;es. His important works include HZ"r Re-
konstruktion des Banholomaus'Evangdiums" (Zeit.
schrift fiir Neui.$lamemliche Wiss."sch"fl 16. 1915,
PI'. 93-112); Lhuurh";.che Urllusuchungen zur
ori'" I0 liseh.apokryph." Evangdien lit "raWr (Leipzig,
1913); Patriarch Dioshr J VO>1 Alexandria; Nach
monophy$iti,eh.n Quell." (B",s]au. 19(9); Altchrisl.
liehe Kirche"geschichte "aeh oriM/a/i-<ch", Q".II."
(Leipzig. 1925); and Die kOplisch"n Quell.t! zurn
Ko"zil von Niciia (Pader\>orn, InO),
MARTIN KRAUSE
~ABIB JIRJIS (1876-1951), Coptic theologian.
He was born at Azbakiyyah, Cairo. and joined the
Coptic SchOQI at !:Iari! al·Saqqayln. H. was One of
the earliest smdents enrolled in the CL("'!C~L COL.
LEGE aher irs inception in 1892. He gradualed in
1898, became a leacher of theology at the College,
and lhen dean in 1918.
He be<oame an oUlstandi~t preacher and played a
key role in lhe organinlio.r of the Sunday School
movement. Until his death ;"e acted as adviser 10
various patriarchs. panicularly CYRIL V_ He was lhe
~uthor of many compilations and meditations on
the church service. and wrote hymns, books for
children, and p.ayers suitable for all occasions. He
founded lh. weekly periodical al.Karmah (1906~
1923), which served as a channel for his teaching!<.
Because of his scoolal>'hip, his expelience as
archdeacon. and hi, long service as a member of
the COMMuNITY COUNCIL. Cyril V invited Habib Jirjis
10 ~llend the Holy Synod sessions. All these fa<:tol>'
helpN! 10 inspi<e hi, book, al·f~la~11/ arAmaliyyah
1189
IiI-Kanlsllh al-Urlhiidhuhiyyah (Praclical Reforms
in lh. Onhodox Church). He succeeded in intro·
dueing the study of the Christian religion 10 Coptic
students in govemment schools. and wrote a two'
volume manual as a teacher's guidebook. He alw
".-as instrumemal in pel>'uading Cyril V 10 issue a
speeial directi.'e 10 metropolitans 10 limit the ordi-
nalion of prieslS in lheir dioce5es to graduate. of
the Clerical College.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
J:labib Jirjis, AI-Mablldl' al.Mas1hiyyah al·Urlhu.
dhuksiYYllh, 2 vols. Cairo, 1950.
Madrasah al·/klin1<iyyah bayn al·MlI'!! wa·al-lfa4ir,
al·, Cairo. 1893-1938.
Riya4 Suryal. AI-Muila"'f1' al-Qib(f fi Mi~r, Cairo,
1984.
Victor Iliyya. Shumi<' Mu'lI~irah: Ifahib Ji,-jis. Cairo,
1982.
SUL-IYMAN NAslM
HADES, according 10 Onhodox teaching, lhe rest-
ing place for the souls of alilhose who died prior 10
Christ', redemplion of humanily. where righleous
and unrighleous alike awailed His resurreclion and
lhe wi Judgment. At lhe dealh of Chri,l, He de·
scended inlO Hades 10 release Ihe soul, of the right·
eous and tran,fer them to paradise. Since then, the
souls of lhe unrighteou. alone have been restricted
10 Hade•.
The Coptic church also leache. lhatther. i. only
one final judgmenl on mankind, which will take
place after the .esurrection of the dead, to the ex-
du.ion of any immediate Slag. or so-called "panic-
ular" judgmem. The souls of ail the departed are
1190 HADRA OF ASWAN, SAINT
kepi in ,,";I;ng-lhe pious in pal2di$c and lhe si,..
ful in HlIdes. II is only alie~ lhe ~ ]u<!&m,nl th:u
the ronner go 10 bea,-en and Ihe bun 10 hell.
Evidenee 01 this is pnwided by the 1...'0 followlng
Wol$. the 6.~ applying to the unriclu,o. and the
,"ond 10 the righleous.:
Then the Lord knows bow '0 "'5Clle the ,ooty
from lriai. and 10 ~ 1M unrir;hICOUS under
punishmetll until the day of judpu:nl.
(2 Pt. 2:9)
Whon he o .... ~ the 6.hh seal. I saw under the
aiuor Ihe souls of t"'- who had been slain for
lhe word of God and for lhe wilnes:!l they had
borne; lhey cried aloud with a loud voke. ''0
Sovereign Lord. holy and lrue, how loog befon:
lhou wilt judge and a,..,nge ou~ blood on those
who dwell upon the earth?" Then tMy we~ nch
given a white ~ and told 10 !"eSt a little longer,
until the number of Ihei~ fellow servants and
lheir b~thren should be complete, who were 10
be killed as lhe)' (hemsd,es had heen.
(Rev. 6:9-11)
BIBUOGRAPHl'
l'llidiyGs Val;lann.l. labib_ Ki,~b "I·rlzitl~ ")I ~"I~,
"I-Mowld, pp. 22, 192, 215. Cairo. 1905,
Mil:.hi·11 Mini. "11m ,,1-Ultul, Vol. J, pp. ~27-28.
Cairo, 1938.
~mu'l Tadnos. AU,,"",,·"'" rrB"!u,,, III-M";}!,,,, pp.
HADRA OF BENHADAB. SAINT, the 6.r$t
108-111. Cairo, 1\I~9.
McNBISIlOI' 8..stUOS
HADRA OF ASWAN. SAINT. fifth-century
hermit ...no ~ a bishop (feast day: 12 Kiyahk).
Hadrt. was the son of Chrislian parents, ...'1\0
brouchl him up in the ~ of God. ""!len he
reached Ihe . " of cighi1"n. they married him 10 ;0
YOI". airl of thdr kind.\d. He decided 10 remain
\'iliin. The day alicr his marriage :after Ioing early
to the chureh. he mel a funeral proc:~Oon and said
to himself, ·'0 Hadra, iI is not this man who Is d ....d
today. but }'D'l:' H~ did nOl relum home. but joined
the eon,*, tllat """" com-e,.ingthe deceased 10 the:
monll5l~ry. wnere he 115kcd 10 be adm;ll~d. His 1Y.'r-
~ms and friends tried 10 persuade him not 10 for-
sake hi' wife, but he refused (o return 10 lhe world.
Th, 5YNAXARION .Iates precisel)' {hat Had'" lived in
Ihe time of Saint Bfman (no doubt PQEMf.N), whoM'
disciple he becn,." After eight years spenl wllh
him, he a:ske<! to live as a hennil in Ihe de~n, He
livfil in a ea•.., and appHfiI himself 10 Ihe S{udy of
the li~ of Saini ..,ro)tlf A{ Ihe end of some lime. he
.....,.,1 off and lived as a reclusoe in. cell, the door of
which "'1'> shUI. The Synu.arlon speaks of his mira-
cles. aDd in panicubr of those 1""OP}c. ~ by
demons in the fil"$l ~'S of the Crescenl moon.
,,-boon he de!i'....-ed; and the sid. whom he eured.
lIwlb co the oil bJcs-l by M.... Syrians consulted
him on obscure points of scripture; the $!Lint gave
them upbtww.ns lhey 1wI 001 obuoincd from nu·
merous doclen and p/'Iilollophen. When the bishop
of As"",n died. the inhabiW\ts ...d the neighboring
monks took hold of Hadrt. opening hi!; C4.'1l by
lOr-c:e. They bn:tughl him '0 Alexandria. "tte", he
" .... conoecraled by lhe p"1rbn:h THEOPItlutS (JIl5-
412).
HOOn was an eumplary bishop. and at h.. death
the anllds accompanied his spiril, The present·day
Mon... tery of s..in! Symeon Is In faci OAYR mBA
IIAOIIA
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Graf. G. C<llalogue du man~$c...iIJ
a.... be. cnrilims
COflSef\'i< .~ Cair<, Studi , Tesli 63. Valican.
1\134,
..--ok of the mountain of Benhadab. ,,'1\0 dJec'cd
lIllIlIy minrolou$ <:ura (feast day: 3 Amshlr). AI
thi!I .... rio<!. Benhadab, nonh of I..w<or on the left
bank of lhe Nile. "''a$ an arid and uncul{i,'3(cd des-
0'r1. re:sen'td lor c'mneria. Another """"k. perlect
in ~ bul $imp{,. did not bdic>~ in lhe Tesurrec-
{iot! of lhe body: hit. name ,,-as YahV<!l. When he:
came 10 Anbto Hadri. lhe bel.........td him if he
{houghl WI lite bones lhal by in the vicinii}' could
return CO life apill. Anbi Yahl)dlo ans_red. ..Y....
know beller than I. Father:' l1lIdemotndinl that
doubt on litis subject had i.... nualcd iuelf imo his
......rt. Anbl. Hadnl piactd his apron on one of the
C<>rJl5'.'S and wen, back inlo his cell wilh Anbi
Yahoda_ H~ pre\l.'nded 10 ha.... Iol"JOlten his apron.
and ..,nt Anblt Yal"idi 10 lind II fo<- him_ y;ohlicbl
thon saw {he dead man covcr~d by {he apron ex·
tend a hand {o YahOdlo. He leI out a greal cry that
broughl AnbA Hadr:l.. who reproached him for lack
of failh ;n the mi",cle he had soen. and c()nfinned
him in {he faith in JeloUs Christ's pledge of the res·
urreelion.
Anb;t YahUcbI supervised Ihe building of monas-

tcric5. and hi"...,lf tsUblished two; O<>yr lUmyllT ill
$il\lMcd on the blnk ." the ri,"e!'". 1M tnenMlny of
Dandanoh is localed near 1lw lown. Pagans liwd in
a , i l l . noc br fro... his mo""'lery. One niem they
obsen<N a Ilreat Aarne rising from !he dnen. TItey
wi.hed to go and ~. bul could nOI enler the mono
I:!lery••ince they were pinned 10 the $pOl. They
implored the saini 10 deliver Ihem. He did, and Ihey
wenl off p .... i.ini God.
Toward the end of hi. life. Had~ .... ffcrcd vk>lcm
headaches, bu1 he did nol Tel"" hi. ascetkism and
his <kvotwn. His cures were many. and he ...-as ....
paliem as Job.
HAGIOGRAPHY. COPTIC. The discipline of
hagiog:raphy originated in I"" activity'" the Society
of Bollandi"",, the Il"'"'P of Jesuil scholars who in
the ""'''''nteemh Century began "'"<Irk on the A.cla
Sallcwrum (3 compilation of literature pertaining
to Ihe sainI. ;ncl\lded in the calcnd:1r of the Roman
Catholic church). By utension. hagiography may
be lhe .aady of lileralure ",Jali..., to lhe ehamete'"
venerated in any c"urch. In Ihis anide we deline-
ate tm deftlopmenl of Copl:ic lileT1llure about the
...illts lntnlioned in the Copto-Anbic Snwv.JlIOS
and odH:-r saints 10 whom a dar has been dedicated.
Infonrlation on ifldividuaJ saints and the IU4 \hal
lntnlian lhem "ill be found in seplrl>lC aniel""
under rae" .. inl'S nalnt. The Indi"iduil anlel""
should be ,...,.....d in the penpecliW: presenled here.
ScholarshIp
The sludy pf Coplic hagiography (B.umeister.
1972. pp. 27-)0). or hagiology. beg.n with E.. C.
Amtlineau·. A.cleJ des maTt)n de /"tglis. c<>pU
(1890), which ",-as ba<ed on the Copio-Atlllb;c Syn·
aurion. He ...-as doeIenninw above all 10 idemifv
the locaI'l;'" in ...·hich the ·l.anyrdom of lhe. indi·
vidual $ainu occurred. However. as an CJl,Pft1 on
haaioto,aphy in the. ~ Ian~. he J"ftOCni...d
lhe Mandardiud prodlKtion of a cood number of
"-ions. pi". l-k 10 the ....... l of a literary
school of the seventh and ciIlhth cenlUries that <It-
~ a numb« of Ieg~nd;uy CYCLES.
E, Galtier (1905) and E. O. Winsiwi (19101
probed more deeply the ..!tIS in lite Cycle of Basil·
ides the Genetal (ue below). hlghliShlinS some of
tlte major characlt!ri5tks bUi with<.>ull,lnderslandinll
the hislori;:al and literary conle~l.
Delehay~. The fundam~n1a1 work of Copri<; hag;·
HAGIOGRAPHY, COPTIC 1191
oIof;y t.....,n if limited OI\ly to ,he man)TS) "... H.
De~'s "La Manyn d'Ell)"J'Ie:' published in
1922. It lint trw::cs a hiolOf)' of the peneanion in
EcYJll: and of the ck,'dopment of the cull of the
martyrs; then il analyu:s the MQTIm,!ogiUIlI Hiero-
~y~j.. ~",m. Ihe Greek Synuarioo. and the Copto-
A".bic Synaltarlon. The lexlS of the Pus ions in
Greek. in Latin, and in Coplic are analJoUd in the
main chapler, Delehayc's main objectiw: was h;"tor·
leal, \hat of establishing within lIMo limiU of possi·
bility the hi5loriclly er the ....inlS in queslion and
the originality of their hWoos. Gi,= this pl. one
can eomp<c""nd the rnigned or indianant tone
",;th whieh DeI~hare tre_ many of the:oe te:lU,
esc>eciaIly the Coptic Of\ft. To 'hill judcmenl T.
Ballmeisler anributcs. for good Tl':lOSOn. tbe small
interest d.... wn by an edilion of Ihe ~k ~
published by I. BaI~ri and H. Hyvernal in 1908
(-'ela Martyrum. 1955). N....""nheless. OCleha)"C
nlt.S( be giv~n credit for having establi.hed 50me
firm points fo,- hle....ry hislory. He recocnized that
lhe Coplic h"lliographle texts were sHiclly depen·
dent on the G<cck ones. not only as a result of
I .... nsl.tion bul also in their inspiring principles.
Accortting to lhe canon, of a lile....ry sen", popular
in Ihe roonh century. DelehaY" in LeJ Piluions des
....."""s er fa gDfnJ lil,i,."ins (Brussels. 1966) had
distincuished in Gn!:ek ~hy lhe P2ssions
~ on oriainal accounts, often modified bul DOl
dlsooned. from those $imply conSlt\lCted Fmm a
na""" or at most recoli«tiono of hardly rdiable
sources. Aie>.andria ~em. 10 ha"e been the main
cenler of this lilentun!: and Alexandrian infille'nce
remai~. vivid In ils development.
Therefoce lite P~ion, of the epic genre. or lite
epic Passion...... Odcha}'e called them. were wide·
spread in Egypt (C(lming directly from Alexandria)
before the consolldatkln and diffuoion of the non-
bib)icalliteratliTe in Ihe Coptic language In Ihe fifth
century. The eFie Passions are dislinauW>ed by
their MCnl:OIyped construclion buill around chane-
ten (l<' eV<'nU in a certain predet:ennined ....y.
"'h-ieh ~IS itself a l _ identically in all lht
IUU, ucepe for chanaes in names or drc:umsta".,..
n. Sueh features. in brief, include the chanocter of
Ihe emperor and his edict 01 perseculion; the judge.
(lClIeT1l11y a prefecl "t>ose Mhaoior ;, always the
loa...... going from threa15 to naner)' 10 cruelty; the
Ions altercations between the judge and lhc man}T;
Ihe atrocious 10nLlre; the visions that cemfOTi the
manyr; and lhe mincles, which nevenlMole.. do not
.ltcr the pe~lI1or'. verd;et.
Thi. EcYJll:ian school of week I.nguaee dedicated
1192 HAGIOGRAPHY. COPTIC
;lUlf 10 lh.. composilion nOl only of lhe l'a!sions of
the Egyptian martyrs but also of fo,.. ign marty...
wOO enjoyed oon>e popularily In EcJ'I (De"'haye.
1922. pp. 152-5J). In La manyrs J'Eopf",
DtJdl.aye '*- _ ~ify tho: period in whicb this
...,.n was lI<;complistlN. al le_ in irs ...,p- PO""
lion. lbou&h be JlI'OllO!'eS one fourth C<"lliury. H..
also _ th.. work oIlbe Copcic s<:hools as a nalu·
ral continuation of lhe G.e..k s<:hool.
O'Leary and Baumeister. In 1937 a vel)' usdul
listing will published by De wy O'wry. Tfu
Sainu 0/ E~'J'1. in which he summari«d lhe IoU
included in lite Coplo-Anibic Synuarion rO'r och
saini. He also made referenc:.... in his wort 10 the
rdaltd lets known io Copt:i~ He arnneed the
""nu In alpha~lical 0 .... and po-eud<'d lhe work
by a brl..r Introducllon <onc..rning the m,,-n~ and
lhe live. of monk.. O'Leary rdied heavily on
Odehaye·. publicallon. in oullining lhe de",,1op-
menl 01 lhe cull <If lhe many.. and the acli.~ty of
the: haJiot~bic ..,hook in forming the PasRon
C)':'ks. H~.".. he lOOk the opponunily 10 ,.nde....
line the rllual. and esp.-<:iafly lhe seognphlc. con';'
nuiry of the <ull of the ""ints "~lh pre-Christia..
C""loms (which w.. re later conlinued in CU$toms of
lhe Arab period), Moreover, he expressed more
clearly lhat most Passions ollhe Dioclelll.nic mar·
~ were wrinen in lhe same period by Ill.. same
authon. Though this ...thonhip appeal"! 10 redua:
the hi510ri0;al verw;i.,. d these a~1S, it remaill'l
a good SllninG poinl for furthe-r in,esliplion 01 the:
I;u<'$l ~on. oIlhe tn-IS-
To thoroughly examine. verify. and correci the
analysi, of Del..haye, lwo i..ue. muM be ",consid·
ere<!: lhe specific lit......ry quutlon (especially ollil'
..ralnre in the CopIlc language) and the t~ition of
the f.cyp1ian menWlcy. This is whal T. Ba.ume-isltr
JlfOPO"<'d in a book desline<! I() MCH.>e fundam<'n.
tal to Ih.. e<m>prehension of Deldlaye·. WOI't..
In his Mturyr in"""s (1972). Baumeisler look up
sum<: of the i~as previously expounded by S. Mer-
.. n~ (195J. !'P. 250-!5). Baumel....r descrlbed whal
he call<'<:l "kopliscl.~r K"",se~I." namely. Ih .. rq><'li·
lion Ihrou~ unironn ......,nts d Ihe wme of t~
'~md",uuclible life.~ which is unfold<'ll in a great
numb« of Copt;" hssiotts. Apart from references
10 or deri,...tions from pRYlous Cred' lens. .....
can ~ CC>nSidered Iypically £cyptia... Ba.umeisl....
a,'oid~d chronological qu<'Slions. bUl il is possible
10 add thaI lhose Passions bdon& 10 a p<'riod lat...
lhalI lhe Greek passio.... thouah Ih.. y repUS<'Ot
tl>eir cominuaoion in a Copt;" "'no·ironment.
In 0I"dtr lO U1lo(" lhoe d<"Vdopmenl of Coptic bagi.
ography within Ihe limits of currenl kllOWl<'dg..
(Ihere is Slill a greal deal 10 accomplish in lhis
area). 1"'0 qu<'Slio05 are esp«.lally importanl. Fin;l.
il mll$t be d~oo... red if. even acceptina the IN.i ..
re:suhs of Delchaye and BaumeWer. il i:s poIoSibIe to
dra.... from !he 1....1$ any further eJe,menlS that illu·
minm", lhe hisLOriul d<'vdopm<'nl of Coptic haJio-
graphic ..,bools. S«ond. ..,holan mUSl lake inlO
...'count. togeth.., ,,"'hh the t"~IS of the PaMlon. con-
sid..red by Del..haye and Baumeister, texl-' oi Ih..
Ii",s of Olh.... saints (especially monks) that also
belong .<1 Coptic baa:iovaPhY.
AlXOTdl"ll '0 Oelehaye .....bos.e pasioion b 10 be
lI<;C~. Coptic: ~. was born as a lribu·
tary of C......k ha~. especially lhe Akundri-
an IUIS:and ble. the Ec'Jll1an OMS. This "laces lhe
producllon of the Passions, including lhe epic and
nonepic ones. and also some Ilv... of monlr.s and
OIh.... mal ..rial, ..<lUnd the rounh c..ntury. Thei,
Iran,lalion inlO Coptic fullowed soon aft.... From
Ihis, one may daluce lhal a ........k ~&Iln in lhe
Coptic lanPll" woo.old comprise' l"<"NIilinp or i...
senions in the old.... lal$. Sut th.. posilion of
Baumriit.. r also ill 10 ~ accepted. According to
him, S<.>m .. P ions, lhough inspired by th.. Greek
..pic genre re .IS<.> infiu.. nc~d by typically Egyp.
lian conceptions. This silua.lion is also true of OIh...
original lelIl$ produced in lhe Coptic langu.aa:.. in a
bIer period.
Nelth a>11hor. ho" ........ consid<'re-d t-- theoc
lexIS ined the ~I of ,he Cyclt:s. The authors
of the I..ats did not .. on fine them~h'es 10 n ling
specific .. vents or the 8<'livilles of specific ints;
th .. y alao dr.. w on th.. tradilio", of their llt..rary
g..nre as ",<:II as th.. n,.."talily thaI p<'Oduced it.
Even if imaginary. these produ<'lions had to mai...
lain a c."...m eohe ........ ~ .0 ~ 50 widdy :aeeq>l<'ll,
even apan &....m lhee ..,... nlS ol ecdesi.",i<:.aI poli.i<:s
...~.~in Ec1M and "'tewhere
£iKomlu,," of CItNtmu. It is these t....o Iasl ele·
ments_literary genre and Egyptian mentalily_
that should provide some funh...- hiOlorlcal dalB
and some point of reICrerK:e lhat will allow us to
define I .... phases of Coptic haciognphy. Fonunate-
Iy we F .= an Encomiu", of CIQUliius unainly
writlen by ro..-sr..,.'Tl";E,. bishop of ~ ....i>o is
kno...·.. 10 ha,... lit.>ed i.. !he .....000 half of th<' sinh
ce"tury. Claudiua is knowr> from Olh<'J' SOUrces as
one 01 the principal Diodelianic martyr'$ in lh.. epic
Passions and is alS<.> cormecled in some way 10 th..
eyel.. ol BasHides. In focI Consta"tine, tOO. places
him i.. this conl<'llt. H", ;ralnles !he beginn;ng 01
the penecmion and also 'races i. bad, 10 its anle-

cedent events. After mentioning persecution by the
emperor DECIUS. he cites a period of religious peace
under Carus, and then under Carinus and Nume·
nanus. After Numerianus. father of Claudius, was
murdered, Dineletian ascended the throne on his
return from Egypt. According to Constantine, Clau·
dius saved Diocletian on the oecasion of various
wars against Persians and Annenians. I'inally.
Diodelian being troubled by the devil, Claudius was
exiled to Egypt and there killed.
In this text there are several distinctive elements
characteristic of the Basilides Cycle: the city of An·
tioch as a main theater of action: Egypt as the final
place of martyrdom: the emperors in between De·
dus and Dioeletian; the characters of Romanus and
his son. Victor. Soterichu•. and othen mentioned;
the characler of PSOlE OF I'SQ'. who later on became
vcr)' importAnt; even the apparition of a "proto·
martyr-" ..... ithout any inAuence in the rest of Ihe
action (Hom, t982).
But there is an absence of other important c1e-
menl. in the Cycle: the legend of Diocletian and
Agrippida; the character of Basilides. other..... ise es-
sential; and the characters (Ie.,. relevant but often
presenl) of Theodore the Anatolian and Theodore
the General.
It would seem Ihat Ihis legend contains the e1e·
ments of its later development. Given what is
kno..... n of Constantine, one can draw from his nar-
rative some conclusions bolh lilerary and ecclesias-
tical. In this effort an Encomium of Leonliu. of
Tripoli written by SEVERos OF ANTIOCH i. helpful. In
itlhe characler of the Greek epic Passion. originally
placed in the time of Vespasian in the first century.
was transported into Ihe period of Diocletian, the
late third century, and complelely reim'ented. Thi.
chan!:" helps clarify the meaning given to the char·
acter of Dinele!ian as a prototype of the wicked
emperor who deviates fro,!, orthodox)' and to the
character of "his" martyrs. "4'0 become al once the
representatives of the figbt ;against religious ene·
mies and abo against the imperial power.
The hagiographic work ohhe Coptic school fol-
lowed this trend, adding dements specific to Egyp-
tian literary taste and meanings more or less hid·
den in relation to political e""nts. tn fact. after Ihe
$Ccond half of the .e,'enth century the war againsl
the Chalcedonians was succe,(ded b)' the harsh fight
against the Islamic conquerors. Once again reli-
gious and political motives were mixed. and Ihe
stories of the martyrs could reiindle feelings about
historic event. of a later period.
It is unnecessary here to enter into details of Ihis
HAGIOGRAPHY, COPTIC 1193
Irend. since il will be discussed below when the
palh of Coptic hagiography is reconstructed. It is
con""nient here to mention, as a point of refer-
ence, anolher text to be placed in the period be·
tween Severus and Constantine. which, because of
its theological.literary character. became pan of the
homily (In Pelrum el Dem"lriurn) attributed to the
nonexistent FlAVtAN. It narrates the history of a
WOman named Martyria. who is persecuted by Dio--
clelian and who. with two children. escapes by sea
to Alexandria, where she is protected by a cenain
Peter. She will not appear again in the Passions of
the Basilides Cycle. in ,",,'hich her husband.
Socrator. appea~ as a brother of Basilides. All this
conlinns that tho "standard" texts of the aasilides
Cycle are a reorgani>.ation and rearrangement of a
more disorderly set of malerials probably going
back to the fifth CentUT)'.
Literary Development
Writing aboul Coptic saints extends from the
fourth century 00 the ninth,
Fourth and Fifth Centurles. Because Coplic
hagiography staned with translations from Greek. a
study must firsl take into accounl the material from
which the Copts had to cht:>me, thaI is, the produc·
tion of the Egyptian hagiographic schools. These
schools had disseminated some texts thaI are con-
.iderc<! the dired result of official actions. for .x·
ample, the PaSsion of Phileas of Thmui (for which.
however. no Coplk version is known). the Passion
of Collmhu,. and others that do nol belong to the
epic genre. for example, the Passion of Peler of
Alexandria and the Passion of P.""u of Plolemais
(Psoi).
The Greek schools later invented and increasingly
(it can be reasonably assumed) perfected and stand·
ardized the epic genre, within which. ho""",,ver,
there was already a tendency loward the creation of
Cycles. On. ver)' early Cycle was constructed
around the Roman perlecl Saint AkIANos. Evcn
though Ihis character (certainly hisloric) is the per-
secutor in many Passions, there are others tbat are
connected and that make up a rather continuous
history. In these Passions. Arianas is converted and
also becomes a manyr. They are the Passions of
APOll.ONIOS AND PHlt£1ll0K ASCU, and Ananus, An-
other Cycle, which does not belong to the persecu·
tion of Diodetian but to a later date. i, thaI of the
martyrs under Julian, evidently conceived after the
coming of JULIAN the AJ'O"tate in 362. and connecl-
ed also to tbe rise of the legend of the birth of Ihe
1194 HAGIOGRAPHY, COPTIC
empcror Coroluonline and cI lhe dioroYery of I~
C'I'CU. Momtion may be made cllhe f"agio ... of AIIlf.S
CYIWDJS and 01. I;l.I5IQIU.5.. besida !be minc~ de-
Kri>ed in d>e Passion of IoIUOlRlIIS OF ~
thco'e _n: also 1'- IhaI ~,. be deseriboed as
clast.ical epic PassioM. which weu buill "round
wnlS of various pw.-e""nce, each ....Ih his o"'n
peculiarities: EPI.,,","U5 Of' ,EUl$IU.... 1oIEHA.S. J..".es
IIOI'UClSUS the Persian. L.£OtmI$ OF TItlPOU. MeK\lr·
ius, ,.\NTAllQti. fUSTATMIUS Of Am"lOCH. Cyrus and
John, PHll.OTHEUS Ol' ANTIOCH. and the funy m.n)'T'l
of Sebaste. Some of Ihcse are wilnesscd only in Ihc
Coptic ",xts lind Ihey probably had lypicaJ Eg)ipllan
connOlalions of a Strictly intemal nsture. f()l" eum·
pie. lhose of JOOkt of Jlnjeb. of HH"" of T.mmah,
and of DIOS. The PU$il)(ll of lhe marlyr-monb
oksc...... special consOdcnlion. 110cy aJ,o derive
from !be epic l"'n~ 1M monasUc "nvironmelll
had a dclerminln. illllumc" on m..m. 10 thai lhey
can be cono.idercd evideroc" cI an epie hapogTaphlc
ochool ill m.. monaslic emironm"n1- n.e,. an: lhe
hssions at hphnuoo. (rmybe m.. lint and the
11I05I imponan. and widely witt>esst<l penona!ityl.
of ,01... .1-. .. of P.-on and Sannua. and of ' ....!liE .... D
.~=
In this sam" period, bet~ ...., founh and shih
ccnluries. other Ilagiognptuc 1....1S wt..., »I"O(kocccl
Ihal Ih" Copu would I.t"r KCtpt and tllat bee.me
an integral pan of more 8"nenl palrislic literature:
lhe Life of A~lony by Saint ATHANASIUS I. palriarch of
"Ie""ndria. the Llle 01 C,erory Tltaumawrrus by
Saint GREGORY 01' NAZIAm:US. lhe Livej of Pa,,1 a~d
of /filarion by Saini JEROME. Ih" Lif' of Ep;p~anl"s
of Salamis by Pofyb;U$, .nd Ihe Uf' of SimWll Sly-
Ii" by Antony. To these lUIS c::an be addc<llhe Al'QI'tt.
TltEGolUoT'" 'ARlJI,l and. of euhasively ~'Pliw Inlet'
CSI. the ~ 0' Pl,ih (Apollo) by Papohe and Ihe
anonymous U/, 01 Aph... bilhop of O>:)-mynchus
(Pemge).
The won r;L the ~ic ~ IIChool datn
to this period. _ l'v. can be judged. As indic:'led
• bm". those chosen t""l1 and thrir uan,blio"5
from Gretk originals in the CopIi<: manusaiplS may
have undergone a "elUin _ n l of rNtlilina 10
Ihe <:ourw of lhelr lraosrniosion into Coplic.
Fifth .nd SlJrth C"lurlft. In ...., meanlime. I,l'
e..1)' ""Ilvily in the Coptk l.nguag" was gro.... ng
and spreading, mainly due to Saint SHENIITE. AI the
dimax of this pros...,,. Came Ihe ChalcedonLo.n cli·
sis (451). which severed Ih, Copti<: lilerary tradlllon
...,
from lhe im,rn.llon.l Cre"k llt"rary I..dition. an
"venl that had con~enccs For hagiography u
'The Uvc:s of IUOnu .....,..., modeled on the arlier
eumples cl Uvea (thM is. d>e life of AnlOlly or of
Saini ,A(>t(lMlllS). as ... ell • on m.. A,opNJ,t"".,..
and ...., bmous LiJe of SM....u (writiM by 1f.SA
probabl)' around #0. in territory where du: ani;·
Chak~nian conll'O'o~rsy had nooI ytt ariun). and
mosI 01 allan lbe lives oIlhe n'lOnk$ wrill,n in an
anli-ehakedonian vein: MANASSDl. toHOlll\l$ OF ~.
TOr< TrnEW TIlE I'OOlt.... MAHAlol. and Apollo. uter
the..., lhe Life 0/ $<lm,j'lI of Qal.moln by Isaac
PresbY''''' in the eighth c::emury. It i, diffic::uh 10
eSlAhli.h whether l!NIse texts had originally been
wrillen in Greek or Coplic. with the e~ceptkm of
lhe Life of Shenule, which wlS cen.lnly ",tinen in
Coptic. However. none of the olher lexts h•• Come
OO-"·n in Cred<o Nevenhelcss, th" JIO"ibil;ty of •
lost Grttk anginal cannol be esduded, for d....rinll
Ihis period G...,.,k " ... 51illlhe prtdominalll lile".".
Ian,...... ol EcYPc. S!)-Ibric disc:riminarion dnoes nQI
help in darifyltlll eilher Greek or Coplic:: ori&in.
,..,.
bee..... 1M authon., II may be assumed. were bllin·
It i< p<ObabIe IIIN !he period:after Chalc«lon sa...
th" /Io"... ril1l at Ihe n:dacrion of the Coplic Pas-
sions ioll__..... the fonm thai IbumciSicr ails
h>ptiscltn K"".,,,•. Thi< supposition d,rives from
the fa<:1 thai in such ,.,..ions
lhe EcYPci.n tnodition
predominated oyer the inl,rnational Gr«k (inch>d-
lng Ale,andrian) Ihat had given rise to lhe epic
Passion.. M()I"e<)ver, the manyrs in quesdon were
all Egyplian. BUI it is e...,mlal to note Ihat the
compo.ilion of such PlSsions probably lasled unli!
Ih, later periods (probably Ihe eighlh cenlury).
",hen they bee.me imen",ined ",ilh the lrue cycli<:
Passions (Cycle of Btiilidcs. Cyde of Julius ol
Aq~), which should be c:onsidered by lhemlod,..,..
To this period an .bo be attributed the 'nons~t­
lion into the ~'PIilIn style of 50Rle Passions of
famous foreign sainu-for o;unple~. Vi<:tOJ.
and Thc:odo". Stratew... -with the cornpICle ,..,.
ca.tinll of lhe lUI.
"II this wor\ ~Ileox<l not only lit,1'W)' motr-
tion <wh",h haa t-n tmpt-iud) buI allO local
ca:lc:sia5lic and polilical el"ments. It ;. reason.ble
10 suppose lhal vari0U5 Egyptian ""nlen .... nled 10
adorn thcmsel~es with famous Ina")"" 10 whom
lhey could dedlc.le sanc::t...aries and pilgrimages
and thai Ihey muSt h.y, tritd 10 fumish lhese mar·
ty... with adequate literary wil"""",,,'. From Ihe p0-
litical poinl of view, Ihe continuoUI .rgument in
these lextJ .gainsl the imperial power was allo due
10 lhe c::onlliel belween Ihe anti-ellakedonian EcYP-
lian c::huTCh .nd lhe By>:anline Empire .

Slxlh to Eighlh Centuries. Ie was in Ihese cit'
cumSlances lhat, loward the end of ehe sixlh centu-
ry. legends were born that were destined 10 enjoy
great popularity in suece..ive decades. They also
served 10 uoite the numerous Passions into a cl"",,-
ly knil Colle<olion thai focused on recurring pet=n-
allties. The Encomium of CI~udius by Conslamine
of Asyiit bears witness to Ihe de,...lopment of Ihal
slage. On the basis of this document as well as Ihe
internal evidence of each Passion, one can attempt
10 place these 1.".ls in Ihe long historical framework
in which Ihe legends ev"lved from the end "f lhe
sevenlh century to the eighth. The main indicali"n
for fixing the chronology of these lexts is n"l so
much Ihe legends and their characters as the way
in which all Ihis malerial is treated in each text.
If. f"r example, one considers Ihe Passim, of Vic_
tor (Budge. 1914), one can s"'" that Ihe Antlochene
legend Ihat developed around Basilides is briefly
memioned. Here Ba$Hides is divided. on the one
hand. as a martyr along wilh his family and. on the
other. as an unconverted prince. The text itself con-
sists of four martyrdoms, well numbered and dis-
tincl in Ihe same codex. It is probable that this is an
e:<ample of tlte koptisch", Konsens prior to the de-
velopment of the true cycles and relative to a
character Ihrough whom the authors intended 10
establish a privileged relationship belween il.ntioch
and Egypt. Victor the Antiochene. marty",d in
Egypt. as well as Claudi", and others. was later
slightly rudapted after the fonnation of the legend
of Basilides.
A contrary example is provided by the Encomium
of Theodore the A"~loli~n. attributed to Theodore,
bishop of Antioch. Here the mart}Tdom is hardly
mentioned at the end, while the text consists almost
e~clusively of an ample report of one of the Anlio-
chene legends. It is strictly ",lated to the one in the
homily by Constantine .of As}":'!. even if it encom-
passes a wider develop~nt. Basilides is not in it,
and Romanus is introduc;ed but not his ""n. Viclor.
The legend of Dioclelian and Agrippida is gi,'en
remarkable prominence in Ihis slory. Evidently the
Encomium was written 10 bring up 10 date the Pas-
sion. which was supposed to be read immediately
afttr it. One should take into consideration that the
uisting copy of the Passion (d. Hyvemat. 1886,
Vol. I. pp. 34ff.) is the union of two parts. the first
added later and the second (recognizable because it
starts with a new prologue) briefly mentioning the
Antiochene legend in an embryonic form and then
consisting of the true Passion. of Ihe pu'"
koptisch<r Konsms type.
HAGIOGRAPHY, COPTIC 1195
The Passion of Eusebius is a beautiful e~ample of
composite ",daction. including a long report on the
legend of Basilldes together with the martyrdom. in
the style and mentality of the kOplischer KonSMS.
Yet it is Co be noted that the legend of Dioclelian
and Agrippida is implied and that it has a small part
in this scene. RomanllS and Victor are given a very
important part. while Claudius becomes a nephew
of Basilides with very little importance: none of the
Theodores is mentioned.
These elements, and mo", subjective ones. which
would be too long to discuss at this point. illuslrate
the subdi";sion of the legends in different and sub-
stantially separale groups. These were "ariously
treated and mixed in Ihe exisling texts. In fact. one
can distinguish the legend of ClaudillS and Victor.
connecled mainly with the p",lended Egyptian ori-
gin of Diocletian (Dioclelian and Agrippida). that is.
with the imperial succession of Decius-Carus·
Carinus·NumerianllS-Diocletian. and with the PeT'
sian wars. A legend of Basilides. which at the begin·
ning appears eXl",mdy familiar. is soon joined to
the legends of Diocletian and Agrippida and of Ihe
wars with the Persians (or other '"barbarians"). A
legend of Theodo", is born from tlte importance of
a purely epic teXl concerning Theodore, the genet'
ai, and later variously intertwined with the Anti·
ochene legend, especially with that of Claudius and
Viclor.
To these legends must be added that of Julius of
Aqfah~. a chameter probably emerging in a mOre
ancient period: this legend has now unfolded into a
true cycle.
It seems that within this framework of different
elements of religious mentality-both political-
ecclesiastical and literary-each legend found ade-
quate expression in the complexity of its yaried
connections and their development in time. In the
posl_Chalcedonian period, the type of epic passion
of the Greek international literary school "..as
exploited for the c",ation of characters-that is.
of martYrs-that could be sp",ad in an anti-
Chalcedonian environment. wilh an implied argu-
ment against the official Byzanline regime, and in
certain cases giving prominence to a privileged
agreement between Alexandria and Antioch. From
a literary poinl of view. the epic genre was elabo-
rated and modified by Ihe more intimately Egyptian
theme of the kOPlischer K01lJem.
E1llhlh and Ntnth Centurle._ New elements
were accentuated ;n the eighth and ninth centur;"s.
One was ecclesiastical politics throogh the develop-
menl of Ihe Antiochene legend, always more com·
1196 HAGIOGRAPHY, COPTIC
pIe. and at the same time more standardized than
earlier versions. Another element was the fonna-
tion of literary Cyclos around ~haracters who tend-
ed to be more strictly connected to one another
through family relations or increasingly fantastic
and romantic evenl>, The motif of religious contro-
versy was accentuated as a means of protest against
the dominant Arab political power, which over-
whelmed Christian orthodoxy.
All this was achieved (especially at the beginning)
either through the complete rewriting of rhe texts
or through combining previously independent texts
or (especially toward the end) through the interpo-
lation of passages in texts already sufficiently orient-
ed in the desired direction. Documentation consists
mainly of manuscripts of the ninth to the e1e,'enth
~entury. However, they contain tc.1S that were ooit·
ed throughout the whole period under considera-
tion, For this reason it is not possible (save in e.-
ceptional cases) to attribute a specifi~ Passion to a
certain stage of this development.
The Cycles. In conclusion, a more precise pic·
ture of The period can be given by listing the Pas-
sions considered to he linked more closely in differ-
ent legendary Cycles, although one should he aware
of rhe risks as«>ciated with such lists,
First are the Passions of the ancient Antiochene
Cycle, which served as a prelude to the formation
of other Cycles (those of the Theodores and of Bas-
ilides), though it never coindded with them. To this
Cycle belong the Passions of Claudius and of Vi~tor;
rhe most recent editing of the Passions of Psote;
and the Passions of COSMAS AND l)AMlAN. EPtMA (not
T" be ~onfused with Epimachus of Pelusium), and
possibly that of Isidore.
Next are the Passions of The Cycle of the Theodo-
re" the Passions of Theodore the Anatolian as well
as those of ANATOUUS, hi. father or uncle; ,hat of
Theodore the General (who was probably a\ta~hed
10 the Cycle purely b,~ause of his name); and that
of Elia (who appears in a much later period).
The P"",i"ns of the ¢ycle of Basilidcs include the
Passions of ElJSEBIUS, of TE~ ~NO ERA', of Basilides
himself, of WtC~RIUS' (in second reda<:ti"n), of
JUSTUS, and of .!.MLl. BESAMON. mentioned only in
fragments, formed pan of a Passion of this Cycle
that Ireals of a different martyr, unknown today.
The Passions linked to the Cycle of Julius of Aqf-
ah~ are those of Anub, Ari, Didius, Heraclides, John
and Simon, Kiamul, Macarius (in first redactions),
Macrobius, Nahrow, Nilus and Sarapion, Paese and
Tecla, Panesneu, and Shenufe.
In addition, there are sever.1 late and genuinely
Egyptian Passions, wrillen according to The kopl;-
scher K<mse~s, whi~h are not included in the Cy-
cles. They are the Passions of Philt>thcus, Isaac of
Tiphre, lule and Ptolemy, lacaron, Pekosh, Pirow
and Athon. Pisura, Sarapamon of Seetis, Sarapion,
Til, and Timotheus.
The latest Coptic hagiographi~ produ<:\ion under
An'lbic domination is the Passion of Joh~ of
PhaM;joil, martyred by the Arabs.
EncomIa and Miracles, The whole development
of hagiographic production, from the fifth to the
eighth century, was accompanied b}' the producTion
of Encomia, or Homilies, dedi~ated to individual
""ints. This production al.o, in Coptic literature,
began with the translation of the texts of the great
fathers of the fourth century, which later gave way
to The production of original texes in the Coptic
language.
Indee<!, the genre of the En~omium appeared
among the mosT neglected by the translators. How_
e,'er, there are some examples, such as the En~o­
mia of the Patriarch Joseph and Susanna by Saim
JOHN CHRYSOSTt)M and those of Athanasius and Ba·
silius by Gregory of Nazian~us. They illustrate that
this genre ",as also part of Coptic hagiography and
providoo models for later produ~ti"lt•.
The most importam period for The growth of En-
comia among the Copts appears to be The poSt·
Chalcooonian one, especially with Severns of Anti-
och: three "f his En~omia were translated (probabl}'
very early): those for Romanu., for leontius, and
for Claudius. Following These examples, as well as
the lives of anti-Chalcooonialt monks, were later
En~omia, especially those of Matthew The Poor, at·
tributed to his disciple Scrapion. an anonymous
one of Moses of Kef!, two anonymous ones of Abra-
ham of Phow, one of Longinu. of Enaton, by
Basilios of O't}'rhynchus, and one of Apollo by Ste·
phen of Hnb;.
The encomia were usually divided into a pro-
logue (which discussed the .... ncruat)' dedi~ated to
the saint or in more general Terms his holy day),
followed b}' the narration of his Passion or Life, an
exhortaT"ry seerion on moral subjects, and finaH}'
an epilogue. it was possible, howe,..,r, that the Lifc
and Passion were only alluded to on the under-
sl3nding that they were read before and after the
ceremony.
It is possible to distinguish the En~omia wrilten
at the cnd of the sixth century and the first half of
the seventh century, a period in which the authors
were relatively free to express them..,I,'es personal-
ly, from Th"se wrinen .ub!;"'luemly, whi~h had t<)

~ auribu~ for- political reuoJ\S I<> penonaliliell
"'bo w~ CQmpletdy In\"flUed but _rc pR:SlJmed
10 hao;e IMd in the palrisco.: ~riod in ~ l"outth
and fifth anlUl'Xs.
To <he earlier period thoold be assiv'ed the En·
comia by Saint PiKmNs. bishop of CopIos, on ONl).
I'H~ by ColWaJtl.inc or ~yU! on Claudius and
Geol'Je, by JOH!i OF ~M(lN On Anlony and Saint
Mark I the E''3J\eelist. by John of Alexandria on
Menas, by Men,.. of !'shall on Macrobiu5, by Phoi·
b.ammon or Shmin On Coll"t!>"" by Isaac of Anll,
noopolis on Colllll1>u., and by Mose, of now on
OJympius.
To Ihe Laler, dandesllne period should be as-
.Isned the works of authors whose names are pre·
ceded by "pseudo": Demelrius on Philothws. 8;u1l·
ius on Mnn>rius, Theodore on <he TheodoJ'CS,
Anasusius On 11>eodore Ihe Genenol. John o.~
IOOlI on Victor, n.eodosiu:s of Je~em Oft GeorJe,
Theodotus on Geocze. and an anon)_ author on
""'..tho. __
To period is to be ~ ~ rc<bc.
tion of lhe >Wioo.>s Minda allributed 10 the ainu;
00' martyn.. which became imponant ~""plti·
cal I«IS in lhemsdves. lhe U!>aal doWer of a pint
in Ihis period thus conlU~ of his life or Plossion,
his Encomium. and his Mind<"$. The ruts of lhe
Mi~1es of some gints are presen~ Phol·
bammon (PielpOnl Morsan LIbrary, Coptic codices
XLVI), Men"" (attribuled 10 Theophilus), Leonliu.
(Paris, Nalional Ubrary, Cople 129.16. 28-35),
Mercurius (anriooted 10 Acaclu.l, Viclor (anributed
to Theodoslus of Jeru..le,n), and Victor (altribuled
to Celeslinus of Rome).
811lUOCUrtly
,4e'" M"TfyrUm. "",Is. I and 2. ed. I. Balest:ri and H.
Hyvenw. CSCD .3, 401. Loo.moin, 1955.
An\8i1\eal, E. C. l.u AcfU Ju ....l1)n de rlefiu:
cople. Paris. IS'JO. -to
Booumetaer, T. M<>rryr ["VlCflU. Du /tUnyru .1.
Si",,1JiJJ du ErlOsultf '" du ~rtde _d in! K"/r
du fridten koptUdte" lCi~ lur 1C000,inuilat du
Iltyplist:"m 0.,,,"11$. Forse"""",,, w,r Von:,.
bmth 46. Mum,l",r, 1972,
Budee. E. A. W. Copne M"rryrdmn.<, "'",_, itt llu
D/..kelof Upp.r Egypt. London. 1914.
DeIr:haY"'. H. "La Martyn d'EfD"pIe."' A....lut.. Bo/·
I".. d'a"a 40 (1922);5-154. 299-364.
_ Ln Pa«;o... ..In marly.s U I"" g",,,r"'$ Iille·
r";rt$. Brussels, 1966.
Caltier. E. "Contribution;\. I'elude de la Iillel'llture
.""oo.copte." B"iI",t'" de l'I"$till<l fra"fais d·A,..
eltlalorie oriemal• • (1905):105_221.
HAILE SElASSIE I 1197
Ho<n, J. "De! ",nle MJnyrcr. Zu einem Topos der
I<optischen MiU1yrcrlllU2tur (mit "",.."i An-
hingea)."· In St"du .. ..... ' sp;i1...miJ:ert "Nl fri1h-
",Ir';;"belt.", K"It.t ""d K"luu d"" OrielllJ, ed. G.
Koclo. W"~. 1982.
H)YeI'11.M. H. Lit. Mit. des mllrl)'f'S de rEm1e liri.
d"" ....,,,uscrirs CIlpleS de la BibliolJtequ", VIlri.:."e
",f d" MI'Sh BorrN. Paris, 1886~t887.
Morcnz. S. Oi", Ces.clricltf'" """ Jo.",pIt d.m Zimme,·
mann. }kllin, 1951.
"Altagyptis.cher und hellenisllJch·
paulinischer Jensehsgllube be; Schenule."· Mil/",I·
I""g"", ..It, Inm'mls lur Ori",nr{llr5Chung I
(l933),230~53.
O'Leary, De L. E. rh~ Sa;m. of Egypl. London and
N",,,,· York. 1937,
Peet",n. P. on",,,, e, BflI'"ce. u 1I1/o"d$ o<'Mlal
d", /'haziovaphie ~"'i..e. Subsidla H~
cr;ophica 26. Brvssoels. 1950.
WinSl.,.jt. E. O. Cop,ic TUI' _ s..in'
TlreotJon lit",
Gen /. S41in' Tlrtodorc rh", ElUte",. CIut."...,.u
...d J ,..... London and 0>J0<d. 1910.
~, J. "He'! p;urooo der mano,ria." Nederlands
n.r%Kisdt Tqd><:hrif, 14 (I959):1~28.
Tn:o Qlu.u;1lI
HAILE SELASSIE I (KhiyLa s"lIlIsc I. 1892-
1915). Hdd 10 be the drct of God. he became
"Kine of Kinp''' of Ethiopia in 1930 and was ern·
peror of Elhlopia from 19W until his dellh, He was
rhe lasl sovereign of Ihe SoIOIllonic dyn""ly, His
reien lasted fuMy-four )'can and .tand. oul IS an
epoch in Ethiopian hislory during which the coun·
Iry underwenl silnificanl cluing..... Tafari. as he was
orieinally \IIImed. was born of Ri$ Makon~n. a
eousin of Menelik U. and a WOman of a lower s0-
cial _us called Yahimmebet (Y"'i Emma Bel),
who died In Harar shonly aller her son's birth in
July 1&91.
He ~ciYed his educatloon lint u!>der an El:hiopi·
an religious tulor and then under lhe F...,nch Lazar.
o.t missionaries in Harar. Lat<!:r, M auended the
Mendik II School In Addis Ababot.....-!tich ...... ",n
by :0 Coptloc leachinl staff. ....,,0
probably left an
indelible impreaion on him. lor he ret:oined Coptk:
inSlluclon and advisen <hroughoul his reign. One
.... . the famous professor WJIUD l<.AM-1I., ""ho headed
a sroup of Coplic educalo", in Ethiopia during Ihe
period of reconstruction follo"'il\g Ihe liberallon of
Ihe country in 19.1. He had, however, to discontin·
ue his educalion In order 10 sovern di"ricU in
Hantr. Shewa, and Sidamo, su<:ce$Slvely. before he
....... nomlnaled by lhe rebo!lIing notables in 1916to
1198 HAILE SELASSIE I
assi.. Emp","", bwd ilu Menelik in the Nno in. or
Sl3tt aJlain..
Upon hu death in 19)0 , he s"e c~d 10 'M
impe rial Ih........, unde r lhe name of Haile Selas ,ie I,
At his ....n diose eoro nallo n, the palri neh of Alt~·
andr ia was repre sente d by Arch bisho p VIls;ib, who
bier beca me palriarc:h. 'TI>l' MWe reip'S ",Ii&ious
polic y ..,. prMo .nina ndy liM" " aod toler ant t<>-
w.rd ollle r relig ions and deno mina tions . prior i'its
btlng nalUl'8lly reser ved for the Ethio pian Orthodo~
Chu uh, "'~ I*tro n he ""ll$. His rtlall ons "'ilh
the See of A1t und " we", l"'ne nlly cordi al,
thou.,h occa siona lly !lCmncd. 'TI>l' prob lems eDla'
lWed from t""O historical dewelopmenlS: the 'lues ·
lion of ,he right s of tM Ethiopian Orth odox Chor eh
in Jerus alem . whle h had enga gtd lht COpts sinee
Ute mid ninel~th cen,o l}', and Ute q..... 'ion or
.own omy for ,he Ethio pian cho, eh. whk h _ rt'-
peatedIy nise d lor seYn'lll eeOI\lrWs,.
Dori n. his visi' 10 Jerus alem In 1924, IUs Tabr i
h.d ,..,mwe<! tht ques tion of lhe Ethio pian dols ler
(~ [),Iy). AL-SlJlTAtl) with the Copl k an:hb ishop TIM·
Oll l-' hu, as Ute mall er ",""' ined ineon clusi ve,
.he crown princ e went to E'.gypl to discuss it with
the a«ing Patri arch Cyril V. The patri anh re«i. .ed
him "';th pleas urt and held . special mass ., lhe
C.lhedl"lll or Saint Mark In his hono r. The princ e, in
tum. p.-esented lhe patri arch with a golde n crow n.
• £Olden cross . a ....de o staff• • SIlk lOnk: embr oi·
dere d "';th gold, aod a c.JW. He aho vlsU d lhe
lomb of Sain. Marl and 50me Copt ie Chris tian
scho ols in ,.,hieh a flO'" Ethio pian stude nts ",ere
enrol led. The patri arch none thele ss ,..,fc,.,..,d the
Ethio pian reque st '0 the CopIie synod, and the re-
gen, pkni pole nlW y bad 10 lea." fw home widt c..,
a defin ite answ er. The prob lem rema ined ......,lved.
desp i,e n"me rous lUbs equtn l nego tiatio n. and
eOUrl proee eding s in ,ht 1960s, main ly Mea use na-
,iona l f«lin gs and pqlit ical comp licat ion. prev alkd
on all ..d... . ..
The "",,o nd prob lem could . hc>wcvcr. be solw d in
sup . In 19U , .IOKN x'x became Copt k p;llri an:b.
and ,ht Ethiopian l'U1~r used lhe op))c)rlunily to
l&k~ up the mail er of appo in,in g ""ver al Ethio pian
bisho ps al the same time on I'OUnds of lbe siu; of
the Ethiopian empi re and the .,.-.i linc diflie ul,its
of ~ommuni<:alion. lbe pa ~h ....as more unde r·
stand ing ,han his prnleeessD<$ and agr« d 10 orda in
a few dillnilaries at OI\ee. prov ided Iha, the "b.",
rema ined a Copt, eons tquen tly. Abona O~rel,," (Cy-
ril) III ...... ronse cr.lle d for Ethio pia. and IOor Ethi-
opW l ehun :b ""bo iars, ..'be ....,re nominated hr the
Elhic pian autho rilies , we..,. on!a.i.ned bisho ps in
1929. Tl>ey "''""'" Abnl ham, Pllf"Oa, YQl:Iaq. and Mi-
-no
"':t!. A 6fth one. Siwi nl&. .. ccuJ d l>OI travel to
Ec'JII on acco on, of illness. "'as cons «:...., ed in
Addis Ababa whtn the IXiuriarch visited lhe E,hio pi·
an ~apital in url}' 1930 <see ETHtOPIAtl CHURCH
AUTOCEPKA.LY).
n.e rdali ons bet", '«n the ,..lIp e'Or ....d the met·
ropol itan were corii aI until tlM: FascOlt occu pa,io n
of Ethio pia (193 6-19 41). wht!n the dign i'ary .._
more or less fol'C'ed to luve his dioce st. The ltd-
ian$ "'ant ed to separ ale the Ethio pian chul'C'h from
A1ezandria 50 lIS 10 bring ilun der their full conl rol,
and Mftr opolm ul (Jere l.. WZI llIJmmoned Ie> Rome
foI- cons uha'i o..... aner ...hie h he rerum ed '0 Ea,wl.
The llalia no appo in,ed an Ethio pian metrnJ'Olilan
who orda ined SOmt bishops. This Italia n polic y was
cond emne d by lhe see of SainI Mark .
Upon his retur n from aile , Emp eror Haile SlObs-
sit: que:stiooed the integ rity of the Coptie tne1rOpOIi-
tan, who a1lesedly deserted his eCD gnpl ion a, ,he
time of di$lresa, and he dtma ndtd that an Elhlo p;'
an be eonS «:r8l ed in his stead . After an exttn si"e
corra pond enee . euha nges or ddep lion s. and
lellf:thy OOllSUiuuicns, it was agn.ed IlpOI'I Uuu Mel-
ropo liWl <H;reloa was 10 be re'nS laled and lh..
"pon his de:ath he WQUld be llIJCeee<\ed by an Ethio-
pian dlllJlitary, In agree ment that was aecordingl}'
realized in 1951. The 5OVer<:iln none thele ss eon,i n'
ued nqoti at:i0 n5 "'idt the aim of maki ng the ,WI>
awe r dtwc hes equa l in hlerardu<::a1 Sl3n a. and i"
1959 M suCC «lkd ...hen he re""h ed an agr'f tnlef U
throu gh whic h the firs, Ethio pian Pl'ui an:h eoold
M insta lled. The aim of the empe ror's polic y was
nOl ,he comp lete sep&Dlion of tbe ,..... ehur ches .
but rathe r the .,Iain......., of equa lity and dose co-
operMion.
Donna his rel&", more Ethio pian Rude n.. ,han
ever were stnt 10 Egypt to m.dy a, Copt ic ;l\IiliIU'
'ions of leam inll. and the e'lab /ishm ent of tht first
Ethiopian theoloskal semi nary _ entru st"'; '0 the
Copts. He aime d lit fostt rina "r>dersuu>di". lUtd
coll~ion nOl only betw een IIIe cbun :hes
of
E1hiopill and Efyp l bul also amon g all fWe Easle rn
siste r chur che•. the head s of "'hie h met for lhe first
time al a conf trenc t $<Immoned by the emp eror in
I96S. He aho crea ''''; withi n the ebur dl'. cen'. ...
admi nistn Uive 01pl 1 a "'rei gn rdati ons office 10
in'en .il'y the eh"r dI'. ronla els wi.h the ouui de
worl d, His deth rone mtnt in Sept embe r 1974 _
followed by an abrup t separ alion of the Ethl<lpian
Onho dox Chur ch l'rom ,be slUe "';Ih whic h ;1 had
heeD dow: ly linke d for abou t sixl« n hund red
,.ears. and the chlU'Ch ..... sudd enly 1M '0 look

Bel'de Maryam Menna (Ba'eda Jar)'Im Mm;t.).
MIM Gachich~ der iilhioc>pncbcn Palriarc.... n
_ 1926 bis 2W" ~",-an." DocIOO'l1 disa.., Rup-
teclIl karl Unlvrnily. HrideIMl'L 1982.
,....
Cb.pftarn. C. H~jJ., SeI/1S5i.e·s Gcw.........,"I. London.
!-bile Sebsr.... T1u AUlobiocr~pIty D{ Emperor H~i1e
Se/4s.sH.I; My ute .n4 E.tJriorM's ~css, /892-
/937, Irw>$. E. UlIftMlonI. Oxford. 1976.
Heyu, F. Ole Kirdtc Atltiopims: Eine &SI""JS<lu/'
""imn. Ekrlin. 1971.
Hyatt, H. M. "The C/"uclt 01 .tby""'i•. London,
1928.
Koha. K. S. "Murad Kamil:' Zcilscltrifl tler d,..I.
#'h,,, m0'lle"ril"tlixhe" Gcsellschllil 127
(1917):6-1.
B.olJ,U Tm.A
HAIL MARY, lraditional prayer based upon the
words of the "'nnunciation. Tho salutalion by the
archangel Gabriel 10 The Virgin Mal)' in announcing
the divine ool>Ceplion of Jesus Christ was. "Ha.il. 0
favored one, I"," u,rd. is with you!" To IMs Is lidded
the ""'.. I,Uio" of EJilabeth when Ihe Vir,in Mal')'
visiled her: "Blessed are you among WO~, and
blessed is the &uil of your womh" (U- 1:42).
This salutation, hoto""""r. is no onlinary 1P'ff11na.
as the onpnal Greo:ok tum (0. •....1... ch.in. etyma-
&op;ally denotes the impartation of llad lidinp 10
M receh'ed ..-l1h joy and jubilation. Ills used in this
_ in nriow places in the Old TQtameftt: "Sin,
aloud.. 0 ""&h<er of lJoa•... rtjoicoe and uuh
with ul1O"r heart. 0 d"'I!'I..r of J~m" (Zep.
1:14) and "Rcjoic:e ,ready 0 <buchler of Zionl
Shout aloud. 0 daup,= of JenJS&ie...! 1..0, )'OOJr
king comes 10 you ... ridipg on an IISS, on a coil
I"," fo.l of aD ""~ (Zc:c. 9:9).
The a11lelic: sal..talion occun frequently in Ihe
offices of Coptic wonhip. as in the canonical hours.
Mer the lJ.1SAGION and the Lord', Pny« and ~
fore I'«lllnl The c",ed, the P...ycr of Tho: Firsl Hour
cOlllinue$: "Hail Mary. w.. bueec!l you. holy one,
full of glory. e,..,r-virgin. MOlher of God. h<.>Iy ont,
full of Ilory. may you lift up our p...yers 10 your
Beloved Son. IMT He may parden us our 1101, Hall,
holy Virgin, who broughl forth the Trtle Ughl,
Chrisl our Lord.... Hail. Vi'llio. Irtle Quceo. Hail,
honor of our race. ""ho gave birth 10 Emmanuel:'
In Ihe psalmody. a daily IhrolOkiofl i5 ckvoled to
HAIL MARY 1199
ascribing ~se 10 I"," MOIhe.. of God. Notablr :orr
Ihe fuIlO"',ng:
L for Sunday: "Hail 10 thee. Mary. I"," mother of
Emmanuel ... Hall Mary. lhe T1reotoloJ. M
1.. for T...esday: "Hail 10 the 1MoIolo•.... Hail I/)
the Immaculate. ... Hall to lhee. ,,+to hast found
grace. The Lon!. is with thee. Hail 10 thee who
received from thr aneel Ihe joy of the world.
Hall 10 Jhr,e ",ilo p", blnh to the Creator:'
l. for Wednaday: "Great it! the honor ...-hich ~u
thee. 0 Gabriel. who carried lbe JOOd n......" and
announced il 10 the VirJin Mal')'.N
4. for Friday; "Bless<e<! an lhou amona "''OfIleti. and
blaM'd i5 Ihy F...il. 0 Mal')'. the T1reotoko•• N
Similar verses of praise also lorm p;ort of the
LdJ.h (d", explanalOry com~mal)' Il>Cluckd in Ihe
f)lalmody). Ihe do.oloc:Y Ihal follows 1M Psahm of
I"," morning p"'yer. and Ihe psalmody of Ihe Coplk
monlh of Kip.hk.
[0 Ihe morning and evenin, ."ising of incense.
Ihe incense of Ihe Pauline epistle and the p.".is
reading, when Ihe pliesl offers Incense loward Ihe
oonh, he says, "With Ihe "'ngel Gabriel we salute
thu....Y;ng. 'Hail 10 Ihoe who a" lull of grac.... the
Lord. is wilh Ihu...·
Befo'" the creed and 1M oII'el101')'. the peoplr
.ing Ibe Im"rceuion 10 the Thunol«Js. lhe Ou«n.
After m., rtaltinl of the C,,"holkoft, kno...'11 as lhe
Catholic epistles. the cong~lion ~op The hymn
10 Mary. whic:h ''aries accordins 10 the lime of lhe
year. for exampJe:
I. On the Feast of I.... Vi..pn Mary and certai<l other
da)'S: "Hail 10 thee. 0 /obry. the Cr;IoCefu,1 Ooo·e.
who r:a''''' birth 10 God die ..........
2. on the FeMC of <he Mnune.llon: "Ha.il 10 ih«,
,,'1>0 Ita$I found P'l'CoC. The Lord. is "dth thee.
Hail 10 thee who re«i.-N fro... the angel the j<>y
of the World:'
1. duriD.g m., monlb of Kiyahlt: "HaIl Moll')'. eli.,;""
peace be .. nlO Iheo:o. Hail 10 Thee, Mother of lhe
H"'y One."
"'n ostracon fouDd in lwlor in lIpper Eio'P1 l>eaJ5
nidenc:e IMI the angelic: salutallon wa!l popular as
a common deVOlic>nal p ...yer In I"," .ixlh cenTury
(~clerq. 1~12).
BIBLIOGRA'HY
•...hd al·Masih ~aJib
.1·Mq·Qdl. KilfJ.b III.Khitliiji al·
Muqaddas ay KilfJ.b a!.TI!a!fJ.lhal Q..tldfJ.!lfJ.f. Cairo,
1902.
1200 I:IAJIR lDFU
Iqladiylls Yl1l;>annl Labib_ Kildb ,,/.Abf<l/miidiyyltlo "I
5<>n• ..."..10 "1,\f,,qtuld4<4lr. Cairo. 1908.
KilU ./.,tjbiy"". Cairo. 1900_
La:lerq, H. "Priel1!: de Ia Vierge Marie ..... un -
lrakon <Le LouqiOl".~ B"llen.. d'"",cK"". lilli...•
ro<t"t d'.rchWfoeie cltrhiDln. 2 (1912):J-22.
AIIC>U1!SHOl' BASIUOl!i
~AJIR IDFO, an intpOOUnt bul Iiltle-known site
!yin, aboul 2.5 miJel; (4 bn) weol of IdIU. I~ impor-
tance for £&)-plolocr has already beorD sboIoo.., (Qo.
b.... 1977). Morem"C~, il is not ""ilhout ImerUi for
CoptolOl)'. The provenance of many Copllc rnanu·
scTipu in the British Ubrary, who$e colophons bu~
dalCS from 981 to 1005. is known 10 be 1dfl1 (Orbn·
dl. 19761. The lexU oIlhe <olophons fhow that the
dtX"menu arc dtdicaled 10 different Chris11an inlli.
lutions In lhe dislricl of IdfU (LalllOchoot, 1929),
The", include lhe monlUlery of Holy Mercurlus, Ihe
IOPOS (!I3cred place) of MercurlU$, the church of
Mercuri"•. lhe IOpoS of Apa Aaron, and lhe IOPOS
or Ihe archansel Michael. The lenn "lhe mountaIn
of Edfu" tXCUl"S often in lhe colophonl, denotinS
the place where lhese Chris/ian instltUlion. W<:re
ItXllled. Thc SI01')' of the discovery of the manu·
ICripil recoumed by a "bedouin" 10 Rustal)ael1
(Rustaf)aell. 1910, 1'1'. 31f.. esp. p. S. pi, I) ilth",
confimlotd by the information &lven In the colo-
pholl$ of many teJ<IS. '-n.o. mountain of Edfu" cOOJld
be no pia« but ':l'.iir Idhl.
Curnnt!)·, me ,-ema;m cl only one mon_ry are
vi$ible in !.UP' Idfii. a cloister assigMd to Pachocn;'
us ptma.ps In bier titneL In 1907, Rustafjl.ell ";';1'
ed the r~lns 01. thi!i mo"",,,Cl)' and was im-
p~ by iU oI6H ruins, whioch ind>cMe thai a
monas<Cl)' _ M"" nisted there vay early and
haw b«n cl «msOderahlc imponance. In I~I a
nlllnbe. of GrCf'k and Coplic 05\111", \OIOtre found
near the ruins. In 19~ 198L t~ inspKlO' of the
antiquities ~ IdfU coodu<1ed an initial o.cavation
at J.ljjir IdfU. More Won 110 Coptic and a few
Greek O5lncll were found "",tside the ruins of me
nonhem ",,-all of !he monaslery. In addillon, the
lower paru 01. some buildings made of mud bricks
were uneo-'tl"Cd and STudied.
•.lijlr Idfit is a vcry promising archaeological ille,
and further S)'ilemalic scientific fieldwork Is necCi-
sary. Such an effon will bullres. whal if known
aboul monasticism as well as the hislOry 'oOlh of Ihe
eplscopale of Idfl1 and of the Chrislian movement
Ihere,
[St. olso: Dayr AI·Malik Mlkhnl i1dfit).]
IIIBLlOGaAPHY
Clart<t. S. CIui./Ul1t Antiq>titi.u in rlt. Nile Vlllle,.
Odonl. 1912.
FakJuy. It. "1& Report on the lnsp«tO.-e of lJppe1"
EcPL hI"..t.... i"
N
rJPl. 46 (1947):2S-54.
Se""'. d.... "",1iq,,;'M de rEo
Gabn. Go ''1'l!e Sile of lial<=r Edfu as me New Kms-
0.- Cemetery ~ Edfu. ~ Ch",.. iqNe i'EeT't. 52
(1977):201-222.
-:-:C ''2ur BtdeutunC des GtbOe<to von Hagir
Edfu Itir d>t KDp1OIope untl Nubiolo&ie." MiJIri.
/JI ..,teJI des Deutsclt... IIrcltilolorJClonr IJtSlind.
lClIira 41 (1985): 9-14,
~tsehoot. It. , n. BecMeil du colop1l<»u des mOl"'
IUCrits c/v;Ii s d'EC/lIl, b5c. I, p. 97, l. II; p.
188(Q. U. 5-6; p. 190.11, 5-6; p. 206(B), II. 5-6;
p. 209(Q.Il- 6-8; pp. 212-13; p. 185, II. 3-4; p.
198, n. 5-6; p. 195.11. 9-11. lotmun, 19H.
Mtinardus, O. Chrioli... Etypt, Anei...t ..ltd Mod,""
Cairo, 1%5.
Orlandi. T. "Le. Manuscrit. cople. de Dublin, du
British Mu",um el de Vlenne," Le M~$kn 89
(1976);327-33.
RUSlafjaell, R. dc. Th. Lighr of Egypt. london, 1910.
Timm, S. Chrisllid1' Srallen in AiJpun. Ikihefte
rom Tlibinger Alias des Vorderen Orienls, scr. B,
no. 36_ Wicsbad'm, 1979.
J:lAKIM BI.AMR-ILUH ABO 'ALI MAN-
~OR. AJ.,... Thil son of Caliph aJ.'Am came 10 lhe
thront 011 lb~ \au day of ~ llI6jOtsober
996. A1 fint, one of his brothers, MuJ:>amrnad, had
beUI chostn as heir. bul he diM befott his fathtr.
Sinet the ........ caliph _ so )'OUna (bono in 986).
the Berbn- KuUimah chief, aJ.1;fasan ibn 'AmllW,
acted as regmL Sut the T\trb, ,"'ho "'P'"estJ'Iled an
equally strong otCIion of tM ann,. "",.'" ,t;"n,jditd
with the prd"ermtnt sl"'en to the Berl>tn.. Henu
fi&hting brok~ out betWt"Cll me dlfIernot bctions
""'hich resulted in me remo....1 of Ibn ·Ammar and
his I1!:plactmem by lbe Turk Baljaorin in 997.
From the year 1000 on_rd. a1.Hilkim himself
C1trcM<! pow<:~. InauJUl1llb.S his ioYltmmem by
killing 100 'Amm'~ and, a rew monlh. l/ller, Barja·
wAn. For Ihe nUl twenty yean. his immediate col·
laboralors, ouul;lndina personali1iC$ of the king'
dom, and the Egyplian people in ~eneral were "-I
lhe mCTey of al·l:IAklm'. chansing moods. A ",ries
of orden /lnd unexpecled, often contradictory, pro'
hibilions earn~ from tlte palace and had lO be "aT'
lied OUI Wilhoul ditlay or q1.lC$tion. High official.,
wddenly promoted in rank and loaded with honors
 I:IAKlM BI·AMR·luAH ABO 'AU MAN!?OR, AL·
and gifts, were disg.-a~ed and beheaded a few weeks
late., Here we ~an only give a brief list of these
tyrannical measures, t",ating the caliph's behavior
toward the Chri$tiam ""pamtely,
In 1004 came prohibition against eating ~enain
green vegetables, such as mu!ukhiyyah (because Ca-
liph Mu'awiya liked it); ii'71r or rocket salad (per.
haps in memory of 'A"isha, the wife of the prophet
Mu~ammad); mutawakki!iyyah (becau.... Caliph al·
Mutawakkil was a Sunnl and al·Hllim was a Shiite
Mu.lim); and fish withoul scales. It was likewise
forbidden to drink fuqq{,' (a drink roade of barley
lhat 'All detested). It was prohibited to go out after
sunset. An order wl\$ givell to kill all the dogs in
Cairo. The traditional celebrations for the Feast of
Sacrifices were forbidden. Mourning observe<! on
the day of 'Ashiirn' was forbidden. It was also for.
bidden to kiss the ground or the ~aliph's hand,
because this gesture implied shirle (blasphemy) and
forme<! part of Byzantine ceremonial,
It was prohibited to practice astrology.
Some decisions were part of Fatimid propaganda,
such as the multiplication of insulting inscription.
against the first caliph. inside and outside mosques
and in other public place•. Two years later al·l;lak·
im put an end to this activity and supervised the
suppression of these offensive posters himself.
11 seems, howe,'er, that certain orders were not
obeyed, or that they were carried out for shan peri·
ods only, since they we", often repeated. Example.
are the prohibition for women to go out and the
obligation to "",ar a mfwr (wrapper) in public
haths.
Such behavior sometimes produced tragicomic
situations, but often real nightmares, and created
around the caliph an atmosphe", 01 terror men-
tioned by the historians. It is certain that the master
with a single word exercised the power of liIe and
death over his subjects. Although it is difficult to
give the preci.e number g: necutions ordet"l'd b)'
a1·I;W:im, it is possible to-~t.ate that they were nu·
merous. Historians have mentioned
, mainly th""" of
imponallt persons. For one year Maqrtzi has an
incomplete li.t of twenty·four names and for the
following year he speaks of the "execution of more
than a hundred persons." Thus, most of the miers
and chief qli4ls as wen as a large llUmber of other
officials were assassinated. Others lost one hand or
both hands, as happened to 'All al·Jatjara'i,
Besides his odd behavior, what were the out·
standing event. 01 the caliph's reign? Strange to
say, al'l;Iakim's tyrannical rule does not seem to
have been th,..,atened seriously, ",",cept for the un·
1201
dertaking of the Andalusian prince aI-Wand ibn His-
ham, ~alled AbU Rakwah, who allied with the Zana·
ta and the Ban" Qurrah of Barqah to attempt the
conquest of Egypt. After threatening the population,
he was finally overcome, taken prisoner and execut-
ed amidst popular ,..,joicing (1007). Likewise, the
p"'lention. of the Sharif of Mec<:a, a1·l;Iasan ibn
Ja'far, allied to the poweri'ul tribe of the Banu al·
Jarral), never endange,..,d al-l;Iakim's authority.
From 1017 onward, an idea spread that Ihe caliph
was divine. This idea could have originated with
a/·I;la1<im himself or he could have leli those who
p",achdl his divinity at liberty to do so. 11 is ceMain
Ihat several persons appeared in Cairo at this time
announcing a new era, among them l;Iasan ibn
J:Iaydarah al·Akhram, who was killed but was buried
wrapped in the palace ,hroud. Mu/.>ammad ibn Is·
rna'll al-Dara21 and l;Iamz.ab ibn 'All al·Zawzanl,
whose conduct caused an insurrection in a district
of Old Cairo and among the Turki'h soldiers, man·
aged to escape under al·J:lakim', protection, Then
the caliph took revenge by loosing his bodyguard
on Old Cairo, whe,.., Ihey lOOled, pillaged, and
bUlTled as they liked.
AI·l;lakim'. sister, Sit! al'Mulk, realized that her
brother's exce••e. ri.ked bringing the Fatimid lami·
Iy to ruin, AI",ady disturbed by the naming 01 a
distant cousin, 'Abd al·Rahim llyas, l\$ heir to the
throne, she decided 10 take action when Ihe caliph
menaced her personally on the basis of suspicions
about her private life. Sources here are contradiclo'
ry, but it seem. likely that Sill al·Mulk conspired
with the chief of the KuUmah to bring about the
murder of her brolher. He disappea",d during one
of his customary night walks in the Muqa!!3m hills
in 1021.
[t is nol easy to understand al·J:ltkim" personali·
ty or to explain his behavior, [t would be too simple
to suppose he was insane. His varying moods, hi.
change of tastes, sometime. for lu,ury and then for
asceticism, his frequent night walks and his insom·
nia, all seem to point to a nervous temperament.
Perhaps in his adolescence this had been exacerbat-
ed by the contemptuous way he was treated by his
tutors, Ibn 'Ammar and above all Barjawan. Our
source. lor the study of this caliph are almost ex,
clusively Sunnl or non·Muslim. Even these authors
a", often nuanced in their judgment of al'J:[tkim,
nOling hi. generosity, ca,.., for justice, disinterested·
ness, and the favorable way he ,..,ceived complaints.
But these attitudes, worthy of a model monarch,
were 5Uc~eeded by fits of incomprehensible cruelty.
sawlru. ibn al·Muqalfa' compares him to a "rearing
1202 t.iAKIM BI-AMR·luAH ABU 'ALI MAN~OR, AL-
lion in scan:h of a pu:y,N ec:lIoing Ibn ~fi"'sjudg­
menl lhal he "w,u in Ihe midst of men like a "'Y;l~
1100." Ibn ~lir also nolea lhal "he wall very careful
10 find oul details on I"" life of each I"Irwn: noth·
in. thal ""y of his Sl:rvanl$ or his SUhjt'ClS did.
...he1Iw:• ..... 01 or ~", was IlJ'O"'d:'
In his..-.e lOn"ious pe'Iods,lII-l;Iakim Mod reson·
ed to a.uoJocers. It is well kJ,oo,o,." thaI he b.... orN
eMaio e:xI<emists such as I;lamza "'Z.wtanl and
MuhlUl>mad -J,[)anozl, who openly pmoehed his d~
>'lnUy. This altitude is nOI as novel as it would
aeem. sioce h was fully ....·hhln Ihe m.mewo.k of Ihe
limail! doclrine professed by Ihe Fatlmlds. In I""
Ismail! syso:em, ,'''' imam is ,'''' incarnallon of Ihe
uni""roaI inleJ~.. ,.,hieh .ecei...... anributell that. in
SIIIIOI IsilUll, IN"'e <es<en'ed 10 God alone; lor tho:
Ismail... b:::>we¥er. God hM no altrib.ues. The lirsz
Fltimid caliph, ·lh)-dallih -J-MaIKlt lei the poxc
proclaim when speakin. of the caliph's .esidence in
Ra.qQidah, "'Then the di,i"i1y resides, de:c017ued
whh hi. high 8uributes."' And a.l·Mu'in even accept·
ed Ibn Hlni' al·Andalusl's bold venes, "Thou art
Ihe lighl and 1111 other lilht Is darkneu , ... Wh••
.hou ",ill happens .... 1hcu an the unique, the
Irrt'Sistible."'
W"r\OOul wishing 10 UCWpoJe "'J:l1kim <II h;,;
•rap.: and undeniabl." e>:cesses. we ha"" to mcos:'
nize thaI hyperbole _ eommon in lhe fatimid
enlourage, whieh mad" its lignjlicance .-ela.h-e,
We have rdali...ely preci$f infoomalion 0<1 Ihe reo
lallon.hip between Ih. caliph and Ihe Christians,
especially I"" Co"u. In lhis mall.r ",'e m ..st distin,
JUw, dilfe.enl groupL
Po/",ce olfid",b ",nd "'",." or Ius cUne coIIDlHP"'-
fqrs of W cfl/ipJl. 11Ie chronicltn ha~c rcconkd
lbe names of • numbe<" of Copts ..'Ito often h,,1d
¥ery ;mPJ<Un1 pow. in the cenlnl lIdmini5tration.
espuiallyal Ihe head of the d;"'3ns.. It is likely ,''',
Ihere were many more, since lhe head of a dinn
lende<! to choo•• ta subordinales and colleague$
among his fellow religionlsll. Thes-e Important func·
lionarie, do nOl: oeem to ......., been .reated olher·
wise than Ilteir M...Jim collugueo. They 100 had 10
1"" up wilh al·H.llrim's moods. 'lsi ibn ~.-,
wno had acled as Yi>X-r Wlcln" aI-'Am, cootinued
klr a ~ months ",,<In me new caliph, bul be ......
.-en>oYed from office and beheaded in 997. A few
mODI,," Ial.' the po6I WM lIi....,n to allOlhe. Otri$-
tian, ABf) AL-'AU· FAliD IBl\I IBMH1,., who die<! by
asousinalion, A lhon lime aherward lhe same fale
befell his brother, Abu al·Ghl!ib, who _ head of
01..."'.. o".NQlaqIlt. One of ·Ist ibn Nas!urus' sons,
AbU 1II.Khayr Iur'ah, acted IS ...me. for lwo ,.".~,
from August WIO to Seplember 1012. He died a
lIatu",,1 death while ~liII in office, and il i5 sai<:l Ihal
al·':lakim ,..,grened being unable 10 put him 10
death as "" had planned. Anolher of 'I$i.', sons,
~'id, was also viJ:ier lor a short period. He WM
appointed in 1018 and dismissed four mondu Ia,,,,
flDd ""ecuce<!. ihree of Zur'ah's brothers also oc:c.>'
pied importanl poail>ona in the dno'QIU. AbU ManF
Dishr ibn 'Abelanlh ibn Solr'llt, sec'--'Y to lhe
Diwlln IIUnshlf, who lranscribed lhe caliph's «-
ders, "...,rns 10 have li ...en comple1e salisfaction.
since he remained in olliee unlil his nalural dealh
II' Oclober 1009. We also know of Iwo of al·
I;li.ldm's doct~ who were Christl""s: Ya'qub Ibn
Nas!h and AbU al·f.t/:t Manflir ibn Sahlin, ..t\o
b n ~ witlt the caliph w obUlln die libenliDII
ot the Coptic officiab who had bHn imprisoned
after ,he lOSSIS$inal>on of lbe ¥We. fahd ibn Ib-
""~.
Sec"",, rneOSI"es. MallY X'Curily measures de-
cree<! by al·J:Iakim concerned Jewl and Chri$l;all5
and w.re particnlarly iriaome. In Oclo<>er 1004, an
edict was rud In Ihe rnosqo.>e$ obliging J""'S and
Otrisllaos 10 "ur black clothes and 10 carry spe-
cial bf.dces (particularly tlte Vlnn"" a xnoam'.
beh). laler, Cbmtianl were obli...,d 10 wear •
.."ODden Cn>lS aJ"<MInod lhrir lIeC"b, .nd lhey ..-en-
Ii:..bidden to ride hon.eback, Ita";n. to be sati$fied
witlt mules o. donkeys. llIey -.e 10 "..., undeco-
raled WQO<kn saddlu In addilion. Ihey were 1101
allowed to ha,'e a Muslim"" .e.....anE. Il .eems Ihal
these diso:riminalory measures caus-ed mallY Copt.
\0 ~me Muslims.
"The Chrtstiao. _~ O<derd 10 keep tbe:ir cross
on """n in tho: ~""""m or public bam (tho: Jews
......re • small bdl). AJ·J:Iikim a1Jo..'<:d dt.- Ch ....
tians who wisIw<I 10 do $0 10 In"" ~ for a
Dyontine territory or Nubia. " -.no thaI m""y
Ollislianl p.-eferred to 10 inlO exile ralher tha.n 1"'1
up wilh these annoyances.
Christ!Q .. worship. In 1007, the COPIS were pre'
venle<! frotn decontinJ and ill"m;nalinl I""ir
churches fur Palm Sunday. 1bcre _~ imprison·
menU and many elclles were bumed in fronl of
the mosques "J1'ITff yoean Iat",. it ...... forbidden 10
uleb<ate the Gttilh (Epiphany), a feast that includ·
ed illuminalinl the ..reelS and bathinl in the Nile
1.1 nighlfall, This p.-ohibilion had al",ady been made
by lbe cal1ph al-'Am. who forbade cdehralions On
lhal day, In 10 11 the feasl of Ihe Holy CrOS$ (17
Tut) ....... forbidden.
Taken ~tely, Ihese decisions do nol neCes-
sarily mean an anli-cltristi"" altilude 00 lhe part ot

the caliph, for at the "m~ tim~ he had forbidden
publk festi"iti~ for the feast of ~rifiCft and the
mouming of 'Aihilri', Other m~asures. ho,.,~,~r.
wen: dearly din!Cted .pinst ChriSlians, fOt" eum·
ple, the dffiroying of churdws and ~inlthem
with mosques. In IOOS tl>t' RAshida mosqu~ "'-lOlI
buill in place 01. new church th.. had b«n built
withollt th~ caliph', pennission. n.e year 1008 ",as
mar\ed by the dc5!rw;tion 01 many churches, be·
linnlog ",ith thai: of th~ Koly ~pIlkheJ in Juusa-
l~m. ",hkh .J.l;lildm orde~ to be completely de·
51roy'fll. In 1010 the M~khltc montite'}' or al~r
(ncar Cain» .... dc5Iroyed and its «mete'}' pr0-
faned. Finally, in 10))·\01•• n.. m ~ con~cnlS
and. chW'tMs met wi,h tl>t' ",me bt~. It ww1d be
dii!iicuh '0 ...... ~ an e>'en Ipproxlmat~ ~ lOll to
the RIlmi>a of bulldinp doestroyed, bill it ..,."".
there wtre many. n.e caliph onIc~ the confisca·
tion '" c.... n:h PnlP"rty and. the U'aMfeT of !hci,
adminnu..tion '0 !he finan<:ial dO... n.
OM disoonc~nlllJ point in aJ.l;llllm'f Irtatnwnt
of the Coprs _ w.t hif 0'Wll mocher ....-as a oms.
!ian. This ....,.,.." _ not withcloK lnllucncc on the
calipb al··Aztz.. sinc~ We h.d two of her b..lIhen
appointN 10 hi&h positions io the eedesiauical hi·
enrchy: one. ~•• patria«:h of J~~m; the
oWr. Ar$cnius. m~ropoliwt of Akaandria. A,rwni.
us _ on~ cI al-I;lildm's Yk:timl, ""hile Arfs4b was
impris<>M<l.
From 1014 on. tM anti<:ltristian perwwtion
_unN. According 10 IOm~ _rces. it eeaoed
completely.
Generally lpea.inl, Muslim historians condemn
these anti<:hristian deerea, above all bKausc they
ca....... many Copts to h«0I1>t' Muslims withOOlI ~
In. truly eon~~ned. Wll~n ,he aUlhorities became
more bYOnbI~ to non·Mus!itm, many of these
Copts I'tVcnNtO Christianity, and wer~ considered
by lhe A1uslims 10 be guilty of aposw;y.
RelQIio..s with lite 8yt<l"'nu. Rel.tions wilh thc
Bymntines remair>ed tel'lK as in the limes of al.
'Am. Early in ,he reign, Ibljawln obtained a few
mi!ila'}' suceuses, such as. the vie tory of Tyre and
the laking of Apame. He then SCnl an embassy to
Ihe emperor B:lSil II, in which Arlf!ls of Jerusalem
look pan. The "cbanges produced a truee in 1001
lhal was supposed to last ten ~ars. The treaty re·
qui,..,d greater li~ny for Chrisllans In the fallmid
territories. espedally the permission to TCbulld
their churehef. and to fupply wheat for Egypt. BUI
very soon the ,reaty w&!' broken on aceOunl of aJ·
I:Ukim'a penccution and abov~ .11 the denruetion
of Ihe Church of the Holy ~pukher.
HAMAl OF KAHYOR, SAINT 1203
IlIBUOCRAI'HY
'AI>d a1-Mun'im MAjid. AUldl<im &....... I/Idlt, al·
Khlflfflf QI·Mu/tQrd 'QIQ},It. Cairo, 1959.
'All ibn lAliT. illlM, al-Duw"J QI·MunqQ,,'ah. cd. "-
Ferri:. Cairo, 1912.
Ibn KhalliUn_ W,qaJ-.J, 1l1.'(')"1". Vol. 2, pp. 165(.
Cairo, 1q.a.
Ibn al-Qalinisi. DItllyl T<lnkh Dim4shq. cd. H. F.
IuncdroL Lrid~n. 1908.
Ibn al~~. "Al-khara il:o man Nlla·I·Wlzlra."
BuU.1in de I'I..Slilm Frlllfl;Qis d'ArcWolOfic one...
,"le 25 (1925):871.
Mui}ammad 'AbdallIh 'I",". AI.J!lki"" ~i ...m. 1//61r
,,-.....urdr ..I.fhI·.....Qh 1-II{imiyyllJl. Cairo, 1937,
Yal»)1i ibn Sa'id a1·A:n~Id. ~ilJJl Ki'lJ~ UllkN. cd. L
Cbcikho. Paris. 1909. Ed. and. French 1nrtS. I.
K.r;uo;hk<»1Jcy and A. A. Va5ilin. II> PO 18 and 13
(1924 and 1932).
HALL, HENRY REGINALD HOLLAND
(1&73-1910). Engli$h F.a:wtol." and hlstorial>.
Hall ..... born in Londol> and educated at Saint
John's CoII~, Chfonl. 5UppIemenlini hia ch"....1
$Iud.... with Ec~ IanlU&Ce and hisotory unda
F. L Griffith·s guidance. He joinc<llhe Brilisb M""",,
urn as an assistant 10 E. A. Wallis Budse in 1896
and lalte became ~r cI thc l)epanment cI
£&yptian and '-Yrian Antiquities (192.-1930). He
.....iSled Henri Edouanl Naville in !he: ~JlcavatioM at
Da)T aJ..Bahri (I903-1901) and dUJ for th~ EcPt
bplonllion Fund .t Abydos (1910. 1925). CopIk
studies ....'ft"C' n>aJ"iinal to his imm~m.e OUt""t. In
that field. he published C..prie Q"" ere,le TUls of
Ille ChristiQn Period i.. IIr~ Brimh M"seum (London.
19(5). He <tied in lnndon.
BlBl.JOCRAPHY
Dawson. W. R.• and E. r. Uphill. Who W"" Who in
EDP,oI00, pp. 131-32, London, 1972.
K.ammeTCr. W" compo A Coptic Bibliof7Qph" Ann
Aroo" Mkh .. 1950; repro New Yon.., 1969.
.un S. ATlVA
HALO. Su Symbolism in Coptic An: Nimbus.
HAMAl OF KAHYOR, SAINT. a fifth·cenlury
monk who was manYTCd (feast day: II Amshlr), Hli
euh is attesled by some Coptk documenlS, in par-
\204 HAMBURG PAPYRUS
lieU .... som~rypib (boolu conu..ining ndoes and ru-
bna f« di"",~ s.e"n) from Da1' Anbl. ShlnCidah.
bul IUs Iii<: has ben> J'"S""""d only by a fairly 10"1
nolic~ in a "ABle mlII>uscripI of the recension from
Upper £cpt 01 the Copto-Anobic: 5Y1olUAUON. In IUs
youlh. Hamal became a mon.... in lhe Pachomi.an
monasIery 01 OaJ'ryiir. II ..-as founded by nlEOOOlUS
Off lABDil<tst ",t1h !he nl of KOMIE:WlS &her the
dealh of PACtlOMIu:s.. and locale<! noc far from
Slun,ln (Hennopolis Magna, or al·~mQna)n). H~
_In Ute sc...ice of lhe b..-orhcn in Ih~ dJ.C01IUr. a
term here designaling no doubI Ihe fun~1on dllli
assured the daily supplies for Ihe lnOfWl.~ry. n.e
""I"reh 01 AIcJo.andria ...... lhen Ihe JrUI CYalL L
He wf'Ol.~ 10 Anba Pachomiu5 the YOIlngC'l". ar"hi·
mandril~ of !'bow and hence wpcriOT of the PlOCh<>-
mlan congregalion. ;>Sling him 10 come 10 Alexan·
drla 10 dis<'u....ith him lhe difficulties the Arta""
were causing the church.
We CannOi say precisely what herC1ics or dis·
sidenls he mean!. for the lenn "Arians" rcmains
vagu~ in the medieval Arabic vocabulary and may
dcslgn.l~ Ihe Melilians as ",ell as lhe I"'~ Arlans.
Pachomius the Younger embarked on a journey on
Ih~ Nile wilh two oo:her old m.n, YOnob (Jonas) of
Bakhln.s-Tmousoons (a FOIlndation of PlIChomiu$
him~lf. a litll. to the nonh of !'bow in Ihrc diocese
of Hiwl and NIb\is of LuJ<O<'. as _lias OIh~r bulh·
ren. They made a srop 31 QahyOr. HamaL impelled
by lhe desire for martyrdom. penwde<l Ihrc &<.Operi·
OT 01 the Pacl>omiaD con~lion 10 tak~ him in
his II"ain 10 Aleundria. In the r:oursc of the journey.
YQnis. 31 the 'cque.i of Pachomius. re"les a >'isloII
or ral""r double risX>n "" has had. oflhe ark cI the
coYe1I81Il and the lwo 00us<:s dcsIincd in the OIher
""OIid !or the sons of Padlomius. Ol>e In hen. con·
SCI\lClN of piu:h and oulfur llrld '-lied "'lIh 're,
l"CKI"O"K1 for the failltks5 ..-.Iu; lhe 0Iher in "",,,v·
~n. made of pure gold wilh a hiP sunvundi"l ..'all
Mar the Irce of life, .... ukated ..ith an nqu.isil~
I'novane:~ on which !he hrtthren f«d. The'" Pach·
omius and h~ fai.hful b.--c1hrcn dwell. Thqo hAo"~
access 10 God before all the OIMr inhabilanlS of
""radise and wilhoul the mediation of thrc arehan·
1l~1 Michael, .... ho scrves as "ham~rlajn. n.e lUI
lpeaks brie~y. of lItei' arrival in Aluandria and Ih~
visil 10 lh~ an;hbishop Cyril. T1w: $tory describes the
prefecI of lhe city;u boastful. concelled. and of evil
conducl. This is evidently the p,er~cl O,estes (412-
415). whose quarrels wilh the patriarch Cyril and
the monlu of Nitria are related by the hi$lorians
(Socrates fli5rori4 Ecc!es;QSr;C4 7.14). One of the
monks. "mmonius. is said 10 ha"e Injured lhe pre·
£ca, .... ho had him ~ted and IOnured 10 dc3lh.
Cyril ordered Ammoni"" 10 hrc Jiven the bonon
d<>c '0 rnar1)n.. In our $\Ory...f>ich -Ioft'OIS par.alkl
to Ihal of the historian Socrates. th~ Pachom;""
monks are recei\'cd by 1It~ p",r..c.. and Hamal in·
'""&ft$ again$! him. In a .... the prrittl bas the
)'OWlS rnon.k "ruo:lfl.ed. dt~n orden him britcadcd.
n,.. IC1I of the upper £&ypcian S~ Ihen
describes Hamal', ascen. to hawn, his buri.al at
A1~undria. and the fel'Vt'nl v~ra.tion ntndtrtd to
him by .h~ monks and lallY.
In "ontns! 10 the Coptic movtyrdoms. thet-~ are
hen no inlem>plions inl~nperxd with IOrturc5
hclWeftl the pmoel and I"" monk; the pre£ca docs
nol a"empl 10 ma....~ the "andidate fo, manyrdorn
nnounce his bilh. and Hama; only reproa<:hes Ihe
prefooct for hk pride and hardness of hean. This
$lory 'CMmbl"" much mo« a monk's life. and Pa-
chomi"n ch;uacteri$l!cs are numeroU$: names of
the monasterics. th~ place of the superio' al Pbow,
the devotion of the monks 10 Ihe palriarch's caus.e,
the distribution of the IoOUls ;nlO dilferen! hOUles, ;>s
in Ihe Pachornian monllSleriU. On the nth.. hand
lite te~t re~ec:1S "'cll the dlmale of the relalions
bet"'een lhe prefect Orest~1 and the Egyplian cleri.
t:a.I and """'....ic world II Ih~ beginning of Cyril'$
ponl'ficate. Finally, lhis noIi<::e in the Synaxarion
has certainly been .ranslaled and summarizal on
the basis of;l CopIk: lif~. It Is, lben, a ..itn<"S$ 10 the
CopIic hagiographic: lilenllure.
BJBUOGRAPHl'
Coqum, R.-G. "Api Himly. m8n)T pooc:homien all
V' sikle." In flom"'4ftU ii /Q mimoiu de ~
Sozunemll, Vol.. 2. pp. 14S-~J. Cai.... 1979.
lU..... r.<Omll:GES Cooi.1N
HAMBURG PAPYRUS {Slate and Unive:rsily (j.
brary of Hamburg. in'"UllOry 110. Papyrus bilinguis
I (Pap. hil. I]; no. 998. ac"ordilll 10 th~ lis! of
Greek """"'kripu in the Gllllingcn Se",uaginl
projeCl), Pl'PY"'s "ooslsling of IWeIIly-eilht Ica.u
(fifly-siJ< paJn) of .... ori,;natly ulcnsive codon. In
the firs! pan f'ngmen15 of a pre¥i.,....]y unknown
version of the Greek .4c14 P4",/i are preserved on
e1e,en pag'$. Th;~ lUI w... published in 1936 by
C. Schmidt and W. Schuhan. Th. second part "on·
lains fony·fivc page~ of fragmem$ of Old TeOlament
writings in lhe Coptic and Greek languag.s: Song of
Songs in Coplk (sc"en pagn). Lamentations of 1o!'-
~mialt in Coptic (l~n pagesl, lIS well as Ecde$iaste$

.....,.
in Cr«k (rooM...,n pages) and Coplic (I"'IM...,n
The plac~ when me Papyn.L'l " .." " found has nOlI
been dClennincd ..ith ccnainl)l. and <he same can
be said of 1M tim" of disco>'ery. The papyru5 scroll
came into !he p"..es...... of m" Stal" and Uni'Y"nily
Library of Hambul'& in 1927. 1hc lea¥es of 1M co-
00 measure about 10.5 inches (26 em) Iona &tid •
ir>c:hcs (2{I em) wtdt. '1M. ~ngth and brudth of tIM:
spKe ~ by ..-nang on !he ""~B1l! paces
amounlS 10 about 8.S inches by 6.2 indtes (22 em
by IS.S em). The pages of the Cud.. S«1ions of !he
tUI ha~ an aw"...,.,of thirty-fi".., Ii""",; tho5e of th"
COplle pan. an a,..,rag" of thirty-two lines of Inl.
The """'pt is in at ~ two diff"r"nt hancb and can
be <bled to aboul A.D. 400. Th" COMC'J"l'ation "'On
by H. Ibscher I'CVcal"d Ihat Ihe SIIM¥ina fragm"n·
lary cod"" was mad" lip of four QlIate,."iOM (aad..
erinai of four double leaves ["ight leaves or sixlcen
paaes]). pre.......ed only in paru.
The dialect of Ihe papyll.li "'Ii designated Old
FaYY"mic by C. Schmidl. Accordinaly it Wa!l aiven
lh" s;glum "Fo" in R. KMser (1964. p. nU), Ka~r
now dauifies it as Fa)'J'llmk subdialecl F ? in hi.
.)'ilem.
It i. ",,"ibl" IIIat Pap. btl, I was I'Ot a codex
dcoslined for lih'<gical usage in the church bul a
",hool uercisc. Various criwia indicale Ihis. such
as lhe IUllur1: and character of th" wri,ing. mistakes
rNo<U in lhe hand of tIM: pupil scribe. and COOTCC·
lions by the teacher. The con>posilion of Ih" ..,nl·
incs pr~ in !he fnogrnentary code:>. allows one
to "'flP05" lhal the miginaf from which it "''lIS cop-
....,.
ied ... an cccles....iral book of deVOliofl Of" a Iec-
A eom~rison between the Creri: &:dcsiaSics
and the Coptic Ecclesiasles of Pap. bU. I and of
both lexU wilh CodcK Yaricanus C......eus 1109 (B).
as well as other grea1 ~ t codices. poinu to
a clofer affinily of !he CilJk Vorl"ce of Coptic ~.
clcsWtes to B than can be observed in C....ek &:.
elcsiasles lransmined in m" same codex. Al all
.......ms. Creek ~clcsiasles.is nOi th" Vorl<lp of the
Coplle version of E.cdesia<les in Ih" Hamburt papy-
..... (on lhis ...., B. J. Diebner).
The Coptic venions of Pap. bit 1 of $<>nil of
Songs. Lamenlations. and Ecc1""iasles are impor·
tanl in lhe inv"sligation of early Coptic dialects,
ney also have significance for the history of the
lext nf lhe Old Testamenl and nol leut for the
hi510ry of interpl""IRlion. since Ihe examlnatlnn of
lh" lechnique of the Coptic nOlnslators olFers a
glimpse of the inlerpretation of Old T""tamenl lexu
I:IAMIDAT. AL~ 1205
in lhe Coptic cburch of lhe third and fo,nth cenWr·
,~
BIBUOGRAI'HY
Diebner. B. J. ''Di" bibliiehe.n T""te des Ham~
Pap,TUS bilingui! I (Cam, Lam. eo.. &:d ar. et
Co.) in ihrem Verltlilmis mm T.... t der Sepcuagil>-
Ia. besonde.. des Kocie>: B (Vat. Go-. 1:r(9).-&o-
bacbtungea lind mc!hodiKbe BemerlwllF'.~ In
F~I6"bc fur Cltr. Su,dl4rtl tum SO. CWUTt$llll.
Hcidelbe~ 1981.
DicbneT. B. J•• and R. Kauer. H"mburger Paf'P"W
hil. 1.- ~ mneJIame"t/klN" TUJ<: d~ Papyrus
lrilinguis 1 tkr SI""". tond Un"",,,ililohibliolh,,t
,....
H"""""~. Cahier$ d'Onentallsme II. Geneva.
Schmidt, c.. and W. Schuban. npA:=ElI nAYAOY.
Ael.. P"uli ""eh d"... P"py".. du H"mbur-gn
Staats. u"d lhoivtrsillitohiblioth.t. Y"rlltlemlichu-
ng"n aus dcr Hambu~r St..,u- lOnd Universit-
~ubibli<)lhek. n.S. 2. OlUcbtadt and Hamburg.
1936.
BERND J. DrlOBNlOR
I;IAMIDAT. AI.-. a convenl of nuns :silualed on an
island upposile {};n'. ,,"ccordinll 10 A80 $AUH THE
AIlJoIENlAN(bcginninll of thin.enth «nlu,,·). at lhe
time ".men Marwin II (144-7S0) ..... "...,ing before
the lC""ral of me Abbasi,. and had summoned lhe
Buhmurites 10 his. aid. Ihey came 10 auack this
con'"CJI1. It nun "''''0 had entered the COn~nt very
)'<lUng and "'. .. of areal beaut)' SlIved her sisters
&om dishonor by a sl~m. She pretendc<I 10
fO$SCSS an unzuenl !hat rendered her in.,-ulnerabl".
and ~ 10 P il to th" chief of lhe Ba.shmur-
ites to U)I on het-. bul she perished by the sword.
This SlDr)' .._ inserted In lhe btopaphy of the pi-
triateh WUU£L I (7"-767). and was crediled 10
..... deacon John bw: ..·ithoul topOpapbiral m"...
lion of W monastery of aJ·Hamklh.
This is a "",1l.kllO"'O Iheme 01 folklore fo..nd in
Coptic hiMories lik" WI of al-Makin (l61S. p. 99)
and Mus.lim histories lilte al..wAOllJZJ·1I. The origin of
!his common Ih"me is not known.
The place called aJ·l;lamldil is 11ill In ""islenc".
Another place aJso caUed al·Hamldil i. in Ihe dis-
uict of lsni. hut apan from the facl mal Ihis homo-
nym is recent. it i. nOI very probable thai MalW;\n
II could Ita.." be"n carried 10 far.
818L1OGAAI'HY
Mu~amrnad Rarn~l. AI'Q~"'as "f.1ughr""'1 Iii·BiI~d QJ
Mi~1fyy"h. 3 ¥ol•. in 6 pans. Cairo, 19S3-1%8.
1206 HANDBAGS
Vida, L della. "Ch,wian U~d in MOIkm Carb.~
BYl.'lnliott IS {1940-1941):I.... -IS7.
RENt-GllOw:>es COOViN
MAUKIC£ M/dTIN, SJ.
HANDBAGS. 5u Coswme. Ciril
HANDS, LAYlNG·ON OF. ~" I..a);... ~n ~
H.....
HANNA HERKEL 5u .......1, J..an.
J:lANNA $ALlB SA'D (1880-1928). Egwli.an td-
\l<:ator. Ht ",u ddtpt..n in 19'04 by the Eg)'pti.an
lO"emment to study the needs of modem tduca.
tlon In Ethiopia. He went to E1hiopia in 1906 at lhe
head of an educalional mission and stayed lhere
umll his death in 1928. Emperor Mendik [I offered
to I"nl him Elhi<>pian citizenship. whleh he de·
dined. He was appointed director of educallon of
Elhiopia and abo became a penonal adviser to Em·
peror Menelik. With the help of Abuna MJlb'OIS
(see E'llIIOI'tAN 1'IillA'rel), J:IannS ~llb Wali able 10
obIain funds from the Eduopian 80\'emmenl and
from E&YJ'Ilo build W Mtndik II schoolln 1909.
h beume an eslablimed tr.odition thaI the lex-htl'S
should be Copts from Egypl. but this was broUn
wilh lhe Iwian occupation In 1935. followina: lhe
....lUra of W .. mperor in 1941. lhe tradition _
resumed under the dir.-.:<orsI>ip of -'lINd) lCA.Ittl-
MlUrl" Boonos GIUU
HARAGU, JEAN (1776-ISIS). a Copt...no be·
came an officer in NijpoIcon's annies. Ha~ was
bam IS May 1776 III Manfalul. Upper f.c)1ll, the
SOn of Ghubriyil Hangli and MAlakiyel. H.. ob-
tained a fair edw:..Iion from the lown priest. who
_ll\ilted him as deacon of his ehllrch and con.in.
ued to inslruc. him ;n the Copti<: lan..... ~. ",";ch
"""" then nearly defunct. As a )'<>Ung man, on the
orden of his cousin Colonel Gabri.-l SIIlAllOS, he
.Ioined the Coptic Legion. newly founded by Gentnal
Va·qo.b (see Y~·Q()6. GENEAAL) in Cairo. lnd served
as an officer.
Apparently Haragli lelt Egypt wilh the retreallng
French anny of Napoleon Bllonlparte. He conlin'
ued his military ca..... r as IJ1 officer In lhe French
army, joining the BaUlil10n des ChaMetrni d"Orienl
II its formalion in Marseilles in 1&02. With his
cous.in• ...no had abo left Ec:>"Pl. he panicipated in
most of the Napoleonic war$. He was a .........b.-r oJ.
the regimen. thai fouahl in Dalmatia (YugoobYia).
the Ionian islands. and IWy IIntil irs dissolwion in
IlIlJ.
HacagtI was a.......rded u...
tzPon of H""or in 1&06
an<! ac~ the nanlt of cok>nel in Il108. He was
lht'O p1loCftl 011 ~ for • while but later re-
SlImed acti.... s.-rrice.. He "''U killed 11 the B.anle oJ.
Wa.erloo. IS JuM 11115.
BlBUOCItArHY
Ramlf Tadr1tl.. AI-Aqb.l{ /I .I.()dl'>l ./:r.ltri". 3 vol•.
Cairo. 1911.
HARDY, EDWARD R. (1908_1981), American
theologian who wrote eMensi....ly on the enly
church in Egypt. He was educated al Columbia Uni·
versity (1923 - 1931) and a number of noted theolog-
ical ""minan.-s (1929-1934). Hardy'. ac"","m;" ca-
reer .lane<! as instruelor in Hebrew at G.-neral
Theological Seminary (1929-1'»44). He then b<"-
e"",", associate professor and profc<.scr of church
hiotofy in the Ben"''')'
OJ>;nily School, N.. w Ha,·en,
Conne<:licu.t (1944-1969). Afterward he accepted a
lecltll"Ohip 11 the dlvini.y school of the Univ<:~ly
of Cambridge (1969-1975). Concurt\':ntly he _
dean oJ. chapel II Jesus o,llqe (I912-1975).
He publ~ MIt;I.", in E.rtIt, T...'OIry C.,,,I.ma
of doe Spwul oj Clrristi"..ity (Oxford. 19-40) and
Clrri<.;"n EcJpr. Cltlm:1t 10M PeopU m die PlOIriU'
C/",,,U of A!UilMri. (Oxford 1952); ,ran:<!l1ed FUSl
Apol"D 01 JItSlin M.",.. lLibrw)' of Christian Cw.
sics I [Wellminster, 1954D: ediled Chrislolou of
lite LtJlm F.w.~s (wilh C. C. Richardson, Library oJ.
Chri5tian C1as5iCl ); and edited and tnmslaled
FaiJlrful Wime.sws. ACIS of E.rly Christi... Martyrs
(New Vorl and London. 1960) and ED'pr Undn
Justin;tm (WashinlPon. D.C., 1969).
Az.Iz S. Anu
J:lARIT AL_RCM, COpl;" quarter in old Cairo and
lhe re!lidence of lhe Coptic ""Inan:;h~ from John
XVI (1676-1718) to Cyril IV (1854-1861). who
mov"d lhe patriarchal seal to the Azbakiyyah quar-
ter in modem Cairo, T1le name !;iArit al·Rum mean.
"alley of lhe G~eks."

The di\.lri(". of I:U,ril a1·lbim ("ould be rftChcd
from .he S\llbriyyah d ..trict by the SibIl (drinkin,
font) ol M~...-l. All, ",hich had an old pte '0
lock tile entire quartl!T lOt- security. 1be g~.e e'~n·
tually became Muck in the "",cumulaled Nile sill
and could be closed no more. The churdtel' ..,;thin
th.. qu,ut1!T aft die: Olurch ol ..... Vi..,in and tIlc
ClIurch ol Sain, Georv-
The Church of the Virgin lies 10 feel below tM
i\neI In'd and .. rnchcd by a sW1'WlIy. The ITOO&l
ilriking ~• ....., ol this church .. the .wdve domQ
,hal surmoun' il$ building$. Inside. IheK domes
rclol on si~ piers conne<1ed by t'OUJ>d llI'Ches. ol
""hich ,wo •..., inside .he oan<:Twlry spac", The
do..... dire<:tly abo..., lbc ahar bas an apcnure $<erv·
in, as ,. ..indow wi,h stained glass; other domes
ha..., slmi'-r "';ndows that admil a kind ol dim
lightin. into ,h., churd. Small in dimensions. Ih.,
chur<:h has a Olav<: and I choir Ihat are cOlllinuou>c
at lround level wilh no p"nilion. Wilhin ,he na.'e, a
beam s.retching be,ween ,wo pien carries a cruci·
form pain ling of Jesus hanging from the CrO$l, a
skull and bones below His feel signifying ,h., ap·
proach'n. en'ombment of Ihe Lord, On each side of
the piclure, there also is a cal"\'ed wooden "aile
sl.,.ng;;ng a serpen" Each of the IWO e"iles carries
on iu head a tabltl. on which an an,el is jNoinled.
The canopy SlImtounling .be alUlr is adomcO wi.h
pain.inp ol Chri.. and angels.
The body of Ihe church is adorned ",ith icon",
These lnclu<k onc ol TakialUymAno1. doe Abyuini·
an salnl. in -paoriarchal Y~'. as "'cll as Saini
Mati..... ,ramplin. $alan_
The old Churt:h of Saini GcoI'gc fell Imo ruins
and a new 0"'" .. being buih on ilS bulda'ion. In
1981-1982 t,-," foundations sh<Jwed mnains of
twO churches and nume«>U> tombo <btirtJ from liIe
Middle AJes.
The ..-e. . . . been -.>ciatnl ..·ith many evenu in
Coplle his.ory. bolll majOIJand miAOr. PatriaTchal
Ind episcopal consecratiot. ..·~e oIien confirmed
in ':liri. al·Rum. Church counc:ibi wen: also held
h""". $UCh IS .he cpnc:opal synod tha. repudiated
lhc simonia<:.1 bcha.·ior of CYtUL III IBN u.olAO
(IBS-IZ.J). No predse dale can be hed for tIli~
chur<:h.
BIBUOGRAPHY
Butler, A, The AMcielll Captic Ch,,'ches 01 Egypl. 2
vols. O~ford, 1887. Reprint, 1970.
Coquin. Ch. Les Edifices chritie"s d.. Coire. Biblio-
'h.!que d'E,udes Coptes. Cairo. 1~4.
I;IARIT ZUWAYlAH 1207
Munier, H. kc..eil d.u lw.u IpiuopoJcs de I'i:/ur
<:<>pfr. Cairo, 1943.
Raouf Habib. Doe A""ir..t Coptic CIt.. ~1ta of Coiro.
Cairo, 1919.
,ull. S. AnY'"
I:lARiT ZUWAYlAH, tosethe:r with l/-lI.Tt .u.
UIM. probably lIIe oldcsc qllat1er in Cairo lhaI ....
inhabited by • Coptic community. I:llrio W"""l-bh
is situated in die: .mtriCl ol a1·Jlmrnlli))'all OT Khu-
nmfish. 1be conc:cttlnl.1on of CopIs in Ihis area
durinA tbr: M;ddlr A.... led '0 thr founda,ion of
somr of lhe mo!iI ancient churches ;n Cairo. Of
these. lIu"'" have ...",iYcO 10 .he present day: lbc
Chltn:h of Ihe Virzin (Sin 11·'Adhrl')•• he Church of
SainI Mercunus (AbU Say!ayn). and ,he Church of
SainI Gr>o<"ge (M~r Jirji$).
The firs' two were probably originally built althe
itreel level. At presem they Ioa>'e sunk to a sul>lel"r,l·
nean depth of about 18 feci (6.5 mele",) on accoum
of the accumula,ion of Nile silt Ihrough Ihe centur-
ies. lhe third, smaller in dimension, was construct-
ed a, • later date abo"e the olher ,wo . .
t the mod·
em >iree! lcycl.
Apparently ,h" ana was mlr.ed as onc of the
spa'" where lbc Holy Family Slopped during ilS
RJGIIT INTO ECn'T, immediately aner their p-rerious
restinl."lace. wilh ils .radidon.al sycamore Ir.,.,. aI
al·NATAIlIYTAII. A. the time of the C<>nsIruetioa ol
!he lim ollhcsc churches. ,hll seclion ol the area
may h2ve been .still .... ati¥el,. open vound utilized
by Ihc CopIs as a d"P. in the sense of I cemclety
norM than • regular monaucry inhabiled by
-"-
The Churcb ol 1M Vil'Jin (a!-'Adhrll is lhe oIdca
of lite u..- in J:llrit. z........,lah. It is Kcessible from
(he SOlJlh~ and th., southeast by lWO en(raM~
one lOt- .....men and .he 0lheT for men. The church
.. de:dicaJed to the Vi... in, 1:_... '0 .he nllM
Copes ~ lite .ille of ··l:\a1lal al·Hachd," lhaI is. she
wilo mel.. the iron fel.e", of Ma.lllias. die: di§ciple
who replaced Judas bcarioo:. 1hough if is difficult to
Ii.... I p<"CCise date for i., foundallon••h., hi.rorian
,,1·Maqrtzi says it WIS built 270 yean priQr 10 the
Arab conques! of Ea:YP!, that is, approximately in
.I.,n. 'SO. After the advent of Islam, it suffer«! nu-
merous destruc,ions and JubSC'quenl resl<>rations. 11
w.... attacked in 101. in Fatlmld 'Imes. and r<:peat-
edly in the following centuries, notlbly under lhe
Mamluk. and the beginnIng of Ottoman rul"
around 1~~'J,
1208 I:IARlT ZUWAYLAH
In L"" yur 1301, Lhe church btc......., I~ I"'trnor·
chal sora! LIUII IUId previousl}' bttn I.... nlfe~ from
A~ria 10 the Church of a1-Uu'albqah and Lhen
10 the Chun:h of Abu Saybyn in Old Cairo.. II re-
mained in I:iirll Zuwaybh for a1mOill thl'ft cenlur·
ia amid the veazer securit)· of a CopIic comrm.oni·
ty. The fim pope to reo-ide in J:UriI Zu""l)'w. ......
JOKl1 \1Ll (llOO- 1l20). the eicJ>tieth paU'la~h; lhe
IISI ..... the I02nd pwian:h. IUTTHE'IIII I\' (1660-
161S). S~ popes """"edIO lhe nriJbborins
I:lArit al·lWm_
AbU al-Makarim. the rwelflh-cenLtuy hisloNn of
the Copcic churches and mONlloleriQ. cile:J this
church .. !he cenler of ecclesiastical aclivilies and
lhe plac'" of "deb... Lion of major fnsts 51.1Ch ~ Ih",
feast of the Sun<boy 01 Oli,-es (Palm Sunday). whm
Ihe failhful held a procesMon with lhe oliye b...n"h.
the ~I. crossno ceJ>5<:t5. and candlQ. After lhe
Gospel readins and praying for Lhe calipl1 and Yi·
~ier. Ihey reLurned Ie Ihe churrh for lhe compl~lion
of Ihe officef. Thif funclien was repealed twice an·
nually On Lhe third day of Easter and the feast of the
Cross en 17 Tfit, HoweY·er. the.re celeb"'lions were
$Uppre~ under the rule of the Kurds in 1169.
The architeclu",1 componenLf of the church are
ImereslinS. Besides the narth.,.. the nave comprises
five rows of marole columns and a 5i~th In red
I",nite to signify the Leaching of Juda.o! Iscarioi and
the blood of Christ. The na"" is flanked by "vo
alsles "'ilh Lwo row> of 1"~W g",)'ish marble col·
umns surmounled b}' Corinthian and 8)Unline
apilals adorned with crosses "",one foliaF- The
marble ambo r<:slS on four columns shaped like
,"""".
The choir a1i&n' "ith the n.,,'t on an e1e-lIled
platform, and this again is fol""""ftI by 1M princi~1
sancluary ("'''''all. llf>Ildler fow IIrps hiJther th.atI
tM d.e';e. "The' """cinar)' and Iht nn" ...~ sep;t.tlIN
by a 1..-dfltH:enlu<}· iconQ$t9$is eo_ructN of old
ftlony di,-ided into !W'eh inlaid "ith i>'Ol')' and
lCulplurcd "'ith geomd'ricaI desilP" and animal fig.
ures. This is 'unnowlled by a row of thineen icons
of lhoe I....,"" dis.:iples with lhe VilJin in lheir
midsl. a gmt ctOiS$ above her head.
"The """CIUliory itsoelf. at the "*5t end. tontain' the
reclangular allar with a w<><H.kn tanopy OIIerhead.
This is adorned with a painlinc or Jer;.us surrounded
by anseb. Fanher east and behind the altar is the
a~, decorated ",ith mosaics in the form of a semi·
circular tribune, It is reached by """en 'Ltps siS"i·
/yin, the .reven grades of the clergy. The <.lome
above th~ u.n~tuary is decor:l1ed with stained Slass
windows.
On th~ nonh and soolh sides of the main oan~tu­
ary. beyond the «tIlrai colonnade. lhe southern
sancluary io dedicated 10 Saint Gabriel In fronl of
il there i5 a "ell o:onlaininl _Ier pnsumably of a
miraculous healing power. To !he right stands a
chapel dedit:ated 10 the mil1loCl,.....vrJr;ing Virgin
Mary_ The north aisle has another dupel dedicaled
In !he archantel Micbel, To the left of il. lhere is a
sanctuary dedicated 10 Saim .Ioftn !he BaptiU. This
aide conlains 1M relia of four unidetlli6ed ainlS.
In lh~ Chapel of Our Lady statMh a wooden icon.
~y <bolinl front the Ihlneemh century, rep-
resenting the lenealOl)' or Jesuo Citrisl. In gener:al.
Ihe r:hurch is richly supplied by numerous hisloric
icons dated from lhe fifteenth 10 the ..iV-lttnth cen-
lUry. Other icons rep~nt Lhe bapliom. cruei6.~ion.
and lI.""",rre<:lion of the Lord. Saim Mercuri.....
Saint Shenule, Saint Georce. I~" archangel Michael,
and Saint Helena and Emperor Conslantine aPl"""-r
in icons disLrihuted ov~r many P'lrtf of the ~hur~h.
Sin~e Lhe construction of the A,,,,,,,n Dam. tho>
rising water lable hu be,un 10 endanger this strue·
tu ...
Contiguous to the ",bterra-nnn Church of the
Virgin i. tbe Church of Saint M~rrurius, better
known among the Copts as Ab(t Sayfayn. litera.lly Itt!
who is in pos$tS$lon of lhe tWO s""'Ot<hl In Cairo
alone. IWO other ehurebes are dedicated 10 Ihe
""i"l: one in OI4a AI.o$HA.... in Old Cairo, dating
from the sixlh century, and aroolh~r associated ..ith
a C(lnvtnt ken",.:" a, Oa}T aJ·lbnll (Monastery or
the VITnsj. n... present chapel al ':Imt Zu"'a)'1ah
..,.. added in 1174 by Mu'a111m tBaAHIN .u..JA"~,
an important Coptic archon. The 5truelute was
<ompkted approximately IS feet (6 rn) below 5trtt't
level. It .. reached from lhe main Church of the
Virzin Ihroudl its .-theallem wall. Ii i:s bulh in
tndilional Coptic 5t)ie ..ith a ...."'" and lwo ai:s.les
stpualed by two C'O"" of col""'lI$ and sunnounte<l
by a dorne lined with icons. The 6"ely nned
..-ooden amho in the navt stands on si:< slender
columns. also made of wood. The iconostasis is
construeled of wood carved in ItclmetricaJ panels
inlaid with ;....ry. The $.llrtCtuary ("d)":"/) beyond is
.:Iightl)' elevated abo,'t the floor of Ihe nay"e ..ilh
Ihe altar surmounled by a canopy standing on four
wooden columns. A sories of kon. of Coplic saini'
adorn the ",alls of the churc~. in<:luding Saint S0-
phia (dated lSl7).
The Church of Sai"t George, originally known as
the Upper Chul'~h b~cause il was built oy'er the
other .ubl~rrancan Churchel of t~e Virgin and
Saini Mercurius. il I small church """th or th~

Church of lhe Virgin. Abo.'e it i. a convent by lhe
name of Saint George thai has direct access to lhe
church. The church has lo.t many fealures of its
antiquity on accounl of the numerous modem res-
torations. It contain. four sanctuaries, two of them
surrounded by domes,
This church is highly revered by COplS, who
throng ilS building as pilgrims on the commemora-
tion day of Saint George (7 Hatur)_
The date of lhe foundalion of lhis church is un·
known, but the oldest part of the building is its
medieval iconostasis. It eon lain. a multitude of
icons, of which one representing Saint George is
dated 1782_ Its library comprises a number of inter·
esting manuscripts. Some of them are the Life of
Saint Cyprian (1391) and the life of Saint Bartbolo-
mew (1438). More dated manuscripts include
Saints' Miracles (1342) and the Liturgies of Saint
Basil. Saint Gregory, and Saint Cyril (1344),
BIBUOGRAPHY
Buder, A. The A>1cient Coplic Ch,ueh" of EK)pl, 2
vols. Oxford. 1887. Reprinte<:l 1970.
Coquin, C. Le. Edifices chrelie'" du Cai'e, Biblio'
theque d'Etudes Caples, Cairo, 1974,
Habib, Raoul, Tht Ancient Coptic Churches of
Cairo_ Cairo. 1979.
Mas')'. I. al-. The Story of Ihe Co,m. Cairo, 1978.
MYRIA.., WISSA
HARMiNA. SAINT, a wondering monk (feasl-
da)': 2 Kiyakh). Harmin,;;, was a nalive of Ihe prov-
ince of O"YRHYNCHUS (a.l·Bahnasa). and the son of
Christian parents. When he was an adolescent and
watching his parents' Aocks, the apostle. John and
Peter appeared to him to invile him to embrace Ihe
monaslic life. Following them, he ,,"'ent up 10 the
monastery of Saint James.~\!luat.d no doubt in lhe
nome of O"yrhyncbus, altl'rough the notice about
him in lbe SY~A""RION dod, nol say so. The abbol
nf Ihis monaslery was Saini Jame,: not otherwise
known. who clothed him in the monk's habil_ The
ceremony took place with the active participation
of a cherub. Ihe psalmist David. and the apostles
Paul. John, and Peler, wbo ~ntrusted Harmlnll to
lhis abbot James,
Some time aher, the apostle .lobn appeared to
Hannin,;;, to enjoin him 10 go to Ihe south. There he
mel AnM Hur (Hor), from Prehl. wilh whom he
wenl 10 Ihe mountain (i.e., Ihe desert) to the north
of the town of Tkow,
J:lASABALLAH 1209
His life is preserved by .everal Arabic manu·
scripts: Coptic Museum. Historical 475; Paris, Ara·
bic 148, folios 295r-33h; 4787, folios 158v-195v;
Saint Ah'JONY, HislOry 130, 2 and 140. 2: Muyser,
1943. pp. i59-236 (translalion of the Coptic Muse·
urn MS incomplete at Ihe end).
This Life is interesting becau.e il de.cribe, a
fOl1l1 of itinerant monasticism like the Life of PAUL OF
TAMMAH,
HarmlnA died al Tkow and was buried near the
church of this lawn. although h. had asked his
companions Anba Hur, Anb! YusAb. and others 10
bury his body in a "",ret place.
BIBUOGRAPHY
Muyser, J_ "Ennite peregrinant et pelerin infali-
gable." Bulletin d. 10 Sociere d'Archeologie copte
9 (1943P59-236,
RE.N£-GOORGES COQUIN
HARRANIYYAH. Set Ramses Wi.... Was.ef,
I:IASABALLAH, Bishop of Shanshli (thirteenth
centut~:;),On 28 June 1240 a confrontation between
the bishnp, of Upper and Lower Egypt look place in
Cairo in Ihe presence of the Coptic palriarch cYRI~ "'
IBN. UQI.'.Q in order 10 settle questions of prece·
dence. The te"t of lhis meeting has survived in a
sale manu$Cripl (Vatican Library, Arabic 162. cop-
ied in 1365: ed .. trans" and commenlary bl G. Graf.
1927). In the appendh added to the texi between
1300 and 1365, J:lasaballab is mentioned four times.
Howner. Graf did not realize this "'"as. a proper
name, and therefore translated it as "in Gem~heil
Colles,"' sometimes modif);ng the rest of Ihe sen-
tence accordingly (of. Gmf. 1927. pp. 318-21: can·
cerning tltis te"t, see also Gra£. 1947. Vol. 2, p. 363.
no. 6),
1;!asabaUah ""'as consecrated bishop in October or
November 1268 by the "",'entl·eighth patriareh. GA_
BRIB. 1lt. He look the name Anbli Bu\ru. and .e·
ceived tbe see of Shanshll (which is today pro-
nounced SIIANASlIA according to Muyser, p, 157; d.
Graf. 1927, p. 318). On 4 July 1294 J:lasaballab was
the senior bishop from Lower E8)1'I, and a. such
consecrated the seventy-ninth patriarch THEOOOSJU.
If, koo""" as Ibn Raw!1 al.lfranjiyyah. in spite of the
facl tbal YOsA.!l, bishop of Akhmim, preceded him in
seniority during the reign of the three pre>'ious po·
lriarchs (Graf, 1927, p. 320).
1210 HAUSER, WALTER

DurinS lhe concoclion of the chrism perfonned lis in Khatp Oasis" (MerropoJila" Museu... Bullen..
by 1lIeodo5i", II on 12 April 1299. ArMli &!ru5 was 27, 1932. pp. 38-SO).
concurrently bi.hop of stuonshi. SandUb, TandKi,
and Samannlld. 11 is not stated that he .... the BIBLIOCRArtfT
W'nior bishop of to..- EcJ>t, bu' he it rnentio..ed
Dawwn. W. R... and Eo P. Uphill. Who w... Wloo in
.. ,he head of tIte 1m
EClPIOJoD, pp.. Il<t-JS. London, 1972.
On 14 Febnury 1300. it _ apin J:lasabaIlah
Azu5. Ann
"'..... eOrtJUnoted tIte ei&htieth patriarch. JOHN VTIl.
dapite IN p,,"W',,", of Anb.l YUsM! 01 Akhmlm uwl
AlIbI. Mikhl·ll. ~ mdrOpnlimn 01 Jenosalem (ct.
Craf, 1927, P. JlO).
HA ww ARAH, \oeallon of !he brick pynmid of
Amenemhet III cr_lfth Dynasly. 1142-1797 ILC-).
Duri... the concoction of the chrism peri"ormcd
~ gipnlie and maanfficlO1ltly fumished temple
by John VllI on IZ April 1l05, Anbt Bull\l$ 1:1-
dislricl thaI goes with ;t is to be idmrified (Uoyd.
balWl was co""",m!OtIy bishop of Shanshi. San.
1970, pp. Sill.) wilh the bbyrimh of lhe c1as.1oical
dUb. TandiotJ. ;md SamannUod. and was. of course.
the W'nior bishop of Lower E.cPt (d. Munier. p. 37;
and Samir. 1971. pp. 358-59, wl>ere he ;5 refel"rN
to as bishop of Sand"b and Shansh.i).
AI Hasabotl1ilb's death. hi5 is<< was dlvlded Imo al
leasl ,wo ..,,,,,nte sees. that of ra"dall wllh A"bi
AkhrlsJAdulll as bishop. and thai of Samannlld with
Anbl Yll'anni5 as bishop.

BIBUQGRAPHY
., ,,

,, ,,
, ,
,

Oraf. G. "Die Rangordnung der BI~hl)fe AlYJXens

~h einem protokoUari9chen Beri<:hl des Palri·
archen Kyrillos ibn u.~~" QrU,,) CJtriJli'In"~
24 (1927):J06-3J7.
Khalil Samir. cd MifbdlJ "'·ful..."'Jt If '4'1] ",.
KJrjd..,,,It. /i-SJr."nu "I-Riy's",Jo AllI ",/.8<>,,,,'" ",I·
i -
I
,, ',
,
......,u/ bHb" 1U>b<r,. Cairo. 1971.
Munier. H. Recueu du lUlu Ipisco~/u de rediK
COJ'le. Caim. 190.
MllylCr, J. "Conln"bution a l't!ude da I....f t qris-
copales de I'ryise copte." Bulle';" de h Sodlll
d·.",It~ copte 10 (1944)<115_76.

K.Il.uJl. SANIIl, SJ.

,,
,
,,
HAUSER, WALT¥ (IS9J-I960). American;ar·
chaeolopst and arehu~. He ...-as born at Middl~ ,,
fi...d. M»sacm-.... and "'"1lS t..-ined lIS an an:hil~ l. • • _

al lhe Massachusem Im!inlle of Te<:hnoloo". He

;oined lhe staff ohhe Metropoli..... MUleUm or New ,... --- -- - -- ---- - -----
York's EcYPtian expedi,>on, workin. mai .. ly on the
un~atiou of. lhe dynastic period at DAY~"'~ PHO!·
IWol/llOr< and of the early Coptic period at Khargah ,,,
Oasis. He remained with the Melropoli,an Museum ,
.n ~~-~ :
for nearly fony years as libnorlan and CuratOr of
• • • • • • __ ._ _ __ . _ J
Near E&.lern archaeology. He con'ributed >everal
_"[clell '0 lhe MertopoUla" Ml,scum B~/leli.. , of Plan of lhe church lo<:aled near Ihe pyramid at
which II><: masl rcle''''nl is ''Th. ChriSII..n N«croPQ' Ha..-wlrah. Cou",e.y Pelu Grossma" ...
r HAWWARIYYAH 1211

aUlho,," (above all Herodotus, Histories 2.148, and
Pliny. Natural History 36.13). Howe,er, only a small
part of the temple remains, be<:ause Ihe area se.....ed
as a n«ropolis up to the late Roman period. The
famous mummy portraits, which were found in
even greater number:< ;0 Haww:lrah (Parlasca,
1966, pp. 32-34), rome from the Roman tombs of
the fiTSl 10 the fourth cemuries A.D.
In the early Christian period, a 'mall ..,nlemenl
am.., to 1M nonhwest of the pyramid, the erome-
ler of which has nOI yet been fully identified, It is
possible that the inhabitants worked in the service
of the necropolis. The settlement had a small
.huIT" that had already been laid bare by W. M.
Flinde,." Petne (Petrie, 18'.10, p. 21, pI. 4).
Today the church is in a badly ruined Slate. al-
though to some extent its ground structure can still
reliably be rn;tde out. The almoot square nam was
once .ubdivided by inserted columns to form th"'e
aisles. In from and to the west was a narthex, In
addition to the central apse, the sanctuary con-
tained lwo approximately square side rooms. No
lrace remains of the side passageway, recorded by
Petrie. leading from the al"e into the south side
room, and it is also doubtful whether such a one
exisled. Perhaps it was, after all, only a wall nkhe.
Two pilaster capitals of limestone. now in the Fit:<-
william Museum (nos. 17c>. 177) in Cambridge.
were part of the church furnishings. One of these
(no. i 77) could have served as a support for the
apse opening. Since both pieces were spoils from
the sixth century and had probably been used origi-
nally in Ihe necropolis. Ihe church could have been
built al Ihe eadiest in the middle of the seventh
century.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
HA\VWARIVYAH. The ruins now in the domain
of the present village of Haww~ri))'3h (west of ·Am·
riyyah) are frequently idemified with the ancient
Marea, The excavations W1d.rta.~en there for $Orne
years by the University of Alexandria have, howev·
er. SO fn brought to light only the remains of lat~
antique buildings of the foomh c~ntury and later.
R~rnains of the hamor, today become marshy. and
several moles were always visible.
A new discovery was a wide paved street on the
ban~. with a co\'e",d portico on Ih~ landward sid~.
Behind it stood som~ granary buildings. as well as a
large, two·part bathhouse with Iw<> communal
rooms (npodyurin), each built as a double·apse halL
The aClual bath chambers have so br not been
cleared. This bathhouse rna)' belong to the fourth or
early fifth century. Farther to th~ ~asl, on a projeet·
ing peninsula, a public latrine, a mill. and at the
eastern border of this peninsula a large ,ransepl
basilica have c<)me to light. the lasl so br only
partly e~ca'''ted. The lransept of this church had
,
j r
pt

Amold, D. "Das Llbyrimh und seine Vorbilder."

Mitteilungen des DeUl,c"en A'ehaololllschen jnsri-
IUls-Al>leilurrg K(liro (llh9j'1-9.
LL i'
I,
Budde. L. and R. Nicholis. Greek ond Roman
Sculplure In rhe FiQwjJ[i(l~ Museum. Cambridge.
19(,4.
HaOOchi, L Lexicon der AgyplOlogie, Vol. 2. cols.
1072-74. Wiesbaden, 1977.
..
Uoyd, A. B, "The Egyptian lAbyrimh." Journal of
Egyplian Mche%gy 56 (1970j:81-IOO.
Parlasca, K. Mumienportral. urrd verwarrd'e D,"k-
maier. Wiesbaden. 196().
Petrie. W. M. F. Kahrm, Gurob, and Howara. Lon- Plan of the basilica that has been partially ~xc.vated
don, 1890. near the village of Ha"..w~ril'Yah. Counes,v Peter
Grossmalln.
 1212 HAYKAL
th~ .;sics like the other eumplQ of this kind in
EcYI't (A80 MINA. al-ASHMU!U.YN). and th~ ~nds of it
_~ haJr....,.,nde<\. Inland. finally. - n discoVoet'ed
• wln~ J"'CK :and • simpJy con5Iruatd building,
poobably 10 be regarded as an inn or \nIV~WI
haltin, pl.;l«. II contains hoIQ CQUrt)vds dewloped
M peristyles lhrough simpl~ amotlCertlenll of col·
umna. t.rOUoo which the Jt.I~ rooms are dilU'ibut·
N. In .ddition, me b"ildi", «ICIWru: • larp t.
nine, _ _11 lI$ a ..,,all cMpd ",ilh an IInusw./1y
lich opws ~Cfile (~) l\oor on the etif silk. It
Is pbc..d be....'een two perist)'Ie.
BIBUOGaAI'lIl'
Fa""'ran;. F. al-. RUml Eu:o"olio>u ./ Ma~. ;"
Ern", pp. 175~86. Das RiimiKIt·Oyu.ntlnische
,i.gypten. Akten des internalioonalen Symposlans
197. i.. Tri~r. Mainz. 1983.
Ga~l. C.. and K. Pelruso. "Mare..: A Byza.nlin~ Port
on Egypt's Northwestern Fronlier." Al'l:h<leolog,v
36, ICr. 5 (1983):62-63, 76~77.
Rodjewlcl, M, Archaeological Evide"ce 0" Ch,;£I;O"
il/exo"drio and i4 E"virons. Acu of the Third
Inl"malional Conlr= of Capric Sludiu. War·
wow, 1984.
HAYKAL. SU Allar. Archilectural El_1S of
Churehes.: s.n.:tuary_
HEADDRESS. Sue C-:ume, Ci\il.
HEALlNGS IN COPTIC LITERATURE.
When Christianity beBat the conqu~ of f&ypt. u..e
countl)" had behind it both .. vel)" old literature and
a wry Ionl rd.igK>us lmition. The inhabitants of
!he Nile Valley had from time immemorial had re-
O::OUJ'N 10 t~ir di>';nities 10 obcain cuRs when Ira·
dilioonat mtdic:al praclke proved powerless. Just tIS
anclene ~icine continued to be pl"a(:tincl, as Ihc
lreatlsa in Coptic prove. 10 £e<OU,"", 10 a SIlpemae·
ural power continued to enjoy Favor amon, t~
Emeians.
Bill if a well·e'tahli.hed paganism maintained It·
self wh"n it had no COmpe1ilors, Christianity found
IIr;elf ahogelher differently placed. obliged as it was
for many ge"""'Tion. to mugale 10 a""lhllale too..,
bllen ~ whic:h had I>«n degnld..d t<l lhe nuTk of
.,.il demons. Thus into the accounlS <Ii miraculous
....
hcalings there en~ an a..,..O'd missi<>nary puT"'"
Accordinl lO the ancleru idea, bodr I"lP" and
Christian, illness came from a ,.,d or a demon, as a
puni£hment from a lad « as th'l' Yt'..,..anc:t of an
enl spirit. Thus God or me dj>inity con<:~rrvd
could hnJ and retoi"l: h.eaJth.
We should not cultivate tOO many illusions about
the ..,ntimenlS lhal moci>."ttd piou& Copts in Egypc
10 _k sltelter in their fai!h. They ne no dillettt'lt
From people of odler ~ligjons who IUm 10 Cod for
help either through lrue bhh Or because OIh"r
means failO'd. The ~rlessncss of lhe docton is
some1;me:s described in the tnlS. which even por-
tray lhem as ~ing aided by rn;ogicians anti enchant-
~rs. What this means is that rhe li.t of illnnsts
cured mir.w:uloudy coincides more or I"" with
thai of the aflli<:tions the dOClOrs could not cure or
relieve,
In listing lOme 120 miraculous cures from CopTic
reXl., we find a wide range of illnesses. To compare
$lIch a li$1 with that of diseases trutetl by me<lical
mU", and duly enumerated by W. Till in hi. W()rk
on Coptic medicine would be very l",uucti.'e.
Ho>.'ever. IIlOlIt diseues classified by TIll are nol
fouoo among lho5e ",ith mi...,ul....... cuns. Thus no
mention is made of trichial.is. bJ~pharilis. xeroph-
thalmia. $CI~ropl..haImla. amblyopia. disease; of the
ear (other than deafness). diseaxs of the mouth.
haem0pty5i1. stomach trouble, disca'M of tbe blad-
der, and smallpos. On Ihe other hand, I..", of mi·
raculOUIS cum inclt>de disuses not in m..dkal
boob. Such diseasel.. ncept.. perhaps, for blindness
in one eye. can be nplalned _ stemming from
ps)·chosomazic Cau5Q. n..,... mmtionc<l are ca~
Iepsy, blindnts,; oM birth. ao::quired, b1inclncss. blind-
..... in one ~, ded"·mUleness. dumbness. dropsy.
delayed chilc!binh. stmilly, paralysis. ~n """"" i....
s&ancQ of ","urrec1ion (on the borderline of medi·
cine).
The majorily of dle d i - . mn...,ul<l....y cured
...d aIs<> medically treared o::ould be rarely diag-
llOSed by a modem doclor using p,esomt-day I.nni-
noIo/:Y. for they are nOl characeerized by ""hat caus·
Q them bul are doscribed only as symptom•• in
view of ehe still rudimenlllry Slate olthe science of
lhat age. Cases of demon JXlIMession pmvide lhe
largest group, The medical texIS are silent on ther;e,
for lhey were perhaps nOl ~gard"d il$ true diseases,
For lhem. illness Came from God. ,lollhough it .......
vel)' often a punishment From heaven, it remain.
 HEAUNGS IN COPTIC UTERATURE
......ethtloeu lrue thai between di..mily and "",n
Ih~ _ an intermediaie enlily. a call1lysl. as we
would say !oday, in the shape of the illness i!Self, On
wl\ich the OOcwrs could ~mes .ct. ~'" JI'OS"
...-.I ... Ilw direcI inlrumn of an infernal ~r
into tile viclim'l body. Property ~L il did POI
belanS 10 the 6dd of medicine and (like epilepsy)
Iw only r«ently-in the nineleenth oenlury-
been inclu6ecl in Ihe btler. Hen: is the lis! of the
oIher diw_ that art common to the h.v fields of
medldne and mincles: migraine. acule ~nful
_iris. hepllliris. pains in Ihe side, abdominal
..mo., Ih,..,., iO!lWKell of penom wilh hemorTholdJ:
""ted of Iheir ICOUble. pain. in the lo.....,r limbs,
nine iMlances of crippled ""no.... lame and in~nn,
fractures. dlslocallons. one c.o5e of lOut. skin dis-
eases (bul 't is difficuh 10 deline ·cutaneous·). caieS
of leprosy (bul we cannool be absolutely ."re it is
the diICI.ie ca"..,d by Hansen's bacillus), One case
of fe...er, and a snakebite,
Such. then, is the picture obtained from Coptic
accounts, There is no tack of inter",l, but many
inaccuracies frequently prevent posilive identifica·
tions. As to the veracity of the.e accounls, only an
u~ustive lIudy going into Ihe liniest delails would
enable US (if even the,,) 10 decide what is properly
hislorical a"d "'·..... t i. Wer imaRination i" the Ii.,,,"
of some Copolc sai" ... For Ihere is evffy likelihood
that many of titeso: persons are sheer inventioM.
..... some of the odte", have had their biov:aphies
""pa~ t.,. in..enled ~ . 10 the Utent thai if
Ihese apocl)'J)hal """.Ions an' dimi,gted. OM risks
redud", lhem to mere names. The Coptic l'I!Cord
could nOC be aken into acCOUDt foe a scienlific
stucIy of 'M phenQtnellOn of miracles (whe"'er ~
beOO"el In ohern 0<" not) such a5 is carried on .1
Lourdes loday. But il mighl be appropriate 10 be
Ieso sUpI.la1 rq:arding the CUJ'"CS dfceled on the
tomh5 of !hoe Jalnts: We know of ~mirxl",," el~
",ioe~, obtained &om saint!"'t>o never uisl:ed.
Of sreaou ~Iicious i"leresl is lhe comparison
d"l1 an be IIllIde• ..,d !hal cannot rail 10 be J»rllc·
uluiy inSlrucli..e. between Ih""" luIS and lhe mino·
cles ~laled in .he New Testamenl. Apllrl from.
blind and deaf penon ",,-tw was 1"'"....50(1, • hunch·
b.ck, and a <:&5<' of dysentery, .Illhe other diseases
or In~rmlties milllculou~ly cured in the New TeSlll'
men! Ire cured, on one occasion or anolher. In one
I>T more Coptic lexlS. And such panallels are nol al
011 arbitrary, Jince """eral times the Coptic lo,tS
dearly refer lO such cur"" effecle<! by J .sus or by
certllin apostle" to indicate more effectively Ihal
saints. foIlowi"a in JC$lJ!' footslep', were his Inter·
1213
median", and lIlat God ... effecting the healing
thn::>uah them.
These ex!nordinary healinp could be produ«d
in Vllriow; drcumslanCes and by vwious means: "'"
~ e of the Yi"'. a sbp he giws, "'" ...., of
walCT or of tM oil of the I.s1'nfl burn,,,. belon: the
ollar, a pT'llye1" of the saint's, In order he gives. 1m
breath. toucbina his clothe!.. !he blood of a manyr,
in one instance _ e who ..... the \icIin:l of
demon possession ..... hunl up by Saini Menas.
Miracles likewise <ICCU~ at It", lomb. and 51OIDe.
limes ",hile the sick ~ _ -.!eep. The cure
may ha"" been asked for by !he sick penon. by a
Ihird party. 0<" nOI ;uked for at ali.
Most of the saints 10 ""hom lhese miracles U'O'
atlrib."ed suffered manyrdom••clltal Or legeDdary.
under OloctE1lAN, bUI we also find lOme who uper·
knee<! il ..nder OECIUS (Mac.riUII of Tkow); t"'"
OIhe ... li.,ed tater. l'ETt'.R t of Ale..ndria (end of the
fourth century) and Hilaria (end of Ihe fifth centu·
~)
It i, possible to glean other Informatinn here and
there about Ihe live, of 1M sick in Chri.tian E!m>t.
Those whom we call "mentally ill" were nOi .hut
up in an asylum but ",,.ndered freely,
Doubtless the clinical accounos provided in Cop-
lic hagiography often lea,.., .somethina 10 bot desired
M 10 accuraC)'_ The authors wen' not doclors. and
enn if !hey had been. Ihelr descriptions would
hardly .'iiatisfy a modem praailioner. 'M mO<"e so
sinee the historicily of these miracles is a mailer for
c.a... lon. Bur. """'1 of lhese cures could be ""-
plained p!lYChosomallCllly. Healinp ~ 10 ." em-
piriaal kind of p;rcholhenpy must su.ely ha,.., 0<:'
curnd sometimes. It Is noI knowu ...-helber thq'
1Mled. Oearly lhen is no lUI .bat ,ells us .... but if
""e may """",,,,1 an origin In !he p;yd>e for "elUin
headaches. dumbness. some IJP"$ of paralysis. and
"""" ...methlng .....1 inil;.lly mieh' seem 10 be epi.
Iepsy. i1 is quue cI.,., thac. ",,~J1_b1ished leprosy
<:llJl1\(II dear up instan.....eowly ewn if Ihe p;ycloo-
Jopcal bctor in ".."'" insuonces had a pan 10 play.
M 10 resurrections (if I. is noc catalep>y or snming
death lhal is inyolved). titeso: ...., mere ""pi.,.. of
Gmpel miracles. It is a qUCSlion of faith ra!her than
of science.
If the doclor son>elimes proved PG",..,rleSll, we
musl not conclude th~t he wall the objecl of mock-
ery or deri.ion, Luke the evangeli5t was a doclor, as
were Coltuth". the Copllc martyr and Sain.. COSM.os
AND DAMI""', who, though nOI EJYptian, were held in
honor in E!m>1. If the Egypti~n of pharaonic daY"
prized fim and fonmost ancient lllthcr than new
1214 HEAVEN
remedies, and perhaps because of that attitude ab-
stained from medical research, we must, neverthe·
less, note that the hope of cures by otber (supernat·
ural) means left the door open for progress.
Without having a clear idea of what they were actu'
aJiy doing, the Copts, by reading and hearing these
pious stories, maintained the hope of improved
medicine.
BIBLIOGRAPlty
Amelineau, E. C. Les Actes des many,. de Ngli..
eoplt:, Paris, 1890.
___. Mo>wm",ls pour servir ;, /'hiSloire de
I'Egyplt: chr~/ierme. Musee Guimet, Annales 25.
Paris, 1894.
Barnes, J. W. B" and A, E. A, Reymond. Faur Mar-
tyrdoms from Ihe Pierpont Morgan Coptic Coaices.
Oxford, 1973.
Budge, E. A. W. Coptic Martyrdoms, eIC., in the
DialeCI 01 Upper Egypl. london, 1914.
Hyvemat, H. Les ACles aes martyrs de I'Egyplt, pts.
1-4. Paris, 1886-t887,
Lemm, O. E. BruchSIiJcke koplischer Marlyrerak/m.
St. Petersburg, 1913.
Till, W. Koplische Heiligen· una Marlyrerlegurae", 2
vols. Orientalia Christiana Analecta 102, lOS.
Rome, 1935-1936.
___. Die An.neikunde der Kopten. Berlin, 1951.
GooRD GoDROII
HEAVEN, term used in the Holy Scriptures to
indicate the sky overhead created by God (Gn. 1:1)
and the dwelling place of God (Pt;. 2:4: 11:4; 103:19;
123:1; 129:7-8).
The Jewish mystics adopted the concept of the
plurality of heavens rising above one another; the
first as the upanse of space sUlTOunding the earth:
the second as the firrrojrnent containing the sun,
moon, and stars: and tbe third (or heaven of heav-
ens) as the abode of God. The concept held by the
Coptic Orthodox Church differs as far as the third
heaven is concemed and is based On the teachings
of Saint Paul, ""here he tells the Corinthians (2 Cor.
12:2-4) of his vision and revelations: '" kl'lOw a
man in Christ who fourteen years ago ",'as caught
up to lhe third hea.en-whether ill tbe body or out
of the body I do not know, God knows. And I know
that this man was caught up into Paradise-
whether iv the body Or out of the body [ do not
know, God knows-and he heard things that can-
not be lold, which man may nol utter." Here the
third heaven is paradise, the resting place of tbe
souls of the righteous awaiting the day of judgment.
Thus, hea,'en and paradise are quite distinct.
This view is supported by evidence from the New
Testament. Heaven is Ihe place from which Cbrist
came down and to which He was raised. He said to
Nicodemus, "No one has ascended into heaven bUI
he who descended from heaven, Son of Mav, who
is in hea"en" (In. 3:13). Again, at His ascension, as
the disciples were watching steadfastly into heaven
as He was lihed up, "behold, two mev stood beside
them in while robes, and said, 'Men of Galil.,." why
do you .tand looking inlO heaven? This Jesus, who
was taken up from you into heaven, will come in
the same way as you saw him go into heaven'"
(Acts 1:10-11).
The Revelation to John (21:1-23) draws a sym-
bolical rep.esentation of heaven. The new Jerusa·
loom is a realm that kno,,"'S nO hunger or thirst, no
scorching heat. "Fo. the lamb in the midst of the
throne will he thei. shepherd, and he will guide
them to springs of living water; and God will ",ipe
away evel)' tear from their eyes" (7:17). "The.e
,hall vo more be anything accursed, bUl the throne
of God and of the Lamb shall be in it, and his
,e",ants shall worship him; they shall see his face,
and bis name shall be on their foreheads. And night
shall be no more; the)' need vo light of lamp or
sun, lor the Lord God will be their light, and they
shall reign for ever and ever" (22:3-5).
Many of the early fathers described Iheir impres·
sions of heaven and the beatific vision: Clement of
Rome (Epislola I ad Conn/hlos, PG I, col. 2IS);
Athenagoras of Athens ("Supplication for the Chris-
tians" 31, 1970); lrenaeus (Advusus om"es hae·
re.ses, 1857, 1.10.1 and 4.20.5), The following "".
cerpt from Saint Augustine deserves quotation in
Ihis respect:
How great ",ill be that happiness ... where there
will be leisure for the praises of God, who shall
be all in all! ... There the reward of virtue shall
be God Himself, the Author of virtue: and He
promised Himself, than whom the... cav be noth-
ing bener or greater.... For thus tOO is that to
be rightly understood which the Apostle sa)'S,
"That God may be all in all." He Himself will be
the end of our desires. He ,hall be seen without
end. He shall he loved withoul surfeit. He shall
be pmised without weariness, . _There we shall
resl and we shall behold, we shall behold and we
shalllo\'<:, we shall 10.'00 and we shall praise. This
i. what shall be iv the end without end.
(1979, p. 108)

IUBUOGIVd"HY
AtheNlg0ra5 of A!hens. ''Supplicalion for !he Ch~
li~." In 1Jle FQiIIt of dte ElJrty FaiMrs, Vol. I,
f<!. W. A. JUrJCDS. Collq:C'i1le, Minn., 1970.
AUJUSIiM. "The City of God.- In 1Jle Failh 0{ lire
&ltf)' F<ldte<s. Vol. 3. ed- W. A. JU'l:ens. CoIIc:p-
"rille, Minn., 1'779.
BulU. R. 1M Sdinl.' El'eriAslitt, Res:. London,
,"".
Simon., U. E. Hu>'m in tJu C/rrislifl" Tratli/iort. Lon·
dorI, 1951l
Smith. W. M. TIoe Biblicll1 Doclri>u of H,("'en, Lon·
don. 1968.
HEBBEL YNCK, ADOLPHE (1559- ''il39).
Belgian Kholar and reetor of the Univershe calho-
lique of Louvain. He was a student of C. de Harle~
and J, 8. AbbelC>OJ, G. Maspero, and E.. Revlllout.
As a COp1olog;~I, he Sludied the Coplic lran.lallons
of (he Bible and Coptic ~odicoloiY (C(>plic manu·
iCripts of lhe Vatican Library).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
llldeule, r. "EIege acadtmiqu. de Mgr. Hebbe·
Iynck." A"nllQire de rU"h'e.. i/i c.rlrolique de Loll'
....m 84, pl. 2 (1930~1939):127-44.
Lefon, L T. "Adolphe Hebbelynck. 1859-1939:' L.e
Mlluon 52 (1939):1'77-98.
RL"(&(;EQU;ES COOOJIIl
HEFELE, KARL 10SEPH (1~-l893),
Ctmun dlurdun..., educator, and ecclesiticX:.al
hlslorian. He ......g:bl a1 Tiibint;en from IU6, be-
aIM full ptofusl,,- in 18"0, and ...,.. eltcled bishop
of Rothenbu,. in 1869. He visiled Ilome jwl befoll'
his elotclion, and owingJj: his ~'aSI k_'ledge U> lbe
6eld of church coun<:ils, was chale-n by the Valian
as consul..nt on the' orpniUlion of the fonlw;om·
inl Valican Courx:i1 of 1870. In the work! of s<:hol.
aoi!ip, howe...,r, he ~me beller known for his
classic work on the' history of the tccltsiaSlical
coundls. Co""ilie~guch;d./~ (7 ''015., fribot.>rg,
1855-1874). TlIii wor\ ,,'as conlinued by CanJinal
J. A. G. Her.enrblher. who publi~h~d Volum~s 8
and 9 (1887-189Q). The final work w&:ll Iran~laled
inlO English by W. R. Clark &:II A. Hislory 0/ Ihe
Cowncils of/he Church from Ihe Odginai Orx;um,UlS
(5 ..015., Edinbur,h, 1883-1896). It was lrallslale<:!
into French wilh addil,.",. by H. Leclercq as His/·
HEGUMENQS 1215
we des coneil... (8 vol$... Pam. 1907~1921)_ The
French edition has been ffCOJIli:ted as w.>tandanJ
work of rd~en<:~ on the SUbjecL
HEGUMENOS. a litl~ giwn to some presb)1en,
as a rule .....0 lOIelheT ...ilh !he lille prt3byt",.,..
The term derivo from lhe Grttk ht6'JMmentn,
.........., primaJy meaninl was "ruler." wdl k"o,.... in
progan Grffk and also ~ by Christian authon to
denote a bishop. In lalt Gtwk leXl!l I'mm EfD'J'C and
in Coptic t""IS, this lide rtk'"'" 10 clerics and
monb and .....,. given 10 whoe>'e' played lhe leading
role in the' group.
The c1~ U$Iot" of ltetumell(ls was the resuh of
Ihe n~ to lind a tille lhal would emphasize the
position of that presbyter who hade<! the episcopal
or parish church. Hence, h"u...e"oi actually corre·
sponde<:! to "rchipresbyleros, B lerm rarely me<! in
EIl)'pI. 0. 10 Ihe even ran::r p'olOpresbyUTOj. '" Cop-
IN: documenl from the fil"$1 half of Ihe ei,hth ~entu·
ry (erum and Sleindorff, 1912, pp. 66~76) mentions
an orchipre.by/eroJ and a he,ume""" "f the same
chureh; this indicales thai the 1"'0 tilles could be
differenlialed.
In Ihose _rces ...h~e Ire,umen"" is one of lbe
lilies of an AKHINANlllUTE. it should be lre:aled lIS a
church lille and nOC a mon&llk one. In olher
words, suc:h an archimandrile had a hieber ehurc:h
rank than ordillaJ}' priQItI (TiJl. 1958, IlQ5.. 20-21
I'mm $aqq:ar1o). Similarly, one of the ... perion of
the Saini !'tIoibammon MOna5IC1)' in Da)T a].Bahri
...... a priest. hqumellO:l, and noums (Crum and
SU1r>dorlf, 1912, P. 13).
In the mona:stic conl.....1, Iw:p _ _s can clenole
!he ... pc,ino and was .-sed m communities of.,.,.;.
<>US I)pes and ma One CanllOO ""etude the po5Si.
biIity that oriDnaIly het,""ellos described a monk
who en~ higher M"horily, an elder ...ito pbyoed
the ..,Ie of infonnal leader in a semi"tilOChoIl'Iic
commullily. An ucellenl uample is furnished by
the Htsroll1A MONACliOII.UN (Fesll.lgi~ll'. 196-4), ",ilere
some monb are described .. "fathen of many
mollaMenes," allhough here "monaslery" has a dif-
ferenl meanina: lTom lhe one pven 10 it later on.
Ho_ver, ranadius, who was in Egypl al the same
time"" the aulhor of lhe Hisloria mOHocho'um al
the end of the fourth cenlury, used Ireg" ... enos wilh
the le~hnical meaning thaI was 10 become usual
laler on, such lIS In a passage ...here UCHO.llIUS is
mention.,d.
1216 HEGUMENOS, ORDINATION OF A
P. Kahle was of the opinion that the application
of the term with a monastic ~onnotalion was limit·
ed to the regions of Thebes and Aphrodito. This
hypothesis does not seem to be ~orre~l, sin~e the
tille appears in DAYR APA JERE.M1AK at Saqqara and in
literary texts that refer to ENATON. near Alexandria.
It also oc~urs in the life of $oWO'IL OF QAlAMDN,
which was written in the Fayy(lm (see Alcock, 1984,
index),
The borderline belween tbe meanings mentioned
~ould be obliterated, It is. for """",pie, difficult to
detennine the sense of ~.gume~oj in reference 10
priests of KELUA who played a leading Tole in this
semi-ana~horetic center, sin~e the role of those mO·
nastic officials was strictly connected with the ract
th.t they headed a church that sel"\'ed ascetics,
Today ~egummos memo "abbot." or the head of
a monaster)'. The hegum.~os is usually chosen by
the monlo from thdr own community and ap-
proved by Ihe patriarch, metropolitan, or bishop
within whose jurisdiction the monastery lies.
The hegumenate is the highest rank of the ['riest·
hood to which ['riests, mamed or celibate, sel"\'ing
in cathedrals or large ['arishes, may be raised, The
Arabic equivalent term for ~egume"'J5 is qummus
(protopri"'t).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Alcock, A., ed. Life of Samuel 01 Qalomu". London,
1984.
Crum, W, E., and G. Steindorff, eds. Kopt;sch.
Rechtsurku"den d.s achlm Jahr~u~JulS aus
Vi.m •. Leip"ig, 1912.
Festugitre, A. 1. us Mo!~es d'Ori..1I. 4 vols. in 7.
Vol. 4, E"qu;te sur les mo;"es d'Egypl. IHisroria
mo"achorum i~ Aegypto), p. 66, Paris, 1964.
Kahle, P_ Bala'!~h: Coptic T'~ls Irom Ddr d·
Balai1ah, Vol. L Pl'. 33-34. London, 1954,
Till. W, C.. ed, Carpus Papyrorum Rai"~ri, Vol. 4.
Vienna, 1958,
OJ EWA WIPS2YCKA
HEGUMENOS, ORDINATION OF A. The
sel"\;ce of promoting a priest to the hegumenate is
similar to thai of ordination 10 the prie.thood, ex·
cept that in the prayers said by the bishop and the
archdeacon, th. word "priesthood" is replaced by
"h~gum~nat~" and the bishop .ecites the following
prayer of Epic/e.!s, Ihat is, the descen. of the Holy
Spirit, inaudibly:
Master, Lord God almighty, F~ther of our Lord
and our God and our Sa"lor Jesus Christ, who
knowe" all things before they e~ist: Thou hast
chosen Thy servant [Name] 10 be a father md
hegumenos 10 Thy servants his fellow·presbyters,
working logether in full accord for Thy name's
sake, We therefore ask Thee, 0 Lover of man·
kind, to proted him, hless him and purify him by
th~ descent of Thy Holy Spirit on him. Do Thou
$upport him in every good work, granting him
wisdom and power through Thy Holy Spirit, to
""",e Thee day and nighl without blame. Bestow
th~ Spiril of good leadership upon him, togelner
with humility, love, forbearanc~, and righleous-
ness, that he may pleas~ Th"" lhrough his good
works, providing Ihe righl example to In(>Se un-
der him, and teaching them Ihe commandments
of Thy law, looking after them in purity and love,
thai they may become blamdes. and worthy 10
be offered as a li>ins, pu.e and acceptahle sacri-
fice to 1esus Chri.t the heavenly bridegroom, ful·
filling Thy words: "lei your light so .hine before
men, thai Ihey may see your good works, and
glorify your Father which i$ in heaven." Through
the grace and compassion of Thy only·begotten
Son, our God and Savior 1esus Christ, wilh whom
and wilh the Holy Spiril Thou art blessed now
and for~ver, Amen,
The third modification comes in the ~atechesis
speech read by the bishop, where great emphasis is
laid on lhe impol1ance of Ihe hegumenos' role as
teacher 10 his people fo. whom he is held responsi-
ble before God. "Watch over them, direct Ihem 10
good deeds. Admoni.h the sinners with kindness
and comp..,..ion in accordance with lhe apostolic
law. Strive to draw them towards repentance,
knowing thai they are part of thee, and Ihat you
have become Iheir guide. Beware lest the wolf
come near the Aod. Fulfill the words of the Scrip'
ture: 'We that are strong ought to bear the infirmi·
tie. of the weak, and not 10 please ourselves· (Rom.
15:1J, so that you, too, may be told: 'Well done,
good md faithful servant, thou hast been faithful
o,er a few things, J will make thee ruler over many
things: enter ;nlO Ihe joy of thy lord' [Mt. 25:23],"
The bishop then continues Ihe celebration of the
liturgy, wilhoul insufflating Ihe hegum.nos, as he
ah'ead)' received Ihe breath of the Holy Spirit when
be was ordained ['riest,
IS.~ also: Ordination, ClericaL]
BIBUOGRAPHY
Abft al-BaraUt ibn Kaba.. M!~b(lh a/.?ulmah II 14iil}
a/-Khidmah, pp. 435-46. Repr. Cairo, 1971.
Bunnester, 0, H. E, The Egyprian or COpl;" Church,
pp, 164-66, Cairo, 1967.

Ibn Sibl;' Y~"* ibn .... bl bUr1y.L KiJ.lb .14.._
Iuu.h .l/-N../i.." Ii Ulum ../.luml.<aIt, ed Vitnir
ManSl1r. Cairo. 1902. TranJ. imo Latin as /'rerilJS<J
Mariarilli de $l:i",riis ecclu;aSI;c;$ by Vincentio
Mist I'll), Cairo. 1966,
Kirah -rashtamU'ala al·~alaw41 al-Muqadd(lsah, pp,
40-49. Rome. 1761.
HEJ.WAN. Su IJih.'ln.
HENEIN MAKARIOUS, SU MaUrus l:Iufta}·n.
HENGSTENBERG, WILHELM (1885-1963).
profe$.sor of Ea,nern Chriatianity at the Un;nrsity of
Munich. He lau&I>t the Ianl"a&cs of Eas'em Cb..uli-
anily. ir>clud!lI& Copcic. Among his pupils "'..,..., J.
Asshlf: and A. BOltI;,. His doctonJ lhcsas.
"Koptioche trmmden unci Brid'e"' (\Jnl..eniry of
Munich, 1921)...-as not pub.li~. but M did pub-
lisIt i,"poNnt a"ides about mona>tic;s.... in EcYP1.
notably "I'acbomiana. mit cine.... ....nhallJ tiber
die Ulurtie 'IOn .... lexandlitn.. (in 8.ilTlige wy
Guc"icht. des christlic"'" A;/",rll",$ II"d du
!ry,anti"isch." LiIUal"y,' FUlrab. Alberr E.hrhard,
Bonn and Leip:zig. 1922. pp. 228-52) and
"Bcmcrkungm mr Emwid,lung)geo<:lIichte des
;;gyptischen Mt\ncmul1lS"' (in Mis 01 1M ~Ih /ntt<nliJ-
/'ianal c~ of Bplt',," SIMJJ~, Sop".. 1914,
Bu11din d. rJ>Utit,,' IITCUoIOJiqIU lIt.!riJre 9. 1935.
P1'- 355-62). His och"" wrilinp include "Die
gricchisch-kopltochen ~,. (~il$l:hrifl
fUr l411'tuclu: Sprache und Allertu"..k""tde 66,
1931. pp. 51-6S) and "Der Dnchenitampf oks
heilisen T1M:o<\o<"' (Ori."s Chrisl;iJnI's n.5. 2. 1912.
pp. 78-106, 241-80. and n.5. 3. 1913. PP.. 135-37)_
His book l"C\'iews (W, Ka~erer, A Coptic Bibliog·
,aphy. Ann .... rbor. Mieb., t'~. Po 181. under Heng-
O1CIlbc.... Criliclol Ilevioew) contlOin much addilional
mateoial and ..., therefore i,"p0rlartt.
BlIILIOGIAnn"
BIlhlic........Wilhel.... Henplenberp,." B1t""tiniwhe
Zei/seIlri" 56 (1963):478-31.
MARTIN KUUSE
HENOTICON, fifth·cenlury ,mperial edict that
was one of lhe basic Mate",en~ of impcn..l Iheolo-
f3 and «df$WIical polky of Ibe early Byanline
HENOTICON 1217
period. 11 is the ""me gi>..,n 10 Ih. instnlmenl oJ.
union addrcsse<I by Emperor UNO 10 the "bkhops,
d~rgy, mooks and lail)' Ihrougbout Aleundrla and
Egypt and lJb)'a and Penlapolii" In 482. 11$ imme·
diate aim wa.s Ihe reconciliation of the sees of Con·
stantinople and Alexandria. which had been In a
S\.ale of hoslilily since tbe murder of lhe Chakedon·
lan palriarch, Proterius, 011 Ma dy Thursday 457.
T1M: limil1J of the edicl doe ruult of Ih.
o;!a:isioa by the emperw and ACACltl5. patriarch of
Constantinople. in Ihe spring oJ. 482, 10 mrogniu
tile anti--Cb.kedooian (sec CKALCEOON. COIINCtL 01')
fN'lriMch of .... Ieundria. P£IU. III ~NGIJS. t i true
paln..rch. Zen<> wilhdrew "''''<OIn;lion from Pele"'.
ri,... I, John Talala, ",110 ned 10 Italy in June .g2. In
the background, howe....r, was the strength of anti.
Chalcedonian sentiment in Antioch and Jerusalem
as well ....... I""and,u. which in 419 had resulted ill
die murde-r of Stephen. palri.rcb of IU\liocb, by
.nti-Chalcedonlans. 'Though addrused to tile
church in Aloand.... \he edici was desiSncd. liJ
apply to the wtlol. empire-
T1>e edict opens with ",hal had bee...... the lradi·
I*"" ........'101 thai .be safely of lhe empire depend·
ed on il£ onhodo.y: "Considerin, Ihe source .nd
con.,itution of (HJr "",,,,ocr and the invincible shield
Qf our empire .s the only riShl and lrue faith,
which through divine intel'o'emion lh. 31S Holy Fa·
Illers aMembled in Niun e.pQUnded. and Ihe 150
Holy Fathers 'onvencd similarly in Constantinopl.
conlirmcd. .. ," Faithful obseT>'aI"ICe of this bi.h
aIld pr;aisc of God, In. Savior Jesw Christ, and the
VlrJi-n T1l~ will .nable Ille entmia of tile
empire 10 be desu'oy«land the fruils oflhe tanh 10
be brou&ht hmh abundantly_
The .mpcrw lO" on 10 Male lhal he has received
many beanfdt pelilions from "archimandriles. htr·
mhs and other holy men" 10 knit the churches
togelht, one. more in unity. Scuu"" of diS3jr<=e·
ments "'iIMn lhe church. $.Icramenu h""e not bet..
dispensed. and N. rt5U!tthcre have been riotS and
bloodshed Therefo..., those 10 whoom the edlcl is
addrn&e<l should know thaI ,._ and the cb.,rc:hes
~hen:'. hold M> creed other th2n Nicaca COtt-
firmed by the councils 01 aINST"-lmtoOl'U. and
El'HESUS. "",tlere tile impious NestOri"5 and lhose
""ho v.-ere I"'.... of lhat one'5 mind·' are condemned.
N(STORnJS and EUTYCHES are .nathern.atittd. bul Ibe
Twelye Analhrma, of Saini C¥RIL I are 10 be acc.pt·
ed as canoni~ ..l. Tb••dict conclude, wilh a slat.·
nwnl of Christological belief: Ihat J.sus Christ if
consubstanlial with botb God and man and Is '·in-
carnale from lbe Holy Spiril and Mary the VitIin.
1218 HENOTICON
Theolokos. is One and n<>l IWO. foI- ...·e uy lhal both
his mlnode. and his 5IIlFerinp which he u~.....enl
by lac! of} will in the Boh arc of one penon:'
Anyone ""'0 "has thought or lItinks an)'lhing else
now or aI any lime ei1her in Chakedoo'I or In any
olher .)nod whale'.-cr, we analhemalize.·· 1besc
were the foundalions on ...·hich aU were enjoined 10
WIne in 11M: emlx.ce of the ehurch.
The HenOIkon. a ....entn>/<f; of dipklmoq by
Acadus. aloo "'15 somethinc for 11M: SIal~manship
of Zeno. II came ... near as any ollte. anempl be-
fo.... or sincc to unili"ll the theologies 01 the major
churches in me Ea$l. The ba:!.is chosen ...... 11M:
dedskm of lhe fi~t Ihrtt gr:neral coundls and lhe
IheolO8)' of Cyril. Though no $Ce _ rnenlloncd by
name. onhodoxy was deemed 10 tie in lhe lheolo&"
cal Ideas nl:ptesenled by CO'lS1an1ino~le and Alex·
andrla. The Tome of Pope LEO t and lhe "",e of
Itome were passed o~er in ,Uence. Chalceclon was
not denounced but was reduced 10 Ihe sHUus of a
di$C:iplinary council concerned wllh lhe condemna·
tion of Eutyche.· and NeMoriu.· ... pponers. Thl.
aim Was confinn...d by lite .tatement of Zeno 10 a
delegation of E@ypIian monks led by Nephalius. The
monks demanded the denunCiation of the Tome of
I.e<.> and Chakcdon; Zeno ....id lhat he was not p.....
pa ....d 10 do SO (Evagrius HiSlori« e«luuutic4 3.
22).
In Eg)'J'I the Henolicon had a mixtd ~~Iion;
the bishop of Anli~. lwo "&",al an;hbnandrilcs:'
and n'..M ..... monks joined in rejecli"l II (beha·
rial IthHQr HiMori. ueluUulie. 6. 2; Micl>IoI:l me
Syrian ChTflnicon 9. 6; and Ubenrus BretNuW... 9).
Tbtse d_nle~ 1>«_ kllown as ACEl'tl.ot.Ol (.. the
hadless'1. having rejected the empet'Ol' and palri-
an:h of AJeuJldria as their hado.. Pete.- III Mongus.
however. and Pder 01 Iberia. the do¥en 01 ascetics.
acc~ the Hen(llicon. 'fht documenl ...... abo
acCoepltd gcnenlly. !hough "'M degtecs of rcl\le·
tanc~. Ihroughoul lite 1\J1;I. nOi IeasI by lhe anti·
C~lcedonian .-lriarch <il Anlioch. Peler lhe Fuller.
In 484.
In lhe Wesl. oowe>-er•.lhe Soil.....'ion..,.. different.
Pope Leo had br;mded all who rejec,ed his Tonie as
''Eulychiaos'' tUllers 111 and 112. ",rilten In 453).
and his wie.." ...e .... accepted by his SU<:Ces&On. In
482. Pope Simplkius w,," already angry wilh Acac·
!w for lhe lau....·s alleged "double dealing" in aC·
cepling Peler Mongus as p<ltriarch of Alexandria
(Slmpllclus. letter 18 of 15 July 482. ",ir~",,,r pari.
Ie,; Col/eerio Al'ell~,,~. no. 68). Rome. however. reo
mained 0011 of touch with the .ituatlon. and h was
nOi unlil after Simplkius had bttn 5Ucceeded by
felix III in 483 lhal lhe sianl6cance of lhe Henoli·
COD became apparenl lhere. Fell>. had 10 be a1entd
by opponents c1 Aeacius in CoO$Wltinople, !he
Sleepless Monr.... befOf'e he xled. He lIten accused
the palriarch of _nil\l that he ...... ''head of the
whole church" (Felix. 10 Acacius. in PNblizislisl:he
Sormml""lm 1M'" iKACY,.;"Mr. Sd!ism., p. 13). A
papal de1qlUion 10 Constalllinopic was dtteiw:d
inw taking communion ,,'hh Acac;w durinC a sen--
icc al which lhe names of both Peler M<>o;gm and
OIOSCORUS l palriarch of AloAndria. ......., com·
_morattd by being mod from Ihe diplyells. In
anl'Y retalialion a council held by Felix a. Rome
on 28 July 484 solemnly excommunicated Acaciu$
but mo,e for "hypocrisy" titan for heray_ Pet....
Mongus "'ther than Ihe Heno1kon remained the
source of oII'e ..."" (Ihus. Feli~. 10 Zeno. in Publiti-
st.sche S .....ml.. HI"H. p, 248). Only when lhe schi.m
hardened did Ihe Henotlc:on Itself bec..,me a major
i~ue.
The Henoticon was a s'ale aCI. a pronouncem...nt
by the ",igoing emperor on a malleI of doctrine. It
went funher than the d«ree of Theodosius I on 27
fehllJa'1' 380 (Cod~x Theodosia",.. 16. l. 2). for
Theodosiu. de<;i;lred only that Ihe trinitarian l...ach.
ing of Rome and Alexandtia was <:anoni.,.,!. withoul
mentioning his own views. Zeno. howell",,". does nOi
refer to !he >iews of any !oeC bul states ",hat be
hin~elf beli",-es. lbus. he foreshao:l<-.. JUStinian',
religi..... decrees and documenl5. lhe Ecthesi. of
Heraclius I. and the Tyf'O' of C_ns II. 'fht Hen·
<>Ikon. lIterrio......... a lon, Slep laward Byzanline
cac:sampapism. The Henolicon abo pnnided a doe-
trinaI basis for !he ~ $CHISM. wbich I_ed
&-om ~ to S19. It hl&htichled the unbridleable
differences be1~ !he ~ and eccle5iast;..
cal oulloob of Olel and Hew kome. AI the same
time. il aided lhe _nliaJ unity of E&sIem Chris-
lendom. consolidalin, il around !he lheology of Cy-
ril and !he I~ip of Constantioople and Alexan-
dria. The period of lhe schism wilh Old Rome ....... a
Lime of relali,.., relJaiou$ peace in the easI Roman
p<'O\'inces, and this conlribuled loward an internal
prosperily thaI made possible the aa:e of Spanline
g",alness under JUSl'II'll.\N.
BIBLIOGIlAP'Hl'
No contemporary wrller presened the complete
text of the Henotkon. but different version. have
enabled it to be '«OnSlru<:led and published by E.
Schwanz. "Codex Valicanus Graecus 1431, eine
anti-.ehalkedonisehe Sammlun. au. der Zeit K:oiser
ZenOS'." AbhQHdl..",en de, Kllnirlkhen BQy~rische"

A.kadem;~ de. Wiss<usc},"ft.", Philosophisch.
hisloriseh. AbteHung, Vol. 32.6 (Munich, 1927), no,
75. pp. 52-54. Surviving versions are Zachari",
Rhelor, His/an.a ecdesitutica. ed. E.. W. Brooks.
CSCO, ScriptoTes Syri III. 5 and 6 (Paris and Lou-
vain, 1919-1924), English lrans. by F. J. Hamilton
and E. W. Brooks, V. 8 (London, 1899); Evagrius
Scholastic\l$. Hislario eccl~io$tiCIl, ed. J. Bidez and
L. Pannemier, III. 14 (London, 1898); NicephonJ$
Calli.tus, HislOria ecclesiasrica, XVI. 12 Palrologia
eraeell 146 (Paris. 1846): Liberatus of Canhage,
BMviari"m cau,ae NeslQri<momm .1 e"lychia".,.
rum, ed. E. Schwartz, XVII. 112, ACIa condliOlUm
oecumenirorum 2.V (Berlin and Leipzig. 1932); Fa-
cuncius of Hermiana. Pro del.mione mum capilul.,.
rum, XII. 4, Parr%gio Latina, ed. J,-P. Migo., Vol.
67, cols. 845-48 (BTepol! and Turnhout, n,d.), An
anonymous Armenian partial ve...ion is published
in English translation by F. C. Conybeare in Amen·
c"" Journal of Theology 9 (1905)'735-37,
Foc an English translation ",ith nOles, see P, R
Coleman·Norton, Roman S/au and Chrisr;""
Church, Vol. 3. Soci<r)l for the Prommion 01 Chris-
tia" Knowledge, pp. 924-33. l<mdon, 1966.
Bardy, C. "Les lulie. christologiques apr-es Ie con·
cile de ChaIcMoine," Hislolre g'"hale d. I'tg/iw.
Vol. 4, De I" mort de Theodose II /'ilulion de
Grtgoir. Ie Gra"d. pl. 2. chap. I. Paris, 1948.
Bareille, G. "Diacrinom~nes," In Die/io""air. de
Ih.ologl. ealhollque, Vol. 4, col5. 732-33. Paris,
1920.
Frend, W. H, C. The Ris. of Ihe Morwphysil. Move·
mml, chap. 4, Cambridge, 1979.
Hofmann, F. "Dec Kampf dec PaP'lle urn Konzil
und Dogma von Chalkedon von La> bis Hormis-
<las:' In Da, Komi! vo" ChalkedoM, ed. A. Grill·
meec and H. Bach!, vol. 2, pp. 13-94. Wurzburg,
1953,
s<;hwartz, E. Publivslis<:he Samml""ge" cum ..tea-
cia"ixhe" Schisma. Abhandlungen dec Bayeri·
schen Akademie der Wis<ens-chaften. PhilO!lo'
phisch·histori.che Ableilung, new ser. 10.4. Munich.
1934. ~~
Stein, E. Hislo;re du Bas Empire (476-565). Vol. 2,
pp. 25-31. Paris, Brus<els, and Am.terdam. 1949.
W. H. C. FRENO
HERACLAS, SAINT, thirteenlh palriarch oflhe
See of Saint Mark (231-247) (feast day. 8 Ki)'ahk).
He sludied theology al the CATECHE:JlCAL SCHOOL OF
M.EXANDRIA under ORIGEN. who seleeted him as his
assistam to teach beginning students (Eusebius His·
lori" eccle.iaslicQ 6. 15). When Origen had difficul·
ties with the authorities. Herod.. succeeded him as
head of the s-chool; he taught the advanced dasses.
HERACLEON 1219
He retained hi, veneration for his mentor. though
he differed Wilh him 00 many theoiogical issue.
and supported the decisions of Ihe synod. COll\'ened
by Dl:Me-r~lllS I in condemning Origen's teachings
and doctrine•. He was eleele<! to succeed Demelri-
us as palriarch, Herada< maintained the principle.
of his prede<:essor bul attempted in vain to bring
ongen back ITom Palestine. He nominated olONYSlUS
TllE GUAT (later patriarch of Alexandria) to take his
place al the Catechelica.! S<;hooL A new con.-ert
from paganism. Dionysius altaine<! tremendous
knowledge of Ihe s-criptures and orthodox doctrines
and assisted Heradas in the discharge of his episco-
pal duties.
Persecution of Christians intensified under Em·
peror Maximinus. who issued special orders to con-
centrate on killing the church leaders responsible
for combating paganism and spreading Christianity.
It was on this occasion thai Origen wrote his I.-.:a·
lise on martyrdom. which he dedicate<! to Ambrosi·
us and Protecticus. two presbyters from Cae.area
who suffered excruciating toMures al the hands of
imperial agents.
The personality and vast religious knowledge of
Heradas auraclcd many notable figures to Alexan'
dria. among whom Africanus Ihe hi.torian and an·
nalist stands oul. The status of melropolitan Alexan'
dria and the Copti<: church rose 10 great heights in
Ihe Chrislian world, and ",ilh it lhe stature of Ihe
palriarchale of Heradas, who presumably was the
first head of the chun::h 10 kac the litle of POPE. He
remaine<! allhe helm of the Copti<: church for six·
teen years.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Allaner. B. Patrology. Eng. lrans. H. Graef. London.
1958.
Bardenhewer, O. Geschichle der altkirchliche" Lile·
Talur. 3 vols. Freiburg. Germany, 1902-1912,
Duchesne. L Early Hislmy of Ihe C~rislian Ch~rc~,
Val. I, pp. 3411f. Lund<>n, 1909,
Quasten, J. Palrology, 3 ,·ols. Ulrecht and Antwerp.
1975.
AlII S. ATtY.'.
HERACLEON, GnO!ltic teacher in Alexandria
about 170-180. who had great inAuence on Saint
CLEMENT Of ALEXANDRIA and ORIGEN. Clement de·
scribed him as "the most esteemed {d"k;matotos]""
,
disciple of VAl.ENTINUS (Clemenl SlTOmaleis 4. 9. 71.
).
Heradeon is the first known commentatoc on the
1220 HERACLEOPOLlS MAGNA
N"", Tt:Stam"m after BAStUDES, and fragments of his
commentaries on Luke and, in panicular, John
have survived. He seems to ha,'e made a large con·
llibUlion to ORlCEN'S great Comm~,,'ary 0" Joh"
lstaned c. 227), which sought to explain th.. Founh
Gospel within the framework of orthodox teaching.
He",cleon believed that there was significance in
every .ingle word in the Gospels. The Gospels, es-
pecially the Founh Gospel, were the "","",ge of the
Oivine Logos, proper undt:rstanding of which
provided the means of spiritual ""ivation to the be-
liever. Thus, the ime'l'reter must look at every
"'ord and understand why that, aud not some other,
expre,;.sion had been used.
In the fragment of his comm"ntary on Luk" 12,B
("Whosoover conf".s,," in me b<:fore men, in him
also will the Son of Man confess ""fore the angels
of God. But whoev"r dt:nies m" ""fou m"n will
also be denied before th" angel< of God"), Hera-
d"",n make. much of the fact thaI Luk wriles
"conf""",,. in me" and not '·confesses me," He
poims oUi thaI simple confe..ion of Jesus could be
verbal only, whil" the force of "in m,," was the
implication of a right auitud" of mind, for "whoev·
er lives in him can never deny him" (Clement 4. 9.
72. 4). The passages prest:rved by Orig"n from
Heradeon·. Commenlary 0" Joh". chapters I. 2. 4,
and B, show a concern for the equalion of moral
with spiritual valu",. Thi' underli"s an oft"n fanci·
ful allegori.ation of what he i$ interpreting. There
is also aUemion to Ihe exact wording of each text,
as in his work on Luke. Thus. he points out that
Jesus spoke of salvation being "or' Ihe Jew, and
not "in" th"m (Origen CommeMary 0" Joh" 13. 52),
and emphasi:tes that Jesus "went up" 10 Jerusalem
(Origen 10. 33). meaning that he ";l$(:ended from
the realm of the material to the psychic place
which is an imag" of Jerusalem."'
The whole tenor of Herad"on's interp,..,tation of
John shows that its m~e was that the true Chris-
tian must progress from Ihe material or pagan "iew
of the world, through ;Ihe "psychic" Jewish or or·
thodox understanding of scripiure and liturgy, 10
lhe real and spiritual ipprehensi()n of divine truth.
Thus hi. inte'l'retation of John 4,22 indudes the
injunction quoted from The Preaching of Peler. thaI
we must not worship as Ihe Greeks do, who believe
in materiallhings and worship wo:>od and stooe. n()r
worship lhe divine as the Jew, do. for they wh()
Ihink they alon" know God d() not know Him but
worship angels. lhe month, and Ihe moon. "Onl>o-
d()x" Christians also "worshiped, in nesh and in
error. him who is not the Father: they wOr5hiped
Ihe c,"""tion and not the lrue c""'tor" (cited in
Origen Commmtary 0" Joh" 13. 17. 19). Spiritual
beings "comp,..,hended the Passion of Ihe Savior as
the symbol of their r"storalion 10 Ihe Falher" (Ori-
gen 10. 19.1. Similarly. "psychic'· (i.e., orthodox)
baplism was only bodily and imperlect, "the bap·
tism of John," where... baptism by the Gnostics was
"for perfection" and was "spiritual."
Origen dismissed som" of Hemcleon·, interpreta-
tion' as speculative. but others he was prepared to
accepl. "Not improbably:' he writes concerning
H"rodeon's exegesis of John 4:12-15. "the spring-
ing up" (verse (4) refers to those "who recei"e
what is richly supplie<! from abo"" and who Ihem·
sd,'" pour fonh for Ihe eternal life of others that
which has hun suppli"d to them."'
The commenrlati'm of this and other fragments of
Hemdeon's ""egesis shows how indebted Origen
was to his Gnostic p",de<:esoor. Hemdeon's com·
mentaries on Ihe New Testament prq>ared the
ground for those of the Christian Platonists of Alex'
andria. They also saw th" Word speaking through
scripture and therefore r<,quiring a spirilual and
allegorical interpretation. Clement and Origen ma)'
both be seen in chis respect as the Ih"",logical de·
scendants of H"md""'n.
BIBUOGRAPHY
Ftlrsc"r, W, Gno.i.: ,4 Sdection 01 Gnostic Texl',
Vol. I, Palnstit Evidence, trans. R. MeL. Wiloon,
chap. 10, Oxford, 1972.
Pagel<. E. "A Valeminian Interp,..,tation of Baptism
and Eucharist."' Harvard Theological Review 65
(1972): 153 -69,
Salmon, G. "Heradenn (I)." ln DCB 2. pp, 897-
900. Rep'- New York, 1974.
W. H, C. F!l.ENO
HERACLEOPOLIS MAGNA. SU AhnU,
HERACLES, Su Mythological Subjects in Coptic
'n.
HERACLIDES, SAINT, martyr in founh·
century Egypt. Heradides is kn()wn only from the
fragmentary text of a Sahidic Passion and fragmcms
of a codex from OAYR ANB,I, SHtNIlOAH (the White
Monaslery). (For a complele list . ..,., Till, 1935, pp,
33lf.; and Von i.t:mm. 1913. no. 4,) He is not men·
lioned in the Copto·Arabic SYNAMRlON, and the

Heradides mentioned in the Passion of Didymus
along with four (Jther martyrs appears to be quite a
different person.
The Passion belongs to those of the Cycle of Jul·
ius of Aqfah~, and the seene tIlkes place in Alexan-
dria under the Roman prefect Anneniu•. We no.....
possess only an initial apparilion of Jesus, who pre·
dicts that Heraclides will be martyred; the mention
of the witness of Julius of Aqfah~; sonle scenes of
lerrible torture. followed by miraculous cures; and
finally the death senlen"e pronoun"ed by Annenius.
Before dying, Heraclide. prays that the land where
he is buried may proliferate with froit and animal•.
This prayer is an indicalion of the dose relalion.hip
between piety and cultic &>'olion 10 the martyr in
hope of benefits.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Baumei.ler. T. MarlyF Invictus, DeF MiiFI";rer als
Slnnbiid du Erl6su"g In d" ugende uod 1m Ku/t
der (Fuhen koptischen Kirche. Munster, 1972.
Lt:mm, O. E., von. 8ruchslUck< koplischer Martyr.r.
ak/en, Vols, 1-4, St. Petersburg, 1913.
Till, w. C, Kop/ische Hdlige". und Mar/yrerle.
genden. Vol. 1_ Orien/alia Christiana Ana/Ula
](12, Rome. 1935.
T,IO ORLANDI
HERACLlUS, FAST OF. See Fasts,
HERAI, SAINT, fourth·centu!)' >irgin martyr in
EIDpt (feast day: 14 Tilbah); she is brieAy men-
tioned also in the Greek calendar (5 and 23 sep'
lember). The legenda!)' Passion of Herai sundv,," in
a single Sahidic manuseript (Eg)ptian Museum.
Turin. cat. 63000, 111. 65-72), which is now incom-
plete, The missing portJans can be reconSlnocted
from the brief summa!)' In the Copto·Arabic SYNAX·
~RION ("Theban" red3Cti~n: d. Coquin, 1978).
Herai. we are told. ",as an outstandingly beautiful
twelve-year·old virgin, arrested 3.< a Christian along
with a group of other ,'irgins: while Ihey we,e going
10 dra", waler in their nalive village of Tammah in
Middle Eg)pt. Herai foresaw that she ",ould soon
be a mallyr and made a long farewell speech to her
companions.
They ",ere all mken by boat to Antinoopolis and
broughl before the prefect Culcianus, who ",as
sinock by Herai's beauty and desired 10 save her by
having her offer a sacrifIce. Cukianus was alw
HERAISCUS lnl
struck by the fact-interesting for us in the frame-
work of Ihe legend-that Herai understood Greek.
In ""cordance with the usual structure of the.e
Passions, there follows a scene of allercation be·
tween Culcianus and Herai, interspersed with
Ihreals of tOllure. There is also a divine inten'en-
lion, just before lhe execution of Herai. which con-
cludes the Coptic lext.
The legend of Herai must have been known local·
Iy in and around Tammah. since it was inselled
into Ihe S}'naxarion of Upper Egypt but not in Ihat
of lower Eg)'Pt (cf. Cequin, 1978), which eventually
prevailed, Furthennore. as far as can be judged
from the surviving text, it doe. not belong to one of
the major hagiographical CYClES. although the fig-
ure of Culdanus is well known from olher Passions.
It is possible. however. tltat the Passion of Herai
may be the basis for the later Passion of the martyrs
TtR ~ND EM!. composed as part of the cycle of
BASIlI[)ES the General. Herai is menlione<l in Ihis
latter Passion as a mallY' venerated in an important
shrine al Tammah, 10 ",hieh the "second" Erai
made a pilgrimage,
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Baumeister, T. MOrl)'1 Invicrus. Der MiJnyr.r als
$innl>,ld der EFliJsung '" der Legende "nd im Kult
der fruh ... kOpli$chen Kirche, p_ 103. Mun.ter,
1972-
Coquin, R.-C. "Le Synaxaire des Coptes. Un Nou-
veau temoin de la recension de Haute·Eg)pte."
Analecr" Bolla"dla~a 96 (1978):351-65.
Rossi, F. I Paplri COpl' del Museo Egizio di Ton'Flo. 2
vols. Tunn, 1887-1892.
Trw ORLINm
HERAISCUS, an Alexandrian Neoplatonic philos-
opher of the late fifth cenlu!), and a pagan priest.
He came from an Egyplian family that owned an
ancest,."l estate at Phenebythis in the nome Panop-
olis. Three primary sources mention him: Oamas-
cius' Life of Isidore. composed in the early sixth
centu!)'. olfers fragmentary infonnatioll about Her·
aiseus' role as a pagan religious figure; the Syriac
Life of Severos, written by Zachariah of Mit}'lene,
numbers him as one of six NeoplalonistS connected
with an outbreak of religious violence near Alexan'
dria in 485: a papyrus letter composed in Greek by
Flavius 1l0lUlPOllON and found at Kom lshqll.w has
been lranslated and studied by J. Maspero (1914).
who demonstrated thaI Herai..,us. although not
named in the leller, was both the uncle and the
1222 HERESY
blhn-in·law of HOI3pollon and the bl'OlheT of
AStU'.PlAOES. lwo liomous profesM>l"S .. lhe Alexan-
drian Muwon.
What Inleresled Dan.....c.... abou. HeraiiCllS was.
that he. &lonk ""ith his older brolhe.- Asclepiades.
was usinS native J't'1;p:.us conctpl$ 10 addJ't'IlI phil-
060pbk:al issI.Ies. In his. commentary (),., Fim Pmoci-
plu (ed. Ruelle, chap. 1l5), Damasclus cbimed
lhat !hey ""."xl uuths hiddnl in EcYJxian myths,
_h as the tradition that Unknown DaItne:sa ....
!he bqinnins of all creation_ In an exe~ka1traa
eompoced by Heniscus and Krl' to J>roc..... head
of the Athenilut philosophical school. lhe brolhets'
........ well' round 10 diW!rse conceminSlhe ....\uJ't'
of the inielligible cO$Dl()$. n.e conOkl of opinion
pl'Ompled Damasc:ius 10 remark .hal ~n E,yptians
mspuled ov.... concepts and 10 acknowledce a .Ii,.
linelion betw«n Coptic and Greek philosophers.
A few fn,sments From the life of bJdore allude to
HeralllCus' prieslly actiyity. He spent much of his
time In lemples tending to the paternal cult in
£cpt and elsewhere, By .imple observation, while
approaching a sac..w image. he W"li pJd to Mnse
whether It was diyinely animated. for he would eJl·
perience a leaping senption in his 50ul as If pos.
sessed by a god. At Heraiscu..· death. his br'Olher
Aiclepiades lended In the funeral rit"" and pre·
pared to hand """,r In the prinu the CUSlOmary
fianerar)' objects. which includcd the bandages of
Osiris in "'hich the body was 10 be wrapped, II Is
nOlewonhy lhat HeraiKus' rclic:ious bchaviOO' COn·
forms 10 the principles of Iheu.., • explained by
the Iounh-eenlury Syrian NeopWonist lamblich..
in his It'arl On I1te Etfl>til.n A4yslvic.J.
-'5......., R. "'Zur Rdmnsuuklion ''OD Ihmasciw:
Lebctt des lsidoros." Br""nw.iscM Ze;tsclori/t 18
(1909):424-80; 19 (19101:U;S-84.
_--; D<u Leben du4!l'iIAA>pJr.tn I~ _ 0...
"'aslios """ D.mrad4S. lLipzig. 1911.
Boyance, P. "rheurgk et leleKiq~ neo-plalOni-
deones." Revue de ."Iristoire ia reli,;QIU 147
(195S): 189-109.
Cllmnnt. r. "I.e Culte otgypiien el Ie ml'"'ticisme de
Plotl"." MOtlllme"" eI menwiru pub/lis p'" I'A·
cQdimlt des 1"x-";pl;Q'<$ tt lullts-Ielt,ts 24
(1921>'77-92.
Eitrem. S, "Die <ri.rtrnn~ und der lkht<taub"r in
der Magic." SymbolQ£ Osloe"se. 8 (1929):49-53.
_ _• "1..:1 TMurgie che>: le~ n~o·plalonlclenJ et
danf les papyrus magiqucs." Symbo/Qt Osloensls
22 (1942):42-79.
kaqi. W. "The Fifth Ceniliry Twili&l" of Byzanline
Paganism." Cumi.... el Med'''e»<Ili" Z1 (1966):241-
".
Mlts:pcro. J. "HorapoUon CI b fin du paganismc
~" Bulletin Ik I'InJliJ..1 Inn,,,is d'Qr-
ch~ "';enl.le 2 (1914):16J-95.
Remondon. R. "L'£cple CI 18 suprtn>c ~
au chrislianismc (V'-vlr sOkles)." B..llni-rt de
rJulitul ,....... is 4'~ ariD""le 51
(1952):63-78.
Zlntzen, C. ~MJSlik unci Ma:gic ill der neupIaIoni-
schell l'triIo$opMe." Rh<'iniscMs """5£.....
108
(196.5):71-100.
HERESY. lnns!iter:aI!On of 1M Grttk },,,iresis.
wltM:h denoted <:itMr a SCI of principles or lbo.se
who adhered 10 such principles as a secl "r schooL
"""""ially among Chrislians and Jews.. the term
Clme to refer to thoM holdln, false doctrines or
teachinJ$. obviously sO clesi,nated by Ihose who
professed to have the lroe doctrines and 10 belong
10 Ihe correcl pany or SCCI (Ulmpe, 1961. p. 51).
Early Egyptian ChriSlianity is no! chamclelized by
an easily identified orpnl<tation or a SCI body of
beliefs. and IIQme scholan have argued lhat all
ChrisIianily in Emt prior 10 Ihe episcopacy of DE-
MEnlIlS. bishop of AH:undlill In 189-231, was he·
retical. FOO' Ihem, Dtmelrius is lhe "second founder
of Christilutity." who brouJ't1 lhe onhodo!l version
of Ihe failh 10 EcYPt. Many CItristiano in the Nile
Valley, bolh conl~pora", will> Demetrius and sub-
sequent 10 thai time. 8f'I'I'Cd that the ne-.iyan"'Cd
CathoIk faith ,"'U i~1f Mretkal. and chaq;n and
countercbargcs of heresy continued for centuries.
E....n beiore the time of Deolnftr'ius, there "<ere
some who l.ye become known as Mll'6cs and
founders of herecical n'lQYCnlents.- So>clt designa·
tions are mcanin&ful primarily for rltose wlto Wf:rf:
per«i~ as having establithed belie& or practices
not accqlWsle to olhers da:mlng IC>1Idersbip in the
Christian chlln:hc'I'. While most so-called heretics of
carly f.cyplian Christianily are a1so included under
Ihe generic lenn "enOSlic:' there is Iilde juslifit:a·
tion for considerinllhem to be anything olher lhan
diotinci and dispante ~uba:roups within the larger
Christian community. Some of the more famous
early heretic.. associated with Chrisllan Egypt were
Basilidcs, CARI'OC"'TES, CERIN1ll1JS, and VALENTINUS.
Herelical groups with no specifically Idenlified
founder included the Ophltes and the Sethians.
among other'i.

BIBUOGRAPUl'
Grigg$, C. W. Early Egyptian Christiani/)'. Brill,
1989.
Lampe, G, W. H, A Patristic Gruk Laico". Oxford,
19M.
Schlier, H...A.'ptojlD..... In Th~o;,'gicai Dictionary of
Ihe New TeS/arnent, ed. G, Kine!, Vo1. I, pp, 180-
85. Grand Rapids, Mich. 1964.
C. WilfRED GRIGGS
HERMAS, ..,cond-century Roman author of The
Sh~pherd, an apo<:alyptic work that is a call to re-
pentance. He is included unong the apostolic fa·
thers.
The Greek original has not come down compl~te.
Alongside rdatively small papyrus fmgmenlS, men_
tion should be made of the CODEx SINAITIC1J$, an
Athas Codex, and a papyrus at the University of
Michigan (there is a su"'CY of the mmsmission of
the Greek text and of the translations in the edi-
tions of M. WhitLaker, 1956, pp. h-xxvi, and R.
Joly, 1968, pp. 58-68). There are Iwo complete ull-
in translations and one complete Ethiopic transla·
tion, portion, in Coptic. and remnants in Middle
Pe",ian. The Coptic fmgrnents were collected or
first published by L-T. Lefon (1952).
In addition, there is the Paris folio (National U·
brary, Paris, Copte 130.2 ["Schenoudi 2"], fa1. 114),
recently discovered by E. Lucchesi. In panicular,
there are eight folios of a papyrus codex in
Akhmimic and the remnants of two parchment man·
uscripts in Sahidic, which 1.<:fon calls, respectively,
A and B. B consists of just a single folio (Louvain,
no. 26, burned in the library fir~ of 1940). The new
Paris folio belongs to codex A, so thai we now have
founeen folios of this manuscript of the "Shepherd
of Hermas" (Lucchesi, WI. pp. 400-404). The
Akhmimic lext may have teen pan of a biblical
manuscript. Probably the: Akhmimic "Shepherd"
and that of the Sahidic codex A did not include
~isions 1 to 4 but only began at vision 5 as an
introduction to the manda/a and the similitudines,
This can be regarded as a suppan for the hypothe-
sis that visions I to 4 and vision 5 to similitude 8
came into existence independently of each other,
Similitudes 9 and 10 may have been added ""hen
Ihe two books ""ere joined. Both books and the
linking of them very likely go back to the same
author (Vielhauer, 1975, pp. 516f.).
HERMES TRISMEGISTUS 1223
BIBUOGRAPUl'
Ahaner, 6., and A. Stuiber. Patrol/ogie, 8th ed., pp.
55-58. Freiburg, Basel. and Vienna, 1978.
Joly, R. Hermas. Le Pas/our, 2nd cd. Sources chre-
tiennes 53, Paris, 1968.
lefort, L·T. L,e, Pores aposlOliquu en Copu. CSCQ
135, 136, Scriplor~ Cop/ici 17, 18. Louvain, 1952.
Lucchesi, E. "Complements aux peres aposlOliques
....
en Copte." Anaiec/a BoUandia"a 99 (1981):395-
Nautin, P. Dizionario pa/Tis/icc • di amichila cris-
liane I (1983);1197f.
Quasten, J. Pa/rorogy, Vol. L pp. 92-105, Utre<:ht
and Brussels, 1950.
Vielhauer, P. Ge,ehi<:hte der urchri$Ilicho" Li/·
eralu., pp. 513-23. Berlin and Nev.' York, 1975,
Whittaker, M. Dor Hir/ des normas. Griechischen
christlichen Schriftstctler der ersten Jahr-
hunclerte: Die apostolischen Vater 1. Berlin, 1956.
THEOFRIED BAUMEtSTER
HERMES TRISMEGISTUS ("Thrice·greatest
Hermes"). This name is a Greek adaptation of an
Egyptian title, Thoth the Very Great the Egyptian
god-name l1Joth being translated from at least the
time of Herodotus to the Greek Hermes. The litera-
ture associated with Hermes Trismegi.tus is kno""n
as the Corpus Herrneticum and compri..,s some
se~enteen writings of diverse origin ;md authorship.
There are also a dlscour= of Hermes 10 Asclepius,
Hermetic ""ritings in the anthology of Stobaeus,
and miscellaneous fragments. This literature is gen-
erally thought 10 have originated in Egypt betwecn
the second Century B.C. and the third century A.D.
Schola", have attempted 10 .how connections wilh
Egyptian religion, Hellenistic my3lery religions,
gnosticism, Christianity, and e~en Iranian and Far
Eastern religions. There is no consensus regarding
such relationships, although most agr"C1' that there
was some type of Hermetic community and cultic
activity associated with the litemlUra, lbe theology
of the Corpus Hermeticum is diverse and not easily
subjected to systematic analysis.
The first tractate, "Poimandres," is ;m apocalyp-
tic theogony, including the creation of the world
and a Gnostic account of salvation, Most of the
following traclates are discourses or dialogues with
two disciples, Asclepius and Tat, conceming meta-
physiC$, ethics, salvation, and related themes. Trac-
tate 13 is a dialogue on rebirth, and some have SUn
Christian influences in that panicular writing. The
 1224 HERMIT
last trac!at~ is an ~ssa'r'
on music and musicians,
~mphasiling th~ir rol~ in praising God.
The Latin Asclepius I~Xl contains a hook of Hu-
mes TrismegiSlus given to ""depius. Tat. and Am·
mono Th~ .setting is a sanctuary in which the four
men w~re inspir~d and H~nnes discouTS~d on vari·
ous theological mailers, including creation. the cos·
mos. man. salvation, and immortality.
The Hermetic excerpts in the antholo8)' of SlOb-
aeus like""ise contain dialogues between Hermes
and Tat and between Hermes and Ammon on the
subjects not~d abo,'~, together with miscellaneous
teachings of Hermes. There are lengthy passages
rece>rded by Hennes as discourses of Isis to Horus,
and they are casl into apocalyptic dialogues relating
te> heavenly cl>lmcils, creation, reincarnation, and
the salvation of the souls of men.
Throughout the Corpus Hermetkum. elements of
the pre·Socratics, Plato, and ArislOtle mingle with
Gnostic. Jewish, and Christian ide... prevalent at
the time of Ihe composition of the tractates. No
undisputed connection exists between the Hermetic
literature and Egyptian Christianity during its first
three centuries. bul Egyptian Christian leadeTS
quoted widely from th~se documents from the
fout1h century onward.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Grese. w, C. Corpus Hermuicum Xlii and Early
Christian LiMMlur~. Leiden. 1979,
Me.d, G. R. S. rhriu-Greatest Hermes: Studies in
Hellenistic rheowphy and Gno,,·s. Being a Trans·
lation of the btanl Sermons and FragmenlS of the
Trismegistic Ulera/ure, with Prolegomma, Com·
men/an'es, and Notes, 3 ,'ols. London, 1949.
Nock, A. D., and Feslugiere, A,·J. Corpus Hermet;·
cum, 4 vols. Paris, 1954-1960.
Reitzenstein, R. Poimandres. Studien Iur griechi-
sch·;;gyptischen und £liihchristlichen LiteralUr,
Leipzig. 1'l(I4, .
ScO{{, W., ed. and'krans, The Ancie"t Greet and
Latin Writillgs Wliich Coma;" Relig'I>us or Pltil".
sopltic reachillgs Ascribed t,l> Hermes Trismegisws,
4 vols. Repr. BosT,i>n, 19S5.
C. WJlI'!<E[) GRIGGS
HERMIT. Su AnchOrite.
HERMITAGE, tlte lodging or dwt'lling house of a
hennit, "one li~ing in the desert," or anchorite,
"one living far removed." They were probably at
first only single-roomed Ituts !hat wt're built, ac·
cording 10 geographic;>l circumstances, of 'lOne,
wood, or bricks; but at an early time they had al·
ready developed into houses with se>'eral rooms.
Early descriptions are those of Pallad;u.~ (HislOria
Lauslac" 8. hennitage of Amun; IS, of Macarius of
Ale""ndria; 35, of John of Lycopolis), and the His-
roria monacltornm (20.\1. hermitage of Ammonius),
Many anchorites settled in tombs (Hisroria Lausiaca
5, 45.49) Or caves in abandoned quarries. In the
neighborhood of bna, fut1hennore, some monks
dug subterranean ca~es for themselves, If several
h~rmitages became linked together in a loose asso-
ciation, with due regard for more Or less interven_
ing space between them. we speak of a lau",. fa·
mous lauras a", those of SCETI' (today Wadi al·
Naltiin), NITRJA, KUllA. and ENATON. Other lauras
hav~ been identified at ABU MINA. in KO'y NAMRU[).
and on Sinai. in the neighborhood of Saint Cather-
ine's monastery (see M[)UNT SlNAt Mo""-STERY [)F SAJNT
CATHeRJ!'E).
The oldest hennitages so far, belonging to the
}",ginning of the fifth century, we", excavated in
the KeTlia. These are brid buildings half sunk in
the ground and containing "'>"'ntl small rooms, but
they do not yet allow us 10 recognize any definite
system in tlte arrangement of the individual rooms.
Only in the course of the sixtlt century does a cer·
tain regularity in the form of the ground plan hegin
to pre>"il. The buildings developed into large ",c·
!angular courtyards witlt Ii>'ing quat1ers usually ac·
commodated in the nortltwest comer. These quar·
ters were in eacb case intended for two bermits. an
old father and hi, disciple, and contained a sleeping
room with cupboard rooms for each, as well as a
common devotional room for both, or oraIDrium.
Tltis oralory was equipped witlt a benclt in front of
the west wall and a prayer niche ,et into th~ east
""all. To the east in front of this group of rooms, on
a somewhat wider basis. there was a kitchen with a
slOreroom and also a visiting room. Finally, there
are in the courtyard a small garden, a washing
place. and a toilet. With increased necd for space
owing to the arrival of more monks, or even juS!
occasional visitoTS, fut1lter rooms were added,
Some of these hermitages grew into stately build·
ings, several of which e~en possessed churches of
their own.
Vel)' similar comple~es, although divergem in
their detailed arrangemem, ltave been e~cavated in
Kom Namnld (not1hwest of Sam..ltlt), The main
building in each case consist< of a wide room fur·
nished with niches, 10 which are attached two
smaller rooms as well as a staircase on the east
 HERPAESE AND JUUANUS, SAINTS
sI,k uuer a courtyanl was added on the south side.
whh ~raJ sinlle room!! an;mged on the aide Iy-
;nl oppo$ile.
n.c hermilagc:o of Seclis may have had a differenl
aJlpcararlCC. bu! these have not so fou- been invnti-
pled. from the rubbish heaps Uw can he 1oeCC\.
they WffC built of quarried stone instead 01 bricks.
and had flat root. of wood.
Sub&u.ntially "."plu an: the bcnnita,aes that have
beftI i6mlificd in the lauD ill the call of AbQ Mlfll.
ThC)' h;oyc fWO ronna, of "'hich the Ia,..er m:.nl
room se...-cd as a noccption room and workroom.
..nile lhe smaller back room " . for &Jeepinl and
for prayer. In 5CYenol cases the laner room was
di.ide<l yet lIpin. in unler 10 mau space for a
SIairc~ for an u!'P"r SlOT)'.
BIBUOGRAI'HY
Daumas, F.• and A. Guillaumom. 1I.1Ii" I 110m 219.
foullles de l'lnslitul fra~i. d·An:hW.... i. ori.n-
tal. 28. Cairo, 1969.
Crossmann. P. "Die Siedlung im Kornrlng A,",4r-
c~iJololisc~u A~ZO'iglr (1967):463 -73,
Kasser. R, s~......,y drC~;otogique du lIelli". R"pport
d. I" c"mp"V'. 198/, Vol•. t. 2. leuvcn. 1983.
Sauncron. S.. a~d J. Jaqud. Los .""U"I!U c~rbi.J1S
du dtse,1 d'Es"". 2 Y01$. Caim. 1972.
t'ETU~'oIfoI
HERMITAGES, mEBAN. Many Christian
sila on the Icft bank of the Nil. ~icc Lw<or
cannot he de6nitely label.ed ccnuine _erics.
a1ihoou&tl \he local inhabitants UK the name uyr
(rr>onastery). ...."hac ".., know of these hcnaitalles
"'- In the Valley of the Kinp. wv..... ulebralC'd
wmbs p ~ veWl"S of their ottI.IJ>"lion by hef'
milS. We may cite the tOmbs of ~ IV, lhat
clcstined for Ramsa III. ~ also thai of Ramscs Vl.
They an: $Ummarily de.en~ b,I O. McinardllS (hi
cd.. 1%5. p. 315; 2nd «1... 1m. p. 429).
SeYeraI tolO\b$ s,;1..... ed it SHAY~ ·...an .u.QI..IRltA1l
.. ill puse....., trues of Christian occupllilon, 11Ie
tombs were ~lIed up, and .,,,-era!.
Creek ()<' Coptic
iRKriplions bearing witness 10 their last Q<;<;up.anu
are nOled by A. Badawy (1953. pp. 69-89) and U.
Monneret de Villard (Baedeker. 1929. 1974, p, (87).
The hennilallcs 10 the nonb of MAlllNAT HA1l0 and
as far as beyond Ihe Valley of the Kings. which arc
of Ihe ",enlh or eighlh century. are b~Ry de.
scribed by H. E. Winlock and w. E. Crum (1926.
1225
Vol. I. pp. 16-I4), J. E, Oulhell (1906. pp. 8-10).
and R. Monel and W. 8. Em<!ry (1929. pp. 49-74).
To me west oJ. the DAn IU.-$HAL.... IT (in Ihc hill
c.allcd ai-Kulak aJ.':lamrfi) a hcrmimce ..... been ",",-
ca....... (DorCS5C. 1949. pp. 327-49. esj). p. 343).
BIBUOCRA'HY
Bado....y. A. "Us premicn etabl:isscmcnl.S chritiens
dans les anciennes lombes d·£cypIe.- In Tom.
COfI1nKm.."ti( d.. minb!l/;re de '" Itihlw!hequ. Pf'-
,nan.,]. ,NJeuuodrie. I'll. 69-89. Alaandria.
1953.
Baedeker. K.. &cdder" £rypI. 1929. Repr. N~"tOn
Abbol. 1974.
Doruse. J. "MollSl!ltke$ copies aUl" enYimrn; d'AT-
manl en Th<!:baide." A""lcr'" 8oJk",dilw." 67
(1949):327-49.
MdnardU$. O. Christi"n EIYpt.' A"c;e'" ""d M.oden!.
ISl cd. Caim, 1965; 2nd. cd.. 1977.
Mond, R_. and W. B. Emery. ''The Burial Shaft of
the Tomb or Amcnemhat." An".ls of Arc~.eolog)'
"lid Anthropology 16 (1929):49-74,
Quibelt J. E. "Repon on Work Done in Upper
Egyp! During the Winter of 1904-5." Ann.les du
Service drs A"liq"il;s d. l'Egyplc 7 (1906),8-10.
Winlock. H. E.. and W. E. Croon. Tile MO~"Sle'Y of
Epiph,,~jUJ ", n..brs. 2 "0111. New York. 1926.
RftoIt-CWIla.s COOulN
M.>uaiCE MARTIS. SJ_
HERMONTHIS_ S •• Annanl.
HERMOPOLIS MAGNA. Se. A$hmolllllyt1. a1-.
HERMOPOUS PARVA. Sec Daminhllr.
HERPAESE AND JUUANUS, SAINTS,
<wo ~ of founh-cenlul')' EfD-".. T...'O Sahidic
fragments (Berliner P"nTUs..",mh."c. 1"22122; cd.
Satzingcr. 1967~ 1968. n. J24) an allthal remain of
a Pas<iD of m., mart.J""S He~M: and Julian....... who
are named nowhere clM: in Coptic ,rsdilion and
who are """ even included in the Copl:o-Ambic SY~­
.uARJOS.
".., lexl is clearly p"" of lhc Cycl. of ARIASUS,
perhaps from the fifth Qr sixth c~nlllry. bUI m,,"
belong to a minor. local tradition Ihat was not in-
dueled in laler works. The SI)'le b that typical of
kopnscher Kons."s, the recurrinl Ihe."e of "inde·
<Irt1clibl~ 1if~" (... HAGrOGIUI"HY).
 1226 HESYCHIAN BIBLE
The pfael'\'ed p"n of lhe IU' be&ins ...,j,h CAUIEL
inte ...·enill& be'...-een me 1Ral1yr$ and an unknown
opponenL He WeT Tea5SeJnblao lhe IQlle~ limbs
01 JulianO1$; !hen the ,....0 martyn ani! brouchl to the
perlect Arianu~ and pbced in a boillll& cauldron.
Jesus himodf ;oppealS and Y''el lhem• • nd Ihcn
do:li~ • 10"1': speech. 1l>e I...... ....n)'n are
bf'OUlhl bKk to ArW!l&
Soumetstft", T. Mat1}T Invictu •. rH, MIJ"yur .w
SI"othild do ErlOsune'" Je. U~"U und .... Kult
de' friilwn kDplisclten J(lrc!u. Mli"'I.... 1972-
SUzinae•. H. J(opliot:h, Ud;und",. vol. 3. A,yp.
Ilsche Urkunden _ d,n s.....llicMn MlIWflL
Berlin. 1961-1963.
TlTo OR1.N<DI
HESYCHIAN BIBLE, the lUI of the Sepmagint
revised by He.ychillS, Egyptian bishop of an un.!"'·
~ified diocese in the third cenlury. He was a nalive
of Aleundria. often ....rongl)' IMntified .... ilh hi,
namesake 1M luicollraph.., of Ihe s.econd cemul)'.
wbo was a pagan. H(5)'Chius Ihe bisl>op is crediled
wilh the revision no( 0«1)' of lhe Stpluat:inl bu' aloo
of the N~ Tes,tame:nt or al Ie_ ,he four Gospels
In cin:ulation in EcYJ>t- This rettnslon Is memlonoed
by Jerome as the work of Hesy<:hiUl with lhe col·
bbomioo of Wcian of Antioch. Accordina 10 Ell·
sebius. H«Y"hius ........ manyred untler 1lOOCI.eT1A.'l
..ilh Ihrff ~onlemporaries: Pachomius. Phileas. and
Theoclonu.. The four rnanp"S had ..rillen • M:tlft"
dated l.D. 296. now a\'3ilable in a LMin -.t:rsion. '0
the ~h;sma1ic Irotdilius, Bishop of Lycopolis ;n Up-
....
per EaYPt. reprimanding him ft,. irnJlllar ordiNl-
,
CritkisntS h,,,,,,. been made oIlhe Hesy<hian lal
for undue additions" me Gospeb thai render them
....,..e apocl)'phal Ihan Innhful.
BIBUOG......PHY
Kenyon, f. A. "H""ychi"" and lhe Te~1 of Ii.. N~
Tesqm,nl:' In Clnquonlenol,e d. l'Ecol. blbUque
.1 ~rchtoJotique fr~"I;~ise de Urus~IUtl (15 """
ve",bre 1890-15 "ov,,,,bre 194Q), Mt",o,lol Lo·
,ra"te,
Paris. 1940.
Venables. E. "'Hesychius (3)," In DCB, Vol. 3. pp_
7-8,
Allz S, I\"H
HESYCHIt/S, a bWlop in !.ole Ihird-- and early
founh~lury Eel'! and a bibliall scholar_ n.e
Dame "He5}'Ch,U1S:' bmilia. in bte anliquity. :ap-
pears lwenly-seven I,mes in W. Smith·, and H.
W:ac,'s Dic6<>""'7 of CIIrislUf" Biot;rllpJr,. One n:k:r-
eD~e st:ales lhM fi.-e bishops 01 WI naJne attended
Ihe Council oIlilCAEA in 3ll. The JDOOt falll<>m is
Ihe Hesydlius .....ho _ bishop 01 an unknO'WTl
Ec'J'lian diocese probably duri.,. the patriarchate
of I"ETU ~ He il known In biblical studi<:s .. an
aegete .... ho re\;sN ,he le:\1 of the Se~nl on
..... Itas.Is 01 the Hdnw ori,inal and complied Ihe
Gospel<. His rec:.. nsion was ...itIely used in tJ>e chun:h·
es of £cyp. and AIe.andria instead of the lexl of
OJJGEN, but ;1 was se'<erely criticized in Ihe West.
Jerome speaks 01 ime'l'Olalions :and bbe :addilions
10 the Hesychian rettns>on of Ihe Bibl,. The
Dec,et"", GeldS....n..'" (c. .... D_ 500, described Ihe
"'"OTk of H""ychi", as "'apoc')l'hal."' Modem eri,i·
cisrn 01 'he laoors of H",,)'~hius, however, appears
10 be le>5 severe.
As a ehur~hman, "esy~hlus pankipaled in 'he
condemnalion of Ihe MHUTlAr< SCHISM, Aboul 296
he. Phil.,., Theo<\orul. and h~homiu. wrole " leI'
ler addressed 10 MELITIUS. schism.,i( bishop of Ly.
~opolis. repudi,,"na hi. errors and his irregular or.
dina/;ons outside hi. diocese. Ua,er Eu....'us
(His.rorio eccluloSllc" 8.13) lUies thai Hesychitls
:and his Ihree cOl"llP<'roions ...-ere ....rtyred at Alexan·
dri2 duringlhe pene<:UllonJ by- D1OCL£nA.'<.
BJBUOGIUPHY
A11aJ>er. B. P"tro/OC. lrans.. H. C. CI'Hf. pp. 240-41.
Freihurg, Germany. 1960.
Bardenhe.....,r. O. ""In>/orie, 2nd ed.• pp. 212-1".
Freibu!'i. Gn'many. 1901.
Keo)'Od. F. A. Ht~-''''s a..J lire Text 0; me New
Tut.....nl. Paris. 19-tO.
-,,-: Our Bibl. ""d ,-'t .4""':'''1 MSS, rn. ed. A.
W. Adams. New York, 1958.
Qu:asl:en, J. Pa!rOloD. Vol. 2, p. I Ill. lh.-echl, Brus·
scls. and Wesuninslu. Md .. 1950.
Vogels. H. J. Ho"dbuc/' ur ne"Ie<IDme"IJi<:h,,,
TUlhitik. Munsl". Germany, 1923.
West<:OIl. B, F,. and F. I. Hon. TIre New T,$,Qmntl
In 1M Oni/nol C"d, Cambri• . 18111.
Azu S_ AT'VA
HESYCHIUS OF ALEXANDRIA, Alexandri.
an Gruk I(xicographer probably of the fotlnh or
fifth cenltll)'_ Little Is known aboul ~is backllround.

He is sometimes described in later rources as a
pagan. To the world of scholan;hip, he is known
solely through his monumental Creek dictionary, in
which he dealt with the varied Greek dialects and
incorporated a vocabulary ¢f patristic letlers, nota'
bly that of Saint CYRIL t, patriarch of Alexandria,
However, his work is based on the second-century
Greek dictionary of Diogenianus ¢f Heraelca as well
as the work of a number of other Greek lexicogra·
phers. His compilation has sUIVi,'ed in a mutilated
fifteenth-eentury manuscript preserved at Venice
(National Marean library, no. 622) and edited by J.
Alberti in the eighteenth century and M. Schmidt in
the nineteenth century.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Ptl.uly'; Rea!.Encyc!opiidie der claS1;;chen Allum..,;-
w;>senscho!l, ed. G, Wissowa, Vol. 16, cols. 1317-
1322. Stuugart, 1913.
..utZ S. ATIYA
HEUSER, GUSTAV (1892-1937). German Cop·
101ogist. After studying thelllogy at Heidelberg, he
published two important Coptic studies, Die Person·
"'namen du Kopr"n (1929) and Pro,oPo8raphie von
AID'pI"n (1938).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Dawson, W, R" and E. P. Uphill. Who Wa, Who in
E/:)'pto!ogy, p. 141. London, 1972,
Kammerer, W., compo A Coplic Bibliography. Ann
Arbor, Mich., 19~; repro New York, 1969.
Alil 5, AnYA
HEXAPLA AND TETRAPLA, two editions of
the Old Testament by ORlGEN. The Bible was the
center of Origen's religi0J\.r.and nQ church father
lived more in it tl>an he did: The foundation, how·
ever, of all study of the Bibl~ was the establishment
of an accurate lext. Fairly early in 'his career (c.
nO) Origen was confmmed' with tM fact that Jews
disputed whether some Christian proof texts were
to be found in scripture, while Christians accused
the Jews of removing embarrassing lexlS from
."ripIUre.
It was not, however, until his long exile in C~esa­
rea (232-254) that Origen had the opponunity to
undenake his major work of textual criticism, EllS-
Ea,uS (Hi,rori~ ecclesiaslica 6, 16) tell, us that "he
HEXAPLA AND TETRAPLA 1227
even made a thorough study of the Hebrew lan-
guage," an exaggeration; but with the help of a
Jewish teacher he learned enough Hebrew to be
able to compare the various Jewish and Jewish·
Chri.tian "er,;ions of the Old Testament that were
eXiant in the third century. Jerome (De vin, iIIus/ri-
bus 54) adds that knowledge of Hebrew was "con-
trary to 'he spirit of his period and his race:' an
interesting sidelight on how Greeks and Jews re-
maine<l in their separate communities even though
they might live in the same towns in the Greco-
Roman East.
Origen staMed with the Septuagint, and Ihen, ac-
cording to Eusebius (6, 16), turned first to "the
original writings in the actual Hebrew characters"
and then to 'he versions of the Je...'S Aquila and
Thendotion and the Jewish-Christian Symmachus.
There is a problem, howe,'er, about Ihe next
stage in Orige,,'s critical ...on, Euscbius mentions
two separate e<litions: the Tctrapla ("Fourfold"), in
which Origen set out in parallel columns four ver-
sions of scripture-the Septuaglnt with the versions
of Aquila, Theodotion, and Symmachus-and the
Hexapla ("Sixfold"), which included a Greek trans-
literation of the Hebrew and a fifth translation thai
Eu,ebius does not identify, To these were added,
for the Psalms, a sixth and seventh tra"slation, one
of whicl> Origen identified while at Nicopolis in
Epiru, and the other from a jar discoyered near
Jericho during the reign of Caracalla (211-217)-
an early anticipation of the Dead Sea Scrolls!
Epiphaniu. (Pa"ari"" 64. 3) indicates that aoout
370 the Heupla included a column in Hebrew
alongside the GrCt'k transliteration. The most re·
Unt critic. P. Nautin, has argued, however, that the
term "Hexapla" referred to six transla.ions or ver-
sions: the Sep.uagint, the versions of the three
named authors (Theodolion, Aquila, and Symma·
chus), and the "fifth" and ".ixth" unnamed, added
later (l977, chap. 9).
Wl>ateyer tl>e precise arrange~nt of the col·
umns of text, the objective was clear. Origen had
found that the Septuagint was outdated, superseded
by the Greek versions of Aquila and Thcodotion by
the end of the socond century, and now by that of
his contentporary S)'mmachu•. He was determined
to rectify this situation for the benefit of the church.
He explains about 247 in his Commentary on Mat-
thew (15. 14):
By the grace of God, we have sought to remedy
the divergences which are 10 be found in copies
of the Old Testament, by using other editions a, a
1228 HIBAT·ALLAH 'ABn·ALLAH IBN SA'ln AL·DAWLAH AL.QIBTl
means of control. In places where there has been
a lack of certainty in the copies of LXX because
of differences in the text of lhese copies, we have
used other editions [of the Greek Old Testament]
in harmonizing the LXX with th~. We have
marked with an Obelus (+) passages which are
not to be found in lhe Hebrew. nol daring to
ouppress these completely. Elsewhere, we have
added an asterisk, so that it is made dear whert
we have added passago; which are not to be
found in Ihe LXX in agre<:m"nt with the Hebrew
t"xt. in taking these passages from other versions.
Origen thus applied lhe critical methods of his
time 10 establish an updated version nf the Sepllla·
gint, which was the texi aUlhorized by the church.
It was a bold step, and it is interesting that Origen
never attempted 10 treal the New Testament in the
same way.
Though the Tetrapla and He~apla were huge and
unwieldy productions, copies were retained in lhe
library at C""sarea, where Jerome used them f{lr
hi. commentaries on the Psalms. Not surpri.ingly,
only fragments have survi"ed. Ihe most imponam
being derived from a Syriac lrnoslation of the Sep-
llIagint text by Paul. Monophysite hishop {If Tella in
Mesopotamia, aboUl 616,
BIBLIOGRIloPHY
Danielou. J. O'ige"e, PI'. 139-144, Paris. 1948.
Field, F. Origenis H,,"",plorum qu~e supersuni. 2
vols. london, 1867-1875.
Nautin. P. O,igene, St. vi~ ~r SO" oeuvre. chap, 9.
Paris, 1977.
Taylor, C. "H"",apla.'" In Diclion~ry of Chri5li~n Hi·
OgT~P;'Y, ed. W. Smith and H. Wace. Vol. 3. pp.
14-23. Repr. New York, 1974.
W. H, C. FllEND
HIBAT-ALUH 'AQP·ALUH IBN SA'ID
AL-DAWLAH AL.qIBTI, fourteenth·century
Copt whQ converted to; Islam. The sources do not
give us any etear details aOOut his acceptanCe of
Islam. His career in gov"rnment tooK him frQm lhe
post of n~.a, a/·dawdwIn (sec"'tary of /inance) at
the end {If the reign of Sultan al-N~ir Muhummad
ibn Qalliwiin to that of n~",' al-d~wl~;, (secretary of
slate). He then filled th'e office of n~"'T ~1·kh<lf5
(secretary of war) after the dismissal of Jamal al·
Kufah. another CoPl tumed Muslim, On the di.mi..
sal of Ibn Zunbur, likewise a Copt wOO had em-
brnced Islam, he occupi"d th. poSt of .';"ier togclh-
er with N:t~ir ai-Din ibn al·Mul).assini, who bore the
title mush" (coundllor),
He was a noted Arabic calligraph"r. In pri"at"
life, he took care of the poor and needy. The sourc-
es indicat" that he distinguished himself for his in·
COTnlptibility and high moral standards, He married
a concubine of Sultan al·saW.' IsmA'II, a black wom-
an called Ittifaq. Hi. friends told of his great lo.'e
for this woman. He died in April or May 1354.
BIBUOGRAPHY
Ch.ikho. L us vhi" el ",crlil~ires araMs c;,rbiens
e" Is/am 622-1517. ed, C. Hecha'irne. AI·Tumth
al.'Arnbi al·Mas'!:'; Ii. Rome. 1987. Text in Ara-
bic. Title pages in Arabic and Frtnch. Introduc·
tion in Arnbk and French.
Ibn J:lajar al.'AsqalanI. AI·Du,a, a/·K<lmina;' Ii A'ydn
al·Ma'~h a/·Th<lminah. 6 .'ols. Hydernbad. 1972-
1976.
SUBm y, UBIB
HIBAT ALLAH IBN 'ASSAL, AL·. See AwlAd
al·<Assa.1.
HICKMANN, HANS. SU Music, Coptic: Musi·
cologists.
HIERACAS OF LEONTOPOLIS, third-
cem,,!)' here.iarch. Hieracas and his leaching,; are
chieily known from lhe nOlice devoled to the
"Hiemcites" by Epiphanius of Salamis In his Pano,·
ion (PC 42. chap. 67). Il is veT)' doublful thai
Epiphanius ever met Hiernc... himself, as report"d
by Ihe Ufe of Epiphanius (PC 41, col. 57), the
aUlhenlidty of which is debatable, but he probably
knew some of his disdples, and his informali,," i.
drawn from g<:><>d sources. In addition we have
available two document. in Coptic: a "Letter to
VirgIn." of SainI ~TH~NASIUS publishe<l by L T, Le-
fort, who considered the Coplic te~l to be aulhentic
(1929. PI'. 197-264). and the report of a discussi<>n
belween MACARIUS THE EGYPTI~N and a disciple of
HiernCa5, published by M. Chaine (1925-1926. pp.
232-75).
The dales {If his life aN: imp<>ssible to delermine
with predsion, but he must have lived in the last
third of Ihe third century and the firsl half of the
fourth. According to Epiphanius. h~ resided at L.e.
onl<Jp<>lis, and died at the age of ninety; he was well

instructed in the knowledge of the Greeks and the
Egyptians, and particularly versed in the exegesi, of
the Old and New Testaments, which he had memo·
rized. He professed heterodox opinions, which he
claimed to base upon Holy Scripture; he denied the
resurrection of the flesh. affinning th.t only the
soul revives. an opinion also reported by the story
concerning Macarius, which adds that his disciples
also denied the reality of the incarnation of Christ,
He rejected marriage, holding that though legiti·
mate under the Old Covenant it had been abolished
by the Go:spel, an opinion also reported by Saint
Athanasius. He admitted as disdples only those who
were celibate Or had renounced marriage. He be·
lieved that asceticism is necessary for salvation, and
for this reason he excluded from the Kingdom
those who died at an early age. He affinned that
paradise is purely ,pirituaL His Iheology. according
to Epiphanius, was orthodox, but he identified the
Holy Spirit with MELCHIZEDEK, basing this opinion
on the letter to the Hebrews. To this the story aboul
Macari.... adds that his disciples affirmed t~ exis·
tence of three principles: God. matter. and evil.
It is impossible to yerify the correctness of these
allegations. Of the numerous books, commentaries
on scripture, and psalms which. according to
Epiphaniu" Hieracas compo:sed in Greek and Cop-
tic, nothing has survived. E. Pelerson (1947, pp,
257-bO) thoughl to recogniu a m.gment of one of
hi. psalms in a Coptic te.t, in the Akhmimic dia·
lect, but this identification is very doubtful.
Hi' opinions spread as far as the region of Arsi-
nne and in the Fayyflm. Epiphanius asserts Ihat Hie-
rae"" mad" numerous disciples. especially among
the monks. Thos;: disciples not only renounced
marriage but led an ascetic life, abstaining from
meat and wine. Nevertheless Epiphanius reproach-
es them for living each in cohabitation with a worn·
an. in conformily with the practice of the subitl1ro-
d"clae (virgins who live ~er t~ same roof as the
monastics) curren! in the 'church of t~ early cell'
turies. This allows one to :Ihink that Hie.-.cas and
his disciples did not liye ·in a mOllastery, as K.
Heussi thought (1936, pp.' 58-(5), in reliance on
the life of Epiphanius, but according to the way of
life of the ascetics of the premonastk period.
HislOnanS, it seems, have had a tendency to exag·
gerate the role of Hieracas in history. [n the eight·
unlh cenlury I. de Beausobre, still followed by
sOme modem historians although this opinion is
without solid fOllndation, made of Hieracas a disci·
pIe of Mani, thus establishing a bond between MANI.
HIERARCHY, CHURCH 1229
CllAElSM and monasticism. A. Hamack (1931, VoL I,
p. 777) saw in him "the intermediate link between
Origen and Coptic monasticism." More recently F.
Wisse (1978, pp. 431-40) has ad.'anced the thesis
that one of the books discovered al NAO HAMMAOI,
the Testimonium veritatis (Nag Hammadi Codex
9.3) may have been authored by Hieracas or one of
his disciples, which would allow us to forge a link
between GNOSTlCtSM and monaslicism. See a crilical
examination of this thesis by A. Guillaumont (1980-
1981. pp 411_13).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Ba,..,ille. G. "Hieracas OU Hie.-.x." In Dicti<mnalre
de Thea/ogle calholique. Vol. 6. cols.. 2359-61-
Paris, 1920.
Chaine. M. "La double recension de l'histoire lausi-
aque dans la version copte." Revue d. /'Oriem
cheilien 25 ser. 3, 5 (1925-26):232-75.
Guillaumon!. A. "Hieracas de Uontopolis et les
leUes de Nag Hammadi." Annuaire d" College de
France {l98O- 1981):411 -413.
Harnack. A. Realencyklopiidie (ur protestanrische
ThMiogie und Kirch •. 3ed ed.. Vol, 8. pp. 38-39.
___. Lehrbuch der Dogmengeschichte. 3 vols. Tu-
bingen, 1931-
Heussi. K. De, U"prung des Mij"chwm,. Tubingen.
1936.
Lefort. L. T. "Leltee aux .'iorges." Le Museon 42
(1929): 197-264,
Peterson, E. "E.in Fragment des Hierakas (?)" Le
Museo" 60 (l947):257-60.
Preuschen, E. Palla.dius ""d Rr</inu•. Gies.en, 1897.
Wigse, F. GtlOsis. Festschrlfl/ur Hans Jonas, pp. 431-
440. GOttingen. 1978.
AmulNE GUtllAUMONT
HIERARCHY, CHURCH, the collective body
of organized ecclesiastical ranks, in successive or·
der. one above anolher. The pyramidal structure
consists of a hierarch, the pope as the head of the
church, in subordination to whom are the episcopa-
cy composed of METROPOLITANS. ARCHBlSll0PS, and
BISIIO,," as well as the prcsbJ'lery of ptolopriests (,ee
HEGUMENOS), Pl\tESTh, and MONKS. NowadaJs. they
can perform the lilUrgy in Ihe absence of a priest.
The hierarchy also includes the diaconate corn·
posed of ARCHDEACONS, OEACONS. SUBDEACONS, and
READEIl.S. whose members, although originally in-
lended to "serve tables'" (Acts 6:2). soon developed
into a definite rank peJforming an indispensable
task in the liturgy and other church se,..,~ces.
 1230 HIGHER INSTITUTE OF COPTIC STUDIES
Prayers On behalf of the hienon:hy arc offered as
pan of the greiller inten:essions in Ibe COUrsol: of !he
celebration of t"'" Divine U1UlI)'.
AItOl8lSHOl' BASlUOS
HIGHER INSTITUTE OF COPTIC STUD.
IES. foul>dcd with a modcsl budget by lhe COM.IoIU-
';ITY «M.l«;tL on 21 January 19S4. th.. hmilule was
up«ted 10 become ;m imponant faclOr in 1M mi·
val of Copt:ic slUdies in E«;ypl. lu restricted mnns
IWTe supplemenled by meager donalions from pli.
...te. indiridual soun:e:s, which enabled lu initial
admin;w;.tion 10 bunch _ $Iud)' pr'OIram In Cop-
(0101)'. This prognm _ facilitated by the volun·
leer services of its pn:.idenl. ~ S. Atiya. _r>d two
vice-presidents. lolUItM> liMtt and SIoMt GASItA. wOO
in tum recruited volunleers among nOled !!Cholars
and specialis15 to serve as a leachinl body and 10
conslitute lh. Institute Council. The idel of lhe
In51ilule was universall}' acclaimed. and a number
of eminenl profe5S0l"$ al the uni\'erslllCll of Oxford,
Uverpool. Michigan. Princeton, and Hartford,
among othen, 3tCcepted hononry fellowship$ in lhe
new foundallon.
The Initial sections of 1M i_ilute included Ihft>l·
01Y, Copt:ic language and lileralure, Copic history.
_rchaeolocY. so<:iology, Copt:ic Ia-w. Copik: music.
and Coptic art. A library _ $IaI'led. and seven!
collections were assembled in it from >vIous orp.
niations and indi",duab- Besides lhe eolleetie>ns 01
lhe CUl.IO.L OOI.U(;I; and lhe u1>rary 01 the Com-
mlnee of Cop;ic History, pli,..le collwions incW
cd th:>5e of ".,IlL MlDU1L 'JUlD ~mD, MiW~"
~Ib. SaIni ~ and olhers.. ..... ich fonncd alOlid
IN.I.. of a specialiLed ....,mne ~arch libfll}' in
lhe Mid of Copt<Mog,.
The bcginni"l! c4sscs of the ill$titule Included
mainly Coptic: en\h~. 'OCether with a number
of Muslim and Jewish !!Cholan, which sl.... ilied the
~ncral intercst io this DleW ¥tntu",.
R"'luil"ffl!ents fo:,- admission included a bache-
lor's dog,..,., from " .-ecOiniLed "n'versil, Or the
diploma of the Clerical CoIIq:e. Publicalion of "
journal was contemplaled, bul was abandoned for
lack of funds, The Institule conllnucs to functlon in
" modesl way. with severely limited financial re·
r.oo.orces, voluntary academic Soel'Vices are rcnde",d
by supporte~. and Its library, IOcelher Wilh lhe col·
lectlons of Ihe Society of Coptic Archaeotoi)' and
lhe PBtritorchal Ubrary, offers admirable research
oppor1un;liCll in the field of Coptic 5lUdlCll, The p".
ItUrchal Ubrary has been enriched by the man...
"",ow colkction ..;lled to it by Murad. Kamil The
Coptic collection of Am S. Ali)'l is also deposited II
tIris library_
lbe t-. oecrions thM hr..., lIourisbcd on their
_on sclf~ninc ~es &«' the Section of
Cop6I; "tusic. under Il.acheb Moftil.t. and lhe Sec-
tion of Coptk Art. under luoac flllOW, ...-hose: icons
ba,.., IilJcd ""'* of lhe ...... churches in Egypt and
_ romp .cOUntlY,. The irutiWie Nos serwd ...
" center for >isil'ne Coptolopu from other- pam of
the world. It has awarded doctoral degrees 10 5pe-
cialized rncarchers, und... the pIlTOoage oJ Pope
Shenouda III and the pl"1'Sid~y of ADb6 Gregorios,
bishop in Caim for higher thcologj<:al studiC$, C""JI"
lic cult"........ d s<:ienllfic research.
AZIZ S. Ann
mJAs. Sec lconOlOta$ls.
HIJAZAH. Sec Pilgrimages.
HILARlA, SAINT, elder daughler 01 the fourth·
ttntury emperor Zeno, woo according 10 legend
became a monk eFeast day: 21 TUbahl_
ZcnQ had.wo dau&h.e..... The legend is as follows.
The elder. Hilaria. seeks the lnOnIlstic life bUI Theo-
piste. lhe )'OII~r. doea not enlenaio such desires.
Hilaria secretly. in male anin..... ¥'CIs to Ako;an.
dria. wbcft ..... pn.ys in the churchCll of Saini Pet...
lhe Martyr and SainI Marllthe E...ngdisl. The ~
tie:. aD5W'Cr her ;nlM affinn&liYe through the ..'OI'di;
of scriptun:. She then en\lUftl hcrHlI to I1x:ocIo< us
tlM: dea::on. who a«Qmpania It« 10 lhe motlIS-
Icry-. SIIc lO" firs< 10 SainI JIIfMS..hen to SCETl$ 10
Saini roUolllO. The: ascetic doea not recognize her as
_ wom...., for she is only ei"'...,n, and he ~
her to go 10 ENATON. where life is less stricL Bu. w
insists on _ying. and earns lhe monastic habit.
T"ll..It.,.. they discuss Ktipturc wilh AnW Mal"\)"'
nus. the phlloR>pher.
Tltn:~ yea~ Ialcr, Pambo learns Ihrough l"e\'e1a-
lion lhal Hilaria Is • WOman and asks her not 10
.-eveal herself. in order to avoid any ..,andaL Nine
years laler, still being beardl~••, she becom~.
known as Hllanon, lhe eunuch,
A demon enters her youn&: siSler, who is al Con·
stantinople. The emperor Zeno, nol knowing whal
10 do, leaves the m.ner 10 Ihe monks of Sectis. As"

consequence, Theopiste is brought before Saint
Pambo. To everyone's astonishment, the eunuch
Hilarion'. reaction i. e~treme; she drenches the
ground "ith a flood of tears. Touched by such com·
passion. Pambo entlUSts the afllicted young woman
to Hilarion. For a week th" laner prays~consoling
and finally curing ""r young sister. who d""s not
recognize her. Once cured. Theopiste r"ceh.,,; the
sacraments and returns to her father in the palace.
Sh" t"lIs th" emp"ror that, to comfort her. Hilario"
the monk kissed her on the mouth and slept in the
same bed with her.
Shocked, the emp"ror Zeno summonS the healing
monk to come to him on the prete~t that there is
another cure to be done at Constantinople itself.
Taking Hilarion aside. z"no discloses thaI his mind
is troubled. To avoid any scandal. Hilarion unveils
herself to the emperor alone. provided he lets her
go back in p"ace to her monastery. For an hour the
emperor Zeno remain. slUp"fied. Only the empre$S
and th" younger sister are infonned. The recogni·
tion results in tender tears.
Hilaria again become. th" eunuch Hilarion in the
monastery of Seetis, and twelve years later .he dies.
Pambo then writes the life of the saint, who is
burie<! fully clothed.
This account raised qu~tions, first of all. in O.
von Lemm'. mind. On the basis of the Coptic frag·
ments from Paris and Leiden. edited in ISSS by A.
AMtillNI'AU. he recognized the .tory as a derivative of
an Egyptian romanoe, the Story of Bent-Resh. the
"daughter of joy," of which "Hilaria" is an exact
translation. Nevertheless the differences are numer-
ous. for Bent-Resh i. po..e"""d of a demon and is
the elder sister of Nefrure, wife of the pharoah; .he
is cured by Khonsu, tbe builder of Thebes. In 1913,
A. J. Wensinck coUe<oted all tbe Arabic, Syriac, and
Ethiopic versions of the legend, before coming to
know of the complete 0ptic text. He produced the
family.lrn of tbe legen",tom the Egyptian to the
Coptic. : lished by Drescher in 1947. based on the foHowing
In the penetrating study attached by J. Dre.cher
to his complete edition of tbe Coptic text, the En-
glish scholar shows that, perhaps apart from the
name Hilaria itself. dependence on the pbaraonic
legend is more than improbable. The literary genre
to which this aCcount belongs i. very well repre-
sented in Greek hagiography. for example, Eugenia
Pelagia. Euphroryne. and above all Apolinaria.
whose life reproduces the antithesis bet....." en the
two sist",". At the same time. he note. that Apolill'
aria i. not known anywhere ill tho Orient. white
Hilaria is not knOWIl anywhere in Greece. The two
HILARIA, SAINT 1231
subjects are thus apponioned to match th" th"olog-
ital pre<lilections of the chul'<'hes concerned.
11 is possible to lake this analysis much further.
Zeno reigned from 474 to 491 and published his
HENOTICON in 482. Nine years were to pass before
thr Edict "f Peace. which Saim Pambo warmly
praises at the beginning of hi. account. No more
than about ten years passed untilth. death of Zeno.
Looking at a series of legends of holy women such
as Irene. Bamara. Christine of Tyre. and man)'
"thers, it is "bvious thai these princesses corre·
.pond exactly to the communities of which the
monarch. concerned re.:eived the crown. Israel i.
likewise called the daughter of Zion in the Old
Testament. When Zena assumeS power. one of his
daughters is itt, the one who continues to apply the
cOU!<CIt. OF CHALCEOOK after Leo and Marcian. The
other has fled to tlte monastery. When Zeno finds
hi. elder daughter again. he begs her, "Pray the
lord for me to keep me in lite faith of my fathers,"
What is more, the day of Hilaria'. death, 21 Tubab.
is the Feasl of lhe OORMITtON Of THE VIRGIN, a sym-
bol of the re.istance at Jerosalem to the Council of
Chalcedon. There is a legend about SO,HIA Of JERU·
SALEM. which is emirely parallel, and which e~­
plains the same political and religious development
in a romanticire<l form, but this lime as between
Constantinople and Je",salem. This legend has
been prese....'ed only in Arabic. The point of the
story of Hilaria is no differem. It not only takes
from the Greek church th<: old theme of the woman
whe> becomes a monk but integrate~ it in a symbol-
ic ac<:ount. The abbot Pambo i. a fictional charac-
ler. borrowed from the founh century. In the pro·
logue of the story itself. the author app"ars to he
very much aware of the literary genre that he is
tackling. God bad provided believers not oniy with
preachers hm also with authors, intended for their
guidance.
The legend of Hilaria, daughter of ZENO. was pub-
sources: MS Pierpom-Morgan 583 dated A.O. S4S
(Vol. 37 of tbe photographic edition); four parcb-
ments from the White Monastery (DAYR ,\Npli ,HIS·
ODAH) now in the John Rylands library at Manches-
ter; alld three parchments of another manuscript
now at Paris, Coptic />IS 132', fols. 19-21; a leaf of
the sam. manuscript from the Museum of Antiqui.
ties at leiden; an isolated leaf from Paris MS 78.
fo!. 39; and finally a papyros fragment from the
British Museum. Only the text for 848 is complete.
11 Greek original is not probable; moreover, lhe
legend does not exist in Greek.
1232 HlLAR10N, SAINT
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Drescher, J. Th,u Copli<: ugends: Hilaria, Arc~el·
lites, t~e Seven Slupers, Cairo. 1947.
Esbrocck. M. ''''''. "u sainI comme ~ymbole." In
The 8)'1.an/in" S"in/. pp. 128-40. S. Hackel. Ches-
ter.1981.
Wen.inck, A. J. "The Legend of HHaria." In Leg.
end, of Bas/ern S",nl' Chiepy from Syriac Sourc-
es, Vol. 2. Leiden, 1913.
MICHEL VAN EsBROECK
HILA-KION. SAINT, fourth·century monk of Pal-
esline (feasl day: 24 BaramhAt). AlmOSI our only
~ource of information about SainI Hilarion is Ihe
Vii" Hilo.ri"nis wrillen in Lalin by Saint JEROME
shortly after 390. in Ikthlehem. This is a narrati"e
"f a fairly romantic character. Ihe hi~lorical value
"f which has "ften been conlested. He was born
aboul 293 at Thavatha in the neichborhood of Gaza,
and at Ihe age of fifteen was sent by his pagan
parents 10 smdy at Alexandria. Hilarion be<:ame
converted 10 Christianity and. having heard lalk of
Saint I\NJQNY, went 10 stay wilh him and was
clothed by him in the monastic habit. AI the end of
Iwo month~, he returned to Palestine.
Hi~ parent~ being dead, he di~tributed his gooo:l!l
to the poor and went off to live in SOlilUde in a hUI,
which he built for himself in Ihe marshy region on
the edge of the sea in Ihe neighborhood of Majuma,
the port of Gaza, According 10 his biographer, he
there had to undergo violent assaults by demo"",,
similar to th06e related in the lJfe of Saint Antony,
Soon disciples came to join him. Harassed by the
crowds allracled hy his miracles, he resolved to
leave his homeland. Accompanied by a few dis·
ciples. he arri"ed in Egypt and went 10 visit the
places where SainI Anlony had lived (he had died a
year earlier. in 356).. But even in Egypl Ihe crowds
flocked 10 him as to !flew Antony. Then follows, in
Jerome'~ narrative, a most imaginative series of
journeys around the Mediterranean. Hilarion being
unable 10 find any place where he could li.e se-
cluded and unknown. He wenl firsl to Libya. shortl)'
after the dealh of Julian (363), Ihen to Sicily. where
he was rejoined by his disciple Hesychius, but
everywhe.. his miracles and his renown for sancti·
Iy led 10 his delection. Later he _nl to Epiru~, and
finally to C)'prus, where he died at the age of eighty,
hence about 373. His disciple Hesychius secretly
conveyed his body to Majuma, Al Ihis period Saint
E1'IPHM<IUS was bishop of Cyprus. and it is probably
from him Ihat Saint Jerome heard of Hilarion.
In writing the Viia Hilarionl. Jerome has the
dear intention of presenting his hero as a disciple
and emulator of Saint Anlony. as the founder of Ihe
monastic life in Palestine, just as Antony had been
in Egypt, He says upre..ly (§l4) that before Hilari-
on the.. had not yet been any monks in the whole
of Syria. But that is incorrect. We know now thai
the anchorite life had already been pracliced. inde·
pendently it appears of any Egyptian influence. in
Ihe deset"1 of Judah, to Ihe east of Jerusalem, as is
attested notably by the Life of Saint Chariton (Chit·
Iy, 1966, pp, 13-14).
There is a Coplic .'ersion of the Life of Hilarion,
which has been published with an Jtalian tran~la­
tion by F. Rossi. This was probahly made from a
Greek version. which has also been p=erved. The
SYNAXARlON devotes a notice to Saint Hilarion on 24
BAbah. The awhor has manifestly used the Ufe
wrilten by Saint Jerome but. a remarkable thing, he
makes n() menlion of Ihe relations Hilarion " sup'
posed to have had wilh Saini Antony,
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Chilly. D. J. The Desert a City: An 'nrrod",:tion to
Ihe Stud)' of Egypl;,,,, "nd PaleSlinian Manasridsm
under the Chri'li"n Empire. Oxford. 1966.
Jerome. ViM S. HiI"rion;s. PL 23, pp. 29-54. Turn·
hout, fi. d.
Rossi, F. Vita di San/'llarione _ Martin'o d; Sanl'
19nazw ".scovo d'Anriocha. Transcribed and
translated from the Papiri Copri d.1 MuS<':o di Tori·
no, Memorie della Reale Accademia delle Scienze
di Torino, $Cr. 2, pI. 38, Scienu mOFali. storiche e
fi'ologiche, pp. 7-52. 75-94. Turin. 1888.
AIaoINe GUIu.lUMOI<IT
J:lILWAN. [This .rride conslsls of /w(I p"'IS, one
"ction on lite history and one on Chri5llan buildings
in lh_,,,,,,II
town of 1!ilwlW. Tltis IOwn is On the ea$!
bank of Ihe Nili 14 miles (20 km) somlt of Cairo. II
has always bun known for its curative sulfuric wa·
ters,]
History
According to the HISTORY OF THE PMlllARCHS, the
govemorofEgypt 'Abd al-'A2Iz ibn Marv.·an (seventh-
eighth century) huilt !;Iilw"'n and commanded the
bishops to build two churches. However, it seems
Ihat l:Iilwan already possessed a bishop before the
arrival of the Arabs.
The monastery of l;Iilwan existed during Ihe patri-
archate of ALEXANDER II (705-730),
 I:IILWAN: Christian Buildings 1233

According 10 Ihe life of Patriarch ISAAC (686-

689), wrinen al the beginning of the eighth century
by Mena., bishop of Pohati, 'Abd al'Azle ibn Mar-
w!n made J:lilw~n hi. npital because the doctors
had re<:ommended Ihe waler of J:lilw:ln to him, and
the air of th;. place wa1l mo,.., favorable Ihan that of
al·Fus1Ji! (Old Cairo).
Abil $AliI) Ihe Annenian (beginning of thirteenth
century) mentions a mon""tery at l:Iilw~n dedicated
10 the Holy Virgin, According to Abu ~li~, this
monaslery "'" founded at lhe expense of the bioh·
OJ>< under the patriarchates of tsanc and Simon [ :' "
(689-701) and under the gowmorship of 'Abd al·
'M. ibn Marw~n. It i. called Ihe monaslery of Abu
Qarqurah,
Abu !;i~li~ al.o ,..,cords the restoration of a .econd
monaslery, according to the decree of 'Abd aI'A,.,
ibn Marw~n and by the ca,.., 01 hi. Melchile major·
domos, under Ihe palronage of Saini George.
A[·Maqrl'i (d. [441) does nol speak of it. nor does
any amhor after him. Whatever ils origin., exca,,,,-
lion. in [945-1947 have brought 10 light a mona.'-
lery at l:IiIw~n.
The monk BUW5 ~l'l;I~Bls, a ,..,cluse martyred by
Baybar5, lh'ed in Ihe monastery of l:Iilwiiin in the
thineemh century (u.bib, [982). This saint is also ,, ..
r' ';
., " " "
memioned by Ibn al-Suqiii'i, '.'

BIBUOGItAPHY
Am~lineau, E, "FragmenlS coptes pour .e.-vir iii
l·hisloi,.., de la conqu~le de l'Egypte par les Ara·
be$." Journal Asi(ltique, ser. 8. 12 (1888),36 I _4 [0.
___ "Histoire do patriarche copte [sane," Bulle·
tin de Corr"l"'ndance A/ricaine 2 (1890).
Ibn a[·Suqi'l. TMi Kilab Wa/ayM al·A'yan, ed, J.
Sob[el. Damascus. 1974.
Labib, S. Bulus (ll-Jf(lbis ein Koptischer Martyrer auS
dem 13. Jahrhuuderl. PI" 233-40. Acte. du ler
Congres d'Etudes Arabes Ch""tiennes. Orientalia
Christiana Analecta 2111.-!l-01ll", 1982.
Saad. Z. Y. "Royal E.ca"alion. at Helwan (1945-
47)," Supplemenl to A,,,,a'ies du Service des ",Hi·
quilis de /'Egyple 14 (1951).
RENE GEORGES OJQUtN
MAURtCE MA!lTIN. S.J.
Christian Buildings
Of the Christi.n buildings that were erected in
l:Iilwoln by the order of 'Abd aleAziz ibn Marv.'tin.
the remains of two buildings located dose lOgelher
on Ihe west side of Ihe lown had remained stand-
ing, hut they were destroyed during the course of
Pl.n of the basilica situated in the front section of
complex A, l:Iilwan. Courtesy Peler Grossmann.
forcible land reclamation for new buildings in
1983. They consisted of two rather large and more
or less .quare Siructures. the inner counyards of
which were surrounded on all sides by in.ercon-
n«ted rows of room •. _Both buildings appear to
have been e-re<:led during a single building opera·
tion and revealed only a few later alteration•. In
both cases Ihe entrances had Ihe design of large
gate structures. Inside, besides numcrous accom-
modalion units and toilets. each of Ihe buildings
had a church and nexl to Ihe church a dining room
(tridinium) in the shape of a triconch.
In Ihe somewhat mo,.., subslamial complex A, the
originally unified counyard .....as divided into two
sections by a later lransverse wall. The church situ·
ated in the front,facing ..,.,tion was a basilica with
ils eastern pan subdivided by four central pillars.
side chambers, and a projecting ap6e. The large
dining room lay ill the wesl counyard. It was a
,..,gularly shaped triconch wilh each conch ha.'ing
1234 f:lILWAN: Christian Buildings
Plan <>f th., monas-tie eompl .." al l::Iil""in. Counesy PelU
whal appean to M a bunl·'":Ioult.ed J.y in &on,.
ColtMq""ntly. it ,,-as close in IypC to the tric:Hrtia of
iaI.. arnlquily (Gr050mann. 19U, p. &-4. n. )72).
In the building complct a... hieh h.t :0. JiOn\e-
wlul clearer arrangemenl, the chureh ...d lhor tri·
clinium _n: fully int~ed inw the buildinl aT-
~men, on th.- $O~ .u& of the- <;ounyard. 1'bc
ehureh was a four-«Jlum<>ed building willt lAurdy
auoifonn piers and a deep th..., room<"d sanctu·
ary. In Ihe lric:onch al1ached 10 I chureh In Ihe
east. ",hioh is ......., also regarded as :0. tticlinlum.
only Ih" lwo conchs siluat"d in t.... tnulI""rse axis
,",'..re provided with bays, while in the principal ""is
th.., .....re missing because the building was .Ii,hl
In deplh.
The remaining room. oOTresponde<! In both cOm·
plexes. In both there were sevend accommodation
unilS .-uh comprising four room,. Complex A had,
in itdditiOfl. a number of t~room types of howes.
In compl... B the gr(ll.lnd plan of small.. r houses
e.........""".
bad t='!<:r """"bOn. x.'~ installations w."..,
abo Mmd in 'M counyanl. among "i1.icll ... a
;...
fish pond pn>'rided ,,-ith numcl"'OUS pipes for- tweed·
Complex B lenenlly Jaw a mo..., de\..,lopcd im·
pNSSion. II apptand to ~ the 1:o.Ier Gl the n..... The
bet Ih:o.t ...... merous ..1011 nichn ..~ found in ;1$
walls is simply due. however. 10 il$ ...,wivel,.
bette.
....te of ~l'V:tlion. Wt Un usume dun Ihey ..-en:
also part of eompkx A-
lair. in..a1latiOM and alltralions were "rry £tw.
Compltx 1I contained a seritS of buildinp on ,hor
north sidt that mlghl ha.t servtd.as .talls for oaule.
Thr 1"''''''''' of lh" IWO buildings is also unclrar.
In .tylr lhry ....,mblrd lhe areat h.,rmitages found
in ",EWA (K.....,r, 1972). They were, howe".,r. in
comparison 10 th.,.." far too lavish. and, if onr i.
prepared to regard ,h.,m as monasti. living quar-
Ie",. pro'-ided room for very few monk•. One might
have expeOled II> find at leut a number of .maller

building~ of the same kind in Ihe neighborllood. but
Ihi. is not the <a"".
The idea tllat we are dealing llere witll palace
in~tallation. for ...nior clergy is scarcely jU~lifled.
even though Ille existence of such building. is re·
poned in documenlary SQurce~. It i~ just po""ible
that the two complexe. were Christian guesthouse~
fur the "i~itors to the balh. at f:IilwAn. In any evenl,
a ~pa resort like l:Iilwlln could certainly ha>'e u..,<J
seve",l guestbou""s.
BIBLlOGR"PHY
Grossmann, P. },fil1elall£rliclre Lang"auskuppelkir~·Ir.
en un" vetwandle Typen in Obuiillypten. pp. 83-
84, GllicKstadt, 1982.
Kasser. R. Kellia Topographie. Recherches suisses
d'archeologie copte 2. Geneva, 1972.
Rostan. O. R. "ldenli~calion of a Complex of Build·
ings DiscO\'ered al Hulwlln." In Selected Essays
on Many Subjects, pp. 113-20. Beirul. 1972.
PETER GROSSMANN
HIPPOLYTUS (c. 170-c. 236), a pre.b}1er and
probably a schismalic bishop of Rome. who wrote
numerous works in Grttk on theological and ecde·
.i",tical .ubjects. Some of their tilles are lisled on
the basis of an early statue of him, found in Rome
in 1551. now in the Vatican lJbrary, Two of the
most importanl are Philo<ophoumena, wrinen
against gnosticism and other heresi.,.. and Ihe Apos.
tolic Tradition. "ne of Ihe most helpful source~ for
the student of early canon law, liturgy, and church
customs. Hippolyru~ is a saint in Ihe Orthodox and
Roman Utlholic churches but not in the Coptic
church.
The original Greek text of the t1poslOlic T.adit;o"
is known only Ihrough substamial qu"talions in Ihe
Apostolic Cons/iruti"ns ~ a numher of sC311ered
lexl.$. ~ause the texl wI'-" known from sources
with Egyptian connecti(>lls: il acquired the name of
Egyptian Church Order. pr,e""rved in the canonical
oollection Sinodos of the Coptic palriarchate. The
Bohaitic version of a manuscript formerly in Berlin
(now at Tubingen Universily Ubrary, nol in Ihe
Btilish Museum, as B. Bolle said in 1963), wrillen
in 1804, is a translation of a Sahidic texl rendered
wilh some Arabic influence. The earliesl Coptic lexl
of a prayer from the Apostolic TyadNkm is found in
the Coptic Euchologion of Ihe DHR ANM ~H1N(JD~H
(PO 28, 2, pp. 393ff.), The Sahidic te"I, translaled
from a Greek lext. was edile<! by P. de Lagarde
HIPPOLYTUS 1235
(Aegyptiaca 1883) and was based on a .ingle manu·
script (Btitish Museum Or, 1320) of A,M, 722!A.D.
1006. A more recenl edition by W. Till and Johan·
nes ~ipoldt (1954) makes a few correClions. This
Sahidic version omits the prayers for Ihe ordina·
tions and the anaphora, which are presel'>'ed in the
latin "ersion.
The Arabie "ersion is based on a complete Sahi-
die text, the oldest text possibly of ~.M. 1011!~.n.
1295, It is based on Valican Arabic 149. There is
also a critical edition by A. Petier (1912).
The Ethiopic version, a lran~lation from the Ara-
bic, " based on British Museum Oriental 793. A
critical edition by H. Duensing (1946) is based On
Vatican Borgia Aethiopic 2 (fiheemh century) and
seven other manuscripts, and has a good critical
apparalus. II conlains more variants Ihan Dix
(1937) was able to use. Besides lhe Latin version.
translated from the Greek, we have pans preserved
in Sytiac (Testamentum DominO and parts of the
Greek original in the AposlOUc Constitutions. Book
VlII and its epilome (ed. Funk, 1891), as well as a
number of scatlere<! shoner texis.
The identification of lhe Egyplian Chu<ch Order
with the Apostolic Tradition of Hippolyrll-S "'as made
by E. Schwartz an<J Hugh Connolly independently,
and is now generally accepled, The opposition by
J. M. Hanssens (1959) introduces an Alexandrian
Josipe in Ihe place of Hippolyrus, His learned study
contains much valuable material. but his main the--
sis has not proved comincing.
Hippolyrus' Apostolic Tradition is eXlremely im·
portant for our understanding of the church at the
beginning of Ihe third century. For e<tahlishing the
original text. the Sahidic and derived versions Inc
of great importance, The influence of the ApMtolic
Tradition in Ihe area of the Alexandrian palriar·
chale is con~iderable. Its euchatislic tiles are
among Ihe many anaphoras of the Elhiopic church,
The Ca"ons of Hippolytus are a COlleClion of can·
on law slatules from Egypt, dated to the founh
cenlUt)' by Bone (fifth-sixlh cemury by [)jx), pre·
served only in Arabic translation from a losl Sabi·
dic version of a lost Greek otiginal autibuted to
Hippol}1US. H. Achelis (1891-1904) thought [he
Canons were the original of the whole group of
Churcb Orders Ihat contain Hippolyran maUer.
Tbey are now regarded as the Ia~t in the group. In
fact, they are a drastic rewriling of lhe Apostolic
hadj/ion. but remain mainly a """"n<lat)· wllncs.s,
11Je Epitom€ may be regarded as more an extract
lhan an epit"me of Book VlIl, but it has it. peculi·
arities. sometimes presel'ling a texl older than Ap·
1236 HIPPOlYTUS, CANONS OF
osroUc Co"sJitwkms vm (oroinations of a bishop).
It contains five chapters, of which tbe title "Consti.
tutions of the Holy Apostles Through Hippol)1u,
Concerning Ordinations" belongs to Chapter 2,
Some scholars have extended the title to the whole
of the Epitome. The Epi/ome is of some value for
the reconstruction of Hippolytus' Apostolic Trodi·
tions and it is the only source of the Greek text of
two paMages.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Acheli•• H. Die ~lleSI"n QueUen des oriullalischen
KirchenrechMs, 2 vols. Leipzig, 1904.
Bolte. B. La Tradi/ion apasto/iq"e de saint Hip·
polyte. Essai d. recom/i/U/ion. Liturgiewissen-
"",haftliche Quellen und Forschungen 39. Mun·
ster. 1963.
Coquin, Dom M. CO"Siitwio"s Through Hippo/yt"s.
A new edition.
Dix. G. Th" Treatise of rhe Apostolk Tradllion of Sr.
Hippolyws of Rome_ New York. 1937. With En-
glish translation. Reissued with additional materi·
ai, corrections, and preface b)' H. Chadwick. Lon·
don, 1968.
Duensing, H. Du "e,hiopisch. Texl du Kirchenord-
71U"8 des Hippolyt. GOningen, 1946,
Funk. F. X, "Vas achte Buch der Apostolischen
Konstitutionen in der koptischen Uberlieferung,"
In his Kirchengeschichrliche Abha"dlwwen utld
Umersuch""g,,,. VoL 3. pp. 362-81. Paderbom,
1891-1907.
Haneberg, Bishop D. B. von, Canmus S. Hippolyli
arabice e codibus Romanis. Munich. 1870. First
published version.
Hanssens, J. M. La Lirurgie d'Hippolyle, Oriens
Christlanus Analecta 155. Rome. 1959.
Homer. G. The Statules of the Apostlts. London,
1904. The Arabic version.
Lagarde. P. A. de. Aegypliaca. GOllingen. 1883.
perier. A. Les 127 canon. des apiJlres. PO 8. 4,
Paris, 1912. A critical edition.
Riedel, W. Die Kirchetllffhtquelletl des Patriarchals
A/exandrien. pp. 200-230. Leip7.ig, 19OO. A better
edition than von Haneberg.
Tidner, E. Didascalitl" 'apostolorum canon""" ec·
c1esjasticorum Iradiljimis apostolwae versionl,
Il1li"ao. Texte und Untersuchungen 75, Berlin.
1963.
Till, W.. and J. Leipold!. HyppolyluS. Antipope, co.
170-235 or 6. Berlin, 1954.
ERIC SEGELBERG
HIPPOLYTVS, CANONS OF. See Canons of
Hippolytus.
HISAB DOBIA. See Account. and Accounting,
Histol)" of Coptic,
J:lISBAH, or il)ljslib, the "promotion of good and
the forbidding of evil'· as one of the principal reli-
gious dutif;"$ of evel)" Muslim and as tbe dut)' of a
specially appointed person in each town, panicular·
ly in regard to the supervision of markets, anisans,
and moral behavior in public. This person, called
the mu~tMjb. was concerned with such mallel> as
fraud in the manufacture of goods and swindling in
their ""Ie. In that r"speel he supervised the conduct
of both Muslims and the AHL AL-DHtMMAH ("People
of the Covenant"), or Dhimmis. His supervision had
two aspects. one religious, one legislative.
Th" rdigious aspect was the injunction on all
Muslims to "promote good and forbid evil:' There
is a strong historical eonnection between this for-
mula and Chrislianit), in Islamic tradition, for
Christ, according to Islam, was the first person to
enforce "what is legally rigbt and prevent illegali-
ty,"' which he did on Palm Sunday,
The legislative ...peel is that the coveted status of
Dhimmi was authori<ed only by th" imam or his
representative and was goanted only to those non-
Muslims who had a religion re,'ealed in scripture.
that is, Jews. Copts and other Christians, and Magi·
ans. Polytheists. idolalors. apostates. and atheists
were not emilled to .uch statuS and therefore had
no stable social mnk in D~r a/·ls/am (the "Land of
Islam") unless they convened to Islam.
In addition to supervi,ing commerce. the
mul)raslb also saw that the Copts and other
Dhimmis obser.ed the religious obligations of their
status as laid down b)' 'Umar ibn al·Khal!ab in thc
seventh centul)'. These obligations included pay-
ment of the JlZYAH (poll tax), wearing a girdle
around the waist, wearing a cross around the neck,
and stricti)' adhering 10 discriminatory rule, in
dealing with Muslims-rules meant 10 humiliate
the Dhirnmi and eult the Muslim.
Despite the fact that the terms l)/sbah, i~lisflb. and
mU~lasib rarely appeared in Coptic books-panicu·
lady the HiSlOry of the Palriarchs-in the Middle
Ages. the)' reveal the object of the call to Islam in a
different mode, This object is made clear in tbe
J,isbah register. established b)' the q~4i ("supreme
judge") al.F~il in the twelfth century, as shown i"
the following quotation: "Know the Copts and
Jews, the transgressors. by their discriminating
dress. by their girdle, this is proof enougb nf the
 HISTORIA MONACHORUM IN AEGYPTO
glol')' of Islam and the humility of the transgresso,".
It is a p",paratol')' Slllge for th~m to pro<;~ed to
hellfire, and it is dis<:riminalion between believers
and alheists:'
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Gaudefroy·Demombynes, M. Muslim Instilution.'.
London. 1919.
SUSHI Y. U.DlD
J:lI~N, a rampart or defensive waH. The word is
also used in this .. nse for Ihe fortificalion walls of
tOWOl. In the Egyptiao "enobile monasteries the
"irn has lhe significance of a protective wall and is
equally important as a defense against hostile .....
saults and to p",vent uncontrolled intercourse be-
tween the inhabitants of the monastery and the out-
sid~ world (Palladius H;su,.ia la''''aca 59).
10 Ihe Coplic monasteries of today. the ~~n is as
a rul. very high and is also always provided with a
high parapet in which various lookout holes have
been let in. The walk on the crown of the wall is
accessible by several staircases. but is ;t~lf so nar-
row that any large number of men cannOI mOve
along it. To increase stability. there are frequently
towers al the <:Dmers and in the middle of the
curtain walls.
Despite these consolidation measures, apart from
a few e~ceptions. the value of these monastery
walls as fortifications is small. lbey were not suited
10 active defense against a hostile attack. Indeed,
such an acti,'e defense ""'OS no part of the custom-
ary behavior of the monks. Determined att.;>ckers
could easily sunnount the "i~n, In "ase of a stroog
assault. it offered only the possibility of gaining
time. in order thaI all the inhabilants might
promptly withdraw with their possessions and th.
church's obje<;ts of value ..if to the keep.
Th. drcumvallation 0( cenobite monasteries
cam~ into praclic. at an ~ar1y date. By Ih~ fourth
centnry PACHOMIUS provid~d for th~ walling of the
different monaliteri~s of his society. In this he cer-
lainly had in view not only the "",uring of the
cohesion of his monastk commuoities and theiT
shielding from the out.ide world hut also defense
against hostile auacks. During the inro<ods of the
Blemmyes into Upper Egypt, thousands of the fami·
lies living round about withdrew behind the ~is" of
Da~ Anba Shiniidah at Suhaj. There is, however.
no infonnation as to whether the mooastery walls
had to sustain an actual atlack. The lauras of the
1237
anchorites followed later. The firs, of these was a
monastery precinct surrounded by a strong defen.
sive wall, the present monastery of Saint Catherine.
built for the monks on Sinai b~' the emperor Justini·
an. It was intended only for c<>sos of danger. and
down to the temh cemury was n",'er pennanemly
inhabited, The walling of the monastery DAYR ANBA
MAQAR in WMI aI-Nalrun wa, firsl taken in hand by
SHU<lm. I (858-880).
The monastery of Saim Catherine on Mount Sinai
has twc entrances of different sizes. Dayr Anb.\ Had·
rA at Aswan also has two gates on differem sides.
ACCOTding 10 the excavation finds, each of the small
hennitages in the Kellia had an approach at ground
level in the fifth and sj~th "enturies. later. howev_
er, they were closed up and access was by sur·
mounting the wall, The provision of transport bas-
kets is quite modem. The.. were in use until the
mid·twentieth century at Saint Catherine's mon.....
tery on Mount Sinai. in the monastery of Saiot An-
tooy (DAl'R ANaA AJo;fiiNtl'Os). aod in SOme monasteT·
ies of WMj .1·Nalrun. In them, visitors were drawn
up indi,'idually in baskets to the top of the wall.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
E,'Clyn-White, H. G. The Memoslcries of rh. Wadi 'n
Na(ron, Vol, 3. New York, 1933. Repr. 1973.
For.;yth, G. H. "The Monastery of St. Catherine at
Mount Sinai:' D"mbarl<'" Oa'" Papers (l968):3-
"
Kasser, R. SalVey arch;ologiqt<e des KeWa, Rapport
de la campagne /98/. Vol •. 1,2. Leuven. 1983.
Leipoldt, J. $chwt<u van .... tripe. Leipzig, 1903.
___ "Berichte Sehenutes tiber Einfalle des
Nubiens in Agypten:' Zeirschrifr fur Agyplische
Sproch. "nd Allerlt<m5ku."de 40 (l902-1903):
126-40.
Monneret de Villard, U. 11 m,maslero di 5, Simeone
presso .... 5wtl-n I. pp. 13-26.80-81. Milan, 1927.
PUf.Il GROSSMANN
HISTORIA LAUSIACA. SU Palladius.
HISTORIA MONACHORUM IN AEGYP.
TO, the story of a vi.it made to the monks of Egypt
during the winter of 394-395 by a group of seven
persons, among them the writer of Ihe book. The
story exists in two recensions: one in Greek (edi·
tions by Pr.uschen and Fe,tugi(>re). Ihe other in
latin, the work of Rufinu. of Aquileia. The connee·
1238 HISTORY OF THE PATRIARCHS OF ALEXANDRIA
lion bclWttn th~ ",,'0 mcensions hu Ions bet-n
lh SO'~I of cfis~nn. E. Pm.oschen Ihoughl 1....1
lhe C~k 1,",,1 "'35 a t~atioJl of Ihe ulin Iftl of
Rufin.., whom he rqankd as 1M rnI ....thor of
lbe book. R. Rt-i~nstrin also considered 1M Creek
lUI .. lnlllslalion of the leu of Rulin.., bus he
lhoutltu thaI IWfinus had himso:lf lntI~att<l a Creek
len dilt:erenl from the one that hu come tlo:>¥>", to
us.. C Butk~ (119&. Vol I, pp. 10-15, 2S7-60')
demonsuated that the Cr«lr. .UI is the ori&l~1 and
R.. lin.. a uanslator; this >'iew. conlinne.d by the
COmpat"3Uff .Iudy of lhe two te:J.1$ made by ..... J.
Feslu~re (1955), is no.... generally ao;eepK Rufin-
.., aceordi"ll to his habits, I....nsbled ralher freely,
5Qm01imq adding In the Grttk le:IU, which he peT'
haps kn...... in a form s1igh.1y differenl from Ihe One
we know.
So.omen', a.senion (HillOria ~ecl~liol/ic. O. 29)
lhal the author WItS "l1mOlhy, bishop of Alexan-
dria.'" who died ""me len years before lhe joum~y
look pl""c. cann"l be mainlained, Buder's conjec·
lUre (1898. pp. 276-77). slill accepled In SOme
handbooks, Ihal the aUlhor "'all One TimOlhy, dea-
cOn of Aleundria in 412, whom Sozomen cont1u~d
Wilh lhe bishop of the ... me name. also remains
\lnconnmw:d. In lhe prolo,;ue lbe aUlhor "'Y' he
Wrole al Ihe request of the members of "Ihe pious
fraternity established on Ihe M<MInl of OIi.....:' an
expr~ion thai eenainly indica!.,. Ih~ monaslic
community of Rufinus and Meb.nia. The lno,'d~T",
Woo are ~'" by ""lUin ~es in lhe lUI 10 be
of Latin speech, probably themsel>u belo. 10
llUs commUJIity. and arnona: lhem the .ulhor. 11>ey
~m to ........ g""e direcll} by the Nile to As)i'lL
n.. fi~ dU'J"ler ...,laIes thtir visil to J(lIf.'ol Of !.looP·
IlU5.. but.hry cIo l'I(lt ..... l'1l 10 11.>."0' cone any bnhn-.
TIwy ..... ited nurnenJUO monb in lhe Tbebaill n<>Ia-
bt,. lhose in Ihe rqion of Oayritynchus. Then they
c:lIlM back dov." !he N~e as br as lite <ksen of
DKIk.., close 10 u., sea. It is not «ruin that they
_nl to rlm",,- which tho: narralor dou nOl dislin-
guish from the ItEUJ.A. RulintJS cives • much more
.... C.. nlle deKriplion of lhese places, ...hieh he
knew. fo~ he had "oppC'd lhere on Ms .....y 10 Pal_
line .boul 373~374. 1'he book b<:lonp 10 a lradi·
lional genre. lhat of the travel narrallve. in which
the a\llho~ de!<:ribes nol only ",hal he has !Iel:n but
also whal he kJl(lWl by hearsay. minglin. the mar·
velous wilh reality. The imailinalive tale. which lhe
narralO~ lells in Ihe epilog\le, of Ihe perih of all
kindll thaI he and his companions had 10 face in the
eou~ of Iheir journey, resumes a lheme habilual
in lhis lr.ind of work_
The Hiilon" ",onQchotum in iltV'p/" contribuled
largely 10 lhe spt'n(Iing of the fame of.he monks of
Eg,pt. both in ,he bst and in .be West. From Ihis
point of ,-iew tho: boolo; played a role <:o<rtpaJ;Ible 10
lhat of Ih~ HiSlOf1II "'.. ~.c. oi PAlL\DIlS. with
wbicl> il U"M often cklsely _;"lft;! in tht manu·
script lradilion. Se,'et'II1 andenl versions jn Syriac
or in Armenian Ita,,,,
b<:en prescn-ed. In Coptic fj,,,,
lea....,. ha"e come dooon from .. Sahidlc codex caet·
tainin. fragments of lhe firsc chapter, dcYole.d to
John of Lycopolis (ft;!. De_. 1969). The<-<' are ......·
eral U1Mlations inlo modem languages; a ~en,
English translMion can be found in The Uva at 11K
De~1 F.ulrers.
tlll!IUOCRAPHY
Butler. C. T1u Lil...."c HUlary oj P"II.di.... Vol. 1.
Cambridle. 1198.
De,-os, P. "FragmenlS copt" de I"'Hislona mona·
chorum' (S. Jean de Lycopo!is)," Im"lu/a B"IlQ'"
di".." 17 (1969):411-40,
Festug;ere, A, J. "Le probl~me HUhaire de I·Hi.lO·
ria monachorum,"Uerlflu I! (1955):257-84 _
___, His/o,i" "'0...,,,110''''''
in A~p'p/o_ Edition
eririqu. du rute I'ee e/ troduetion ~""o/~e. 8m,..
.ets, 1971. Trans. in E:1glish by N. Russen as n.~
Lives of Ihe Duerr F.,rh.,s. 1C;>lama:z:oo< Mich.,
19l1a.
rreu5Ch~n. E. P~lIl1di"s ....d RJ<{i" Ei.. Beil"''' u-r
Q_/I~nJc....d., des Iitutu MOnd" TtJlle und
Untermchungen. Cieswn, 1397.
Reitzenstrin. R. HiJlorill M"norclw...... u"d Hi.loritJ
Lilusi""•. £i.. SI..d.. ....' w:schkhre hs Mooch-
lJmlf .."d d.~ friJ~hrUJlich~.. &vrlfe Wrostilu
....d Prte""'II'1U•. COllinsen, 1916.
AJn01NE GuuLo.L~'"
I-flSTORY OF THE PATRIARCHS OF
ALEXANDRIA, lhe lit'" commonly used for lhe
principal 1",,1 of l:op(k histotiocraphy. which actu·
ally bean the Ii.... Sly.,
III·BI''''' <J1-A,fuq"dJ"S<ih,
'<Biouaphies ollhe ~ Chun::h."
II is imponanl 10 emphMize Ihal lhis lelil. which
can be considered Ih~ official history of lhe Coptic
Onhodox Church, should b<: defined not as one
book represenll"g ...",clund unily bul ralh(r as a
lradilion of hiSIOrical writln!. In various epochs.
Coptic aUlhors ha.e recor<kd Ih~ hislory of l.... i~
church and lheir counlry, each One 01 them contino
uing lhe work <.>1 his predeces""r. The early histori·
ans in Ihis &erici w..... l~ in Coplic, and lheir succe,..
sors from the de"enth century on wrole in Arabic.
The thl as we know It loday consisls Ihus partly of
Anbic lnonslations of Coplic originals and panly of
 HISTORY OF THE PATRlARCHS OF ALEXANDRlA
original "'rabi~ works, and as a whole it ~ove"" the
history from the Ii,..t to the thirteenth ~en1Uries_
Mo,..,over, the,.., are brief continuations of the His_
tory of Ihe Patriarch.' that deal with the fourteenth
to the early twentieth ~entury. As for the contents,
most lives of the History of the Patriarchs are much
more than a biography of a patriarch. The authOr:<
endeavored to record all kinds of e,'enl~, including
'hose belonging to political or social history. But
there is nO uniformity on this point, Sonte of the
authors concentrated on the patriarch's personalit}',
whereas others limited themselves to using the p;>_
triarch's reign as a general framework in whi~h
other events are dealt with. Al any rate, the History
01 lire Patnarclrs conslitutes our main literary
source for Coplic history, and, if used with some
caution, an important complcmentary source for
Egyptian history io generaL
Traditionally, the name of sAwtRUS rBN ~L·MVQAFFA·
has been attached to the text of the History 01 the
Pmnarclrs, but the exa~t nature of his contriburion
ro il has been uncertain for a long rime. Most schol-
ars regard him as the redactor of the earlier series
of biographies written in Coptic, whi~h he ~olle~red
in order to have them translated into "'rabic, Subse-
quent aurho"", starting wirh MlKIIHr.. bishop of Tin-
nis, are considered saW!rus' successor:<. However,
some doubt has been expressed conceming Ihe role
"",ribed to 8awirus ibn al-Muqaffa'. In particular,
more arrention has been paid ro the redacrional
acriviry of rhe Alexandrian deacon MA\OiHOB IBN MAN·
'OR rBN MUFARRIJ. D. W. Johnson discusses Ihe pul-
zling similarities in the descriptions of editOrial
work gi"en in tne prefa~es and redactional notes
""'ribed to 5aw'frus and 10 Mawho.b, respectively
(1977, pp. I 08-116), J~n dHeijer suggests ascribing
all redactional worl ro MawhOb, rhus denying any
contrihurion <)1 S~wlru. (1984, cols. 346-347, 1989,
PI>. 81-116). The latter. conclusion is mainl}' based
on a .tudy of the rel.t~ betwun rhe two ,..,cen·
sions of rhe Hiswry 0/ !!,e Patria,ch~, the "primi-
rive" recension, extanl iTj the Hamburg manus~ript
edited by C. F. Seybold'(1912) 'with unpublished
continuation. in a Pari. and a Cairo manuscript,
and the "Vulgate," wbich i' the ,'ersion of all other
lnown manuscripts edired by Seybold (1904-1910)
and b)I B. T. A. Eveus (1904-1915), continued by
rbe Socio't~ d'.rcheologie copte (1943-1974).
The AUlhors
What follow, is a mere enumerarion of rhe au-
rhors who wrorc rhe various series of patria<ch
lives, including Ihe Coptic·writing autho~, whose
1239
texIs are hown only (wilh some exceptions for
which Coptic originals ha"e been found) through
the Arabi<' r.da~tion ascribed to Sawtru, ibn al·
Muqaffa' or to Mawhub. No account i, talen here
of th,..,e texts appearing .r rhe beginning of the
Hi,to')' of (he Pat.-iQ'ch5, but not entirely belonging
to it, the treati.e on the P.-i..thooa of Christ, the
Life of Saim Mark, and the Martyrdom 0/ Saim Mark
(fragments of a Bohairic original published by
Evelyn-Whire, 1926, pp. 46-47; d. the remarks by
John.on, 1973, pp. 68-70).
The identificalion of the biographers of the patri·
archs is based on a number of edirorial notes in
which those authors describe rheir worl and thar of
their predecessor:<, as well as On (mosrly scant) au-
robiographieal data Ihey provide in their lives. A
brief analysis of th05C notes was made, nuher inac-
curately, by Gurschmid (1890, pp. 401-403). The
mo,t detailed study on this ,ubject is by KAmil
(1943, pp, 9-45), who not only sludied the above-
mentioned notes bur also examined all Coptic po.
tential source. for the History of the Patriarchs.
Wilh ,..,gard 10 some of them. however, Johnson
demonsrrates that rhey have at rhe mosr been used
as indirect sources (1973, pp, 67-74), His study On
the authors and their cOntribulions is limited to
those included in MawhClb's reda~tion (1973, pp.
6-26; 1977), as a,.., the additional ,..,marks by den
Heijer (1984, 1989).
As for the first series of biographie" th¢se of
Anianus to Cyril 1 (numbe... 2_24), much attention
has been given to them by Coptologist., sin~e ",me
fragmenls of the Coptic (Sahidic) original, known
as Ihe History ¢f the Church, have been idenrified,
Certain srudies, particulariy hj.. O. von lemm (1888)
and by W. E.. Crum (1902), demonstrate this text',
dep"nden~e On Eusebius of Caesarea', Historia ec-
c1~sia5tica. All fragments lnown are now published
in the editions made by T. Orlandi (1968-1970) and
by J¢hnson (1973 and 1976; cf. also Bralmann,
1974, and Farag, 1973). Although Crum considered
the possibility of regarding TtMOTHY 11 (458-480) as
rhe author of rhis series, mo,r authors now tend 10
agree on ascribing these liv~" though with ,orne
hesitarion, to th~ oth~rwise unknown scribe Menas,
who may ha,.., been a monk ¢f the Dayr Anb~ Shin-
udah (Johnson, 1973, pp. 53-56; d. also "'mil.
1943, p. 10; John,on, 1977, pp. 114-115; den
Heijer, 1984, 1989).
The second Copric text used as a source for rhe
JUswry ¢j th~ Patriarchs must have included rhe
lives starting from Cyril I (412-444)-thus overlap-
ping wirh the first series-to the life of Simon 1
(692-700). From this lost Copti~ source, Ihe History
1240 HISTORY OF THE PATRIARCHS OF ALEXANDRIA
of t~ P"'triotclu fai.. 10 botTow the lire 01 ();o.
seo"'" I. ....hich is strikingl)' ~nl in the A"",""
toe>lL nw, author 01 thtst Coptic lives is One Jirjl
(George) the MchdeacOl>, spiritual SOfl of the 40th
plIIriarch, JOMS III {671-686), scrilx of the 42nd,
51101O>I I (bft9-101), and himself lhe spirllWtJ bother
of Cwmas.. ,,'no ~ame ttl<: 44th PMriarch (1 JO-
131), In one of lhe h~ by Jiojl the Archdeacon.
the HiJIory of the P",tri""du p""a 10 mUe uSC of
an additional source. The bller pan of the bios"
phyof Benjamin I (6U-66I) contains an abrid:Bed
version of lhe Book of lin- Consec''''tioor of the 5",,,,,·
,,,,,,., of Be"iD"'i", ;to demo...."'tfll ntensi",,1y by
Coquin (1915. c'<p. 1"1'. 24-25).
The third author in 'his list Os Jobn, called John I
by Johnson (913). He " ... I"" spiri'ual JOn of Mt).
SM, bishop 0( A",sim. and a clo&e compo.nion of
KK.I'I~ , (144-767). From IOOme passages loward tile
end of Ihe life of lhi~ pIllriarch, II can be Inferred
'hal John, a nalin of Ci.a, was a monk and a
deacon, and Ihal he must laler have been a bishop
himself, although we do nol know of which see,
John I wrole Ihe liv.s 43-46, cO.'erin8 Ihe period
from 70S lO 7bll. Besides John, an .dilorlal fIOle
mentions Iwo pc"",ns both called Maq~rnh
(MaC/nius). in relation 10 this same ..,ries of pIllri·
arch Ii"es. Ii is so far unde.... what Iheir contribu-
tion may Ita.., been.
'Ow ''''''rth au,hor ..... a monk also called JohTl-
He wrote tile lives 41_55 (Mi"" I. 767-714, to
Shenute I. 858-880), and he doeocribes in tWO fairly
lengthy noles bmo.' bis spiriluaf father Ammon (Am·
m..nah) bade him wrile those li~C$. John .... ''''ry
close 10 the last t/u-ee paln.n:ns whose ~ia
M WfOIe, ;wd il i5 quile probable lhat he se1'Yed aU
llu-cc of them .. a scribe. SilM:e M ""rQCe his 1;""f::I
in lhe )"f:afS 865-866, th", ",o. .e1usion of his biocra-
~y 0( Shenule I {d. 8S(l), ..-ttich is misailll in the
"prim;t;,,'e" ~",ion of the HislCVy of /he P.lri--
",,,,,41, 1I1USI be a laW addilion.
Michael. bishop o;'''rmnis, wrole the filih seri.,..,
which comprised the lJn:s .56-65 (KN.'TI II I()
Sltenoute II, 880- 100'11), in ,he' ,..,.... 1051 or IOS8. II
appears 10 be merely b«ausc or IMs dale and 1M
relalively 800d Anobic st)'le of these biographies
lha' mosl ""hola~ have so far IS5Wmed lhal
MlkM'!I wrote in A.-..bic, Ne.'ertheleM, den Heijcr
(l984, 1989) h... poimed oul lhal Ih~y were com·
1'O'le<J in Coplic and .ubsequ.ntly lranSlal.d for
M~whilb ibn M"n~(lr ibn Mufarrij, who also added a
few pliS$;>a". of hi. own 10 MU'hA'I!'s lext. MlkU'JI's
ldenll~catlon as Ihe aUlhor of Ihe Llves S6-6S is
alin Imponall1 in thaI II eliminates Stwlrus ibn ai-
Muqalf:a: lIS. biographer of palriarchs (el. Johnson,
1911. pp. 115-116), and, accoldins 10 den Heijcr,
... compiler or the Coptic lJves and edilor of Iheir
Arnbic tTaMlation. The Iauer author th"" discerns a
c!tar boundary bet""ff!l the 61'SI fiw series of liws
(1-65) coI~,ed and lralUbued from d.., Coptic in
a si,.Je campa.n kd b}- Ma"'htib ibn ~ ibn
Mubnij. and lhe ~uet11 I.ioies, written diredly
in Arabic by M.a""i\ob ;wd his w.ccC1OOO"J,.
tb.ring comple~ his Arabi<:: redac'ion cf the .....•
lie.- Coptic Lives. ~n 1088 and 10'J4, Ma..-+tUb
ibn Mant"1r Mufarrij wrote the Lives of the 65th and
M.th po.triarchs, ctI'-1STOD01!Ul5 (1041-1017) and
CUll. II (1011.1092). The bet tha' his predecessor.
Michael of Tinois, wrote in Coptic makes Ma...-htib
emerge ... Ihe 61'$' biographer in this series 10 write
in Arabi<:, and probllb1y eWn as Ihe 6...1 Coplic
hislorian who expressed himS/;'lf in Arabic. At Ille
same lime, Ma""hllb is lhe Ii,-,I laym;\J1 among Ihe
authOl'$ of II><: History ollh" P'lIri~'Ch., an indica·
tion of Ih. lransfonnation lhe Coptic communilY
underwenl in his limes (d. Martin, 19S5, p. 26).
Although Mawhl1b's authul'$hip of Ihe two pall;'
arch li,e~ is obvious, G. Gm, In Ilis Crsch;cht< d"
chris/lich,," GT~bjsche" U/U<lt"T, erroneou.ly ...
cribed ooly the 66th life 10 him and Ihe 611h one lO
his suc<:essor. Yu!:>annJi ibn $"id (1947, p. JOI, per'"
haps inspired by th, same mistab in Culschmid,
1890, p. 4(2). Yulpom>i does OCcur in 'he talter life,
bul only in his capaci'y 01 scribe, ... ho, ..-+tile c0py-
ing MawMb's lexl, wlded a few personal remarb
(den Heijcr, 1983, pp. 114-119, and 1989, P. Ill).
Y".......'" ibn $'·Id ibn YaI,,1yi ibn Mint., kl1O""'11 as
Ibn aI-Quhumi aI·talib (the scribe), also a ia)man
and a high offtdal from Cairo. cot'ied and rtaI'
ranl'ed the li.,es ediled by Ma,,-ttUb, and tI-. ,,'en,
on lO wrM dowol lhe biot;1 aphies of lhe palliard",
of his 0W11 times. MIctIA.EI. IV (1092-1102) and
MAC.UlICS II (1102. 1128~
The: Hid patriarc:h. Mark III ibn Zur'ah (1161_
1189)....TOte the b10srapbles of his pr-e<!e«»or'S.
the ""Iria"',," 10, 71, and 72 (llJ I - 1161). Before
his consecration he was a layman, called Abo:! aI·
Farnj ibn Ahi aI-5a'd ibn Zur'ah.
Whereas Craf nIb lhe author of the lJ.,cs H and
14 anonymous, Klmil (194J, pp. 40-42) refers 10
him as Ma'inl AblI al·MaUrim ibn BaraHI ibn Abl
.,VAI~'. and points. out Ihal he was a nalive and
resident of al.Mai)alleh. Puraulng the tradition of
some of hi. forebears, Ihi~ aUlhor firsl copied lhe
li"es already ",rinen and Iben added Ihe biogra-
pbies of Ihe IWO aforemenl;"ne<l pa.!lurch!, who
"ign.d from 1166 10 11S9 and from 1189101216,
 HISTORY OF THE PATRIARCHS OF ALEXANDRIA
respectively, as well as a separate account of the
events taking place after 1216, when a nineteen-
year vacancy of the patriarchate began. Some note.
in his text seem 10 indicate that he wrote in se,·e.-al
stagcs, over a long period of time. He wrote his lirst
biography in 1207, slaMed his account of the V>lCan-
cy of the patriarchate in 1221, and appcars to have
completed it in 1229 (Kamil, 1943, pp. 40-42).
Kami! ~Ii!). Nakhlah (1943, p. 42) tends to regard
the contributions of the nine aUlho", treated above
as constituting the History of the Pntrio,chs properly
speaking, and the subsequent biog.-aphies of patri-
archs as a continuation of it. This demarcation is
ceMainly cOlToborated by many manu.cripts of Ihe
History of the Palriarchs, which are limited to the
firsl 74 lives, and by the fact that for the remaining
patriarchs, we ha"e generally anon)'mous and very
brief biographies-while a separate, elaborate, life
of the 75th patriarch exists (see below). Of IItme
very abridged lives (patriarchs 76-113, period of
1250-1942), original, longer versions may have ex·
isted in the past, but the te,t presently available is
often limited to the main dates (consecration,
death) of tlte patriarch. There are scm. exceptions.
The life of the 87th patriarch, Matthew I (1378-
1409), is lengthy and resumes the tradition of the
earlier lives. K~mil (1943, Pl'. 43-45) ha< been able
to identify its aUlhor ... the bishop of the monastery
of DHR AL-KHANDAQ. who must have written it shon-
Iy after the patriarch's death. The lJves 88-97 are
e.tremely brief again, and in this form they may
have been written by the patriarchal scribes. The
biographiu of the patriarchs 98-109 (1409-1852)
are wmewhat longer and anonymous, although
with regard 10 the life of the 103r<! patriarch, John
XVI (1676- 1718). a patriarchal scribe, the priest
'AI><! al-Masl!) of Minyat ~ard, i. mentioned. The
recent lives 110-113 are due to the keeper of the
Palriarchal Ubrary, the hegumenos 'Abd al-Masl!).
!ialib al-M..'udl of DAYR AL-,RAMOS (KAmil, 1943. p.
45). , ed. and trans. B. Evetts. Paris, 1904; Vol. I. pan
Apan from the series of, abridged biographies,
there is a lengthy life of the 75th patriarch, CYRtL 111
ibn Laqlaq (1235- 1243). including the long ,,"caney
preceding his consecration, by his contemporary,
Yiisab, bishop of Fuwwah. This biography appears
in ~ Patriarchal Hi;lOry by YU1"\b, which Gmf (1947,
p. 369) calls a completion and a continuation of the
History of the Parriarchs. It is e.tant in a manu.cript
of the DAVR AL-SURY~N, of which the Coptic Museum
holds a copy. On the other hand, the edition of the
SociMe d'archeologie copte contains a separate,
elaborate life of the same patriarch, in which two
1241
f'Cl'Wns are quoted: a cenain Yu!)ann! ibn Wahb
ibn Yii!).anna ibn Ya!)y" ibn Biilus and a shaykh
called 'Alam al-Mulk ibn al-I:la.jj Shams al-Riy;\sah.
The editors appear to regard the former as a co-
author and Ihe latter as the compiler. A collation of
this te,t with the Dayr al-Su')'~n manu.cript, done
by Nablh Kamil D~wiid, howe.-er, has established
that both texts are in fact identical, which implies
that the life of Cyril ibn Laqlaq as e<lited in History
01 the Patriarchs was written by YusAb of Fuwwah.
From this overview of the various authors who
contributed to the HislOry of the Patriarchs, it is
clear that the rather complex structure of this text
n«essitates much funher research. About its sourc-
e. and their use, the last word has not yet been
said, despite the imporlant studies done in this
field. As for its secondary tradition OF it. influence
on later texts, only some .""altered remarh ha,..,
been made (levi DElia Vida, 1940-1941; Cerulli,
1946; Kubiak, 1976). Studies of its language, panic-
ularly its ''Dcabulary, e,isl but are based On only
pan of the text (Farag, 1969~ 1973, 1976, and 1979).
An ""aluation of the historiographical methods
and altitudes is alw still a desideratum, since we
have only the critical remarl<s by E. Amelineau
(1914) on John 1 (494-503) and the interesting but
incomplete analysis b)' Farag. The numerous quota-
tions of the text ever since E. Renaudot'. panial
translation (1713) in many studies on Coptic history
suffice to illustrate its imporlance as a source for
manyaspeets of that hislOry, a fact underlining the
necessity of its £Unher textual i",',,"tigation.
Bt8LIOGI{APHY
Edition. of the History of Ihe Patritlrchs
S!wltu. ibn al-Mulrnlfa' (Muqalfa·). History 01 Ihe
Patriarchs of the Egyp1ian Church, Vol. l. pan l.
2, PO I, part 2. Paris, 1907; Vol. 1. paM 3, PO 5,
Paris, 1910. Continued as History of th, Patriarchs
of the Egyptian Church (HPEe) by Y. 'Abd ai-
Masl!)., O. H, E. Burmester, A. S, Atiya, and An-
toine Khater. Cairo, 1943-1974.
Seybold, C. F," ed, Severus ibn ai_Muqaffa'. Alexan_
drinisch" Patriarchengeschichze von S, Marclls bis
Michael 1 (61-767), nach de' ailesl.n /266
geschrieknw Hamburgu Hondschrift im arabi_
sch.n Urtexthuausgeg,ben. Hamburg, 1912.
_ _~, ed, S.verus Ben d-Moqaffo', His/ono Patriar·
charnm AlexandrirlOrum. CSCO 52, 59, Scriptores
Arabid 8, 9, ser. 3, pts, 1-2.
1242 HIW
Olher Worlu Quoled
Amtlinuu. E. "1...e!I lkmlen joun ella man du
Khalile Merouan II. d'apr~ I'Histoire des Palri-
arches d'Alexandrie:' )0"1'''0/ A~otiq..e 4. ser. 11
(1914);411-49.
BJllk~nn, H. "BAC oder zwei koptische Kiuhcn-
If'SChicluen:' U M"U07l 81 (1914):119-42.
Cerulli. E. "La 'ConqUiOb perslana di c.r:....
usalemmc' ed allre fond orienlali ~riS1ianc di un
l'pisodio dell' 'Orbndo furioto.··· OrKnlo/", 15
(1946):439-8l.
Coquin. R. G. Livr.. de III C<>,U«1'O';OI< du $41"'"
'uoire de & ..;.",i". eibllolh~ue d·.,l""'n copec:.
13. Cairo. 1975.
erum. W. E. "Ewcbius and Coptic Church H"to-
ria." Proceedmp 01 fhe Sod..." of 8iltiitt:01 AT-
c1luo/OO 24 (1901):68-84.
E...lyn-Wbile. H. E. fife MOtIfUUrittS of 1M Woldi'"
Nall"im, Vol. I: Ii_ Cornie TOI$ In:- 1M A40n<U-
IUf 01 S4irrt ""...,.. riM•. Vol 2: fife His'<>rJ 0I1he
...."4$le,;... 0{ Nmi,a .."d QI Sntis. Now York.
1926, 1932.
Fa",,&- f, Jl.. "A Com~rison of Sttverus Ibn aI·
M".qaffa'. Uleraty Technique in His: Two Works.
the 'His:I.ory of m.. Palriarelu' and 1M 'Book 01
lhe Coul>Cils' 1 .. 2.~ A"......I of ,Joe LudJ U"lWl'-
~ Orie,,'ol $odeI)' 1 (l969-1913):SO-SJ.
"The Technique of Rcscan:h of a T""Uo-
~C'ftl"'" Cbristian Anob Wriler: Sewnas Ibn aI-
MuqaIf.." u """Won 86 (1913):31-66.
''The ~ of lhe Coptie uncuace as a
C<mSlituem Ele~1 of the Uler10ry Fonn 01 lie-
,.~ Ibn aHo1uqa1f.:' Bibliof1lec. Orie"I.lis 33
(1916):274-83.
_ _ ~The Usa8e of lhe brly W.mic Terminolo-
gy as a Constiluenl Ete",enl of the Ule...ry Fonn
ofa T",nth-c",nlUry Chrisli... Arab Writ",,, Sc>""rus
Ibn al·Muqalb.~ JoumQI 01 Ihe A.....ricQ" Oril:nJ~
S«itt:1)' 99 (1979):49-57.
G.,J. G. (ol./06"e de m."USCrfl' oroM< ~hf'iM"s
~",,-,erY<!. II" C";nl, Sludi e Tnli 6J. Valiean (ily,
1934. .
GUt5(:hmid, A. VOn, ".Jif~lchnis ~r P"uiauh",n
....n Al",.andren:' In KI.. ,ntt: SrIr"'lu", Vol. 2, ed.
F. Ruhl. Leipzi8- 1890.
H",ijer. J. den. "Ouelques ""'m.at1:IUt'S SlJr la deu·
Jd~"", panie de 1'HIs/o;ff d..s Pa'riarrlr... d'Alu'
"ndrie." 8"lltli" de /0 Soc;~/~ d'orcMolog;e ~opte
25 (1983/=101-24,
_--,_ "M"whab Ibn Manf>:ar Ibn Mumrri!: el I·Hi,·
lo;re des PQ/,;"rrhes d',I,/ua"drie, nOle. sur une
elude en cool1l:' ACUJ d" de"..iem. COnt1'eJ i,,/er-
n"I;O>Io/ d'I,,,de8 orob... ch,ili."".... Oriental;a
Chri.tiana AnaJeelll 26, Rome. 1986.
_ _. "Sawlru.lbn al,Muqafla', Mawhob Ibn Mil':!'
.ilr Ibn Mufarrig el la gen~ de l·H;JlQ;1'. d••
Patrn:.,.hes d·Aluondrie." 8ibliOlh..a Orl,"toli.
41 (1984):33(,-47.
_ _. "L'RiSl,,;re de. Plltri.:r.rehe. d'A/oo"dri', re-
~", ...ion primili.,,,, et Vulgate," B"II.,,'.. de IQ SQ-
ciili .r"rrllio1t>gi. cop'e 27 (1985),1-29.
___ M"",lIiib Urn M"...,,1' ibn M,,/omg e'
rllisror!-
ogroplI;e cop'e... r,,". Elude '''1' IQ co",po.irio" d"
rHiSloi1'e de. P,,/riQrrlles d'A!oQ"dritt:. Lou •.,.in,
1989.
Johnson, D. W. COpl;" So..'CttS of ,lie History of /Irtt:
PlIlri"rcl.. of AI....."driQ. Ph. D. diss.. TM Catholic:
Uni'iffSily 01 A"""rica. Washinaton, D. C.• 1971.
"Funha Fraj""""15 of a Coptic HiSlor)" of
Ihe Ch...-.:h: Camboi<!g.. OR. 1699 k:' &dQ';o 6
(1976):7-11, Taf. 1-3.
_ _ "'Funhc:r Remarks on lh<I: Anbic llislOl)' of
lhe Pa.....,..,M of AIoandria.·' Orie... C/,ris/UI.."s
61 (19n):103-16.
Kimil Silih Nakhlah. Ki/6b TbikJI wo./o<!4 ..i/ &I,.
mk"i ~-(~riWJ, "U}iIH. Tinkh al·Ummah
al-Qibtiyyah 4. Cairo, 19-43.
Kubiak, W. '"The BuminS of Mi1r aI·FUIf.'! ill 1168,
A Re<:onsideration of HislOrical E..-ldence,~ Afri.
C""" S"I/em. 25 (1976):51-64.
umm. O. \'On. Koplische ' ....pen" V<1' POI1'Ulrr#r·
engurhirhle Aleu"d..wu. ~ra de I·Aca·
<!emie imphialt: des soc>..no:d de Sl. Pmn·
boourz 7. 36, II. 51. PelenbuTJ. 1m.
Ln; Della Vida. C. "A Christian lqe'nd In Moslem
Gub." B}...ntion IS (1940-41):144-57.
Martin, M. M. "lIM LecI1ln: de 1'H~oire des Paltl·
arc""'" d'A10exan0\ri.,." ~he Orienl ClrtilUn 35
(1985):15-36-
Orlandi. T. SU>ri" delltl Chia<o di Aluso,.<lriII. Tesoo
copto, l.-..durione '" comm",nlo, I, DQ PitlTO od
Al.an45i<>, II. D<I T~Q Q r_,eo 1r, Tuti .. dQC'
"",no,i pn to S,.,dio delI'A"liclli,. 17. 31. Milan
and V.....".." 19611-1970.
Sami~. K. "Un T",ile inedil de severe b. a1·MuqalJa'
(IO" $i~de:) 'u, Flambeau de 1·lntelligenu:'· Ori-
en/Q!iQ ChristiQ"Q PeriodkQ 41 {I97S1:ISO-210.
JOHA.-.ltlES ~ HF.lIER
HIW, a city in Up!"'r EgypI, located on the weSI
bank of Ih", Nile some 4 mil... (aboul 6.5 km) "Ol.,,!>,
easl of N"ll Hammadi. In Cred the clty "''all kno""n
as UpP"'r Diospolis or Diospoll$ Mlk .... til Coptic
sources the city i. called Hou or Ho.
Hiw was a bl$hoprl~ b..fore 325, ali evidenced by
frequent mention in the life of PACHOMlllS of an
unnamed bishop of Diospoli. (Zoe&". 1810, pp, 71,
75).
AI·w,ORI:!Cl wrole Ihal in his day (the fooneonlh
and filleenth ~enturies) there was " ~hu~h 01 lhe

Virgin and ~ church of ABO MINA in Hiw (1845, p.
14 I). The Abu Mina church later became a m<lnas-
IeI)' (see DAY!!. MAR MlIIA [Hiw-Nag Hammadi]).
BIBLlOGR-'PHY
-'mdineau, E, La G"<lgrapMe de I'ElYpt€ I< l'~poque
copu, pp. 198-99, Paris, 1893.
Timm, S, Dos christlich·k,opti,ehe A'gyplen in arab;-
scher Zeit, pi, 3, pp. 1120-25. Wie~baden, 1985.
loega, G, Catalogus eodicum eopt;corum ma"u·
scriptorum qui in Musw Borgiano VeUtri. adser·
vatur. Rome. 1810.
RANDALL STEWART
HOLY CROSS DAY. The COplic Church annual·
Iy commemorates Iwo event. relaled 10 the Holy
Cross on which Jesu. was crucified: Ihe finding of
Ihe croSS al Je",salem by the empress lIelena,
mother of Constantine, in A.D, 326, the feast day
being 17 Tut; and Ihe restoralion of the cross in 628
from the hands of the Pe... ians. whose King
Cho<rQes II had carried it off fifteen yea... earlier.
Emperor He=]iu. (575-642) brought it back to
Jero...lem where Palriarch Zechariah recognized
hi. own unbroken seals on the case containing the
gt""ateSi and most sacred relic of Christianity. This
event is commemorated on 10 B~ramh1l.
As 10 Baramhat in>'ariably falls during the Great
lent, Ihe celebration of Holy Cross Day takes place
on 17 Tut, which is lhe day that follows Ihe conse-
cration day of Ihe church on the sites of the Holy
Sepulcher and CalvaI)'.
The earliest mention of the glorious event of Ihe
finding of the Holy Cross in patrislic writings is in
Ihe Caleehelical Lectures of Saint Cyril of Jerusa·
lem (c. 315-386), In a sennon ba>ed on I Corinthi·
ans 8'5-6 and delivered in the Church of the Resur-
rection in 348, Ihat ;s, tw~ty.two years aher Ihe
discovery of the Holy Crqs, Saim Cyril speaks
about the witnesses and testimonie, concerning
Christ, and adds, '·The holy wood of Ihe Cross bears
witness, ,een among uS to this day, and fr-Qrn this
place now almrn;1 fining the whole world, by means
of IhQSt' who in faith take portions from it"
(Catechetical Lecturos 10.19). In anOlhersermon on
the Iheme of the crucifixion (based on Is. 53:17),
Saint Cyril dcclares, "He was crucified, and we
deny it not, nay, I rather glol)' to. spe~k Qf ii, For
though I should now deny ii, here is Golgotha to
confule me, near which we are now assembled; Ihe
HOLY CROSS DAY 1243
wood of the Cross confutes me, which was after-
wards distribuled piecemeal from hence to all the
world" (Lecture 13,4).
-Saint JOH" CHRVSOSI"OM (c. 347-407) te.lifie. 10
Ihe man;festalion of the lIoly Cross ;n the fQllowing
words, "For since the wood of lhe cross was bur-
ied, because no one was careful 10 take il up, inas·
much as fe~r was pressing, and the believers were
hUlT)'ing 10 Iheir urgenl matters; and since ;t was in
after times to he sought for, and it was likel}' thaI
three crosses would lie logelher, in order that the
lord's mighl not be unknown, it was made manifest
10 all, firsl by it. lying in the m;ddle, and then by
Ihe t;tle·' (Homily on Saini John 85).
Ambrose, bishop of Milan (c. 339-397), refers 10
Ihe discovery of the HoI)' Cros.~ in the cour:se nf a
scrmon delivered at a memorial service in 395 for
Empc",< Theodosius, in Ihe presence of Empemr
Honoriu•.
Socmtes (c. 380-450) kepi a record of relevam
reports he heard from ,'ariQUS sc>UfCes of how the
empress Helena was direcled by a divine dream 10
go to Jerusalem and lIart 'earching for Ihe cross.
She found that a temple to Venus had been erecled
on the .ite of the Holy Sepulcher to mislead pil·
grims, She had the ground cleared and searched
umil three crosses were eventually found, as wcll as
the tablct <If Pilate. The ooubl as to which of Ihe
three was the Holy Cross was dispelled by applying
each cross in turn to the body of a dying woman in
the neighbomood. When Ihe third, which was Ihe
true cross, louche<! her, she was ;mmediately hcal-
ed. Thus the genuine cross was discovered.
The st0l)' of the discovel)' of Ihe Cross was also
menlioned by the hi.torian TheodOre! (c. 393~c.
458).
There are also three notable apparilions of the
.ign of Ihe cross. The firsl was to Constantine Ihe
Greal, as he prepared to fighl Maxenlius. This was
recorded by various hislorian., such as Socrates,
tactanti"" and Sozomen. The details are given in
full by Eusebius of Caesa~.
. while he [COnslant;ne) was thus praying with
fe ....'ent enlrealy, a mQst m~rvellous sign appeared
to him from heaven, the account of which ;1
might ha"e heen hard to believe had it been relat-
ed by any other person. But since the ,'iCIOl;OUS
Emperor himself long afterwards dec1a<ed it to
the writer of this hiSlOI)', when he was honourc<!
with his acquaintance and sociely, and confinne<l
his statement by an oalh, wh<l could hesitale to
accredit Ihe relalion, especially since the test;mo-
1244 HOLY HORSEMAN
ny of aiteNime has e.tablished il< truth? He ,;aid
thai about noon. when the day was already begin.
ning to decline, he saw with his own eyes Ihe
trophy of a cross of light in the heavens, above
the sun, and bearing the inscription, "ConqueT
By Thi•. " AI this sight he himself was struck wilh
amattmenl, and his whole anny alro, which fol-
lowed him on this apedition. and witnessed the
miracle,
(The Life 0/ Co"slanli"e 1.27)
The 5e<:ond was to Gallus Caesar, According to
Socrates, "Ihe Emperor Constantius having creat·
ed Gallus his kinsntan CaeSaT and given him his
own name, sent him to Anlioch in Syria, provid·
ing thus fur Ihe guarding of the eastern parts.
When Gallus was emering this city, the Saviour's
sign appeared in the East: for a pillar in the fonn
of a cross "'en in the hea"ens gave occasion of
great amattment to the Speclators" (Ecclesiasti.
cal HiS/Dry 2.28).
Third, Saint Cyril of Jerusalem was an eyewit·
ness to Ihe apparition of Ihe sign of Ihe cross in
the sky at Jerusalem on 7 May 351, particulars of
which he sent in a letter 10 Emperor Constantius:
"Ouring the blessed days of Pentecost. and, to be
precise, on 7 May 351 ~.D.. a\>out 3 o'dock [in the
afternoon) a huge cross appeared in the sky over
Golgotha, reaching as far as the Mount of Olives.
It was seen. not by oOe or lwo poople, but by all
the inhabitants of the city, with Ihe utmost clarity.
Rather Ihan fade away as we e~pected it would
soon do, il continued 10 shine for many hours. in
a most resplendent brightness, more brilliant
than Ihe sun ilself., .. All Ihe city hurried 10 a
man in awe and wonder, but also in joy to see
this celestial sight. They Aocke<l, young and old,
men and women of all ages, and all praising
Christ Jesus our Lord" (From the Latin te~t io PO
33, coL 1165).
This apparition was also chronicled by various
oth" historians, such as Sozomen and Philo-
SlorgiUS. It is COnllDemOralecl by the Coptic
church on 12 ~
, Church, commented that pilgrim. Ie> the Nali"ity
BlBU~RAPHY
Butcher, E. L. rite Siory of Ihe Church of Egypl.
London. 1897.
Butler, A. J. The Arab Conquesl of Egypl, and Ihe
LAsl Thirty Years of Ih~ Roman Dominion, Oxford,
19(12.
ARCHBtSHOP BASIUOS
HOLY HORSEMAN, SU Christian Subjects in
Coptic An.
HOLY LAND, COPTIC CHURCHES IN
THE. Th~re are five Coptic churches in Ihe Holy
u.nd in addition to the churches in Jerusalem.
Theo Church of the Nativity in Bethleheorn
This i. one of the oldest Christian churches in the
Hoi)' land. built by Constantine the Greal in ~.D,
326. A pilgrim from Sordeaux writing in 333 said
that the tomh of Rachel is two kilometers from
Bethlehem. where Christ was born and where a
church was built at the orders of Constantine
(Crowfoot. 1971. pp. 11, 17,22.30; Stewan, 1887,
p. 27). The church was rebuilt by Justinian in 529
afler the revoh of Ihe Samaritans. II survived the
Persian invasion of 614 and avoided the destruction
that befell other churches in lhe reign of al·J:I~kim.
When the Crusaders ",izedthe Holy land in 1099,
they found the church inta~l. Ao anonymous pil·
grim writing in the twelfth cenlury said, "At Bethle-
hem there is a church built with pillars of marble,
wherein i. Ihe place where Christ was born. Not far
from hence. on the right hand. is the Lord's man·
ger" (Stewart, 1894. pp. 4-5). [n 1167 Ihe church
was renovated, and many olher rcnovatkms have
I&ken place since.
The entrance to Ihe church is through a small
door in Ihe counyard of Ihe manger in front of Ihe
church. This door leads to the ehurch's gallery.
from where another door leads 10 the church itsclf.
In Ihe body of the church are fony·four columns.
Portions of Ihe early mosaic Hoor have been found.
Beyond the columns the building is di.-ided into
three. The middle seclion, higher than lhe other
two. is Catholic, and this is where the Greek Onho·
do~ pray. The Armenians, the Copt., and Ihe Syri·
ans hold their prayers at altars in the """tion on the
left.
E. T. Richmond, writing about the Nativity
Church continued 10 come in the founeenth centu·
ry, particularly duriog Christmas (Harvey, 1935, pp.
11-12). Writing in August 1335. Jacques de Verone
panicipated in Ihe feasl held in memory of the
Virgin's "isil 10 the ca"e three days before her as'
cent to heaven. He des<:ribes the eYellt thus' "[n the
morning each sect went to the allar specified for
Ihem. The main altar in Ihe upper church was for
the Romans. while Ihe Franks had the allar in the
vault near the manger. To the left of the church [in
the nonhern wing] are three ahars and a water
 HOLY LAND, COPTIC CHURCHES IN THE
reservoir. On each of Ihese altars Ihe Indians, Nubi·
ans and NeSlorians hold their mass. In the soulh
aisle is an altar where twenty·four children killed
by Herod are buried (Ml. 16,2). Al this altar lhe
Jacobites [CoplS] hold their mass,"
Mori,ini in 1514 reponed lhat the Annenians
held their mass at lhe altar of the Three Magi, while
the Jacobite. held their masS at a nearby allar
(CeroW, \943, p. 314).
The Copts go to the Church of the Nativity in a
formal procession in June of evel)' year, They visil
the Cave of Ihe Nativity and relurn in procession,
Later Ihey hold the evening prayers, On the feast "f
Baramun they <:elebrate mass at Ihe allar of the
Ihree Magi, then go out to recei~e Ihe procession of
the archbishop of the see of Jerusalem, which ar·
ri,'cs al Bethlehem in Janual)', The archbishop then
~isilS Ihe mangcr and al sunsel prayer, Ihe Copts
descend 10 Ihc Ca,'C of the Nati~ity, where they pray
before returning 1<:> resume the ,unlCt prayers. On
Christmas Eve Ihey celebrate mass in Ihc same
place and Ihen return in formal procession to the
patriarchale in Jerusalem.
Anha Yacobos, archbishop of the see of Jeru...·
lem from 1946 to 1956, bought four hou,es facing
the Church of Ihe Nativity where he planned to
build a Coptic church and monasICl)', but he died
before accomplishing this task. Archbishop Basili<:>s
turned one of the hou.e. into a monastery and
e'labli.hed a small church dedicated 10 the Holy
Virgin, where prayers are held every Sunday. Some
Coptic monks now li~e pennanently in Ihe monas·
lery.
Saint Andrew's Church In Jericho
In Ihe day, of Anha Timotheos, archbishop of the
see of Jerusalem from 1899 10 1925, a church and
monastery were buill in Jericho for Coplic-pilgrims
on Iheir way to the Jordan. 'lI'e church was ioaugu·
"'ted in 1924, and the pau'iarchate in Jerusalem
sent some of its monks to live al lhe monastery,
The patriarchate looked for more propeny, and in
1935 a piece of land was purchased in the piace
Ihat was belie~ed t<> be the site of the house of
Zac<:haeus, in which he recei~ed Jesus (Ll<. 19:2),
When the place was cleared, the remains of a Byz·
antine church of Saint Andrew were discovered.
The Church of Saint Andrew lies in the southweSI
of Jericho, on the north hank of al-Oalt valle)'. On
arri~ing at Jericho from Jerusalem, one reaches the
remains of the church by walking along the firsl
1245
.treet 10 the west after crossing the bridge of the
AI·QaIt valley. AI the soUlhern end of the streel,
there is a small monastery <>f live rooms sel in the
middle of an orchard, where usually one or more
Coptic monks live. Among the Roman monuments
there is a pool that was apparently once used for
fishing. There is also a water reservoir and two
others to lhe west.
Saint Andrew's Church was built .sometime he·
tween the founh and .i.th cemuries, like all the
BJ'l>Intine churches in the area. The antiquity of
this church is pro,'ed by the mosaic that COVeTS its
floor, this being of the black and white unrefined
kind used in Ihe firsl centuries of Chri.lianity. The
church was damaged by the Persians in 614, It
seems that it was one of Ihe first churches reached
by pilgrims, monks, and hennit. who spread into
the al.Qall ~alley al this time. Today there are still
monasteries and hermit ca~es in the are•.
Mosaic co"ers the floors of the building that was
constructed over the ruins of Saint Andrew's
Church, It seems that Saint Andrew'. Church was
built over a cemetery, for many ancient tombs can
be seen in the ~icinity.
The mosaic conlains tWQ Greek inscription., The
first COnSiSIS of .ix lines, while the second contains
ten lines, The first reads: "Magnianos the soldier
thanks Saint Andrew. The mosaic is made with the
help of the priest Heraclios and Constanlino, the
deacon and Polikhronios."
Polikhronio. is probably the name of the aniSl
who made the mosaic. Presumabl)' Magnianos
cau.ed the church to be built after his prayers had
heen answered by SainI Andrew.
The second inscription is on a tomb, tone and
reads, "Here re.t. the blessed Triphon, the selVanl
of Jesus, who died on 20 February, on the lifth day
of the tcnth decade." The dale gi~en would be
Thursday, 20 February 592.
There are some Roman, BJ'l>Intine, and Arabic
antiquities from the church preselVed in one of the
rooms of the monaslery. These include columns,
capilal., and ",me old jars.
Prayers are now conducted over a mobile ahar,
which is pul in one of the rooms before prayers. In
view of the religious and archaeological importance
of the church, the patriarch of Ihe see of Jeru...lem
and the Near East decided to establi.h a large
church on the top floor of the same building dedi-
cated to Saini Andrew, and to maintain and pre-
seT'.'e the mosaics in the floor of the original
church.
1246 HOLY lAND, COPTIC CHURCHES IN THE
The Church and MonllSl~1')' or John Ihe
Bapllst near Ih~ River Jordan
Copfic" pilgrims who 10 ro tilt Holy ~nd visil the
1lJ,'er Jordan. when Jesus \lo'aS baptiud. C. I. lroy,
",ho vlsil~ th.. Holy lind in IUS, 0lUd thai he saw
OllillWu aI me River Jordan numbcrillJ uuund
~ I'--"d. includln« Gr~d;s. eopct, .nd [Ih.",.·
am (IS6lI. p. (00).
this holy $pOI nOl Oftl)· altnclS pilarims bul also
monks aM hcnnils "'00 dcdicaIe lheir liYn to w0r-
ship ie lhe JORbni:an destrt. OIle or Ihe 6Qt of
Ihew hennils _ Saini Mary ..... Ec-pllan. who
spenl iony ynn !be.., :after heT pi\a;rin\ll(le 10 lhe
Holy Sepukher in 382.
At lime ....,nl on >0"'" or Ihe Coptic monb ......0
"'enl to lhe Holy ~nd .tayed 10 worship in Ihe
dese". Among those woo "''''m \here II Ihe begin·
nina of Ihe I_n,ieu. cenillry _.., ShinUdah al.
An\unl .nd th.. archpriest Pllllubbul al·M~rI".
The CoplS ha~ a monasl.. ry by lhe Jordan called
.ft..r John Ih.. Bap,ist_ H...., Anba TheophilOll. arch.
bishop of Ih.. see 01 Jerusalem from 1935 to 1945.
laid Ihe roundalion stone of th.. Chun:h of Saini
John Ihe Baplis'. bUI Ihi, church is Mill not com·
pleted. An~ Yacobo<. archbishop from 1946 10
19S6, added som .. rOOms to Ih.. monasl.. ry. Ih.. Iarg-
"1 of ",hich is used as a church. n.e OIber room.
..... for Ihe resid..nce of CopIic pUlrirm .;sitin, ,he
Rl~r Jordan. N""I 10 the monasl..ry is some bnd
..hich ,he palriarch..... in Jerusal..m In..ed from
Ihe lO".. mm..nl and ",hich is used lor ..... crowinll
of vqeuble:s. fruit. and palm and oli,'" trft$.
In order 10 i«Ure the comfort of pil¢ms >isilinJ
..... rnolUSUry...... pauiarchate in Je~m plalll'
ed IrftS on the ba.nks or !he Rh-er Jordan Pd
I"ooi&!d aeariAg lor 1M hundred peopie.
The pal ...."'hale conducts annual ,,",~l"!I and
celC'bntM>ni on the feasl of Baramun and Epiphan)'
.. lbe IDOnastery_ Usualb" 011 ,"is 0C'CUi0n • big
procession tak.... plac... ,),tu, the ckrp and deacOl'i
preceded by Boy Scouts' and Girl Sc:OOI5 pla)inc
lnst"u"enlt. Tbe)' proceed from the monwery 10
th.. ri.er .nd th..re conduCl pr,l)U'S befou l"C'1um-
ins to the monaslery.
Sin~ ,he "'.... of June 1967. t"is has been. mili·
tary ana and the monks have been !o<-bidden 10
liv~ at the monastery_
The Church and Monastery of Anbl
AnlOn1yOs In Jericho
During Ih.. da}'S of Jesuo ehri". J.. ric!>o ",as ,h..
Ii", chy In lhe Holy ~nd after J..rusal.. m, [t ",as
he... thai Chrisl made the blind see and lha, H .......
a CUC'Sl in Ih<: house of Zacchuus. In ilS fonress
Simeon the Mxchabee "'IS murdered. and Hemd
the Gmt died lhere, when Ihe populMion ""as
100.000. In lhe C"ristian en il ~ame the head-
quarten- oJ tilt dioc::ese. UDde, the C~n the
city became !he plope"! of !he Kni&hts oJ the HoI)'
Sepukber. It ...... they "'00 buih the J"'<:"Cfl1 ciIa-
del. and the houses sutrOIoIndinC lilt ciladd. ionned
th.. nucleus of the presem <;oily. 1M old dt)· of
krid>o lies abo\n 3 mile:s (5 kin) 10 lhe wC'S\ of Ihc.
presenl ci1y. "The nearby mounwn "'.... the "",ling
fw Chris\·s .......m in u.e ..ildemns when he "'=
templed by SaUln.
eop'ic pilgri.... visited ,he holy pllloC'"' rrom lite
earliest limes. and prob.ably spenl Ihe niChl in Jm
cho on their way to Inc River Jordan, and also
reMed there on Ih.. ir "'Ily back '0 J.. rusal.. m.
"The pn,.... nt CoptiC church in Jericho is named
aIler AnbA An!uniyiis. The land upon which the
chllrch lind monaslery arc built w.... bought by
Anba 8a5ilios It (1856-1899). Th.. building of Ihe
church was begun in 1922 lind ""as complel..d in
1924 under Anbl Timolh~O\l (1899-1925). The
monaslery was built in th.. time of AnM &.silios 1lI
(1925-1935).
Th.. church was renovaled in 1%2_ Th<: icons on
th.. icollOO-ta5" w .. re rdolored .nd new _IS- w.......
inlroduced. ~yers are perfonned '"''<:r). Sunday.
Th.. church and mona.ot...,. are surrounded by a
larze orchard and .,.., vlsll~ by COplic and OIbcr
pit¢ms.
Th~ Church and MOIiUlef)" of Anba
Anfunlyiil: In Jaffa
In 1'S6.lhe ...."'iy oonsecnte-d archbishop nt the
...... of JnusaI.. m. An~ 8as1lio1 II. Slopped al Jaffa
on hi< "''aJ 10 Jerusalem.....'hile ..':Iilln& Ior~·
men.. 10 br: made lor h.. ,rip 10 JentSlOi..m. he ....
""'en 10 .... Armenian monaslC'ry, the.., being no
Coptic irmilUlion in the area. H............ mo>'f:d a,
s.crin, numbers of CopIS galhered outside Ih<: mOll·
loSIer)' thai he ~ ... ned immediately to look for anOlh·
...- p1ac:.. ,""ere h.. could ,tay with his fellow Copts.
A rich (;re,:,k Onhodox off..red Ie> Jelilhe archbish·
op a big garden comainin, a small emply house,
Th.. archbishop IOCcC'pl..d Immediately. and Ihus. on
th~ very day of hi, arrhal In Jaffa. secured a penna·
nenl place for th.. Coptic pilgrims.
When he reillmed 10 EIlYJ't. h~ collected ten~r·
0115 donation. from his larlJe diocese, which com-
prised mOll! of th.. go~morale:s of northern Egypl.

and with these donations h~ nOl only purchased tM
property in Jaffa but also built th~re th~ church and
monast~ry of Anbt Anluniyiis. The church, complet-
~d in 1858, has on~ sanctuary and it. icono.lasi.
and icon, are in th~ B}'Zantin~ style, Prayers at"<'
perfonned weekly at the altar. AoM Basilios II and
Anb<l Basilio< III are buried in a shrioe within th~
church.
The mooast~ry COO.iMS of two stories with .i,
large rooms 00 each story. Each Aoor is sur-
rounded by a terrace. There is a big pool that was
used for irrigating the orchard. Anbll. Theophilos
built a r~sid~nc~ on part of the orchard be.ide the
church. The rest of the land was used as an orchard
until the [scaeli authorities occupied the city in
1947 and all the tree, were cut down. [n 1977 sonte
necessary renovation. were carried out.
For churchu i" Jerusalem, see: Jerusalem, Coptic
See of,
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Abel, F. M, "Inscription de Uricho et de Sc}1hopo-
Ii,," Revue Biblique 7 (1911),
Augustinovic, A. Gerico e DiMiorni, Jerusalem, 1951,
Avi.Yonall, M. "Mosaic Pa,'ements in Pale,tine."
Quarterly of Ihe Department of Amiquilies of Pol-
esti". 4, 2nd ,,"pp. (1935),
___. "Abbreviations in Greek Inscriptions."
Quorrerly '" Ihe Deporlment of A"liquilies of Pal·
estill. 9 (1940).
Baramki. D. C. "An Early Byzantine Ba<ili<;a at Tell
Hassan." Qua.rterly of Ih. D'parlmenl of "'miqui.
ries 0/ Palesrin. (1936).
Brownlow, W. R., tran •. Th. Pilgrimage of Saewull.
The Library of the Palestine Pilgrims' Text Socie-
ty 4, pt. 2, London, 1896,
Cerulli. E. Etiopi in Pales/ina, Vol. I, p, 374. Rome,
1943-
Colbi, S. P. Chri.liaMily in the Holy Land, P"st and
Presml. Tel Aviv, 1969. .
Crowfoot, J. W, Early Chur<4rs in Palestine. Collese
Park, Md., 1971. , noised from the dead after three days. Th"Y asked
Cust, L. G. A. The Slaws Qu;, in Ih. Holy Places, p.
63. Jerusalem, 1929.
Ha..... ey, W. Slr"Clurol S"rvey of the Church of Ih.
Narivity in Bt/hefehem, pp. II - 12. London, 1935.
Hoade, E. Guide to rhe 1/oly Land, 4th ed. Jerusa-
lem, 1971.
[my, C, L Tra"els in Egypt and Nubia, Syria a"d rho
Holy Land. London, 1868.
Meinardus, O. F. A. The Copts i" Jerusalem, pp.
79-W. Cairo, 1960.
___, "The Byzantine Church of Saint Andrew in
Jericho." Bul/eli" de la SOCiele d'arch'ologi.
copre 18 (1965/1966):181-96.
HOLY SATURDAY 1247
___, The BY'''"lin. Church of Saint A"drew in
Jericho, Studi di antkhit<i cristiana 18. Vatican
City, 1971.
Stewart, A., lrans. Ilinerary from Bordeaux 10 J.rusa·
lem (333 A.D.). London, 1887,
___. A"onymous Pilgrims. Palestine Pilgrims Text
Society. London, 1894.
VtroM, J. de. Libe, peregrinalionis, ed. D. Monneret
de Villard. Rome, 1950,
AI<CHBISHOP BASIUOS
HOLY SATURDAY, the Saturda}' between Good
Friday and East~r Sunday, It is also referred 10 as
Great Saturday, as in the Constitutions of the Holy
Apostle. (1951. p. 447) and in al·$AFI ihn al-'Assal's
Xildb al.Qawdnln (1927, p. 140). Also, in .pite of
the fuct that it commemorates the resting of
Christ's body in the tomb, it is designated the Satul'
day of Joy because it heralds the Resurrection of
Christ, ....hich He had proclaimed to His disciples.
Christ also promised them that they W(>uld see Him
again, "and your Marts will rejoice, and nO One
will take )'our joy from you" (In. 16:22). It is a day
of joy not only for the living but also for the dead
who died in Christ (Is. 56:1-4; U:. 4:18-21; Pl.
3:19), for on Holy Saturday Christ', spirit descend·
ed into HADES, the re.ting place of the souls of the
dead.
A. Good Friday draws to a dose, the church pre·
pares to celebrate the ri,inS of the Sa.,wr from the
dead, by abandoning the emblems of mourning pul
up throughout Holy Week, particularly on Good
Friday.
Events or the Day
According to Mallhew 27:62-66, the chiefpriesls
and the Pharise"" went to Pilate and told him that
....hile Jesus was still ali"e, H~ said that He would be
Pilate 10 give orders for tbe gnove to be made se-
cure until the third day, lest the disciples steal
Christ's body and toll the people that He had been
raised from th. dead, "and the last deception would
be worse than the firs!." Pilate granted Ihem tbeir
t"<'quest: the stone was sealed over the grave, and a
guard was posted.
Day or FllIIllng
Holy Saturday i. the only Saturday of the year on
which total abstention from food is recommended;
1248 HOLY SATIJRDAY
Not that 1M Sabbath-<iay is a day of wilng, boeing
Ihe rest rrom !he creation, but b«-..se .... ~ 0UIh1
10 fast on Ihis one Sabbath only, ""hile on Ihis da,'
1M Cno.....- ..~ ..nde. 1M eanh. •.• Do J'OU
~ la<I on lhe day< of lhe Passo>'u, begin·
Dlnl rrom !he oecond day of the "wk .. ntil the
prt"flll"'lK>n, and 1M Sabbath, Ih dayL ... Do
J'OU who ano able . . al Ihe day of the Pft'I*nI.
lion lind the Sabbath-day entird" ~inC nothinC
till th~ cock"''-;llJ oJ the nicN; but if anyone ill
nol able to join them Doth t<JC.e<her. lot leut let
him obsel'-': ....., Sabbadt..by; (or the Lord 5;\}'"
somewhere• ..,eaking of H'lmelf. "When the
bridet:rooon !JLal1 be IaUn ._y from them, in
tho.se days WU they tw:· In these c1a)'S. 1M,...,.
(or~. H~ wu ""ken hom .... by Ihe J~ ... and
la$1e-d to Ihe CI'nIS. and " _ numberd among
I ~ ~ " Wherefore ....., eohon you 10 last
on these day•... but from the even of lhe firth
d.ay till cock..,mwing break your fut when it i.
daybreak of thc first day of the week, which is the
Lord', Day.
(Constitution. of the Holy Apostle., 19SI, pp.
44S-47).
TIn Apostolical Canon' me.. this prohibilion by
refening 10 tnc coume'l'rohibilion applyi"c Iu the
other fifty....ne Saturdays: "If any of the cl~rgy be
found l'aoting on the Lord', Day or on the Sabbath,
eoccpting the one only, Ie< him be dCJ)OiCd If a
layman, let him be excommunicated" (Apostollcal
Canons, 1'156, p. 593; d. Cumminp, 190$, p. 110).
The Cuemony or the Holy Llghl
Every )'CU' on Holy Salurday, the C\~ oi Easter,
the low- Orth<:>d<n churchCl in lhe Holy Land
(Grftk. ArtT>Cflian. Coptic, and Syrian) participate
in the celcbmion oi the Apparition oi 1M Hoi,
ll&hL A lallJC numbn of people join in, e""h hol<J.
inC thirty-three candJ.CI, S)'mbolic of the thln)'-l~
)'Uri of C!triu's Ih on nn.h.. Ckrgy representing
1M h~hy of thc.~ four ehu rd1es. all robed
and uorrying Cro5!lC!l, fbI", cenKrll, and Gospels.
Conducl procClSions Defore and after the Apparition
oflhe Holy Ugh•. chanting hymns rel_nt 10 lhe
ocC&Oion.
Early in Ihe morning all sanCluary lamps hlSlde
th. Holy Sepulcher a~ utin...,i$hed and ~finCil
with new oil and new wicks. AI abotll .leven
o'dock. the entrance to the Holy Sepulcher is
closed and seale<!. Half an hour later Ihe Coptic
procession starts from the Coptic patriarchate, wilh
Ih. Coptic Orthodox metropolitan at Itl head. and
proceed to Ihe Church of the Resurrection, passing
by lbe Coptic monastery DUll ALSIILIAK and the ....,o
ct.apo,ls of,he Four U>ina Crealures (see CHIUST, TlU·
lJ...... 01) and of lbe a<chanad Michael. AI half past
tweh~, the Grftk Orthodo:< pnx~ion makes three
circuits arnund ,he rotllnda, after which !he C<eek
pal~h or hit; rcpres.entatlvc, who prcs.ida over
the celdlntion. CtItCfS the wctinda after tmdoinC
.....h-
At about one o'dock, foUowina the cd~n of
the Apparition of the Holy l.iBh1. a Coptic priest ....d
" Coptic byman lake the light &om the acdicub 10
1M Copric chapel adjacent 10 the Hnly Sepulcher
>ia the them portion of the n)1uncIa. AI the
same time, Other member of the Coptic commu-
nity rccci"cs the light from !he IOtIthem 0>..1 wi ...
dow of the aedicula and proceeds via the same:
rOttte to the Coptic chapel, where the c....dle lartlJ'l'
arc lit from the Holy Ught and the congregation
lighl their own candlel.
The Coptic proce..lon stam immediately. making
Ihr.., circultl around the rotunda, followed by tho
Syrian Orthodo., all chanti"i, At Ihe third circuit,
they stop opposite the Holy Sepulchcr. where a
Coptic pries.! recitn the Intercession of Ihe Gospel.
Then Ih. Coptic metropolitan reads tho Iection
from Ihe Go5pd in Coptic Inside the Holy Sepul·
cher and is followed by " deacon who reads it in
Arabic at Ihe mtl'll"'. 10 lhe $epulchct'. n.e pm-
cession then moves to"..ard the Coptic chapelI'I the
Chu.-eh of the Rcsurt'Klion. Here again a priCSl:
.-cads the InlCreCMion, and the me<ropoIitan """ds
Inc Gospel il> Coptic, .followed by a deacon in Ai'll'
hie. FInally, the mttropolital> li"" the bltssinc.
and the prncr:s.loion 10 lhe pII1riudulle reou"""" via
Day.. al&ltin.
An evo:rn of J».rIicular mterat ill the modem his-
tOl'}' of E«YPt is especwly rde..ant htte. Follo..i"l:
the success of his Syrian campai.n in 1&32, ibra-
him Paifta, son of M~mad "All, desirc<1 to asce"
Lain for hilmelf the troth of the Apparilion of 1M
Holy Light. He SCtIt for Pope I'EIU. vn (Rutru, ai-
Jliwli) and disclose<l his intention tQ him. Accord-
ingly the etrunoh of the Re...ncction wu vacated,
and lhe eOllgreption was replaced by Ibrahim',
soldiers....·hile other guards were .talioned ",,\:Side.
The Holy Sepulcher was thoroughly searche<!, and
.., were the Coptic and Greek Orthodox patria.-eh.,
who, incidentally, had been fastina and praying for
thre. consecutive daY'" Pray~rs commenced as usu·
al when, ~I Ih,' ~rr'.. >inl,'d lin1<', Ih,' licht suddcnly
burst into the Sepulcher and, passing throuah the
pillars, appeared outside Ihe church. lbmhim Pasha
 HOLY SPIRIT, COPTIC DOCfRINE OF THE
.... uceedi!1dy amazed. TM Coptic pacriuch reo
11,l~ 10 his.ott in pr:a<:e_
The Sen1ce of Holy Saturday
Sl.afIing "'" Sarurdoy ew. this ...,nice oompril.es
Ihe Iollowins IRllin p...ts:
Th..... lmody. Wearins ",h'le _mellIs and be-
inS "'1. lhe chief prien reads lhe Copl:ic version of
P»Im 151 (MustS. 1954). "I Wi15 tmall among my
hrelhren. and a youth in Ille house of my Falher."
then. with Ihe psalter book w.... pped in while .i1k
and holding lighted candlel, Ihe re.t of Ihe clergy
and deacon. make a proce.sion around lhe church,
,inging in Coplic, "Lei uS ~ve thank.. 10 Chriot and
God," Th")' lhen .it down being each olher in t"'o
ro_
Then 1M foIl"",ing plIS50Iges from Ihe Scripturo
are read:: the tint ode €A Mosa (Ell. IS:I-18); the
JeCOnd ode of Moses (Ot. 32:1-43): the pnyer of
Hannah. rnotI>e. of Samuel 11 Sm. 2:1-10); the
pn,'er of Haballuk (Hb. 3:2·19); the p",,·e. of Jo-
nah (Jon- 2:2-9): the ~ of Heukiah (b. 38:10-
20): Ihe pnyer of MaO'""""" (2 Olr. 33:13); the fuv.
prayer of Isaiah (Is. 26:9-20); the second ode of
laiah (b. 2.5:1-12); the third ode of kaiah (Is.
26'1-9); lhe ode of Je....miah (Lam. 5:1&-22); the
ode of Bamch (Bar. 2:11-26); Ihe ode of Elijah (I
Kp. 16;16-39); lhe pl'llye. of David (I Chr, 29:10-
13): the prayer of Solomon (I Kg,. g:22-3O); Ihe
prayer of Daniel (On. 9:4·19): Ihe vi,ion of Daniel
(On, 3:1-23): Ihe pntyer of Aurlas (On. 3:30-.51):
Ihe ode of the three youtha (On, 3:.52-100: 3:24-
30); I.... od.. of Ih.. Virzin Mary (Lk. 1:46-55); Ihe
p""ye. of Zechariah (U. 1:67_79); Ihe prayer of
S;m~ the E1de. (Lk. 2:29·32); and I.... 0101')' of
Susaonan ([apoc.] On. 13:1-6.5)-
The Monoh'l otrerl"l of hte'nM. n... momins
olferinl of incense is COndOCled In the usual rrun·
""r, fol.lo....'ed by the I'n)oer <l\IM Third Hour and
the PI'lI)"'r ollhe Ninth HO\I•• In redlinr; the crffd.
it mUS' be remembered bere thai the section rder-
ri"l 10 the resurreclion and ~ n of Chris!
,hould be ...ithbeld.
Tk Rewlelloa 10 Joh•• A bowl is filled. ..ith
pure oli..... oil and surrounded by ""'en Boatinr;
wicks, Sewn candl"" a... lit, and a CJOSS i. placed
in lhe middle. men the book 01 Revelalion is read.
firat in Coplic and then in Al'lIbic. Afterward, Ihe
I'Tayer of Ihe Ninlh Hour i, llIid.
Th. Divine Lit"..".. In tne celebration of Ihe
UIUraY of Holy Saturday, a special procedure must
1249
be followed io .-dinl Ihe Pauli.... epistle, lhe
Poalm ,·enid.,. and the Gospel, namely the
firs< ba1f must be ....ad in a eenaio in. lone,
.. hUe Iho: remainder is read in Ihe usual mw lone.
This is 10 reIIea moumins while Chri. is still bu..
ied, whereas the laller 5K1ion, in a Mful lone,
rdeas antidp..iQn 01 the Rt:surTCClion.
It is euenlial that Ihe panaldol nf Holy Commu·
nlon on Holy SaNrday be completed ;n lime 10
allo", for lhe p~ribf:d minimum period of nioe
hOlJrs of faslinl prior to Ihe commuolon of Easle,
Sunday,
BIBLIOGRAPHY
CllmminiS. D. Th~ Rudder, p, 110. Chicago. 19.57.
Ibn d-' A.ssal. al-sall. /(i,lb ..1·0.....1"1,,. Repr. Cairo.
1917.
lbo SibI' yiitmoni ibn Abf-hbriya. J(illb ..I·i.....
ru..1o
1o.. ,.,J, ..1·N.. fi 'WOO... .. /-/(_UaIr. W. Vi,"O.
MatISI1r. pp. 164-66. Cairo. 1902. Lalin ..... nion
"'~Iio1iJ Mc>rr-ril.. d. Sciutili: &clesi4sricis.
tranl. Vincent Mlsllt1h, Cairo. 19&6.
MllSCS. C. A... <:d. The ~'" Bibl~, lrtlns. C.
Thormon. Indian Hills, Colo.. 1954.
PhlIOI""'", »-Ma<Porl tI aI. ,,,,,Ith D..J1dl ..... r.."i!>
iu...'., .I-Auun "'. '14 ,,/.Fill! ..I-M..pd. /!<rUJb
r ..qluI ...... -T<lmb ,,/·/(,,_10 <l1.Qib{iyy<Ih "f·U..
tJ,1<dJuJ<.in...It, pp. 145-210. Cairo. 1920.
William Sulaymtn Qilkiah. /(irdb ..1.Dilq,;,Ii,,,h,
, .. '/til", .. 1-RuI"t, pp. 34()-.1. Cairo, 1979.
Yai)annl Sallmah. Kir6b ,,1·!.A'lli ..I·N../i,,,h II
Slt",~ !uqu. w .. -M"·r.. q,,d~1 ..1.Kan/s"lt, Vol. 2,
pp, 343-50. C"iro, 1909.
ARCHBISHOf BASJLIOS
HOLY SPIRIT, COPTIC DOCTRINE Of
TH E. The Coptic doclrioe of Ihe Holy Spiril is the
doclrine of the undividf:d church of the lirst three
ecumenical COWId.... The EaYPtian anachon:lic: and
ce!>Obilie monastic tradition has ",,,"'ys OIrongly
~ """elie"", and rnysricism closely .... lat·
ed to t.... acmily, pm. and fnliu of the Holy Spirit.
Saini 1LI<TOfIY of Egypt .... the lira! saini called "the
carrier of the Spiril" (Greek, p"eumaloplroros; "'"
ApopIrlMgmtJl4 P",",,,,. "nder "Anlony the ereat."
1960).
the church of Alexandria participalC<l in Ih. li.ht
apin" an offohool of Ihe Arian h.resy (see ARI~N·
r$M), Pneumalom""hiani,m, which denie<! Ihe di.
vinil~ of Ihe Holy Spirlr .nd Hi, CDn$ubSlanllalily
wllh Ihe FMhe, and Ihe Soo. fn his Fou' LeII~'s 10
S~'<lpion. bishop of Tmuls, In 359-360, Saini ATHA·
1250 HOLY SPIRIT, COPTIC DOCTRINE OF THE
!'IASI\I5 ~ fonh his doclrine on the divinily and
prol:ftSion of the Holy Spirit. He .o.rgued lhal the
}Ioly Spirit mUSl ....ve the divine J\alu<e In order 10
divinil:C and sanaify human beinp. The church of
Alcund" ..... fully nprnnIled al the l«ond «u-
menical council, CONSJ....' ffiI«lI'U I (3SI), and aliopt.
ed Its oiIicial credal fonnub. concernl... the tk>Iy
Sp;ril, which ttJday In a modified form reads: '"Truly
...., bel;ew, In the Holy Spirit and in the Lord, Ci.,.,r
of lift. Who forthly procee<lrth from lite Father; we
"''Orship and &lorify Him with me Father, bring the
Soil who "'... spoken of by the Prophets, , ,R (lI.h·
Ik, 1973, p. &4; Gruk orili",,1 in ~nzlnger, 33<1
ed., I%S, 110. 150).
The Coptic church also leach" thai Ihe Holy
Spiril ;, Ihe Third Person of Ihe mOoSI holy Trinity,
aoo. the""fo"". He is consu/ntalltial, cotlemal, co-
equal, aoo coador.lble with the Father and the Son.
Due 10 tlte AUS CONQUEST OF ~GyrT (1)3~-641) the
Coptic church did 1101 panicipalt in the StrulUlle.
O\'tr lhe flLlOQUE belwun Wlem and We.tern
Chrisllanity, and did not insen lhe Filioque into Iht
Creed, Today, wilh all Easlern churchtl nOt In
commonion wilh Rome, it rej«ts. the Filioque for
scriptural. canonical, and dogmatic re....,n, Ii.S an
iIl('lilimate change of the profO'$sion of failh. In
1898 the b!ina;na: Synod of AJuandria of lhe Cop-
llc Calholic church (;n communion wilh Rome)
ldopIed the Filioq..e into the Crff<I and tIttologic.al
le'aChinl-
The a~M$S 01 the HoI-y Spiril is Q\lil~ inl~_
in till' Coptjo, church. This ltWU'tT>tW is nprt5st'd
in INd)c doaolosiots in "'·hieh "the consubstantial
and life-giving 'Holy Spirit'- is frequently men·
tioMd. Otht:r formula. read: " .......·holly b1cucd
",i!h the JlSCe of. the Hot)" Spirit," ~pure a«Of'd;nl
to tlte Pft of the Holy SpiriI~ and ~ ... a co~
lion thai Is sanctifotd by Hit; Holy Sptril... The eu-
charistic Er1CI.ESIS ;", directed to God t1'H: falher.
"We bel Thee, 0 ~ ... lhaI Thine Holy Spirit
may descend upon US and upon IheK obl.,ions;
purify, ,........bstantia,e and manifcst them in SlItcti·
I)' 01\10 TlUne hoi)" pewle" (Ishak, 1973, Po %).
The ACrarnel\l of chrismation (confirmation) is
unde.....ood as an ar>ointins ....ith the Holy Spinl
accompanied by anoinling with lhe holy chrism
consecrated by the Coptic pope of Aleundna. The
rile of chn.marion includes an epicltli. asklnS the
falher for lhe pouring oUl of the Holy Spirit. It i.
abo descrit>ed as an impanition of Ilim, and kal·
InS by Him and His grace for the angelic, eternal.
and Immonal life. The rile of the ucr:ament of the
unction of the sick (s« A~""NG) conWn. also an
epicl....os: "We pr1l)' 10 Thee, 0 Lord, for Thine OCT-
nnl [name). lhat the &fXe 01 the HoJ}' Spirit JII3}'
descend upon him I~rl... ." TM CopIic: ritn of
ordination con...i" dilfewnl fonnul.. 01 tpiclesis
entreali", God the F"ne.- 10 send <>r pour out the
Holy Spirit 001 the ol'daiM<!. to bless, purify, and 611
him ",ith the Hoty Spim, or with His power, vxe,
Pts, or ~;nua.. Tbe fntl oI..J"DiTECOST is uld>nled
very sokmnly with prol:essioll$, a spKiaJ pn.}'.... 10
the Holy Spiril taken from the third hour of the
book of Cl._1C04. ISCJlIaS. Ihe ollice of genuflec:tioa,
and distribulion of watermelons 10 the poor in
commemoration of the deceased.
BtBlIOGRAI'HY
Bilaniuk, p, B. T, T/leolOO' ~"d Economy u/ Ihe 1101]
Spiril.' A~ EUlOm Appro~ch. BangaJore. 1980.
Bonne.ur. O. H. E. "The Office of Genuflection on
Whitsunday." Le Muslo" 47 (1934):205-2S7.
_ _, The Rite of CO~secralio" o/Ihe Palri~rch of
Alcxandri(J. pp, 303-311, CaIro, 1960.
_ _. The Egyp/ian or Coptic Church. Cairo. 1967.
Chaine, M. "La Conskr:ation el 1'~ic1ese dan. Ie
missel «>pIe." In Re.ue de "oriem rh,birn t7
(1912):225- 4 3.
Dcnzinger, H.. and A. SctKlnmetrJ:r. Enchirid.,m
.,...bolorum. Fribou'1. Barcelona. and Rome,
I%S. EarI.,r etf;tion of Demin""r .ran$. Roy J.
De/fcrer all n.~ SouI'U~ of C.,JlOlic Dogm". 51.
Louis, t~S7_
f~"",,1. M. ''}a S~cnmtrll$ de j";n;ti.olion chr+-
licnne dam I'i&!iu coptIC. In u Pn>c"~ritrlt
R
chritien 7 (1957):7-25,
Harnmcrscl>midt, E. Die Uipriscllc GrecorioS<l1J'"
ph<XQ. S;rrncM "rut ,mcJois<'/te E~"'" tine
'g)l'/lKM Lim¥Ji1C. Berlin. 1957.
bh:d, faye!< M., It'ans. A CClIffpltte Tr<UU/Q/ioft 0/
lh~ Coplic 0rrJ00J<u; A.I"u " ... rlre Li/UrD of S.im
iHlJiJ. Toronto, 197],
Kopp, C. GliJuhe urul s.,.I;NmulIe ur kopmchc..
Ki7che. Rome. 1932.
~inski, A. Ocr Helligl &iJl ../s Ceut Chriss; "rl4
CeiSl 4er Cliis-hl,e... Der 8e;II'<I, de. Alh~nosio.s
ron Ala,mArie" tur F..",.,ul;"',un, de. ,Tin't...;.
scJu" OogmQS ;", vterle" JtthI'Jru"del'/. Leipzig,
191>9.
Unlle. E. "l.e$ Ordi~lK>nS dal\3 Ie rile Caple."
L'Ori...t.yrie" ~ (1%0):81-106.
Macai"" G. L'E(IiJe copte, Sa foi d'aujoul'd'h",' com·
porie ovec la fol de Se' ptres. Cairo. 1893.
Yassa 'Abd al·M,,"!~. The F.. lth "nd Practice< of lire
Copric Church. CaIro, I ~~3,
PETRO B, T, BIUNlllK

HOLY WEEK, Ihe Wffk immedialely preelNlinc
the feast of the Rtsu~ion ($tt fFA$TS. ,,",OIl), a
period rich in reminiscences otlhe ullimalee " .
of ~I ... tion. Follo,"",ng Ihe celeb..uion of Ihee DMM
Lilurgy on I"alm Sun<b..,.. the bilhful wonhipel"s rec-
mact, Slecfl by 1Iq>. W Last scenecs of 1M liee of
Chruc. wi!.h ~es snodually risinll In IOleem·
nity 10 Maundy Thursday and Good friday.
To enlno mof'l' fully inlO lhe pn>fItI" spirit 01 .... f·
'-rin& and lleclf·rroonil>e.lion.!.hee norly Chrislians m·
duncl S'lricl p<aC1ices in keeping lhe peKhal bsI
(see ',<$TI:o<;). Some absUliDed complC1dy from e ..·
ing or drinking IhmughOUl the ..molee sill dooys;
Olhecrs observecd ... uninterTuplecd bsl for lWO,
three. Or four ~'S. according 10 IMir indi,idual
~r <Ii physical endurance. ne Cormil"liools of
rhee Holy F"I~rs. ho"'""""r. re.:ommended a simple
dieel of lxeead. sail. and herbs: "00 )" IheuFore fasl
on Ihe days of lhe Passover. b~ginninll from II><!
second day of Ihe week unlil the preplOration and
the Sabbath six days. making ,,,e of only bread and
salt and hems. and waler for your drink" (CoMstil'"
lioMS ~,18 and 19. 1951. p. 447).
In Ihe early days of lhe church, il wils c\l!lomary
10 read bolh the Old and lh~ N~w TeslallM'nts In
their enlirely during lhe CO\lIW of lhe Holy Week
prayee ..... This plXlice cOnlinued umil Ihe lime of
I"opec (;AIlRlU II (1131 ~ 1145). also kno....n Il$ Ibn
Turaylc .....ho.....ilb lhe help of a numbecr of «desi·
II$lieal and biblieal scnola",- r~ng«l .be mod·
inp in a mOre s)'Sternalic form. The ~ 1<'Cl1oonary.
called q<lu..." ..... consi5ted 01 a ....Ie<:tion of me·
van, Old T$ament prophecies. ~mI, and cone·
spoodins ~ I'mm the N~ Talamen., a...
l'llnCN in !he liJh. 01 rl>e I!:'inll$ !hal lOOk place
durina lbe laso -..,11: of tht: life of Jesus OIriM on
earth. A lew sene~ions lain. lhis compilalion un·
de.... '""1 a meliculous rec:astins at lhe hands 01 BUI'
rus. btshop of IWlSASAH. for the purpose of makins
lhe nadin,s of individual .:t,'S rno~ ~nly dislro
U1N ....ft" Ihe ,...""'" CANONICAl. lIOl'IlS.
InlO .hese: ltclions were incorporalN homilies
and sermons from the early fathers. 'oaW- with a
<:ommenl.llry o~ e:xposition on the e....,nl5 of each
pIInicul.. day. The p....y"n; also included a night·
lim<! and a daytime litany. each composed of tboul
twenty·four supplicalions read by a prieesl with Ihe
cong~gallon responding each lim~. "Lord. have
mercy:'
Wonhip during Hoi}' Week, Wilh Ihe excepliell> of
Maundy Thursday, ;., characterized by Ihe follo....inj
distlncllve fealUres:
HOLY WEEK 1251
J. II is a period of deep mournin. in con"nemu-
r.llioo of the ...lferinl of Chri6t. As SOOn a:s the
church has ceelebralN J~' .riumphanl en.ry iIJlo
Jenosolem On 'AU' SC;"'''''Y•• he pl""Sbyten and deoa-
cons rf:1TKl\.., their colorful ~"",nlS, ... d all pil-
lars and kctel1lll are decklNl wilh black ribbons..
Henceforth all pra~. readinp, and chanl$ are
~ ..tn"d in a mournful. ",bd\J.ed 'one called Ubfbi
(see JWSJC: Des<:riplion of lhe Corpus and Pr-esenl
Musical P'hctice).
2. n.e sanch.ary (",,>'11:"1) cunains are <Ira",II.,
and wonhip is performed In lhe main body of lhe
church. The S}'mbolic sil";6eanee of Ihis pr.>clice is
th~ld. II refen 10 OIrisl'S crucifu.ion II Go\go-
tho ou\$idee leJ"U5lllem. "So Inus also sullered ou'·
Wde the gate in order to sanctify the peoplee 1hrt:JUgh
his own blood. Therefore let us 10 forth to him
(lall$ide !.he amp. be:arins abuse for him" (He!>.
13,12-13).1"'1;u in Old Te$lamenl ritual the sin
olf~rings, Ihe blood of which was broughl within
the veil 10 make explallon In the sancluary, were
taken outside the camp and destroyed. so Christ
suWere<! outside the Ca.e and fulfilled the original
rilual outside leru... l~m.
Also acconlinc 10 the Old Testamenl, a man suf·
fering from leprosy had 10 Slay outside his len, for
""Yen da}'S before he ..'as pronounced rilually clean
(Lev. 14:11,9). Likewise, Holy Week Is a J'OI';ans of
",I£·purifieation after whioch fallen man becomes
worthy of bemg ;a(:cC'J'led iOlo the presence 01 God.
J. Memorial services for the dead are lIOI
allowed 10 be celebTllle4 durinl Holy Week.. A col·
lective olIice for the deceased is lherdore conducl-
INl. in advanc:e, al lhe end of the Liw'lY of Palm
Sunday for If>ec souls 01.u.o..e who mi&tK depart this
life during !.his ,",,'eeL All ~mnit-ies ol.......m.ip can
thus be directed 10000nl one objec:lr..., only, the pas-
sion of OW" S"",ior.
.t. n.e Psal.... 01 lhe eanonioca! hours are reo
pbclNl by lbe IJ'Il"CIW doMlosY. As each hour iIJ·
c1ud.,. lWelw: ~ms. Ibis dowIotY is chanted
lwei •.., times anlipbonally. each lime followed ""th
Ihe Lord'$ Pnl)"f:r said inaudibly. The \IIOI"ds of Ihe
dlnolocY are talen I'mm the concluding vel51'; of
lhe Lord's I"rayer. and I'mm Revelalion 5:12-13:
''Thine is the power, the Ilory. 1M: blessing. and !.he
majesty Fore,·er. Amen: Emmanuel O\Ir (,od and our
King. Thine is th~ power. the glory, lhe blessing
and Ihe majesly forever. Amen; my Lonl Jesus
Chris!. Thine is lhe power, lhe glo')', lhe blessing
and lhe majesry forever. Amen, Our Falher who art
;n Heaven. etc."
 1252 HOMILETIC CYCLES
To 1M above words i5 added the followin, see·
lion as from the e~nth hour 01. T.....y: ··0 my
Lord Je_ Christ. my Good Sa,ior.~
A funher seetio<I .. ad<kd 10 this. beJjnnlng on
the first hour of Friday eve. unlil the btl hour 01
!hat dily: '1M Lon! .. my W"nIglh. my pnise. and
bas become my oaJ"-;u",,,:'
5. On Moi.undy Thunday. the DivinIe U!UlKY is
ce~ in the sana...".. and holy communion is
aodminiswrtd as -..aI. 1001/0000.;,,& the seoice of fool·
washinll (l.AQlW;) after the ninth hour of the day.
•• The entire Gospel of Saini M.anhew is read on
Tuosday. Saint Mark on Wednesday. Saint lMle on
Thu"Y. Saint John on the ~e of ~eclion
Sun<by. On Holy Salurday an" the sixth hour. the
entlnl book of Revelation is mod. and. followlnll the
ninth hour, the Divine lJlurgy is celeb noted.
At Ihe condusion of the twelfth hour of Good
Friday. the congreption rq>eal$ "KY'-lt £Lf:tso/<·· a
hundred limn toward Ihe ......t, well. north. and
soulh, and ends wilh twelve limes towan!the eut.
Then the deacons and derBY 110 in a proceulon
areund the altar three times, and three tim<:$
around lhe church, followed by one more time
around the altaL
Finally. the crucifix icon is Wf1lpped in ",'hlte lin·
en. and placed on lhe altar. covered wilh the erou.
rose petals. and spices. The chalice and p.>1", veil
(10« I!I.lCKAAIST1C VEILS) is opuad O\..,r lhem. and
t\<IO candclabr.tos ~ pb«d one IN the head and the
other al lhe ~. ~ n , the two an,els ",too
Slood Inside Christ's sepukher. Then the priau. in
lum, 51lIrt readinll the entire book 01 !'$alms. At
Psalm J:5. ~I lie dmo..., and sleep," Ihe sanctuary
~ ......
curtain is dra..n. and the radinl is I'eIl.lmed..
......
HOMILETIC CyclEs. .xc Cy<:1ca.
HOMOEANS. II p-oup fannin, the middle I'"O"nd
of Ihe anli·Nicen<: and anti·Athanasian p.>ny in the
last decade of the reign of Emptror ConStamiul II
(3l7-l611: their ";"""5 came cI~Sl to those of the
emperor. Under their leader• .o.o.CtV$ Of' Vt5AREA,
they held Ihat Christ was "like G<>d.•• They repudiat·
ed all reference to ousia ("suMlance") in the creed
as beilll un""riptural but altractcd .. la..e propel'
1;01'1 of ciergy in bolh East and Wett. who by l5S
were .....,..lyin' of Ihe sc:emlnsly perpetual contro-
versy over Ihe rne3nin, of o«sia. This had been
emhrined ... the SUI"CllI way 01. proclaiming Ihe Son
as HlJm«JMsion to Parri (01. the same subuance ...
the Falher) in the Nicene Creed.
The lerm Itc>moifU first occuR;n 145 in the Creed
01. the Long lJlIe5 (the Mammic/o(l<}. It is DOl men-
tio.-l speci6cally in tile Second Creed of Sirmiura
;n 357 (the ~8I.upMmy" of Sirmium)...-hich left
the Son subordinate to the Father and banned the
use of ousior ..,;m reference 10 Him. Two ye>rs IMer.
how",,",. in the Daled Cnled Or Fourth Creed of
Sinnium (22 May lS9l. ;1 had become a lest ...-ord
(th.... Socnot<:$ Schol~icus. Histaria ""Iesiastica
11.37.18-24: Athanasius, Epist"la de synDdis 8). By
lhi$ lime Conslanti... had come around 10 the "iew
lhal the be51 hope of seeuri"ll IInive"..1 "Ilreement
on Ihe faith was Ihrouah .. formula lhat was less
vague lhan "lhe Blasphemy of Sirmium·' but did
1'101 contain Ihe term nuS;d. To say lhat the Son was
"like the Father" would enable the largest measure
of ag.... ment possible.
Accordina:ly. in the summer of l59 councils were
held al Ariminum (Rimini) in Italy and Seleucia in
lsauria almosl simultaneously. to represent the
western and easlern halvn of the empire. After a
mixilire 01. persuasion and coercion. and being pla-
~ by the hoi halian summer. the 400 Or SO
Western hiohops accepted a formula that declared
the "Son was like the Fathe•. ~ n.e CauDeil of $eo
lcucia met for .. milch shorter lime (27 Scptem·
her-I October 359) ",;th 160 bishops pnscnL The
conclusion _ Indeclsh~ ...i111 arpn>CIIIS rating
oY'er a definit.... thai -..Id Include the words '1ike
in aD things,N refcrrin, to the 5001', rewioMhip 10
the Fatheo-. In January 360. the HomoealI fonnula
"'as adopled by .he East •• a council hel<! in Cor>-
!lUnlinopie. h ..-aj these councils !hat elicited Jer-
ome's ""rdict, thIN '1'1Ic ..·hole wurid poaned 10
find i_If Arian" (Di<rlops IUlYcrsus wcifui...os
19). In Ihe spring of 360 • Westem delegation ac·
ccpced lbe Homoean fonnula al a council hdd a.
Nike in Thnce. presided nvcr by Com\;lnllus hi ....
..,If (So2omen Histori.. Kd~si<rslic.. IV.2J.5-7).
The death of Constant;'" on l Nonmber l61
ended the triumph of the HOrr>c><lans.. After the
reign of Julian the Apostate (361-363), Emperor
Valen. (364-378) attempted 10 maintain the onho-
do~y of lhe Creed of Ariminum, containing the Ho-
moean fonnula. again" h'cre;osingly 'uccessful
pressure. fint by Athanulus and then by 8Mil of
Caesarea and his fTienda. IT was also una<:ceplable
to mOre exlreme opponents of Ihe Nkene Creed.

",hoot: v~",.. "''ere rtf>r~fl1ed by the oppooilion of
Eunomiw of CyVcus (bi>.hop c. J60: deJl<*d l64:
d. c' 3!lO1· The Hom......n polIition lost .round and
........ r~te<l filUlUy in lh C~e<l of COf'\$l.lOntinople
(lSI). when the ftOfnOOu$ion was rein~tlted as the
~Iief of Christendom. In Alu.ndria .nd E&ypt the
Homoc.ns never "'.,.. popular Sl.lppOr1. Their poR'
tion appeAn 10 have been the ~llef. however, of
obe unlucky StlPJllanler of At....nasiU5, ~ of
~ i•. '""'0 Wall lyncl>«! by a mob on 24 De-
cembet- 361.
B'BUOOIl4P'HY
iU"11y. J. N. D. &lrly Christian CrerJJ. pp. 2&s-95.
~don. 1952.
__ u,/y CItriJn.n Docrrinu, 5d1 ed.• pp. 247-
51. Lc>ndon. 1978.
Kidd, B. J. H;JI«]' 0/ 1M Chtl'cJo '0 A.D. 46J. Vol. 2,
chap. 6. o..ftm1. 1922.
Prestiee. G. L GoJ in '"rrislic
1100«11<1, 2nd cd.
~don, 19S2.
W. H. C. flW<D
HOMOIOUSION, term manina ~of like sub-
_e"' and used by many who were cau&ht be--
tween lhe ex're"," of die Nicenr party (tI(lfoI(I(IOJ-
SID"'- "of the sa.n>r subMllnce") and the radiuJ
Atians who had ~d about l55. The veat ma-
joriry of modenlCII rallied under Buil of "ncyra
around the e<>mplOmi~ lto"'Oio<tJion, amonl t1Km
Melili,.. of Anlioch and CUtl OF JERI4OUII_
Throudt lhe statesmaMhIp of wch onhodox lead·
ers as "thanasius and Hilary of Poiliers. the Homo-
iousions. who wrre not fa, remo,"Cd from die onho-
do~ position .nd ""ere increasingly apprehensne of
the threat of .... t..'<llSM. were brought into the c.mp
of lhe HomootISions by Ihe.Councll of ConSlamino-
pie in l81. Earlier concerR5"'t the Nicene pany,
which had to be overcome in the process. we,e a
dislike of the lerm homOOlls;<m and di~trust of OOme
of itS advocarcs, Once thelr,fears thai the Nicene
p'l.r1)' ,"'as really Sabellian ("modali.... IIlONAItCHIAN·
ISM) had been calmed, fur of increl$ini1y r:odical
Arianism made lhe HomooU5lons more acceptable
to lhe Homoiousion~.
819L1OGUPHY
Kelly. J. N. 0, Early Chris/ian DoclrintJ, 41h ed.
Edinbul"llh, 1968.
C, WIL1'1tED GRIOGS
HOMOOUSION 1253
HOMOOUSION. a won:! with • century·lonl his·
lOry in eariy Christianily hefore it became celeb",I'
ed when employed in Ihe Nicrne Creed (325) .nd
applie<llo die Son of God to define His relalion 10
lhe Father (lwmoou.iorr to p<Oln). In EnlJlish 1"ansla·
tions it has usually been ",n<!ere<! "of one suI;,.
.....nce with," or ~consub..."lItial:' or "one in bring
,"'ith." Its use bero", 12S is ot>scu"" but cenain
moments in its history .....nd out. lhe Gnolitici
!IOmetimes UKd it 10 de5cribr sorne _I, "" "con-
suhotantial with the devil"': oaJGEN used it occasion-
ally, bu. the IC'Iidrnce ,hat he applied il 10 the Son
ill doubUul. Paul of Sarnosalll appllrently used it in
defendin. himself against a charve ol heray be-
Iween 264 and 263, al~ his ..... of the word is
difficult to determine. " link before lhis, Dionysius,
bishott 01 Rome, and DI(ltIYStus., bishop of "Juan.
dria, came ,nlO an am>nble cont,."...e.-sy in which
1M former .-epr.-chcd the Iaue-r k>r no! accept in.
Itomooou'os as :applied to the Son. The bUhop of
A1e.laDdria finally accepted the tenn, lhou'" with
...." reluctance.
1be exac1 meaning of I r _........ in the Nicene
Crred has been much debated. The theory was
widely aocoeple<l by Han>aock and by loo& lhat tile
main inftuence m.... ha.'e been dial of Ossius, bish·
op of COrdoba, ...me ...as plftioden. olthe Council of
>;0ClI0A and ,"i.ose "'eoIocic:al tradition, like lhal of
winuaRy all Western theolocians of the time.
stemmed from Tenullian. Tenullian had declared
thai the Son was "of one ,ubstance" (.."itlJ WbSltlfl-
.....) or"of the same substanclt" (..iMsdtm wbs/l'/1/;·
" ..) with Ihe Father, ."d a. first $igh. dlis seems to
_Ie the problem. But Jludy of Ihe subjecl by C.
Stead has seen reason 10 revi$e Ihis judllmenL In
the lint place, Tenullian's consubstant~ity is in
bCI '"'J dilferenl from lOunh.ce'llury conceptS of
Ihe ..... rd. being ~d OIl a Stoic conc..ption of God
as " substance. In lhe second place, it I!as been
shown lhal the term was IJM'd in a much less pre·
cise way Ih.n had been thought, and ;1 is a w<ml of
Greek, nol of Ullin, ori&in. lu ,ery imprecision,
"""ordinglo E. SCh....artz, was iu value for Emperor
CONSTANTINE I.... ho dominated Ihe council. Ot~rs
have Il>oughl lhat Ihe chief reO$OTI for lis inclusion
was Ihal in hi, Th"iei". ARllIS hd rejected it, and it
would therefore sene as a specific poinl of doclrine
"Ilainst ARIANISM.
Sl>ortly after 12S the w<rrd drops OUI of lhe COn·
lro'en)'. e,en in lhe writings {)f ATHAN.\SlllS, But
Alhan..ius, after his decisi,e bre.k w;lh Emperor
ConslanJius (l56), relllrns to il: and the chief objCl:\
of his struggle .be.... af1er becomes the altempl. uhi·
 1254 HOP OF TUKH, APA
malely suca::s4ul, to p<:rstJ.a<IC' all oppont1lts of Ari·
anism 10 adopt i1 as thC'ir ",... tch",,,rd. ~ Weslern
pro.Nicenes-Hilary, MMius VIc,orinus, l.ucifcor,
and Ihe otheB-Ole<Ulily champior>C'd II aplnil An-
anism and aho, • ..1..,,,
nC'CnsaJY, apinst lhe: .ltC'!'
native ~ (~ol $imilar wbs!anu') bdO\~
C'd of some: Eastern ;ull;"Arians, cospeclally Basil of
Ancyn. Ikt ...... n 368 and l80 lhe' IJUI Capptdo-
ciu tl>eolocians driended and apow><ird " " , - .
$iofr lOS pndicatC'd both of IN: Son and olthe Spirit,
w;th the ~ that the \C'nn WU incorporalfll-
applied 10 the Son, though noc 10 ,he: Spirit-in the
Creed ol Constantinople (J.lIl) to denote identity of
Bring without con<nodietin« .mtinclion ol Pe~.
BIBUOGIlAI'Hl"
Iklhune·BlIkC'T. l. f. 11,., ,w,,,";", of HomOOUJiOl in
th~ Conll"nt;"opolit~n Crud, TUIS and 51\1<,1i«1.
Cambridge, 1901.
HanJOn, R. P. C. The S~"r"h lor the Chris/I'"n Do<:·
trine of God, Edinb\lrgh, 1988.
Hamack, A, History 0/ Dogma, Vol. 4. p, 56, New
York, 1958.
Kraft, H. "Homoomios.'· Ze;t<chrift fUr Ki,,,he"t~·
$Chichte 66 (1954-1955):1-24.
Loofs. f. "D~ Nicb:num."' In F~Jltab~ fur K, MUlier.
C'd. O. Scheel. Tubingen. 1922.
Schwan!. E. Kais~r Consto>ttin IOtd ,Ii<! c"ristlfch~
Kilde, Ikrlin, 191J.
SInd, C. Divm~ Sub_""". Oxford. 19n.
R. P. C. HA."SO!<
HOP OF TOKH, APA, or HUb, a saini who was
a holy ....... .1< 01 l1ppet" Egypc (feu! day: 16 Hilllr).
The CopIo-A~ SYNJ.X.UJON ""Iys w:ry lillIe "c~
lhal he h«! in • ClIO"' ol tM mountain of TOkh. It
e"nalnly meant the rocky asu OIlPoslt~ 005. for the
rea:noion of the Syniprion &urn IIpper EaYPt "''''
drawn up in tbe n.,;gh&orhood ol ~ He- ...~ bu....
led in Ihe Church of ~~~ the Great or ,he Eldn, a
PCrsonallC mentioned !llCYerallirnei in Ihis Synaxan-
on. This church w.as' al Q;4. The Syn....rion re-
tounta "lJ"'Cially lbe- mi",de of a ""'na·. cllb,
which w.as born lame and ",'hieh Ihe mot""r
broughl to the feel of th~ sainI. who healfll it by
rubbing il' paw. This r«aJls a limilar miracle a,·
lribuled 10 MACARIUS TIlE EGVPTIAN in chapler 21of
the ItlS'TORJA MONACHORUM IN AEGVPTO (ed. F~ltu·
g.I~~, 1911, p. I21) and 10 MACARlIJ$ TilE ALEMNtllU·
AN by PaUadius, Y;>toria laus;ata. chapl~r 18 (1904,
p. 51).
BI8UOGaA'"Y
f'e..tugi"'rr:, A. J., <'d. His«wN ",.,.,.chorwn in MDP-
10. Subsidia Hqioeraphiea n. Brussels. 1971-
1lEs&-CI'£IIlGES CoQ!;IIo:
HOR, obscure fifth-wnh-cenlUl')' holy penon ...no
...... tbe componion of Ambroaius (few day: 2l
Til!>ah). &w:ral Coptic: inscriptions from DAn uol
lOtEMLUI III Saqqat;Io memloa him. aJ..,-a).. in tbe
company ci Ambrosius, a pc-noo ol whom we know
DOIhing at all (QuibeJl. 1901-190&, Vol. l, inscrip-
lions nos. 26, 36, 16; 1908-1910, Vol. 4, iMCription
no. 95). H. G. E'/RVN·W}iIT£ Ihlnks \h;I1 he was con-
ternponuy with Saim JEt-EMlAH of Saqqano, who
live<! in the reilln of Ihe emperor Anast""ius (491-
518), if we are to beline whal lhe: Chro"icle of lOHt~
or NIKIOIJ saY' (89. 14).
'The Uni,'er:sily Ub",ry in L,.,Ip.ig and the COpllc
MU!;eum in Cairo preserve two leaves published by
Evelyn.While from lhe beginning-Ihe tid~ is inlaCI
-of a life of an Apn Hor who wrote to Saim
Jeremiah and was the companion of Ambrosius
(1926. pp. 168_70). Evelyn·While, .... W. l'... CItUM
and J. Mu~r laler, selS this Hc>r in relation to
Saint Jeremiah of Saqqarll (Crum, 1913, p. 1604, n_
I; MU)'ocr, 1944. p. 181). Crum sees in the spelling
BadoaMy;;s in the- SVllAXAltlON from Uppc-r Eg)"pf a
corrup,ion ol Ambrosius, .nd eo>= in~ !be
name of Epiphatlius. "'hkh 5C'ems quite g>-aII1ilOUS
(1926, Vol. I, p. 216), Muyser (1944. p. 181) thinks
that he i!5 !be ...,..., as ApR HOI' of Abr.ol.w. because
the- .ta,.. ci commemoration indicaled on the one
hand in 1M rc-c~nsic>n of the- $TPl.\XAItION of !be
Copts from Upper f"«)'J'I (2l T\Ibah) and on lhe
OIbc-or in the Cairo leaf published by E,-dyn-Whi~
ace the' same; but he' does nOl eq>Iain ....-10)· the 0....
is a companion of Aml>rc>Mus and not !be OIher.
Aceortling 10 lhese 5OU~a Apo Hor wrore ro
Saini J~~iah. lhe: one of Saqqara, and Wll$ !be
companion of Ambrosius, ....-hoK name is of WcY·
corn origin and r.on among EaYPtian proper names.
H" S<'~ms 10 have li_flI in the ~ of Pa6bcn,
"'hk" we ClIOn idtnlify wllh the- "~n"' of ,he'
nC>ffiC of AKHIAI.... named in the Life of Shen"le
(csco 41. p. II, l. 27), and with the _mage of A~n·
ab. which $liIl ~xlsts.
1l181.10GRAPHl"
Crum, W. E. "Hagiogr.ophica from leipzig Manu·
scripts." Proceed;"g$ of th~ Sodet)" of Bib/kll/Ar·
chae%t}' 29 (1907):289-96,301-301.

___ Theolo8;C~1 THIS from Coptic Papyri. Ox-
ford. 1913.
Crum. W. E., and H. E. Winlod. The Monas/cry of
Epiphan;us at Thebes. 2 va's. New York, 1926,
E_elyn·White. H. G. The Mondsreries of Ihe Wadi'"
Nat",,,, pt. 1. New Cupric Texis from the Mona •.
tery o{ Saini Macaril<$. Nev.' York. 1926.
Muyser. J. "fum!!e peregrina'll et ""Ierin infat;·
gable." BulieUn de 10 Societe d'arche%gie cople
9 (1944):159-236.
Ouibell, J. E. E:<covations al Saqqaro [I) 1905-
1906. [2J 1906-1907, [3] 1907-1908. [4] 1%8-
1910. Cairo. 1907-191:>.
RamI!, M. AI.Q~m"s ,,!·!ughr?i(i IiI-Bilad 01
M4nyyah. Vol. 2, pt. 4, p. 124. Cairo. 1953-1968.
s..uneron, $. Viii"" el /fgendes a'Egypte, pp. SO-54.
Cairo, 1974.
RENt·GEORGES COQUIN
HOR, APA, a saint who was a hermit (feast day: 4
Ba'unah). He i. mentioned in the Calendar of Abu
a1·BaraUT (1913, p. 272). H~ is also mentioued in
Th~ Coplo·Arabi<: SYNAXARION, Th~r~ i. a fullh~r
m~nlion in the Life of Abu Phi. (unpublish~d MS
Lit. 23 of The library of lhe church of l:IHtT w
WAY.... 'I; Muys~" 1943. p. 187). His Life is also pre'
S~lVed in two man~ripts in lhe National Library,
Paris (Arabe 212. wI. 276r; 477, foJ. 250r),
Apa Hn' was a nalh'e of Bahjurah, bUl lh~ ioca-
tion of "lh~ mountain with lhe column, TO lhe easT"
where he establish~d his hcnnitage is not known.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
HORAPOLLON, an inlellecltlal active during the
Abu al·Barakat. C~lendrier, ed. E. Tisserant. PO 10.
Paris, 1913.
Muy",r, J. "Ermile pe'~grinam et ""lerin infali-
gable." Bulletin de fa Sac;'I, d'Arcntologk Cople
9 (1943):159-236.
RENE-GEOI<GES COOUIN
••
HOR OF ABRAI:IAT, SAINT, fifth-sixTh·cen·
tury monk (feasT day: 2 Kijahk). lnfonnalion on
this monk is supplied by snme Coptic fragments
(Evelyn·White, 1926, pp. 168-70); the sYN.o.xARTON
in the lwo recensions "f Upper and Lower Egypl;
and the Life of Anba HARM[N~ (Mu}'~r, i943, pp.
159ff.).
Hor wa, a nalive of Preht (in Arabic, Abral;tat or
~r Abral;tat), a military poST .iluated near al·
Shaykh 'AbAdah. Mul;tammad RamI! (1953-1954,
Vol. L pI. 2) identifi~ it wiTh DAYR Al.-8ARSHAH. The
HORAPOUQN 1255
maJOrity of the manuscripts of the Syn""arion of
th~ Copts from Lower EgypT wrongly name it "Atrib
in Upper Egypt" in pl""e of Abrai)at.
Hor became a monk and retired inTO the desell.
In orou To tempI him, a demon suggested tbat he
should go to ALllXANDRIA, which he did, He gave
drink to the pri.oners and by the .imple sign of the
cn,.. restored to life a child who had been killed by
the horse of a rider passing through the lown. Later
he retired inTo a monastery to escape dlO~ who
wished 10 honor him. He seem. to have gathered
disciples. He became the ~nd and biographer of
Anbi Harrnina, and traveled with him to visiT lhe
Christian sancltlari~ of EgypT. He seems to have
resided at Psoun (Absllnah, on the west bank of
Akhmlm), and no doubt lived under the emperor
Anastasi... (491-518),
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Evel)lI·While, H. G. The Montl.stuie; of the Wadi'n
Nalri<n, pI. I, New CopTic T,:r;IS from Ihe Motlas-
t<ry of SainI Macari",. New York, 1926.
G""baUl, S. Lt SyniUairt 'thiopien. PO 15. 5, p. 562.
Mu}'",r, J., ed. "Ermite per<!:grinant et ""lerin infal-
igable. Fragment arabe de la vie inedite d'Anba
Harmln, recon,,\e par son compagnon de voyage,
Apa Hor de PrehT." Bullelin d_ I~ Societe d'ar_
chiologie cople 9 (1943),159-236.
RamIl, M. Ai.Q>lmUs al·}ughr>lfj IiI·BiI~d ~I
Misrlyyah, 3 vols. in 6 pIS, Cairo, 1953-1968.
RE"t.(;EOR(;ES CooUlN
late fifth cenTUry, He came from an Eg}ptian family
who owned an ancesTral estaTe at PhenebyThis in
the nome Panopolis. He was a leading Neoplatoni~
philosopher aud religious figure in Alexandria.
Three primary sources pro,'ide infonnation about
him: Damascius' Life af Is/dore, composed in the
early sixth century, preselV~ a description of Hor-
apollon', culluml en~ironment; the Syriac !-ife af
Severns, written b)' Zachariah of Mitylene (also
known as Zacharia Scholasticus), narraTes an out·
break of religious .';olenee around Alexandria in
485 in which Horapollon was a k,y figure; The Third
document is a papyrus letTer, composed in Greek
by Horarollon and found aT Kom Ishqliw. which
has been translated and studied by J. Mas!"'ro
(i914).
H<>rapoIIon came from a family of long-standing
phiI()6Qphical tradition. He claimed in the Kom Ish·
qaw letter both ThaI he inherited hi. profession
1256 HORAPOLLON
from his aneeslors and that his own father, """lIOJ'I·
AI:>ES, who spent a lifetime teaching at the Museon,
was his teacher. He called himsdf a "clarnsimus:'
a nmk that would place him among the elite of late
Roman society. Zachariah confirmed that Horapol·
lon, whom he calls a grammarian, was known as an
outstanding lucher who knew his profession reo
markably well. But these vinues, he added, were
offset by his admimlion for demons and magic. In
the Life of Seve""s, HompoJlon appears as the most
imponanl personality in a group of si~ Ale.andrian
Neoplatonists: HorapoHon, Heraiscus, Asclepiades,
AmmoniU$, AsciepiodolUS, and lsidores. They were
affiliated with the paganism still secretly practiced
in outlying communities such as Menouthis, Can<>-
pus, and Astu.
Horapollon married his cousin in order to keep
the ancestral estate at Phenebythis intact, A<ocord·
ing 10 the commentary of Darnascius' On Firs! Prin·
ciples, Asclepiades, his father, and HeraiscU$, his
uncle and father-in-Jaw, were Egyptians who em·
ployed Egyptian mythology as a medium for phil<>-
$ophical speculation, HorapoHon's grandfather may
have been the Horapollon named in the S..da La.·
con who also came from Phenebythis and taught
grammar in Ale~andria as well as Constantinople
under Emperor Theodesius. Regrettably, the S"d~
does not say whether the TheodosiU$ in question
was The<><losius I (379-395) or Theodosius II (408~
450).
HorapoHon may be the author of a work, origi.
nally wrinen in Coptic and later translated into
Greek, that attempted to inte'1'ret Egyptian hiero-
glyphics by an allegorical rendering of the ideo·
grams. Its title gives the authors name as Horapol.
10 of the Nile. A few fragments from Damascius'
Life of Isidore show that Horapollon's circle of AI·
exandrian Neoplatonists employed the type of alle-
gorical inte'1'retation of hieroglyphics that appears
in lhe meroglyphicaddeas that Heraiscus, Asetepi-
ades, and probably RorapoHon were teaching lsi·
dore. One 'tatemenl so
, dosely paraUds a passage
from the IU,"oglyphiaa that a common source is
unquestionable. "The -hippopotamus," wrote Dama-
scius, "is a lawless animal, a lact made plain in
hieroglyphic symbols, for it kjlJs its own fathe. and
violates it.< mother" (ed. Zintzen, fr, 98, p. 140).
Horapollon's statement is essentially the same: the
unjust and the ungrateful are represented by tw<>
hippopotamus elaws turned down, This is so be·
cause the hippopotamus will kill its o.....n lather if
not permitted to mate with its mother (Hiuoglyph"
ca 1.56).
!l is evident from this that the author of the Hiero-
glyphica and Horapollon lived in the same intellcc-
toal and cultural milieu, Several reasons persuaded
Maspero (1914) that the Horapollon of the Alexan'
drian circle wrote the Hiorot:/yphica: the name is
the same: when his circle was studying hieroglyph·
ics, Horapollon was a pagan writing sympathetically
on pagan antiquities; he carne from a family of
grammarians that produced literature on both
Greek and Egyptian culture; and the cultural milieu
of Egypt in the late fifth centu'}' was conducive.to a
work like the Hieroglyphica. While these arguments
do not prove that Horapollon was the author, they
strongly suggest that he and the author were at
least directly related. In the Kom lshq~w letter,
Horapollon spoke of his forefathers, from ,""hom he
obtained his inheritance and education. The author
of the Hieroglyphica could have been one of ,hem,
if not HorapoHon himself,
BIBUOGRAI'HY
Asmus, R, "Zur Rekonstruktion von Dama.scius'
It:bcn des Isidoros," Byzanlinische Zeil$chrif! 18
(1909):424-80; 19 (1910):265-84.
___. Vas Leben des Philosophen I,idoros von Va·
rnaskios aI's V~m~sko,. Leipzig, 1911.
Cumont, F. "Le culte egyptien et Ie mysticisme de
Plotin." Mon"ments el m~moirs p"blih par rAca·
dbnie d_s i"$criptions el bel/e,·/elires 24
(1921):17-92.
Damascius. Dama.cii vilae Isido,i r<liq"iae, ed. C.
Zintzen. Hildesheim, 1967.
Eitrem, S, "Die trV<n"'~ und der Lichtzaubcr in
der Magie." Symbola. O,I<>enses 8 (1929):49-53,
___. "La theurgie chez les neoplatoniciens "t
dans les papyrus magi que." Symbol~e O,/oenses
22 (1942):42-79.
Horapollo. Hon "pollini. Hieroglyphica, ed. F. Sbo,..
dane. Naples, 1940.
Kaegi, W. "The Fifth Cenlury T""ilight of Byutntine
Paganism." Classica "I Mediaevalia 27 (1966):
243-75.
Maspero, J. "Horapollon et 1a fin du paganisme
egyptien." B"lIuin de J'lnSlil,,1 f,a,,~ais d'Ar-
chiologie ~Ti""lo/e 2 (1914):163-95.
R.mondon, R. "L'Egypte et la supr~me resistance
au christianisme ("'-VII' siecles)," Bul1eri" de
I'fnsril,,1 franfois d'Aorcheologie o,ie"I~le 51
(1952):63-78,
Zachariah Scholastic.... Vie de Shire, ed, and
Iran5, M. A, Kugener. PO 2, pp. 7-45,
Zintzen, C. "Mystik und Magie in der neupbtoni.
schen Philosophie." Rheinisches MuseI'm 108
(1965):71-100.
Sn?,wART L. KARREN

HORNER, GEORGE W. (180-1930), English
theologian and CoplOlogist. He studied with Georg
SfEtNDORFF and published .tudies on Coptic theo-
logical text. (Didl1che, Pisti. Sophia). His main pub·
lication is a criticll edition of the New Testament.
The Coptic Version <J/ Ihe New Tesl"ment in the
Nonhern DiateC/. Otherwise Called Memphitic and
Bohairie (4 vols" london, 1898-1905) and The Cop.
ric Versio" 01 the New TeSlamenl in Ihe Southern
Di"lect. Oth"wist Called Sahid,-c "ml Thebaic (1
vols.. OUord, 1911-1924).
BIBUOGRAPHY
Dawson. W. R.. and E. P. Uphill. Who W"" Wh" in
Egyptology. p. 145. london, 1972.
MAI<TlN KRAUSE
HOROLOGION. See Canonical Bours, Book of,
HORSESHOE ARCH. See Architectural Ele-
ments of Churche•.
HORSIESIOS, SAINT, founh-century monk
who was head of the Pachomian Koinoni" and au-
thor of the Liber Orsie.i;' On his deathbed
PACHOMIUS asked one of hi. disciples, Horsioesi"", 10
go around and 10 lSk Ihe brothers whom they
wished to beCQme their father. The ancient brothers
certainly wanted his disciple llIEOOORUS Of" TAB_
ENNB~. but they did not walll to give any name,
and Pachomiu. appointM PETllONIUS (the Life of
Pachomiu. known through Ihe 8<>hairic version
and several fragmentary Sahidic manuscrit1ts; here·
after listed as S&>. 121; IPG first Greek Life of
Pachomiu., hereafter li.ted·~ , G'. 114). Petronius,
hov.'ew,r, was a .ick man, an~ when he died a few
months later, he appointed Harsie.ios as his succes·
sor (SB<> 130; C', 117)_
Horsiesios' nomination as the -head of the whole
Koin'mia (the congregation of all manasteries
founded by Pac hom ins) certainly did not please the
ancient brothers_ Although he was a relatively
y<>Ung member of the Kai»on;", Pachomim had ap-
p<>inted him supenor of Ihe Monastery of Shene.et
(Qaj;r al'$a'ryAd, near Nag Hammadi) a few years
before, and that appointment had met some protest
from the brothers.
HORSIESIOS, SAINT 1257
Horsie.ios was not a charismatic speaker like Pa·
chomius and Theodo.....s, but he was a very humble
and holy man, and he was able ta win the accept·
ance of the brothers. Things went well enough for a
few years, but after fi"e years there was a strong
mavement af revolt fomented by a certain Ap<>lloni·
us, superior of Tmoushon. (S8<> 139; G' 128). Hor-
siesi06, who had accepted his office anly aut of
obMience, did not he'itate to step down for fear
that .ouls might be lost because of him, for he had
the unity of the Koinonia wry much at hean. After
spending a whole night in prayer, he callM the
ancient brothers and told them that Theodorus-at
long last-would be lheir .upenor. Then he retired
to the Monastery af ShenesH.
Toward the end of his eighteen years at the head
of the Koi"'''''o TheodolUs, tired and somewhat dis-
couraged. brought Horsiesi'" back to' share hi. reo
sp<>nsibiliJie. with him (SBa 204; G' 145), And after
the death of Theooorus in 368, Horsiesio. was again
in p<>ssession of "his" rank, to use the expression of
the Life, He was a very good superior for several
more years, until his death at some unknown dale
after 387 (S&> 208; G' 149).
Throughoul the centuries the name of Horsie.ios
has been a.sociated mo.tly with his most imponant
work, his spiritual "Te.tamcnt," known through
Saint JEROME'S translati<>n under the title of Liber
Orstes,i, Four letters of Borsiesios are also extanl in
Coptic, as are a few fragment. of ,'anom instruc·
tion. given to the monks.
The Uber O,-,i.,ii is ""tam only in the mOll.lation
made by Saint Jerome in 404. The book was wrillen
On the occasion of an internal crisis within the
Pachomian Congregation, perhaps the one that led
to' the resignation of HQrsiesios. The crisis had to
do with the increasing wealth of Ihe communities
and itll appropnatiQn by individual monasteries or
individual monks. Barsiesi'" reacted very .trongly
to the tendency, which appeared to him to under-
mine the whole reality of the community itself.
The Liber Orsiesii contains long enumerations of
the duJies and obligation. of all the superiors at
various levels, and because of that it has been
called a "mirror of the superior." Among the Pa·
chomian literature, it is certainly the one "'Titing in
which we find the most complete and most anicu-
late presentatian of the Pachamian ideal af oscuis
and community life.
Holy Scripture was very dear to Horsies;os, and
his "Testament" contains a long uries of quota·
tions from almast all the \xxJks of the Old and New
Testaments.
 1258 HORUS, THE AVENGING HORSEMAN
818L1OGRAPHY
Bacht. H. "Studien rum 'Likr Drsiesii."" Hislori·
.clre. 1<,hrbuch 77 (1958):98-1 24.
___. . . Vex ilium crocis sequ; (Horsie.iu.).
Monchmm als Kreuzesnachfolge."' Martyria-Lei·
lU'Kia-Diakonia. pp. 149-62. Festschrift fur H.
Volk. Bischof von Main;:, zurn 65, G.bumlag.
Mainz, 1968.
___. Das V.rmlichmi. des Ursprtmgs. Studien
zum Frtihen Monchtum I. Wti"burg. 1972.
Boon, A. PachorniMlQ lal;na. Regl. el <pitres de s.
PachOtne, J.pilre de s. T1tiodore et 'Libu' de s.
O,.i.siu•. Tex" latin de s. Jirome. Biblioth~que
de la Re\-ue d'histoire icdesiastique 7. Louvain.
1932.
Descille. P. L'esp,il du monachisrn. pachomi",. sui-
vi de la traduction jran9a;se de. Pachomiana lali·
na par los rnoines de Solesmes. Spiritualite orien-
tale 2. Bellefontaine. 1968.
Elizalde. M. de, "libro de nuestro Padre San Orsi·
sio. Introducci6n y notas de Manin de E1i",lde."'
Cuaderna. monMljeos 4-5 (1967):173-244.
Ldon, L. T. Oeuvres de ., Pach6mo el de ses disci·
pies. CSCD 159, Lou\"in, 1956.
Orlandi. T. "Nuovi Test! copti pacomiani."· In Com-
mandemenl' du Seipzeur el Liberal;'", ",vangil-
U;ue. pp, 241-43, Smdia Ansclmiana 70. Rome.
1977.
Quecke. H. "Ene Handvoll Pachomianischer
Texte."· Zeitschrift der deuJ.chen morgenllindi·
schen Cos.llscha/I Supp. 3. I (1977):221-29.
Steidle. B.. and O. Schuler. "Der ·ObeTU·Spiegel· im
'Testament' des Abtes Horsiesi (tnach 387):' Erb.
und AU/frag 43 (1967):22-38.
Veilleux, A. Paeh(>rnian Koinonia. VoL 3. /nslrnc-
Iwns. Lellers, and Other Writings of $<Ii'll Pacho-
rnius and His Disciples. Cistercian Studies Series
47, K;>l"ma.oo. 1982.
Vogui, A. de. "Epilres inedile. d'Horsi"" et de
Theooore."· In Cornmandements du Seigneu, el
Liberalion ivan,ilKju., pp. 244-57, Studia Ansel·
miana 70, Rome. 1\177.
.~ ARMAND VEIlLEUX
HORUS, THE AVENGING HORSEMAN.
See Mythological Subjects in Coptic An,
nOs. See MU$ic. eoplic: Description.
HOSANNA, a Hebrew term signifYing "Sa..e us.
we be.eech Th..,:·which occurs in Psalm 118:25.
During the Feast of the Tabemacles it formed pan
of the refrain sung by 1M peopl~ of Jcrosalem
while waving palms and olive branches. When
Christ enlered Jerosalem, the joyous multitude. sa·
luted him with the word. "Hosanna to the Son of
David! Blesse<l be He Who comes in the name of
the lord;" (M!. 21:9, 15; Mk. 11:9-10. Jn, 12-13).
The term was incorporated into Christian wor-
ship at an early dat~. and appears in the post·Com·
munion prayer in the P1DACH~ "Remember, Lord.
Thy church, to deliver it from all evil and to make
it perfect in Thy love, , .. Let grace come. and let
this world pass away. Hosanna to the God (Son) of
David" (Teachings of the Twelve Apmtles, 1951, p.
3&0), It i. mentioned in the Constitution. of the
Holy Apostle. (1951. pp. 470, 490), "After the par·
ticipation, give thanks in this manner: 'We thank
"Thee. 0 God.... Let this Thy Kingdom come. Ho-
sanna to Ihe Son of David. Blessed be He that com-
eth in the name of the lord.""'
On Palm Sunday, Hosanna comes into promi.
nence during the prayers of the evening and moTU'
ing offerings of incense. the processional hymn.
doxologies. and Ihe Oiv;n~ Liturgy.
BI8L1OGRAPHY
KiM!> Khidmal al-ShammJs wa.al.AI~/m. 2nd ed..
pp. 253-73. Cairo, 1951.
YahannA SaIAmah. AI·L<l'Jfi alNa/isoh " Sharh
fuqus wa.Mu'MqadaI al.Konlsah. Vol. 2. pp. 413':'
16. Cairo. 1909.
ARCHBISHOP B"-SILIOS
HUNTING IN COPTIC ART. The hunl i. a
frequent theme in Coptic art. Hunt~rs on foot and
on horseback are olien depicted in paimings, reo
liefs, and I'-"'tites. Two e>amples from the monas·
tery of B~wtr are panicularly notewonhy. One, on a
sancmal)' walt in a chapel, illustrate. a pas.<age
from the scriptures. The olher, in chapel 12, a lion
hunt. probably "ith bow and arrow, also depicts
prophets in a .tanding J>O'ilion. Among them is
Zechariah (Clidat, 1904, p. 62. pI. 37), It probably
allude. to Zechariah 11:3, "Hark the roaring of th~
young lions."
Other example. of the hunting theme indude gao
utte hunl•. One. detached from a walt and pre·
sen'ed in the Coptic Museum in Cairo, shows a lion
stalking and gazelles bounding, Another, in <:hapel
S al BAwl!. depicts Iwo glUelle. in flight (CI"'lat.
1904. pp. 49-52. pI. 30). A third, in chapel 37 at
BAw'!.•hows a hunt in a fOfe.t; .ome of tM hunt·
ers. wearing sword. at their sides, are in Persian

coslume (Cledal, 1916, pp, 38-39). Thio ..,ems 10
illustrale the words, "lhen like a hunted gazelle"
(Is. 13,14).
In a sketch (p. 40) of a ..,ene at ~wi!, linked
wilh a ..,ene of gazelle hUOling, Cledat has captured
lite essential elements of a hippopotamus hunl. The
hunters are depi<:ted as pUll; (cherubs) among wa·
ter lil'e•. The meaning of thIs ..,ene IS que.tlonable
in so far as Christian iconography is concerned,
since the hippopotamus does nO! appear in the fau·
na mentlone<l in the Bible, Howe,'er, as the hippo'
potamus was pan of the ancient Egyptian fauna, il
was one of the naluralistic motifs fre<juenlly u",d in
pharaonic time. in lomb paintings and <elief. and
in temples, panicularly the Temple of IdfU. In the
Ale~andrian period the theme of the hippopotamus
hunt passed into Hellenistic iconography; one of
lhe besl-known examples of pUlli among waler liIie.
is lItat of lhe mosaic of Paleslrina in ltal}' daling
from the ~rsl cenlury A.D.
The presence 01 su<:h a SCene in 8;\",1\ betra}'s
links with C...... k iconography but derives most
probably from lhemes in the Temple of IdiU: Horus,
God of Good, vanquishes Selh, God of Evil and lite
desert, rep<e",nled as a hippopotamus, .ymbol of
evil and by exten.ion, the devil (see BIBLICAL SUB·
J"-CTS IN ~RT). The repre.entation of the hippopota·
mu. gives funher .ignificance 10 lhe gazelles men·
lioned earlier when we think lhal, for example, on
lhe cippi of HOnJ$ (voti,'e stelae for magi<:al use) of
the Iale pharaonic period, the gazelle i. depicted
among the malignant animals of lhe retinue of
Seth. This detail i. funher alluded to in the very
iconography of BAwl!, namely the fre..,o represent·
ing Saini Sisinnios piercing lhe demoness Alabas·
tria with his lance. He is surrounded by malign
animals and emblem. that include a gazelle.
The.e consideration. fonn lhe lransition to other
huming scenes lhat are no longer simple iIlustra-
lion., borrowed from profane life, of passages of
scripture and participate ~\!.Iy outwardly in the sa·
cred character of lh~ le,cts. They depict ralher a
Iheme in itself sacred, or ;"ore properly funerary,
Ihal, among the Mesopouimian. as among many
other peoples, symbolizes Ihe victory of good over
evil in the guise of a hunter on fOOl or on horse·
back in pursuit of game, whelher large or small,
This symbolism, as has been nOlcd, existed in Egypl
in lhe represenlalion of the struggle belween the
god Horus and the god Seth, often represented uo·
der lheir animal guises borrowed from lhe Egypliao
fauna. Egyptian, who remaioed pagan after lhe trio
umph of Chrislianity e~ploited il in a celebrated
HUNTING IN COPTIC ART 1259
relief showing lhe victorious Horus (see MY1lIOLOGI·
CAL SUBJECTS) piercing a Typhonian animal from the
back of his horse. But lhe piece must dale from the
sevenlh century, and despite the Creco·Roman uni-
fonn and the harness, the presentation of Horus
with a falcon's head presuppose. the use of this
relief in a sancluary of belaled adherenlS 10 the
pharaonic gods. The borrowing of the Me<opolami·
an lheme, the use of Greco·Roman gannents, and
lhe survival of lhe pharaonic theme 10 a late dale
~ar wilness 10 the blendings of cultures and the
neighborly relalions between them lhal had lJee,n
established. The rarily of the pharaonic lheme,
however, and its almost complele disappearance
contrasled Wilh the abundance of examples of the
Mesopotamian lheme that were less dire<;II)' sym-
bolk: the head of the huntsman, for example, reo
mained a human head and emphasized the acCepl-
ance by lhe Christian Copts, as by the Christian
anists of the catacomb. (du Bourguel, 1970, pp,
48-51 l, of themes wilh a universally spiritual "alue
willtoul feeling any need to add any specifically
Chrislian mark (see ICONOGRAPHY, CHRISTIAN).
From this perspective we may consider, in addi·
lion to the hunts of the hippopotamus or the ga-
ulle, hunling scenes of large or small game. The...
mUSI, however, be diotinguished from Ihe theme of
the Parthiao horseman, who i. recognized by his
gesture of benedictIon with lhe righl hand. Such
scenes may be grouped in three categories: (I)
hunlers on fOOl, no doubl taken from Roman do-
mestic decoration (du Bourguet, 1%4, no, C 22 aod
passim), particularly in lhe fabrics but also in the
painlings; (2) hunlers on horseback, often wearing
the Phrygian cap, which mark. an Oriental origin
(du Bourguet, 1964, nos. C 20, D 91. 96, and pa.-
.im), ,'ery frequent in fabrics; and (3) lhe pursuil of
wild animals in lhe bushes by Iion.~ or dogs, no
doubt deriving from the pr«eding calegory bul <e-
duced 10 this significant detail without lhe need for
any human pre.ence, according 10 a typically Cop-
tic procedure, and present in paintings (CI~dat
1904), <elief< (Chassinat, 1911) and fabric. (du
Bourguel, 1964, nos. C 70 and D 117).
atBuOGAAPIIY
Bourguel, P. duo L'An paliochritien. Amsterdam
and lausanne, 1970.
___. Mu •.!e du Lou",", Ca/alogue des "wffes
copies /. Paris, 1964.
ChaMinat, E. Fouille. " Baouil. I. Memoires de !'In-
stil"t fran~ais d'Archeologie orientale 13, Cairo,
1911.
 1260 HUNTINGTON, ROBERT
Cledat, l. L€ Monosler< €I /0 ni!crople de Baouil.
Memoires de l'lnstitu\ fran~'ais d'Archeologie ori·
entale 12, 39. Cairo, 1904; 1916.
Duthuit. G, La Sculprur€ copu. Paris. 1931.
Seringe. P, us S)'mbole. dons tOri. dan, les reli-
gions tl dans 10 vie de lOus les ;ou". Geneva.
1985.
PrERI\E aU BouRG\lE"J. S.l.
HUNTINGTON, ROBERT (1637-1701), Brir·
ish Orientaiisi. He wenr to rhe Levanr in 1671 and
spenr more rhan ten years there. From Ale[>pO. he
visited Palestine, Cyprus, and Egypt_ In Egypt he
bought rare manuscript5, among which were some
Coptic te"ts. These manuscripts evenrually made
their way inro the collections of Merton College
and the Bodleian Library, Oxfo<d.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Courtney, W, P. "Huntington, RoOerl." In DiC/iono-
ry of NOlio",,1 Biograph)", Vol. 10. pp. 308-309,
Oxford,I949-1950.
MARrrN KIt-\USI!
HUSEIN KAMEL. Sa Mul)ammad 'All D)/nasty.
HYMNS, AUTHORS OF, SU Music. Coptic;
History.
HYMNS, MELODIES OF. Sa Music, Coptic:
Descriplion.
HYMNS, MONASTIC USE OF. See Music,
Coptic: History.
,~
HYMNS, SAINTS' AND MARTYRS' COM·
MEMORATIVE. See Music, Coptic: De",rip-
tion.
HYMNS, TEXTS OF. Sa Music, Copric: De·
scription.
HYPOSTASIS, a word destined to playa large
and complicated pan in Christian theology from the
late third century on. It does not appear in classical
Greek in a philosophical sense but became an im-
ponant word in Middle Platonism and Neoplaton-
ism. 1t could mean "that which underlies" (hence it
can be used to mean "substance") or "that which
gives support" (hence it can be used to mean "indi-
vidual reality"), At Wisdom 16:/2 (the nnly signili·
cant occurrence in the Greek Old Te.tament) it
denotes God's nature, and this meaning reappears
in the expression "impression of [God's] nature"
(Heb. 1:3), Elsewhere in the New Testament it
means "confidence, assumnce. guarantee" (2 Cor.
9:4; 11:17: Heb. 3:14; 11:11).
Until the appearance of the Cappadocian fathers,
the word was used indi",riminately to mean "sub·
stance" or "individual entity." It was often taken to
be a synonym of "usia (substance), apparently in
the anathema of the Nicene Cree<! (325), which
condemns the doctrine that the Son is of an "usia
or hypostasis different from the Father. This equiva·
lence caused endless confusion during the Arian
controversy. Eastern theologians were accustomed
(followIng: ORleEN', u,age) to speak of Father, Son,
and Holy Spirit as three hypostases, Western theolo-
gians tended to think that this meant three diverse
substances, The Western bishops at the Council of
Sardica (343) declared that God had only one hy·
postasis. The Easterns consequently suspected the
Westerns of SAaELLtANtSM, while the Westerns in
their turn suspected the Easterns of ARIANrSM. Atba-
nasitts almost always avoided the word hypostasis in
trinitarian contexts before 362, [n 362 the Council
of Alexandria allowed thai it was orlhodox to think
of God as three hypostases, provided this ,,-as not
intended in an Arian sense, that is, God was not
three substances bul three "persons." The Cappado-
cians stereotyped the u<age lhat hypostasis expres..
es what God is 3,< Three. and ous;o what He is as
One.
The parlicipanrs in the dispute. concerning the
Incarnation, which came to a head in the Chake-
donian formula of 451, also used "hypostasis" ex·
tensivel}' to mean "actually existing individual reali-
ty" (not "personality"). The Antiochene school
(e.g" Nestorius and the more p"relpient Theodoret
of Cyrrhus) tended 10 hold that in Jesus Christ two
diffcrent hypostases, the human and the divine,
were joined in a moral union, bUl thoy found diffi-
culty in explaining what that union produced, The
Alexandrian school, notably CYRIL himself, hold to a
.ingle hypostasis that expressed a ,;ngle divine·
human nature; his term "hypostatic union" meant
that Ihe Son of God incarnate represenled a single
reality in whom the human and the divine were
-
constitutionally, oDtologically united. The ehake-
donian formula stated that in Jesus Christ twO dis-
linct nalures. divine and human, combined. without
confusion, in a single prosopon (visible impression)
and a single hypostasis (rea.lity), and thi' union was
hypostatic, Dol merely moral.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Grillmeier, A. Chrisl in Chris/in" Tradition, trans.
J. S. Bowden, chap. 5. london, 1964.
Jouassard, G, "Un problem., d'anlhropologie el de
chrnlOlogie che< saint Cytille d'Al"""ndrie." Rec-
herches de sciences ,dig;e",.,. 43 (1955):361-19.
Noms, R. A, Manhood and Christ: A Study of Ihe
Ckriswlng)' 01 Theodore of Mopsuestia, Oxford,
1963.
Richar<l. M. "L'lnlroduclion du mOl 'hypostase'
dans la Ihwlogie de I'incarnation." Mi/ongu de
sci.,,,,., religiouse 2 (1945),5-32, 243-70.
Sellers, R. V. Two A,,"ient Chri$IOlogiu. London,
1940.
Young. F. From Nkaea 10 Chalc~do .., chap. 5. Phila·
delphia. 191:\3,
R. P. C. HANSON
HYPOSTASIS OF THE ARCHONS. This,
the fourth tractate of Codex II of the N~G HAMM~Dt
UIlRAIIY. is a Gnostic exposition of the origin. na-
ture. and function of angelic po",ers like those
mentioned in the New Testament at Ephesians 6:1Z
and Colossians 1: 13. In the cosmology of lhe docu-
ment, the universe is divide<! by a veil into t",o
mutually exclusive realms, The primary, incorrupti-
ble, and invisible realm above the dividing ,'eil is
contraste<! with its shadow, the corruptible and visi-
ble realm of physical malter and of ignorance be-
neath the veil. At the instigation of a heavenly and
incorruptible being called P.istis Sophia (Faith, Wis·
dom), the ignorant, inferior"nd malevolent god of
the lower "",1m, laldabaoth, prganizes his offspring
into a hierarchy corresponding to that found in the
UpPer world. So organited, t\:lis angelic offspring of
laldabaoth constitutes the archons (rulers) men-
tione<! in Ephesians and Colossians, Thus, the cor-
ruptible archons of the lower realm correspond to
the incorruptibie angels (or aeons) of the upper.
When the archons of the lower world see the
image of the incorruptibility that dwell. above the
veil reflected in the waters of thei' lower realm,
they lust after the beautiful image and allempt to
capture it by creating a copy of il out of physical
mailer to act as a decoy. This physical decoy is
HYPOSTASIS OF THE ARCHONS 1261
Adam. At first Adam i. unabie to rise from the
ground out of which he was created, fOT while the
archons can gh'e him pbysicallife, mere animation,
they cannot give him what is found only in the
upper world, an incorruptible soul. However, when
the incorruptible Spirit above sees Adam belo,",', it
descends to the lower realm and inhabits his ph)'.i·
eal hody. Exactly why the decoy Adam is successful
in luring the Spirit from above is not explained.
The archons then put Adam inlO the Garden, and
while he sleep.s, they take Eve from his side. In this
division, the incorruptible Spirit that dwelt in Adam
remains with the part that becomes Eve. The ar·
chons, in their lust for thi. spiritual entity, rape Eve
and beget Cain, bm before they do, the Spirit passes
from Eve into a serpent and so remains undefiled.
It is this spiritual serpent that then teaches Adam
and Eve to defy th~ evil archons, to partake of the
fruit of the Garden, and to gain knowledge. The
Spirit then passes from the serpent into Norea, tlte
daughter of Adam and Eve. When the archons at-
tempt to rape Norea, as they had her mother, Eve,
she resists. and calls upon the god of the upper
realm, who sends the angel Eleleth to rescue heL
Eleleth teaches Nore. how the first archon, lalda·
baoth, was created oUl of the incorruptible Sophia,
and how laldabaoth subsequemly created the physi·
cal universe and begot the other archons, For blas-
phemy against the upper realm, Ialdabaoth is finally
consigne<! to Tartarus, and one of his offspring, the
repentant archon Sabaoth, is installed in his father's
place oV<:r all the lower realms. Elelelh finall)' re-
veal. to No"'" that she and Iter offspring, who pos-
seSS Spirit. rightly belong to the upper realm and
",ill be saved from the lower """rid and its archon.
when tbe true Man comes imo the world at a future
time. The treatise ends with an eschatological hymn
describing the sal,.,.tlon of the spiritual beings and
the final destruction of the archons.
The HypOSIMi.• of Ihe Archons was wrillen in
Greek hefore A,I}, 350, and the many puns on Semit·
k names indicate a Jewish or Jewish-Christian con·
nection (Laj10n, 1937). The cosmogonk myth in
thi. document is presented in an abbreviated form
and must be flesh~d out by comparison with other
instances of the same myth, particularly with that in
the fifth traclate of Codex 11, On th~ Origi.. of the
World, with ",hkh HJPO$la.sis of lhe Archons has
many close parallels.
BIBUOGRAPHY
Barc, B. L'I/JposIGse d~$ archonUS. Bibliotheque
copte de Nag Hammadi S. Quebec, 19S0.
 1262 HYPOSTATIC UNION
Bullard. R. A. ~ HypoSlIUi. uf 1M A",Aon1C The
Coptic Tut witll Tr"tuI,,1ion "ltd Corn"'e,,'''/)', P.o.·
trislixn.. TUle und Studien 10. &r1in. 1910.
Bullard,. R. A.. and B. laylOR. '-n,., HYJ"Xltiis oi
tIM: Archons."" In The N"K HfJlmlladi Libr'Ilry. ed.
James M. Robinson, PI'- IS1~60. New York. 1971.
fa/loft, f. T. 1M E"lhnmmum of Sabdotl!: J... .w.
E1_~nts ;" e-z>o:- C'e<tlioft Myths. Naa Ham..,.
dl Scudico 10. Leiden. 191!l
~ , B. "The H)JICI'll2'is cf tIM: ArdtotlS, •.
Endish Tran>l.ation. Noce5, and Indues.·· Hv-
..",d N.toloKictd RnWw 61 (1974):JS1-U5. and
69 (1976):]1-101.
_ _ "Tbc RnJiIy of tn.. Rukrs." In 1M GJ>OStOc
Scrip",,"s. pp. 65-16. Ga.den City, N.Y .• 1981.
STvttEN E. ROIllSSOl<
HYPOSTATIC UNION. the onhodo~ doclrin~
on the rcla.tion of the divine and huma.n in Ch ....l.
H..,(Jsis katll' hypr)S/as;n ......... lhe terTII used by Sa.int
CYRI~ I, p~uriard of Ale~andria in Ihe fihh cenlury,
10 make dear l>eyond all argument the complete
unity of the Divine Word and \h~ Aesh In Christ.
For Cyril Ih~ Word is the only HYI'OST"-SlS ("sub-
st.onu"), a.nd il "a»umed Aesh" (J~n 1:14) wilh·
OUI c~asinJ la be th<' Word. The "Word made Anh"
"'" nOt ... compound oi lwo ;ntkprn~nl rta.Cures,
manhood and godhead, bur one nature, lhal 01 the
Word "inside man a.nd filIl~.·'
Cyril', ChristoioD was based on that 01 Sa.im AlItA-
I"ASIIl5 l palrian-h of Ale:<a.ndria in lhe fo.lMh cenlu·
ry. ~. in addition 10 the aenuine ..'orb 01
Adwtasius. Cyril !Lad studied and b«n inAumced
by a pcup of exl1'emely ..-dl·wrillu Apollinarian
~ of works purponi"l 00 ha.. e been wrinea
by authorities as ~tabI~ as Greto<Y lhe W<>ftdotr.
..,orIt..... Pope Julius, and Athanasius (Sft Al'Ql.UK.\R-
IAHl:S/Il), ThO!! Cyril uoed lhe same phrases a.nd .......
ments thai AplIJirWis had used 00 assen Ihe
compao.ile unily of ~·s person whiM: S1~nuous·
Iy opposing Apollinarianism.
This is the key 10 undenlandinl Cyril', peculiar
lerm'nolog. The manhood of Chrisl Is made real
only by recoune 10 a doclrine of h"osis ("""If·
emplY;nll"). by which the Won:! pennits His h"ma.n
soul and body assumed at the Incarnation to uperi·
enCe h"man needs and feelings and ~nally to suffer
and die On Ihe <ross. T1te Word, as he says, "abased
himself by submininll 10 Ihe limitations of lhe hu·
man conditio,,:' The union of godhead and man·
hood could be explained only in mySlkal lenns. A.
Cyril WI'OIe 10 NESlORIUS, bishop of Conslaminople
(421-431), in hill third Ieller(4JO), Christ ..suff....ed
impa~"hly:' In his secOlld letl.... (429). he allempl·
ed 10 uphin how .. the Word Ita"ing united 10 Him·
""If in H" own hypm'a'is, in an ineffable and in-
conceivable man ....., lIeslt animated with a .....tiona!
soul. becam~ Man and "'J!S called Son of Man.-
Union Lzdt· hypou...m appears in tht Twelve
Anathetn. appended 00 Cyril', thm:l kilt< to Nes-
lorius (Anathema Z). The Anathemas ..",", accepted
as eatI<lfIicaI at lhe SecoM Council of EnIESUS in
449; and while !hey wen: puscd. 0'0"U at the Council
oi CIW.CEDON (451), Cyril', afIinmIion !hat lilt uft-
ion oi natures was k"th' If)'pos"..in ...... not con-
dtmnm It ""as ruffirnted al Ihe Second Council oi
Constanlinopl.e in SSJ (Anathema 5).
IlIlLIOCIl.AI'HY
GriJlmeier. A. Chrisl in Cltrls!itm Traditio"_ Irall5. J.
S. Bowden. pl. 3. se<:1. 1. chap. 3. and sect. 2.
chap. 2. London. 1%4,
Kell)', J. N. D, Early Christi"n Doc'Ti"~$. chap. t2.
London. 1~78.
W. H. C. heND
HYPSIPHRONE. a GnostiC worlt in the NAG 1Wtl·
/IUD! UB.....V. 11 occupies I.... final fOlJr pages of
Code>. XI (XI.4.69.21-72..lH. "'Ih lhe missing con.
elusion most likely al the bottom oi p;lge 12). A
tilul..- SUft'"!$Cript, HYPSIPH[RONE). is given at
69.21 ••uland "'th confidence 01\ tIM: basi~ of the
""" of this name .0.1 XU.b9.2l-24. 70.11-23, and
12.21; tIt~ tIKWe also p«ten1S i1sc:1f in the incipit
as '"!he book laboul the thlnp) ..-hich ,,-ue se<'II
[by] Hypsiphrone, bel". I~..-Icd) in tht place of
Ihe.1 ";<Fn;ty"' (XU.6~.2!-26). H)llSipltrnne.... he
of high mind:' is described in the company oJ her
brothers. and ..... proceeds 10 deliver- a KVelalory
discourw concernin. her descenl from the pIacc of
h.... "'!Fniry inoo the world (XU.70.1O-21) and her
con'..,nations with ...... inops. 1M '1>right-eyed one:'
Unfonunalely, ~ause of Ihe deterioraled condi·
lion of the 1<'>.', the precise ConlenlS of Ihe di...
COUISe are impossible 10 determine.
BIBl.IOGRAPHY
Fnc$i... i[~ Edi/,'cn cf Ihe Na, Hnmmndi Codices: Co-
dkes XI, XU alld XlfI. Lelden, 1973.
Turner, J. O. "H~iphrone (Xl. 4):' [n Th~ No,
HtJ....mtJ.di Lib,ary I" En,lilh, p. 453. l.<:iden and
San Francisco, 1971,
 HYVERNAT, HENRI EUGENE XAVIER LOUIS
_ _. "Xl. 4, Hypsiphrone." In Nag Hammadi Co·
di<:u Xl, XlI, ,md XlIf, ed. C. W. Hedrick. Nag
Hammadi Studies.' The Coptic enostic Library.
Leiden, fonhcoming,
MARY'" W. MEYER
HYVERNAT, HENRI EUGENE XAVIER
LOUIS (1858-1941), French Orientalist. He was
born in Saint-Julien·en·Ja,,-e!. Loire, He was edu·
cated at the seminaire de Saint Jean at Lyons and
th. Unive ...ity of Lyon•. He then studied theology in
Pari. (882) and served as doctor of the<;>logy at lhe
Pontifical Uni.'e...ity in Rome (1882-IS85). He be·
came professor of Oriental archaeology and Ian·
1263
guage. at Catholic Uni""...it)' in Washington, D.C.
(1889). He published many works. some of the m<><t
imponant being Acta Marlyrum, Wilh G, Balestn
(Pans, 1907-1924); Album d. paleographi. copu
(Paris, IS88); BibUmhec". PierpotH Morga" Codices
Coptiei Photographic. Expres,i (56 vols. in 63 [fac·
similej, Rome, 1922), He died in Washington.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Dawson, W. R., and E. P, Uphill. Who Wa, Wh.;> in
Egyptology. p. 148, London, 1972.
Kammerer, W., compo A Copti<: Bibliography, Ann
Arbor, Mich" 1950; repr, New York, 1969.
AZll S. ATln
IAMBLICHUS (c. 250-325), Born in Chalcis in
Code-Syria, lamblichus was a successor of Por-
phyry in Ihe Neoplalonisl lradilion. Whereas Ploh·
nus and Porphyry were skeplical and disapproved
of magic, he is reported to have defended theurgy,
as it was called. Tradition also includes his per-
fonning acts of levitation and conjuring spirits.
Among his e~lani writings are "On the Pythagorean
Life," "Exhonation to Philosophy," three \reatises
on mathematics, and a lengthy defense of ritualistic
magic, "De Mysteriis." Modem evaJuaticm of his
works runs from "superficial" to "worthless," but
he did advance the theory thaI evil has its origin in
the will, and he disputed Plotinu.' doclrine of the
soul'. divinily. He placed great emphasis on the
myslicism of numbers, sanctified myth., and specu-
lated on an infinitely increased number of Divine
Being.'l, e~panding and glorifying Ihe Olympic relig·
ion of Ihe G""eks.
Lo.t writings include a I""atise "On the Soul"
(e~cerpt. preserved in the antholollY of SIOOaeUS),
"On the Gods," and commentarit'$ on Plato and
Aristotle (quoted by Proclus),
",
BIBUOGRAPHY
,
Deubner, L., ed. De v;la Pylhagorica' IibeF. Leip.ig,
1937,
Dodd.., E. R. Produ" Elemenls qf Theology, 2nd ed.
O~ford, 1963.
Fe.ta, Nicolaus, ed. De communi malkema/ica ,d-
enti<llibeF. Stuttgart, 1975,
Harnack, A, History of Dogmo, Vol. I, pp. 347-56.
Repr. New York, 1961.
Medan, P. From Plalonismlo Neop/aloni,m, 3rd ed.
rev. The Hague, 1968.
f'istelli, H., ed, Jamb/ichi in Nicomachi a";lkmetic"m
introductionem fiber. Stuttgart, 1975.
C. Wn.nnm GR1000
1265
IBN AL-'AMID, Sa Makin Ibn al 'AmId, al·,
IBN AL-BATRiQ, 'ISA, SU Ibn al·Bitrlq, '1...
IBN AL-BATRIQ, SA'ID, See Ibn al-Bilrlq,
Sa'id.
IBN AL.BITRlQ, 'lsA, a Chri.tian physician of
Old Cairo and the brother of Sa'id tBN AL-BqRIQ thc
physician, patriarch, and historian, who dedicated
10 him his historical work No"" al-Jawhor (Cheik·
ho, 1909, p. 4SS).
'I.. ibn a1-Bitrlq was knowledseable in all
branche. 01 medicine, especially medicaments and
treatmen!. He remained in Old Cairo umiI his
death, Ihe year of which is not gh'en by Ibn Abl
U~ybi'ah.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Cheikho, L. "Al-Taw:l.rlkh al·N~raniyyah fi al·'Arab·
iyyah." AI-Mash";q 12 (1909).
Ibn Abl U!"ybi'ah. 'U;-un o/·Anba' fi foboqlil al,A~.
ibM', Vol. 2, p. 57. Cairo, ISS2,
PENEUOPEJOHNSTONE
IBN AL-BITRIQ, SA'ID, a Melchite palriarch
of Alexandria, known in his ecclesiastical capacity
as Eutychius. He was born in A.D. 877 in the old
capital of Egypt, al-Fus!:l.!, was elected to the Mel·
chite palriarchate in 933, and died in 940. His origi-
nal v""ation as a layman w.... the practice of medi-
cine, in which he, in collaboration with his
physician brothcr IS'\' IBN AL·BlfllIQ, wrote several
1266 IBN AL-DAHiRi
medical treati'os. After hi' election to the patriar-
chate. ho.....ever. he di.tingui,hed himself as a histo-
rian. and, according 10 Ibn Abi U~ybi'ah, his ele\'-
enth·century bit,graphcr. wrotc a .oluminous .....ork
entitled NaV" ol·jawhar. a uni.'ersal history from
Adam to hi. own day in the reign of Abbasid Caliph
al·Ra"i (934-940), Apart from the detailed annals of
the caliphate. he incorporated into his text the story
of the Melchite patriarchs and detail. of their feast>
and rn"ts. His reign was rather turbulem; he also
wrote a treatise of disputation between him and his
ad,'e""'ries in an altempt to establish the Melchitc
over the onhodo~ rule of the Coptic church,
lt ""'" his chronicle, howe~er. thai brought him
special attention. It. text was first edited with a
Latin tran,lation by the famou, Engli'h Orientali,t
Edward Pocockc in 1654. Since then, the author-
i'.ed Arabic te~t of his annals has been compiled
from the a,'~ilabl. manu,cript, and edited by L.
Cheikho, B. Carra de Vatu, ~nd H. Zayyat under a
new lille, KilJb al-Tilrikh al-Maim£<' 'alJ al-Ta~q,q
wa.al.Ta~dlq. The work was addressed. or perhaps
r,lIher dedicated, by the patriarch to his brother
·Isa.
lt was further continued in a massive supplement
by Yah~ ibn Sa'rd al-An!~k" .....hose annals cover
the period of the late Abbasid caliphs- from aI-JUdI
to the accession of the Fatimid d)'nasty up to the
rule of al·~ir (1020-1035). This supplement ap-
peared in the same series as the original history; its
te:<t was compiled by Chcikho and hi. colleagues
from manuscripts in Paris. Saint Petcffiburg. Da-
mascus. and Beirut. Pre,'ionsly, portions of this
work were published with a RUSllian translation by
Baron von Rosen in 1883. The author of the supple-
ment lried to classify his material into seclIlar and
religi<>uS categories. Ihough in the main he lried t"
foHo,"" the general sdeme established by hi. prede·
cesoor, The MelchiTe patriarch Eutychius.
BI110GlUPHV
, apparelllly traveled extensi,'ely,
,
CheikllO, L.; B. Carra' de Vau~; and H. Zayyal. Euty--
ehii Parriareha' A/Handrini Annaln, cseQ.
Scrjptores Amblci. ser. 3, 6 and 7. Beirut and
Paris, 1905-1909.
"Christian Historical Worh in Arabic" (AI·
Tawilrlkh al·Na~rilni))'ah fI al··Arabiyyah). AI-
Mashriq. 12 (1909),488-89.
Ibn U"aybi'an, Muwaffaq ai-DIn Abu-a!··Abbas, Vy"n
"I'~nb<l' /I Tabaqar a[.Aljbbil·, 2 vols, Cairo. 1882.
Pococke, E. COnMx!i" C,,,,,,,arum. Vol. 2. Eutychii
Palr/Mch", Alexa"dri"/ A/II,ali"",. Oxford, 1654,
AzIZ S, ATTY~
IBN AL-DAHiRI, a Ihirteenth·century bishop of
Damietta who wrote a grammar called M"qaddim,,'
ibn al·Dahlrl. G. Graf lists him under the name al.
Thiqah ibn al-Duhayrt and as one .....ho e:<changed
dictionaries with the grammarian al-MU'TAMAN IBN
AI..-ASSAI.. The laner requested from al·Dahfrl a copy
of a/.KlfilylJ.h by the Coptic grammarian al·Wajih
al-Qalyflbl. who had lived in The thirteenth eentury
(Simaykah. 1939. p. 38). Ibn al'Assal declared that
grnmmar to be eIToneous in parts and incomplete,
and told al-Dahirt of Tile work of rBN !VInB OXYliA"-
Al-Dahirt recognized that the grammars of both
men depended "n that of Vu~ann~ aI-Dahlrt, bisbop
of Samannud. Al·DaMri then wrote his own gram-
mar, Trying to avoid the elTors and omissions of the
others. He used the established divisions into
nGuns, verbs. and particles, and gave numerous ex·
ample. (Kircher, 1648, pp. 273-495).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Kircher. A, Li"gua aegypl/aca ,""srirma. Rome. 1648.
VINCENt' FREDERICK
IBN HAWQAL.
. Abu al·Qil.sim Muhammad
. ibn
J:lawqal al·N""bj (d. 988) was an Arab t",veler who
seems to have visiTed Nubia and The Sudan in 955.
He later wrote a hook hased 011 his 1",,,,,,ls. of
which Iwo versions survi"",: an earlier ve",ion
called Kjt<lb al·MasJ/lk wa·al-Mamalik (Book of Ide·
ologies and Countri..), and a revised ~e",ion called
K/r<lb -5£<ral al-Arq (Book of the Image of the E'3nh).
His description of the Christian Nubian kingdoms is
relatively brief. and on that account is of less "alue
than i. the work of IBN SALIM AL·xswANI. Howe.'er.
Ibn J:lawqal is unique among nwdie'"al wliTers in
ha~ing "isitoo tile kingdom of 'ALWA in person, His
most ~a!uablc and detailed inf()l',n",ion pertains 10
the UEM TRTU£$ of the Sudan. in who", lerrilOI)-' he
BIBUOGIUPHY
Kramers, J. H.. and G, Wict. trans. La Configuralion
d~ la leITe. Paris, 1965.
MiqueL A. "Ibn l;Iaw!<aI." In Encyclop~dia oi Islam.
VoL 3, pp. 786-88. leiden. 1971.
Vantini, G. Th~ Exc~vario"s at Faras: A Contribution
10 Ih~ History of C/rris/jan Nubia, Pl'. 74_79. Bolo-
gna. 1970,
___. Oriemal Sourc.. Co~cerning N"bia. Pl'.
149_70, Heidelberg and Warsaw. 1975.
WILUAM Y. ADAMS

IBN AL.'IBRI. Su Bar Hebraeus.
IBN KABAR (al-Shaykh al.Mu'taman Shams al·Ri·
yAsah ibn al-5haykh al·As'ad AbU al·BaraUt ibn Ka·
bar), .s<;holar born 10 a .....ealthy Coptic family to-
ward Ihe end of the Ihineemh cemury: he lived 10
Ihe early decades of the founeenlh. His parems'
palatial residence in Old Cairo Was frequented by
state dignitaries. Ibn Kabar received hi. early edu·
cation in the Coplic school., where under Ihe be"
leache" of his day he mastered bolh Ihe A.rabic and
Coplic longues, He emerged as a great scholar al
Ihe end of Ihe golden age of Coplic lilerary aCcom·
plishment.
Like many literale Copt. of his lime, after Ihe
completion of his educalion he joined Ihe govern-
mem service as a ""ribe and soon rose to Ihe posi-
lion of chief scribe of Prince Bay'bars Rukn ai-Din
al-Dawad>1.r al·Man~I1r1 (d. 1323), Ibn Kabar aided
al-Man~ilr1 in the composition of a historical .....ork
entilled ZubJai al--Fihah Ii Tankh al·Hijrah, as ceni·
fied by Ihe historians al·Maqrfzj (1364-1442) and
Ibn J:Iajar al·'Asqa[anj \1372~1449), 1n Ihe mean-
lime, he continued his immense slUdies of all avail·
able religious and secular lilenoture ooth in Coptic
and in Arabic, where his competence is revealed in
subsequent literary products. The height of his elo·
quence is clearly demonslrate<! in his preserved
oralions, and his great Coptic dictionary is one of
Ihe most comprehensive lexical «~.:ords of that Ian·
guage ever known, In addition, the encyclopedic
tendency of his mind led him to learning other
classical languages such as Greek, Hebrew, and
most probably Syriac.
In spile of the high position Ibn Kabar occupied
in the civil ".,rdce, he decided 10 relire in 1293
during a wa.'. of Mamluk persecution againsl Ihe
Copts. At thaI lime, Sulta~ll'Ashraf KhalIl (1290-
1292) issued a decree ordering Ihe dismi.sal "f all
Coptic functionaries from pdblic service unless they
apostati.ed to I.lam. Ibn Kabar devoted all his time
to hi. monumental studies and lilerary productivily
in Ihe fields of theology, history, and linguislics.
Around the year 1300, his fame as a man of religion
spread among Ihe Coptic community, and its ar·
chons prevailed U]XIn him to become their presby·
ler in charge of the historic Church of Ihe Virgin
kno.....n as al·Mu·alJaqah in Old Cairo, which was lhe
seal of the palriarchate and the mosl imponanl
religious cemer in Egypl, He must ha,'e been older
than lhirty al the lime of his nominalion, and he
IBN KABAR 1267
continued 10 occupy Ihis ecclesiastical ]XIsition un-
til his dealh. He was a contem]XIrary of several
popes and patria«"hs of the church including j<JHN
VII (1262-1268, 1271-1293), THEODOSJUS II (1294-
1300), JOHN VIll (1300-1320) and JOHN IX (1320-
1327). All revered him for his profound theological
kn"""ledge and piery.
In the year 1321, another ""ave of Islamic perse·
cutions swept Ihe Copts, The Muslim mob sought
Ibn Kabar, who disappeared from sighl; il is said
that Ihe Mamluk prince Rukn al·Din Bayba!> al·
Man~uri, his old sponsor, e>tended hi. protection to
the great scholar, keeping him hidden umil his
dealh on 10 May 1324. We must a.,;ume that in lhe
seclusion of Ihese lasl Ihree or four years of his life,
he was able 10 edit and finali~e his monumental
works; these may he classified in several calegories,
The first and most importanl calegory is Iheologi-
cal studie•. He produced Ih" mosl comprer.ensive
-and still unsurpassed-encyclopedia of Coptic
religi"Us knowledge in tv.'enty-four sections, .....ith
numerous supplements, under the tille of Mish/ll]
a/-Zulmah, Ii It/Ill] a/-Khidmah. Several manuscripts
of Ihis work have been found in varied reposilories;
Ihe mosl ancient is Ihe Valican manuscripI <!ated
A.M. 1049/A.D. 1333. Another manuscripl datcd ten
years later fAM 1059/A.o. 1343) was published in
Cairo in 1930. Other works in this field ascribed to
Ibn Kabar include a book emilled )o./Il' o./-'Uqil/ Ii
'Urn o./,UJUI, a critical anal)·.i. of Christian doc·
tpnes; Ihi. work could be spurious, since a work of
almost the same title in tr.e patriarchal library ap·
pears under the authorship of Ibn al·'Assoll, Olher
]XIlemical works comprise a discussion with Ihe
Jews and a philO/;ophicallreatise on predestination.
In the field of linguistic., Ibn Kabar left "ne of
Ihe mosl im]XInant Coplic lexic.l works, AI-Sullam
al.Kahle, beuer known 10 western sch"larship as
Scala Magna. Here he assembled all available Cop.
ti.: tenns with their Arabic equivalenLs in ten sec·
tions. It comis" "f thin)"t"'" chapters published
for the fu..t time in Rome in 1648 by the early
Western Coptolngisl Athanasius Kircher, ""ith alai'
in lranslation under Ihe lille Ungua Mgypliaca ru-
II/"ra: Scala Magna, huc esl numenc/ale aegyp/iaco·
,,"'hiCus,
The last category comprise. his miscellaneous
orations, epistles, and obituaries, of which fifty·one
ba"e been preserved in very elaborale classical Ara·
bic slyle, Ibn Kabar's obituaries included one that
he com]XIsed about himself during his declining
years in hi. retirement from the Mamluk pen;ecu·
tions; this ...as presumably read al hi. funeral in
 1268 IBN KATIB QAY$AR
1324. He was probably bu~ in the ;>l-Mu'allaqah
Church in Old Cairo.
m.~
IC.&... II ~iJ;l
NakhW>_ Kitllh T,rilJI .....J.dI...·jJ ok·
/'tiUt d1.1si.,.d~ <d-Qibl. Cairo. 1943.
Alll S. AnY4
IBN KAnB OAY~AR (c. 1260). accordinc lOG.
Graf. a IhinftntIK:en.ury Copcic: plIilolOJisl and
scrip<ural COnn....D....or. He CiIlme from a respec.....
aDd inhn,ia1 bmily_ A!'JIIU'T4M4." 480 ISHAO IIl>I
4L-'~ ..1>0 had conneclions ..ilh ,,11 the 'leamed
people of his time. I'3ted him hllhly beau... of his
"""'aOrdinary knowl~ and ;,..dIW his book on
Copdc grammar OUUlanding. This won was lhe
bub for his; being appreciated as a phl101ogiSl, but
his Importance .. a wriler is ",ther as a commenta·
tOr on lhe scriplures.
AmOnl his worb. Gmf tislS a grammar with lhe
tille A/·Tal>~i",h (Source of Insighl). a reworking of
the grammar of Yul}ann;l.. bl.hop of S<lmannfid.
The~ ,,"n edition ",ilh a latin translation by Atlla.
nasius Kircher (Li'lcua aegypliacQ restilutQ, Rome.
1(43). One "adilion mak.". Ibn Klllib o.ytlIr the
author of the C"""""e,"ory On tIuI Apo<;.lypSf; an·
OIher ascribes il 10 al-JlIIJ"TAIM/'I ,,110 IStIAo IBN 4L-
'ASSI.L. Tlw commentary itself does nco: ha~~ " u"i-
6ed order of lhe boob commented on nor does il
altempt a conceptual synopsis of !heir eon~t and
me",,;"g. In",ead, it mouJy IIlrinp lOft!her com·
me,,1S on .,.rticular wonh. "",,",ssiom.. and &en·
te and interprets these accordiRl 10 their di·
recI ialion. The meani ... of the ""Ords an
tUen inlO accounl when Ihc aUqorical and pr0-
phetic: charact.... of Ihc led does nOl allow any
other (Sbad" 1939). An anonyn'lOUl. comprehenfiv<,
eommel\l$I')' on the ~Ii"" \lIOob. on lhe Catho\ie
qmtl~ (Pfter. James, Jude, and 2 Pel....), and on
Acl$ of the ApostIe:o i$ abo .....ribed to Ibn l<aIib
00_.
IIlBuOG.....r,.v
I:lliIb&I.hl Shalt a1·Blnniwi. Tdfsfr RU'ydl DI-Qjd<1/s
Y"./:ID'mll al·UhiiU Ii ibn Killib Oay[.". Cairo,
1939.
IBN LAOLAQ. Se. Cyril III Ibn Laqlaq,
IBN MAMMATI, surname of a celebrated Coptic
dyna>ly from MyU! in the d~nlh al\d twelfth ttn-
wries under the Ialer Fallmids and early Ayyubids.
'Ibrft $UCceui« """",bers of thai dynaoty Sian<!
o~.
The fouoder, AbU al·NaIIt), b«ame oec~ and
gene",l intendmt of the ,ii...... undet- the vWerale
of Baodr aI-JamAll In the reiJn of the Falimid caliph
a1-Musunoir (1035-10904). He .... a popular admin-
iw3Ior and ..... eulopz.ed by !he ~ of "is age.
He was "ble to retain his CopIic: bith side by side
",ith his official position ill the Wamic SUlle unlil
his death -ne lime toWard the end of !be elc\~n!b
centwy_
The oecond in lhe line _ a1.Maiilfs son. al-Mu-
"adhdhab Abol al'Ma!l~ lakariyyf,. ",110 succeeded
his &th.r in the Importanl position of .........,ury o£
<he di,.,o" during the "'anlng of Fa,imid rule ;1\ the
Shi"ile cali~t. of al·'A4ld (1160_1171). DUlil\1
this criticat period of transition from Fatimid lo
Ayyubid rule In Egypt the Sunnlle Shirl",h occupied
the vizie...te of the Shi·ite caliphate, bringing in his
...,tinu. his own I\eph.w of laler reno",n. sala/.t al·
Oin al·A))'iibl (Saladin), Hit anomalous posilion
""'" precipitated by lhe greater peril of an invasion
o£ ~ by the crusader King Amalric of the Lalin
Kingdom of Jerusalem ahau. 1167_ One of Ihe im-
mediate raull$ of lhe crusade ...... Ihe kindling of
an""lOl\itm to....,.rd aU Chri:!liIlns, the CopI5 incl......
ed. A new WOlVe of peneculi0n5 fanned by Shirkuh
ag.JiItSl: the Copts and their adminislralion of !he
awe tltnatenc:d al-Muhadhdhab. who """",pal by
embl'*"in, 1s4m; he !hereby kept his position unlil
his dutlt, proe.bl, in the)'ell" 1182.
Whether al-Muha.dhdhab apo<tasired 10 Islam in
flOOd faith or mt:rtly fei&ned ronven.ion 10 ..,'"
hi..-If" the family appeared to remain ....'ithin the
D..... fold, and hif too apln inherilrd 1m posilion of
KCTetaI}' of the Iii""." and "'. . eves> promOOled later
10 the secretaryshJp 01 "'Ilhe di.. ·.DU of the ~overn­
meel machinery durin, lhe lI!ilnS of bot.h Saladin
(1l69-1192) and. ",.'~ (1193-1193) of Ihe An:u,
bid dynasIy_
lb. third in the Ilne .... the rna" rellOWned o£
the bmily. AI·MAQIIIzt. th. fiftce:nth-ccntury Arab
historian. quotes his full ""me 1.$ al-A$'ad Ibn Mu·
hadhdhab ibn lakariyyfi ibn MId Sharaf ",1·Din AbU
al-Makirim ibn Sa"ld ibn Abl sl·Mall~ ibn Mammat!.
His fame was not bued merely on hil; lofty polilion
in the administration of the country as head of all
the diwo", but also on his literary accomplishmel\lI
in Arabic and his productivity as a writer and u a
poel ",110 left hit mark on that age. The source.

have recorded at least twenty_three worts under the
name of al-As'l><l, though most of them have heen
lost. His poetic skill was put to use in the versifica-
tion of the Life of Saladin and the classic Kalilah
wa_DimtJ"h, AI-Qadi al·Fa.;Jil Abd al·Rahim .1·
Baysanl, a towering personality of that age and the
M1preme judge of the sultanate, descrihed him as
the "nightingale of assemhHes" on account of his
eloquence and the sweetness of his style.
After the death of al·Qadi al·FA,!i!. al'M'ad's col-
league and rival ~afr al·Din 'Abd Allah ibn 'Ali ibn
Shukr, head of the Dlw~" al.laysh, was elevated t<>
the vizierate with disaslrous consequences t<> Ibn
MammAl!. Ibn Shuh conspired against him at the
suhan's court, bringing aoout the confiscation of all
his property and slripping him of his position in the
slate, In these untoward circumstances, al-As'ad de-
cided to flee to "'leppo, where he found refuge at
Ihe court of al-:?Ahir (1186-1216), a son of Saladin.
There he remained unt;] his dealh in exile and ob·
scurity in 1209 at the age of sixt)"IWO, He was in·
lerred in Damascus, according to Ibn KhallikAn, at
Ihe cemetery of BAb al,l;Iakam by the roadside near
the mausoleum of al·Shaykh 'Ali al·Harawi.
BIBLlOGR"'PHY
Ati)'., A. S., ed. KiUJ.b Qawilnln al.Dawawln, pp.
32-40. Cairo, 1943,
AZIl S, ATlu
IBN QAYTIM AL-JAWZIYYAH (al-Salafl
Sham. al·Din Abu "AIx! AllAh Mu~ammad ibn Abi
Bah ibn A))'l1b ibn Sa'd ibn l;Iariz ,,1·Zar'i al·
Dimashql), fourteenth-century encyclope<!ia author.
He was known as Ibn Qayyim al·Jawziyyah since his
futher was Ihe curator of the Jawziyyah School in
Damascus. He was a Hanbalite. Though he received
his training from numero~ teachers, the greatesl
master, who left an indelible , impression on him,
was Sh",ykh al·'slQrn a{·{mam, Taqi al·D1n Al)mad ibn
Taymiyy"h, woo remained ,'with Ibn Qayyim for
nearly rurty years from his return from Egypt in
131l until his death. During this long companion-
ship Ibn Qayyim benefited so much from Ibn Tay'
miyyah's learning that Iheir nameS hecame ass0-
ciated.
Ibn Qayyim produce<! a comprehensive two-
,'olume encyclopedia (A~k~m Ahl al.Dhimmah) of
Islamic law pertaining to the AHL AL-DHtMMAH (peo-
ple of the covenant). The author stressed important
fuets rele"ant to the OOVEN~NT OF 'UMAR. on which
IBN QAYYIM AL-JAWZIYYAH 1269
he com mente<! exhaustively, quoting as reference
the Quranic texts, the traditions, proved,., and his·
torical traditions,
One of Ihe mml importanl characleristics of Ihis
encyclopedia is that the author linked legislation
and admonilion in the slyle of the marakallimln
(polemicists) as perfecled by the Salah S<'hool,
whose basic found:l\ions WeTe laid down by Ibn
Taymiyyah.
Though the book is divided into numerous ch.p-
ters, its contents may be reduced 10 six topics; (1)
sale conditions of churches and hermitages; (2)
evils in Ihe deeds of the Dhimmi. disavowed by
Islam; (3) the Dhimmis' gear, which distinguishes
Ihem from the Muslims, whether in riding (heasts),
or in clothing, or in any other respect: (4) dealings
belween the Muslims and the Dhimmis in mutual
lrade lransactions and so ionh: (5) hospitality of the
Dhimmis toward the Muslims: and (6) the penalty
legall)' imposed on Dhimmis for harming Muslims
and the Dhimmis' adherence to the protection con·
lract granted by Isl.m as long as they pay the llZYAH
(poll tax).
Ibn Oayyim al·JawziJ')'ah slresses the question of
Ihe iizyah in the first part, and the .imilarities and
dissimilarities between the fizyoh and the khartlj
(land tax). In the same section he also deals "ith
Ihe various kinds of taxes and other fiscal matters.
He further discusses Ihe stalus of the Dhimmis in
the stale adminislration: he believes that the
Dhimmis should be banned from directing the state
policies, and he warns lhat they should nOl be en-
lrusted with Muslim properties. He Ihen deals wilh
the financial relali<>ns het"'een the Dhimmis and
the Muslims. He discusses the regulations binding
the Dhimmis in their own financial affairs, the regu-
lations relevanl to Iheir waqfs (religious property)
and the waqfs endowed upon them by the Muslims,
the laW$ of inheritance applying to the Dhimmis
among themselves, and whether transmission by in·
heritan<:e hetween Muslims and Dhimmis is legal.
Ibn Qan-im also considers Ihe stalus of the
Dhimmis' marriages and their dowries, Ihe mainte-
nance they receive from their relatives, Ihe condi-
tions binding their .sacrifices, the conditions of hiT_
ing Ihem or of hiring a Mu.lim 10 work for them,
the decorum that should be adopted when meeting
them, the treatmem of their sick, participalion in
their funerals, and how to condole them on these
occasions. Indccd, when discussinll their children,
he does not fuil to stipulate the conditions binding
these children in this world a, in the world to
come.
1270 IBN AL·$A'IGH
It can thus be cnnduded that Ibn Qayyim al·Jaw-
ziyyah considered 'Uma.'s Covenant as law that
should be enforced, and lhat it was not optional,
This covenant is a legal act, so that whoevu breaks
any pan of it violates his own Status as Dhimmi.
BIBUOGRAPHY
Thc Encyclopedia of is/am, I...tidcn, 1913-1942. New
edition, Leiden, 194Off,
Gaudefroy'D<:mombynes, M, Muslim {nstilutions,
London, 1919,
Ibn Qayyim al·JawLiyyah, Ahk~m AhE al,D~immah, 2
vol•. , ed. Sub!)i al·~ali!). Damascus, 1961.
___. Hid~yal "/'F!ay(lr(.h ff Aiwwal al· Yahud wa-
al-Na!"r~, Cairo, 1978.
___. MjfM!; D(lr al·So'adah wa Monsht1r Wildyat
,,1.'lIm w".a/.irfld"h, ed. Ma!)miid J:lasan Rabr.
3rd ed. Alexandria, 1979.
SU6H' Y. Ll6'6
IBN AL.$A'IGH, nickname, meaning "son of the
goldsmilh," given to two Copts in references of the
founeemh century. They are probably the same
person.
In 1325-1326 the monk TUmA ibn al':?A'igh cop-
icd a manus<:ript of the four Gospel. Iran slated
from the Greek. This rnanus<:ript wa. in Jerusalem
in 1903, at the Copts' Dayr MAr Jirjis, and was
d~cribed by HannA Mana. (Meistermann, 1904, p.
125). L. Cheikho (1903) ident;~cd it with another
Egyptian manuscript da,ed 1227. But in 1915 when
G. Gra! cataloged the library, it had disappeared.
In October 134(1 the monk Tumo., nicknamed Ibn
al-SA'igh, is mentioned at Damascus. In the compa·
ny of }.nbi Butrus, metrop<>litan of u.e Copts in
Jerusalem and Syria, he was collating a manuscript
of the four Gospels thai had just been copied by thc
Coptic priest Jirjis Abu aI·Fadl ibn wtfall!h (to be
read as: Jirjis ibn AblW-I.MUfa#a!) n-on:. the original
m~nus<:ripl of al·As',..] ibn al.'Assal. This is now the
bmous manuscript in the Coptic Museum, Cairo
(Bible 90; Graf, nO, 180; Simaykah no. 13).
On 26 November '1347 the monk TumA ibn al·
~'igh al·Mutarahhib is again mentioned (Uri, 1787,
p. 29, n. a), finishing the transcription of the text of
Genesis (see lhe colophon On fot 5Sr in Rhode, p.
Sl). This manuscript of 235 folia, des<:ribed by J.
Uri as being "splendidissime exarallJm" and by J, F,
Rhode (1921, p. 80) as "magnificent," is the Laud.
Or. 272 of the Bodleian library, Oxford (olim Laud.
A 182; Uri, 1787, p. I). It contains an Arabic ve",ion
of the entire Pentateuch, translated directly from
the Greek of the Septuagint (and not from the He·
brew, as Uri states). 11 has imerlinear and marginal
notes written in blue, red, and hl""k ink (Rhode,
1921, p, 80). This manuscript "was used by Holmes
and Pa",ons in their famous edition of the Greek
Old Testament" (Rhooe, p. 80), where it is cited as
Arabic 3. In 1789, H. E, G, Paulus (1789, pp. 69-70)
used it in his critical notes and reproduced extracts
from it (Gn. 1:1-5; 4:6-8; 49:1-36: and Nm.
24:7-9). Rhode (pp. 18-35) collaled this manu·
s<:ript (code E) in order to edil the text of Genesis
1-6, 18, and 50 (Group 2),
At this date the monk Tum! was a priest. He
copied this manuscript on a commission for the
shaykh al·~aft A",anl ibn al-Qass Da""d ibn al·Qa..
al·Amjad Hihatallah (Uri, 1787, p. 29, o. b),
On 14 Ba'iinah A.M. 1071 8 June 1355, JlR.I" '0'0
Al.-OASS AD! Al-MUFA.(>I{AL completed in Cairo his copy
of Ihe large I-IOMOCANON anribuled to Ibn al·'''''''!.
In Damascus he had begun the copy from the origi-
nal manuscript up to folio 238 (Coptic numbering:
233 present numbering), He writes t1tat folios 234-
79 in the present numbering were copied from a
manuscript copied by Anba Klrillus, bishop of As·
)'iI!, nicknamed Ibn al·~'igh.
According to a manus<:ript at Cambridge Univer-
sity (Add, 3283), copied al Mossul by the hieromonk
IUbban lsJ:>lq ibn al-Shammh 'AI>d al-Hayy on 21
March 1678, this manuscript of AnbA Klrillus was
copied at the Monastery of Saint John Kama, which
was his monastery of origin (d. fol. IS two notes).
Now it is known that "after the destruction of the
Monastery of Saint John Kama belween 1330 and
1442, the monks of that monastery migr;lted to the
S)'rian Monastery. at the same time transferring the
relics of lheir Patron Saint" (Meinardus, 1965, p.
159; E\'elyn-White ghes us no further details of lhis
period). This explains how the Syrian Orthodox ob·
tained the manuscript. However, the copyist in
Mossul, who did not know Anbo. Kfrillus personally,
does not mention his nickname of Ibn al~l'igh.
In short. if th~ persons are one and the same,
Tiima known as Ibn al~'igh was a monk of the
monastery of Saint John Kama. He was subsequent·
I)' sent to the dioceses of Jerusalem and all of Syria
to help the emigrant Copts. If the destruction of the
mon""tery took place ahout 1330, this could be the
approximate datC at which he was sent. He took
with him his manus<:ript of the four Gospels, copied
in 1325, and later left it at Jerusalem, In 1340, he
was in Damascus. In 1347, when he was a hiero-
monk, he copied a very fine manu.~ript of the Pen-
tateuch for the library of a prominent Copt (Bodlei.
an library, Oxford. Laud. or. 272). He later became
bishop of As}"! and took ,he name Kirillus. He

copied a manus<:ript of the large Namo<cmlOn,
which w~ used in 1355 by Jirjis ibn Abj al-Mufa.:!-
~al, who copied it in Caim (British Library, Lon·
don, Or, 1331), and it was again used in 1678 by the
mblmn Is~!" ibn 'Abd al'J:!a:ry, who copied it in
Mossul (now Cambridge Add. 3283).
This also neatly fills a small lacuna in the lists of
the episcopal ,ee of AsyU!. The last known bishop,
AnbA Pbiluthiwus, w;'is there in 1330 (Munier,
1943, p. 40, no. 18). There is no further information
concerning any other bishop of this sec until Anb!
YuhannA in 1703 (Munier, 1943, p. 42).
BIBLlOGII.i\PHY
Cheikha, L "flljil 'arabi "adim." AI-Mashriq 6
(1903):238-40.
Gabrieli, G. "Varieta poliglotte." BelSario"", ser, 2,
4, Vol. 13 (1903),272-85, especially 275-76,
where he analyzes Cheikho.
Gmf. G. "Katalog christlich·arabischer Handschrif·
ten in Jerusalem, II. Die Handschriften der Kopl-
en." Orie"s Chris/ia"us, n.s. 5, (1915),132-36.
___. Catalog"e de ma""scripts arabes cnrbiens
conserves a" Caire, pp. 77-80. Vatican Clly, 1934.
Meinardus, O. F, A. Christian Egypt A"cie"t and
}.Jadu", pp. 159-61. Caim, 1965.
Meistermann, B. La Palrie de Jca".Bop/iste, p. 125.
Paris, 1904.
Munier, H. Rec"eil d". listes episcopo/es de Ng/ise
coP/c. Caim, 1943.
Muyser, J. "Cantribulian ill'etude des liste' ~pisc'
opales de I'egli... capte." B"lIe/in de /0 Sacie/e
d'archio/agie caple 10 (1944):115_76.
Paulus. H, E. G. Specimina versia""m Pe"lale",:hi
seplem orobica"'m "and"m edita"'''' e biblialh.
Oxon, BoJ/ew."a aMbila. Jena, 1789.
Rhode, J, F, The Arabic V.rs;a". of Ihe Penlate"ch
in Ihe Ch"rch of Egypt. St. Louis, 1921.
Rieu, C. S"pp/emenl 10 the Calalag,,~ of the A.rabic
Man"scriprs i" Ih~ Bri/i,h M~seu"" p. 18 (no. 23).
London, 1894. Photocopy Iks Moines, Iowa,
1987. . . .,
Uri, J, Blblwth.cae Badle"'nae cadic~", man,,-
scripta"'''' ar;enlalium. ,:ca/a/ag"s, Val. I, p. 29
(no. l). Odard, 1787,
Wright, W. A COIa/agu" of the Syriac Man"scripts
Preserved in Ihe Library a/II,. U"iversily of Cam·
bridge, pp. 862-84, Cambridge, 19'01,
KHAliL SMlJ~, S.J.
IBN SALIM AL-AswANi. 'Abdallah ibn AI).-
mad ibn Salim, familiarly known 10 hi.larians as
Ibn SalIm al·Aswlinl. lived in the lauer half of the
tenth century. Almost nothing is known of his life
or his career, cxcepl that at SOme lime between 969
IBN SAUM AL-ASWANI 1271
and 973 he undertook a diplomatic mission 10 the
Nubian kiogdom of MJlKOURIA. The account of his
travels, presen.·ed in e~tra.cts by al'MAOR!ZI and al-
Minuft, is the only sUTVivlng eyewitn~ss de.cription
of medieval Nubia, ather than the very brief ac·
counl of lBS I;IAWOAL
When Ihe Falimid. took possession of Egypt in
969, one of their 6r:st concern. w"" to ""cure their
sOUlhern frontier by normalizing relation. with the
kingdom of Makouria, which contmlle<llhe ternto-
ry to the south of -'swan. Jawhar, the Fatimid gov-
ernor, w"" well aware that the Nubians had previ-
ously re.isted the advance of Islam, but he was
appareotly led 10 heliove that they might accept the
Shl'ah ""rsion and join him in " campaign against
the Abbasid dominions in thc uvanl, This was the
background of Ibn Salim'. diplomatic mission. Pre·
,umably he was selected hecause, as a residont of
-'swan, he had some pre,ious familiarity with Nubia
or at least with its people.
Ibn Salim evidently tra"ded with a considemhle
retinue. Al one point he speaks of performing the
'Jd a.1.At!hlJ. (Feesl of Sacrifice) with about sixt)'
other Muslims, who must have been his awn fol-
lowers. When he arrived al the Nubian capital of
OONGOI.'., he was courteously received by the reign·
ing King George of Makouria. Ibn Salim read to the
king" lener from Jawhar, which invited him to
embrace Islam and 10 forward the payment of
sla,'cs that was due under the IMOT· King George
tben summoned hi. principal ministers and, after
consultation with them, drafted a reply to Jawhar.
Far from embracing Islam, he invited the Fatirnid
general to embrace Christiaoity. He asserted his
complete willingness to continue Ihe Baq! payment,
as hi. mlher and grandfather had done, but at t~
same time hintod that Nubia was quite ready to
withstand any military incursion fmm Egypt. There
is no record of huw the negotiations proceeded
heyond thi. point, but Ibn Salim e"idently re-
mained in Dongola for a considerable further peri·
od of time and had several mare audiences with the
king. He also accompanied the king on a visit to a
neighboring province 10 the north of Dongola.
Whatever agreement ....'as ultimately reached, it
.eem, to have laid the foundation for a period of
exceplianally cordial relations hetween Fatimid
Egypt and Christian Nubia. Nubian. were recruited
in large numbers into the Fatimid armies and were
influential at court as well.
On his return from Nubia, Ibn Salim wmte an
account of his trave!. which he titled Kiwb AkhMr
a/·Nubah wa-a/-M"q"rrah wa 'MwJ wa·a/·Buiah wa·
a/·NiI (Rcports on Nubia, Makouria, 'Alwli, Brja,
 1272 IBN smA'. YUHANNA IBN ABl ZAKARIYVA
and the Nile). This work mtJ$t a, one time ha,..,
been fairly ",..,11 known. for- i, i$ quotcd dil'<:Ctly by
al Icast thrcc later autho~. and it C'ridcndy fur·
nished Infomwion for OlheB as wdl. MOSI 01 the
Nubian informalioo contained in the Ch"rdoa lI"d
M....II$lct'ies of. ...... $AUH Jlt( ........a."1AN C'ridcntly
carne from Ibn Salim. All copies 01 the KiJal>
AAItbar .1-Ni<Nh Ita\'<: subseq ndy ~cd.
but IcttIlhY e>.lraclS arc cd in doe KiJdl> .1·
M""..I" (The Grca/. Chronicle of £aypt) and the
Killl> .1....' .....·;: (['he Bool< of Wi$dom\ 01 al·
(The 800. or W"tsdnm) of a/·Maqrlzl. Somc P - l "
arc also .....,......"cd in the KiElb "I· F"yd (The 800k
of. GrcaUlCSS) cl Minuft. The only full Englilohlno....
Lation of Ibn Salim's ''''''. as rcponcd by al·MaqM.
Is lltat made by J. L Burckhardl mone than l!lO
years alO. A Frcnch lran.la.ion was madc by G.
Troupcau (1954).
Ibn ~llm ""a> a to!cram and sympathctk: writer
as wcll as a fairly "b.., .....ant one. and he has Icft a
word picture of life in Nubia that i. ""'thout pal1lllel
in ancient or medieval litera'ure, In addition to
dcscribinglhe kingdom of Makouria, which hc ob-
served al first hand, he also gives much Informarion
about .he more """theriy kingdom of. ·AL....·A, This
,nformation was e\'idCflt!y pined at second ""nd,
_inee Ibn Salim had no "fficial busin..... wi.h ·"Iwi.
but i... almoo.! the only descrip'i\"C information
poossascd about this littlt-known Chrisdan kingdom
or lhe cent ...1Sudan. Other plOS$ljIU. alio based on
hearsay infonnalion. deal with .hoe sources of the
Ni'" and ",;th the BEJA DlIES.
IIlBUOGaAPHY
Adams. W. Y. N..m•. Corridor 10 Afric., pp. 4ti1-61.
Princcton. NJ.• 1977.
Burckhardt. J. L r,-"wu in NIlbitJ. pp. 4')}-SlO.
London. 1819.
Trou~, G. "La '~ription de Is I'lubie' d·"l·
lIs~i." Au,hi". WI9S4):276-88.
Vantini. G. Cltristi"niry in me 51<1/1I". pp. 1l9-B.
1l2-lB. BoI"B"S, 1981.
WtUl/o.Il Y. "DooMS
IBN 518"\:, YUHANNA IBN ADt ZAKAR·
IVY A, a notcd ~i<: Iheologian of the thincenth
century. whose life may have utcndcd into the
founcenth. Ibn Si~' was a contemporary 01 the
famous Cop'ic cburch encyclopedist raN UBAI,
whosc ....ork M4ba~ al·;;ulmah is noted for its treat·
mcn' of ,h. organizati"n and the liturgy of the Cup-
tic church. In his own right. Ibn SiW' a"lhored an
imponant ";ork on doe tradi.ions and ri.ua1s of tM
Copcic church. a near approach '0
Ibn Kabar's,
although n blk ~ of .IM: ",~loa>c:>l "xpatl$C of
"'" Mtlhilh.
Ibn 5ibl". oompreh..ml..e work, AJ-JawiuJralt 111-
NIlfi.<lIh ft 'Ulu", III.KII"ls<tIt. consists of IIJ chap-
tns. fiN an _nd chap!.... on th" Old Tesul-
"""'I• ...nkh no:rioew til.. p"rlod of me
creat"'" 10
"'" period or JfSUS Chrisl. n.e fICIll section dcsIs
with 1M rise and sprad of Chrislianily. Bu. the
bu.lk of !he malerial «Inc"ntrat" on Coptic churclt
orpni>ation and lI'adidom. as ....cl[ as on a """ic.....
10<\5 ~ of hs li.urgics. The Coptic m..... is ana·
I~ and Coptic rasu and kasts enumcr.ucd. "~,ith
spKial anenlinn doc.....cd to major £cas.s such as
those 01 Holy Week and Easter.
AU"raIe detail. arc prcsenled on tile church hi-
Cn'lrchy from deacon to priest. hegumen05 (arch.
priest) to bishOJ) and th" plltriarch. One chapter
discusses the patriarchal duty to aosemble the en·
tirc priesthood e,'ery week in order to instmct
them on their moral dutie.. Thc patriarch is re·
qUC'lted 10 care for his Ao·d in gcnentl. as well.
Another spccial chapl"r trcall the burial ofliccs .I\d
the oIferinp fOT the JOUls of the depancd.
The fil\aI chapter ""plaiTlS the significance or the
ringing of church bells durin. "'" cdcbration of
church offices.
Manuocripu of AJ.J.""I"'rtlh ,,1-NII{isIlh fi 'Ulum .d·
KIln...h arc deposited in many collections. V. Mi5t·
rill. editor 01 the IsI$ critical edition, used eighl'
een manmc:ripts in hOs res.earch. manuscripts that
an seallercel ,~, diff.,...,...1 wori<I ccn,us of
ArabOc collections. His principal ..,.,rce io thc old-
esl 1o:nooo"T\ wrsio<l.. datcd AJI. 20 Tiibah 1164/A.D.
1448. housed in the qyptian l"ubIic Ubnry. MW·
rtl).·s '0' and 'r:ans4tion appcar in Latin under the
lido: l"n1"'1Il ,""".';111 dc Scicnliis &c/uuUlictl.- It
_ publishcd In SloulN 0,;""1"& CItrisr",,11
koptiacG. under Ihe auspices of his ()\o\'J\ Ccntrnm
FBnciscanum StudiQl'Um Oricntalium Christi.anor·
urn (Cairo. 1966J. with an "tcOON introduction in
laIin_
BI8l.lOCllAI'HY
Ibn IC;lbar. Mjfba~ tll·?"I",ah f! 'fda/} .I-Khidm.h.
Cairo. 1971.
Ibn Sibt', Yu!)"nnt ibn "bl labri}')'t. JtI.jawhMah
al.Naflsal: fI Ula", al·KanlJ.h. cd. and annotated
wirh • latin tran~l"tion by Vincentio P, Mis,ril),
O. F. M.. as Preriosa Ma"'."/11 de scicn/Us cecles;·
11S1ld•. Cairo. 1966.
AzIZ S. AnH
 IBRAHIM IBN SULAVMAN Al·NAJJAR AL-MIRI
IBRAHIM IBN 'AWN, THE NESTORJAN.
name _ialed wilh a compoUtion for resol'linlJ
quntions called #,,1/ "1·S},,J::ulr. ..,.·"I-R.M "/4 "I-
Y"lIil4; .t·MuJrk'/if (The ~ution of Doubts and
Refutlltlon of a J....... h Opponent). By employinlJ
lil..... interpretaCion and by using oth"r scriptum
~ ;t ~lains New Testll"",,nl """"~ and sa)"
ings of ksw and "'" apostles tha' __ m objection-
able to J"",'S and rriutes in(:orrecl cOO<:epIions re-
Iailnl to them.
The book and author appear in u,., .."he..- cataloa
of AbO aJ.llan.1<it tB.... Jt.Ul.\a. "'hon he is Ii.. en the
nicknarll" aJ·bkifI (1M $hoemak....)_
VISCEPIT Fl.EDEAJo:
IBRAHIM IBN 'ISA, physician who studied un·
der and wo,ked with Yul:<anna ibn Mhalwayh in
Baghdad, lbrlhlm was, after coming 10 Ec'Pt, a
personal physician to the amir A~mad ibn Tillun
(563-384). whom he used to accompany On his
journ..ys. He remained in the arnir's ...rvie .. and
eominued 10 reside in al·Fus!"1 (Old Cairo) until hi.
d..ath, al'1)Und 874. H.. may be the same Ibrihlrn
ibn '11-1 mention.. d by Ibn al-Nodlm M author of
Iwo works. AWIT "/./o,,,,,,,,rij (Hislory of the
ICharijiles) and Ki'''b "/·R,,sQ·'1 (Book of Epistles).
Ibn Abl U..ybi·ah• ..,ho p,..,.. this bnd' accOUnt of
his lif<:, don nO! mention 10 "'hieh Christian com·
munity h4' belonged.
BlBUOGRAPHY
Cheikho. L "...I·Ta...'billI ~i»-ah ft .I-A...·
biy')'ah':' M..wlll 12 (1909): 482-
Ibn "bl U..ybi'ah. .Uy.... III·A..W· " r.b.q4I ./.
AI~. ed. Nid.r Ridi.. Brinn. 1965.
Ibn al-Nadlm Mu~ammad ibn hhiq. A!.FthriJl. Bel·
"'t. 1%6.
IBRAHIM IBN SULAyMAN AI.-NAJJAR
AL.MIRI, eillhte<:nth"""ntury copi~< of manu·
5C:riplJ, Ibrlhlm is m"ntione<l nowhere. bul cenaln
elemenlS of his life and lit~rary lIoClivily <:an be reo
constructed from the manuscripts h.. copied. Th.....
ue n..,,,, found in Cairo. at the Copti<: Museum and
the Coptic Patriarchate.
His ~thnlc surname show. thaI h.. came from
Ml'. a place probably .ituated between al-Q\ltiyyah
and Manfal;;!. H" was probably a carpenler by
1273
Ind... bu. he ablmooned this \Iaome nece h.. 1lI3S
onlained " pri~_ It ,....,ms h~ soon settled in Cairo.
if in~ he _ n<>l born theft. He _ . . both
Arabi<: and Coptic "'I"'"1ly _n.
"'t the ~ of the 103rd pauial'ch. JOHN ;1M
(1676- 17(8). in 1702 he copied II manUSoCripc ..,f thor
c_ration .x CHIUSM and holy oil in Copfic and
Arabic. a IinupcaJ poem b' the ~trian::h ill An-
bic. and aD. "",count of how the chrism ~Id ~
placed in the ~b. AI this date he was still a
10,..,..,.
A. Ih.. ~ of Mu'lIllim .... "'~ a1.~~. i"
1709 he copied a collection 01 149 poems i" .\imple
lit '}' Arabic. eom~ by Anb.l Bisu""""
Im" n as aJ-l;far1ri (Copeic P.. rian::hate. Theology
190: GraI'. 00. SH; Simaybh. no. 333).
In 1720 he copie<l a Iectiona'}' in Coptic for the
Surtdays from Easter 10 Penlecost and for certain
feasts, By this time he had been ordained a priesl
and was the parish priest of Sill Bari:>~rah in Old
Cairo (Coplic Museum. Cairo. Lilu'%'! 3/8:
Simaykah, no. 210; Graf, no. (90).
At th .. request of th. ardon al·Mu·aIJim Bi.'lh~rah
Abu Yui)ann~ al-TiIkhr. in 1729 he copied a lection-
ary for the Sundays of lhe firal six months of th ..
year in Arabic only. This rm.nuscript "'ll$ Jiwn "" a
bequest by''''' archon 10 the Church of Saints Ser-
glus and Bacchus at Old C.iro. At this date, Ibr.lhim
was .. HEGl'NENOS still servinl at the Church of Sill
Barbirah at Old Cairo (Copik Museum. W"'C 187:
Simaykah. no. 212; Gntf. no. 6&7).
In 170. he copied "'" lSI Psalms and the Canti·
cleo in two columns. Coplic and A~. He donat-
ed lhis manuscript 10 tIw: Church of Sill BarttAralt
(Copl:;c Pa1riarclJate. Bible 7: stma)'bh. no. $2;
GraI'. no. 275)-
last. in Dec"",ber 17.9, H~pnte_lbnhim<:<>p-
iled. all th.. .-equal: of ManqlnyQs Abil Bi.twah, II
eollection in Araobic 01 an essentially canonical
charact"r, oOlltaininc Ille 0I0ASCAlIA of the Apostles.
the G\."O~ OF CUNENT. 1M eiahty-one ApmwIic
Cano.... and (\0.'0 homilies for J NasI' in honor of th"
Arehan&els Michael and Raphael (Coptic Patriar-
elw", Ctmrm 28; G !'. no. SSJ: Sima-ybh. no. S73)_
Th", rnanmcrip! Iliven as • beq....., '0 <he
Coord! of the Vira:in of J:Ilrlt .1·Rum Ie Cairo. by
AnM Athanasiu" who w.lS probably bishop of Abu
nj.
BIBUOGIIA'JlY
Am<':lineall. F.. Lq. GiogT/Jphic de l'EOPle ir I·.poqu~
C()PI~. p, 402. Paris. 1893.
1274 IBRAHIM AL·jAWHARi
Coquin, C. Los Edi/icu chretietl. dl< Viel<~·Cai ..,
VoL 1, p. 122. Bibliothequ. d·emd.. coptes II.
Cairo, 1974.
Graf, G, Catalagl<e d. ma.l"scrit< arabes chretien.
c(m.erv~. al< Caire. pp. Hl8 (no. 275), 200 {no.
533). 208 (no_ 553). 253-54 (nos. 687 and 690).
Vatican City. 1934.
KHALIL SMltR, SJ.
IBRAHIM AL-JAWHARI (d. 1795). minist.r of
financ. in Ottoman Egypt who was the most impor.
tant Coptic political figure and peTSOnality in the
last quarter of the eighteenth c.ntury. Hi. bth.r,
Yilsuf al-lawharl. was. according 10 oral nadition, a
C0110n weav.r. Ibrah!m I.arn.d the prof...ion of
secretary and worked for som. time in the -Sen'ice
of a Mamluk amir, then for the Coptic patriarch
MARK VU and his .UCC.<50r, JOHN XVTll. H. was
probably an apprentice and protege of Mu'allim
Rizq, the Coptic .secretary and administrator of h-
nance. of 'Ali Bey. The basis of his career and his
reputation was .stablish.d in this period.
After th. ov.rthrow of 'All Bey and Mu'allim
Rizq, Ibrflhlm's social rise began under Mul)ammad
Bey, The peak of his influence and fame cam. aft.r
1775, under the joint reign of Ibnl.him Bey and
Mum.! Bey. Ibrahim Bey especially favored him and
made him a son of minister of finance. He con·
troll.d and managed not only the privale properties
of the bey, which consi.ted mostly of tax farms, but
also the public income and .xpenditur•. H. was, so
to speak, th. d. facto chief of the supreme revenue
ollie. in Ottoman Egypt. Hc was also the director of
tbc corporation of tax collecto.. and state ",rilles,
who administered the finances of the whol. COUn-
try. These positions w.r. held almost exclusively by
Copts at th••nd of lh••ighteenth century.
A. al·laban! (1879-1880) describes Ibrahim al·
lawhat1 as One of the.!!"'st influential and capabl.
personalitie, of hi. tiill'e, a pe..on who deal! with
everyone prop.rly and:who , acquired sympathy on
all ,ides through his charily and gencrosity. His
deferemial aUitudc to ...i ard thc political leade.. and
his presentation of gifts to people in power earned
him th.ir friendship and support. Hi. influ.nce
,
among th. dominant class was.o great that h. was
able to construct, reslOr., and maintain Coptic
churc~.s and manasl.ri.s, and his actions wcrc
.upported by jurislic opinions of famous '"lama'
(religious chief justices). Muslim resistance against
Ihi. renaissance of Coptic self·confidence was
stirre<! only during lbe Oltoman .xp.dition of
Hasan Pasha to punisb the obstinatc beys in 1786.
Throughout this time and during the following role
of Isma'll Bey in Cairo, Ibrahim stayed in safety in
Upper Egypl und.r Ibrabim Bey, Murad Bey, and
th.ir follow.... His poss...ions in Low.r Egypt
wcre confiscated b}' l;Iasan Pasha. After the death of
tsma'l! Bey, he retumed with hi. protecto.. to Gri·
ro in 1791 and resumed his form.r function•.
When Ibrahim al·Jawhari died On 31 May 1795,
Ibrihim Bey was d••ply afflicted by the loss of bis
friend. Even though it was improper for a Muslim
to do '0, he did not refraio from giving him the lasl
far.well and accompanying his mortal remain. to
the c.m'lery. AI·Jawharf left tb. Coptic patriar·
chat. some real estat. in the al·Azbakiyyah quancr
of Cairo, and he also was able to obtain official
permission to start building a church there, which
his broth.r mU15 ~UAWlV.Rf lat.r complet.d. Th.
Coptic patriarch MARK \'tlI transf.rred his residence
10 tbat plac•. On th. literary side, al-Jawhart left a
comm.ntary on th. prophets. In the cou..e of thc
nineteenth century several legends arose about hi.
pi.ty and hi. care of the poor.
IDBUO(;II!oPHY
Mot1.ki, H. Dimma "od igalil~, Die nic!l/m"siimi·
sch... Minderhei/en A/lYp"", in der <"-'€;I,n Hiilfl€
d•• /8. jahrhund€ns und die &pdilion Bona-
parle. (1798-1801). Bonn, 1979.
HAR,A.UJ MOTlKI
IBRAHIM AL.T{JKHI. Su Jahn XVI.
IBSCHER, HUGO (1874-1943), German techni-
cian and r.stor.r of manuscripts and papyri, Hc
was trained as a bookbind.r, but .ntered the sen'-
ice of the State Museum of Berlin in 18'fI, where
be was entrusted with the mounting and restoring
of papyri. While an th. ,taff of the museum, h. was
permitt.d to undertake work e1scwhcre, and many
important papyri were restore<! and mounled by
him in th. collections of Turin, London, ChfoTd,
Brussels, Paris, Prague, Copenhagen, Cairo, Rome,
and many others. For hi. work on the re.toration of
parchments and oth.T manu.cripts in lh. Vatican,
he "''as a....arded the Ord.r of Saint Greg",)' and
receiv.d an bonorary doctorate from Strasbourg,
He recei"e<! lhe Leibnitz Medal of th. Prussian
Academy and lh. m.dal of the Bavarian Academy,
Though hc was responsible for the re.IO"'tion of
•
~l of I)w, impor\ll.~l Coptic p;lpyri, his literary
work ... ilS nllll"r IImil~' "Buc~inbiin<k aUf ,\gypl'
on" (&.Ii"u Muucn :n, 1911-1912. pp. 46-~2)
and "Koptisch., 8ul:llcinbllnde ...1 AIYPlen" (ibid..
49. 1928. pp. 86·90).
BIBUOCltAnfY
lb._n. W. R.. and E. P. Uphill. Who W"J W/w in
£mroJoo. London, 1972.
AzIZ S. ATlTA
lBTO• .,.;:onlin. 10 S. Tinlln (198-4), the Arabic
~ of IDe el!y thal ~ known In G~k:t$ tJ-mc
(Bout"'" and In Copck as IiOY"O or n(tyY'O (BoLIIO,
Paulo). The city, ...hkh no Ionaer uists. was Ioa,-
M in W nonh_ put of 1M EcJpl:ian ~lta in
",io;u it DOW the <:halbiyyM pro¥in«. about 6 miles
(10 k<n) ~ of 0isUq.
A1tt-.eh it b noc known ...nen Chrisrianiry fif'l{
pined a foothold in BouIO/Ib¢. 1M city "'ll$ ..
bishopric by the arty fifth Cetlluty as ewidcnoc:td by
the si{nat~ of Bishop Ammon of Bowo 0fI the
am d the eo..ncil of mtESUli in 431 (Mumn-. 1'iW3.
p. 17). II is .. ncumn whelher .. Christian «....mu-
niey was Slill 10 be found In the city in ,.... Arabic
pniod. A medieval list of £ayplbn bls.hoJ>rics pu-
k"nl$ PUZZ:!inc evidence 011 tile question. The Ibl
offen the following ~..moknc Souto Thcros
(Greek); PaulO kc .hres (Coptic): Na!_ and Til$lo
(Arabic) (Munier. 1943. pp. 4S. 53). WIIile Iht
Greek and C<lptic names IMn he~ could refer 10
1btIl., w .... is no sati$lactof)l e>.pbnalion lor the
....;..,i~ eq..i..-loffiu "'.1..... nd TIna. Wilh !he u·
~qKion of Ih.. en;smallc ..'imess. lhe sources art
.ilent on lhe 51alus of Christlanily hI medieval I~tl..
IltBUOG....'"T
Amelir>ea... f.Ul GIogr(lplr~41I'Ef)."teQ Np<>que
COpte. p. lOS-II. Paris, 189~.
Mun;"r, H. Recueil des Ii,te.. tpiscop<Ues de I'"lise
copte. Cairo, 19-43,
Timm. S. D,u clrristl;"lrJr.optiSclr. AvPttt! it! .. r..·
bischer Zeit. pI. l. pp, 471_74, Wleabaden, 19M.
RAt10.ll.l. SnWAkT
IBYAR, See Abyar.
ICONOCLASM, ~Slruclion of Images. The great
Iconoclaslic Comro,'ersy o~r Ille nature and Fune·
ICONOCLASM 1275
lion of religious images convulsed Byu.mlnc Chns·
lianity from \he 720s umil 843. It accentuated lhe
division btlwun lhe Easlem and Wn«,m ~I." of
Christendom and contributed to a deterionuion of
relat;o"" wilh thc papacy lhal led ullimately 10 lhe
alliance of the papacy wnh Ihe FrtnQ and the .."
eeuion of Italy from Byzant;um.
Durin. Ihc period of 550 10 700 Ihe cull of 11TIIlI'
es had been infihnoled by abuses, lhe Icndency of
some believers 10 '..,n.....le icons of Illinu more
!han !he sainu lhemselft$. In 726 EmperoT Leo 1II
~ed ,he 6rst edict api""t !he u.se of iOllies. AJ;,
co<din& 10 the ninth-<:emury hi~ Theopltanes,
Leo combined icon<M:lasm wnh a disbtllef In lhe
intercesAon of lhe Virpn and sainu and a haIred of
martyn' relies.
lco"""daom reaoohed its peo.k in the m;delle: of !he
eicJ1th eenl,,,}'_ Em","",,- Co..-.line V was a noted
theoIopn. ",t>o ..... indine<! 1OVo-anl - . n , n .
ISM- He """" resoundins oiclOrle5 o..r the Arabs
and Bulpn and left a drn-Y firmly established on
the Byzanline throne. In 7504 be summoned. Iynod
IOl Ihe Hioeria palace. whi<:h J'I'OC'O'oUICed iu,elf
. . . . . imagC5_ Conseqo.oenlly Connanti.... l'ItO\'e'd
~y apinst iJna&c wonhipcn.. dellro,1nll reo
lipoul an and replac:i"l it wilb Imperial an, The
trK>Itks were a special IargeI and were pen.ecuted
withoul merty------.: of the _ noiable of the
-martyJs ",-as Saini S1epben the Younsn, ..'hose
body _ mutilated by a mob. In 77~. ConsWlline
was !lIICCceded by bit son Leo IV ,he KJw:ar, wlto,
although IlIOn' bYOrable toward the rDOnlts, contino
ued 10 Mlppon iconcd....;., meuures.
n.e cull of images ",-as IttSUoblished by Leo'$
lUCCessor. Empr,.,.. Irene. and ....elioned by lhe
Se1.'CItlh Ecumenkal CoulK:il. held al Nicaea in 787,
Irene's reign be....6led the monb and lhe rnonu·
leries. After many intrigu.... in 797 I~e blinded
and deposed her $OR. ColUlaruine VI. ""Ito ..... in
I«&ue "';Ih ioonoclam in the army.
In S02 Irene was ovenhrown b)' Nicepboru$. ..tin
ll"''<: only a lukewann suppon for images. The eon·
troversy conlinued fitfully until the death of Empe...
or Leo V tilt Armenio.n in 820, Onho<!ol<Y was re-
SIO<"cd in 843 al a formal coundl !>eld in
Constantinople, which "confirmed Ihe so"en ecu,
menical coundl. and re.. ore<! th.c sacred Imagea 10
the veneralion lhat was formerly lheir due." This
ev.nl was formally celebraled on the first Sunday in
u,nt, II March 843. and is slill observed ;n the
Orthodox world. Iconodasm was n('\'er again an
i""ue wi,hin Byzantine Chrntianlly.
1conocla<m, like most grea' Issues In history, was
1276 ICONOGRAPHY
uccMingly complu. II jnvol~ the whol~ Byzan-
tinc popul;lolion-empero", bishops. monb. Ihco-
!alian•• c.....n officialb. civil ~rv;lonl$- ... well ;as
lhe popula~ or Ihc ~a, chlu of Ihc Byzanline
_d.
Thc p.cct,e ~ _ for 1M .....Ibreak or iconO'
dasm a~ obscure. Thc follo-..·ir1ll ha,'C been sug-
pled: (I) Wamic InAucncc....hich was opposnllo
I"'*CCS or livl... Ihinp. mediated Ihroull" a circle
dO!lC to Leo III; (2) a dai~ on Ihc pan of lhe:
ic:onoclasl cmperon 10 purify lhe: peoplc m011llly
and Inlcllcc....lIy after the: disaurous mcotInln'$
willl.he Muslims in 1M oevmth Cl!1lI"ry; (3);lo 'Cae·
lion a.piMl ~ 01 .... cuh 01 ImllJes; (4) a
dcsl~ 10 I!'flforce the: J'O"'~ of thc _lc """er lhe:
church. lhal is, ~papism; (5) the Inlluence of
monophysitisnl...tac:h bid Ions: been opposed 10
the rulines of !he Council of CHAlCDlOH; (6') the
JUlien ~i1n, 01 • prorincla.l cull"", """om! :on
alien icoDOdule pioeIy 01 CaltSWllinople; and (1) ,he
inlluence 01 various Christian 5«1S. It K'eJm pn>blr.
blc that the main InllM:l'lccs wen: Imoemal to ~
lme Christia.nity. The position 01 .... empet'Of' WlI.S
im~1 in 9yDntillm, ."d ;1 may be thai Leo III
lI.SM>Cwed the military ~tsS of .... empl~ in
the S<'W'nlh cenlUry ..iIh ldoIa.try. In opminl a
nmpa.lp! apinsl ifN&eS he rlIlly h....e been f'CIUnt'
illl 10 ;lo ",.,filioNI ,,;ew 01 the dominanl place 01
thc cmpero' In lhe: Chri",ia.n &dIema. which .._t
back I(> thc: fourth cenll<')'. OIher I'.....ps involved
in the controversy no doubc had oth" mOli,=-
the: doccrinal issue _ lmponam for ccdcsia.slics.
Yft In llIe lui reson neil""" side in the conll'<>ffB}'
clunl 10 i... rell&ious opinions wilh the pcrIlna.cily
shown earlier by the MOfIoph,siles. 11M: iconodasl
emperors Ihroughoul undcreslimlllcd Ihe hold of
lhe icons Oll ,hc 8)'U1ontlnc popIllalion and, in par-
licular. Ihc dup.snIed belief th.l tM Vi<lln Mary,
TlrEOI(lI(05. WlI.S lI.e IWltdilUl, savio<. and protector
of lhe Imperial ~ily oIfonmnlinoplc.
81BLlOGRAPHY
Alcnn<kr, 1'. J. Tht Plm/a,,;h NiaphoruJ 0/ Con-
'I~n/;~opl •. Oxford, 1958.
Barnatd, L W. Tht GTlluo·Ra",a~ and Ori'''MI
Badgro'md 0/110. Ico~oc[aslic COIII........y. ul-
den. 1974.
Brown. P. R. L. "A Dark Age CriJi£: A'p"Cli of Ih"
Iconoclasl Conlrovcrsy," E~gli5h HiJwr;clll R,-
view 88 (1971):1-34.
Bryer. A., and J. Herrin. eds. fco~ocla$m. Birming'
ham, 1977.
Gem. S. BYlIl»li". ICQ~l)da5'" Du,,'~1: Ih. R';I:~ of
uo //I. Lou,'ain, 1973.
Martin. E. J. A Hi.lOry of 1M la"'r><:I(/SI;~ Conlro",r.
.<y. London. 1930.
ICONOGRAPHY. Su 8iblical Subjcc... in Cop'ic
Art; Chri<tian Subjecl$ in Cap'1e Art; M}1holosical
Subjects in CopIic An; Symbols in Coplic An.
ICONOSTASIS. Set A""hi'l'<:'ural Elemcms of
Churt:hcs.
ICONS, COPTIC, holy pant! painlings of Chris!.
the Virgin Mary, WDts, or .... bjects from lhe Old
and New Tf:SIamtnu.. The won! icon is derived
from 1he Gred __d eihlol. moeani"l "imllic" (lI"
"»<>r1rail.- loons are .pnbols of ,he invisiblc p,",
'IKC 01 Ch~. the Vi",n Mary. and the saims. They
arc the connection belWftn the d.uo;:h on "nh
a.nd the church in heaven. There is • dlrecl conQ(:t
heI~ the hclicYer and 1he saini. "'ho is ...iblt:
lhn:Juth the con,'Cnrional S1y1t: in which the icon is
painted Icon painlen ...... ided rca.lism lI.I1d Ih..-
dimensionality in order 10 Cralc • mClllpb)Sical
=0111)" The "en=u:ion sho..... by believers ill IOUCh-
i"l: and kissing icOl'l$ and kneelinl before Ihem is
dirtt,cd to .... sairu depic:led on Ihc icon. The be·
1;""'Ct asks !he saini In exercise his bencli~cnl pow-
er .... acI as an Inlenncm..ry beN.'ftn lhe hclie>'Cr
..... God
In CopIk churches. icons arc placed On lop of Or
hunll on the iconost.aSis. Ihe wall thai !IC~""la lhe
n,",: from ,he sancluary. They play an lmponam
role during lhe ~rvlcc, «ped.11)' on futal days.
Icons are gen.",.]ly pa.;nlcd on !bl pi«es of wood
covered hy a 1aJ"T of lessa. Thol fits! icons ",en:
painled in rilMr enca....lic (hoi wax) or cgg lem-
pera. but late' tempera bl';Cam<: CU$lomary.
Early HI~lory
Although il has oflen been sulieSlcd lhal Ihe
mumml por-trail$ of EsYPt. also painled in encll.u$-
lie and lempera, influenced icon painting, othcr
objccl$ a~ morc likely 10 havll InAuen<:cd Icon
paiming, fur cxamplc. painted panels of lhe pagan
gods Isis and Sarapis or soldleNieili«, dating 10
Ihc sccond and Ihi'd cenluries ~.D. Othcr poo.sible
influences are ancesto' portrails belonling 10 rich
citi,en, and images of famous mon..], honored by
religious sects. Thc ""cond·century church failler
Ircn"<'us tkscribed a <'U$tom of Ihc Carpocratians, a
 ICONS, COPTIC 1277

Gno»llC ~~I: lhn ,,,,nente<! lbe portniUl of ChrISt, 10 be pain,ed according 10 eenain ~t,lislic rules_
l'vdw.,ons. l'bto. AriMOIIe. and Simon '\\aiU$ (I",· COUnl";'" oulSide the borden 01 the empire, like
nanos Aaursus omneS H.trrr$rS I 25. 6; 123,4). III E&,>JlC. hrn.~r. mainta,ned .h",r free<lom in icon
!he Roman Empire, ponnits of 1M emperor ...en:: painlin&- Their iconop-aph' . . . not bot.and 10 cer-
hun, in public b•.llk!inp ....d ...",re, ...,."n in Chns Ia," ",In.
tlllJl tima;. II IepI obj"." of '~ntion, Consuh
obuoinoed the riaht w ha,'" tMir portr.o.tu m.lHie at
Iconl of the Fifth to s.e...lnth Centuries
lhc.r ........ I"3.ion; """,iy a""oimN abbou and So icorn; from the apogolic pl"riod or ,he imme-
bio~ also had .hi< riaftL The biohops' ponl"311S diateh IUCCeeding cent"";'" ...., pr"CSC,,"Cd. Tbe old-
"",re hun, in their diocese and :u the end of Ih~r Ht icons a", fro", the .\IOt'LUtc,,· of Sain. Catherine
eplJlCop.u, .,.. ,,'" destn»N. Eu/ogUl (Ioa,~ of buad in Sinai. from Ec"JlC.• nd from Rome. A number of
Ih:u an: bl~ bUI not eOIl!iCCI"3fN). ,,~th II "'pre- icons c.a:isl from the fifth 10 S<'\-eoth «nl,,~ ~
..,nlabon 01 a ,saini depicted on .hem, ,,"'.., talen an: .11 on small paJltI~ and are pain,cd in efIC._ie
borne b) ..... umins pilgnmo; lhese abo mi"'t ha,-e or t"mpc-ra. som"omcs on • a.ueeo grol.llld. T1Ie
inOl>t'nced icon painhng fig"'""" ,.,... in a more or ICS!I frontal po6ilion and
"0 "'rinen soun::es about icons an" l"'o...n from Ire h..,;lvoullined••,ooins realism_ $c'\'eml. nol-
!he aposlOlic period. The first source. dated 10 the ablv m.... op Ab...ltam ill tlte S,:UC Museum or Ber-
m,ddle 01 the scwnd century, i. an apoel)'phal Mo- lin and Chrisl and Ihe abOO. Saint Mcna. the Mira·
ry abuul Ihe life of John lhe E"angeli" (Act< of John cle M"b'r in 1M Loune, Pari., sho'" Coptic
26·29), charaelcri .. ic" Ihe hit""", an:: !lquat with large
Early so."'cc$ lI~aking about lhe wnenlli"n of hcads in prt>p<mion 10 the body and wide opcn,
images condemn thi~ eUS'Orn, The 5)'nod of civil'll Slari"lt eyes. Th~'Y resemble figlll-"S in mural. of the
in Spain in 306 i"ued a prohibition against placing period in DaH "''''' JC1-"mlah, Saqqara. and lJayr
;"011. in churches. During tne lhird and fourlh c,m· At» Apollo, Bawi!,
fUries the a'll"ment. for and against the usc of icons The.... arc two kons of Christ, One on a small
were mOre accur:llely fonnulated. "hich pvc "II" IOndo (a cireula,' ,ncdalholl) ~nd a Christ Em·
to heated conlro,,,,"'''·, T... Q parties can be distill
I'mhe<!: The .,h-ersari.,s of icon. feared Ihat icons
lhcm~l\'ts ,,"OU1d be ,,,,nente<! inncad of the saints
depicled on them; they thoughl that only lhe umb
and the cr'OlS ,,-en:: permissible symbols. The ad\-o-
cates of icons denie<! thai ~ple ,,,nerated thc
icons thenaeh'cs: thc) ,.."el"3loo onl, lbe pl"f"loOII,
n..... emphasilled the didloclic ';Uue of lhe icons for
!host ...ho ......... unable 10 read.
from lhe ~Ih c"nlUry on....ard. references to
icons become mo'" frrq.... nr. Sourtts. men'ion lhal
icons h..... In lhe """"'" of belie'\...,., .nd on
dnm:bes and thal ,hey " ... re llken on jourtlC\$ for
protectIon. ltAAelTOpoill<l, icOl)" said nOl 10 ha'e
~ made b>- human hands, appeared in the 8)~
anune world. and beli"'...... maintained thai theIr
dl,-ine origIn mado- lheir "xi<tenCe lel"'ma,e. T1Ie
deb..,cs be.""",., Ihe ,,,,h rsari<:$ (;"0"",,11'$1$) and
the aa.'OCales (iconodul ) aboul ,he use of icons
became more ,'iolent and resulted ;n Emperor leo
III inuin, an edict in 726 that ca"sed all images to
be desll"O)'e<!, T'\o,'o periods of iconocla>m (726-787
and 8IS-843) in the Bynonline empire folk,.... ~~. As
EJi:)1't M,d the Si""i penin,uia wen:: nol under the
jurisdiction of the O}-;.an'ine emperor. they C$caped
the d"v"$tating consequenc.... of this edin After the
iconoclaslie period. a ...ie, '~'S1em of icon p"inting leon of Apa Al>raham of Lu_,or. Panel. A0 590-600.
was inlToduced in lite llY'antine world: icons ,,'crt' COlmn)' Slale .U..s... m of Berlm,
1278 ICONS, COPTIC

Iy dated 590-600. Chrisl and Saint Menas in the

Louvre is the l"rg~Sl icon al ,,!xlut 26 " 26 in{'hes
(57 " 57 cm). ,\ scene of Ihe birth and haptism of
Christ is in Ihe Stale Push kin .\luseurn of Fine Arts,
Moscow.

Lalcr HisTory
Although no icons from Ihe period belween Ihe
sc,"enlb and Ihe ,,,,'eOleeo,h eentulies have with·
stood lh~ mvages of timc, lhe H'STORY of THE PATRI·
ARClIS makes reference to Ihe ~xiS1ence of icons in
this period. Most SlO.. ;es .... fe .. to appearances of Ihe
sah'ls depkled ()O Ihe icons 10 ,he benefil of Ihe
belic,"e,". Apan from lhe deliberate destruction of
churcbes and the,r conlentS, there arc other rea·
sOnS for lite lack of icons in Ihi, period. Icons,
when lhe}' were old and broken and the..efo.... \'al·
udess, were used as fuel in Ihe fire 10 prepa ..e the
hoi)' chrism. Also. Ihere might have been occasion·
al outbreaks of iconoclasm during which icons
were dc;;Imyed. (In a relativel)' r""em case, io
1854, Pa'riarch (;YR'~ IV galhered manv icoos aod
publicly burned them because tOO moch venera lion
was gi"en to th..m.)

Eigh'een,h·century icon. Saint Juli1\a and her son,

Sain' Kyriakos, A.hI 1462/A.O. 1746. Anis\: Ibrahim
al·Nisikh, Height (ineludin!: f"'mc): 61 "m~ wid'h: 45
em: thickness: 3 cm. Cairo. Cop,ie Museum (1m·.
3785). Co"rre.y lIans /fondelink.
manuel 00 a fragmen', probably from the FaYY"m
(Strzygowski. 1901, PI'. 195-97, pI. 34).
leon, of areha"gel, arc in the National Library.
f'aris. in the Frochner Colle,-'ion; On a modo in the
Coplic Museum; on p"rt of a two·sided panel probs·
bly from ~"1! in the Coplie MllSCum; and on a
f..agment from Antlnoopolis (Robe,1S, 1938, pp. 188-
91. pI. 2), An angcl, probably part of a triptych, is in
Ihe Ashn,"lean Muse..in. Oxford, and a n);ng angel
holding pan of a garland is in Ihe Coptic Museum.
An icon of SainT Theodorus and a female saint.
probably from lite Fayyilm, was in thc State Musc-
um of Berlin but is now lost. Saint ThcodonJs ,be
Oriemal, part of a two-sided panel, probably from
Bi,,'l!, is in thc Coptic Muse",n. A $3inl from a
chu"h near Wadi Haifa is in the Nalional Museum,
Khartoom. Seven saints from a necropolis nea"
AntlOoopolis a..e in the Coplie MuseulO, Cairo, and Eighleeoth·cenlury icon. MaiesM. Domini, AM 1464(
in Ihe Archaeological Museum, Florence. Dayr Apa A.D 1748. Artists: Ibrahim aJ·N~sikh and Yuha""a
Apollo has yielded a fragme"t showing Apa Hor, ,,1·Mm;;o' al·Qudsi. Heighl {ioc luding frame): 70 em;
A panel of the ah~, and bi,ho(> Ahmham of Lux· width: 60 0111: lhiekoe,"" 4.5 em. Cairn, Cop,ic Musc-
or, io tbe State Museum of Berlin, cao be accurale· um (In", 3-'62). COl"'e.,}" Hall.< H<mddi>lk
 ICONS, COPTIC 1279

his w"rk are \'i\'i<l colors and round fac~s Wilh fea·
'Urto~ re,embling those painted by lbttihlm and Yu·
l;>anna, The inscriplions arc limited 10 Arabic bu'
give the same information a< earlier. Fa\'Qrite sub·
jects are ,he Virgin Mary with Child, hodigitria
(guide,), and soldier-s.ints, as well as biblical
themes and local ",ints, Although ,he icon, were
probably painte<l in Enp, and were meant for Cop·
tic churches, th< que.tion arise.' il,he.... icons call
be called C"pti~', since mallY of them .how simHari·
,ie; with Melchile icon paiming. O,hers we,,,
brought from the Le\'am or paimed b}' Lenntinc
a[lis", in Eg}'pt. YuhanJl~ al-A.nnan! al·Ouds) was
probably an Armenian fJ'OJIl Jerusalem, as hi. llame
sugge>ls, Icon painting in Egypt has to b" studied in
rela,i"n with Le\'aoline paiming,
Nowada}s icon p.inting is widely pra<·t;ccd. Well
known painters are I"",c bnou" Y"sul Nasir, and
hi. wife. !J"dur La!if. Many monks p.int icons fol'
Coptic chul'che,

Eighleenth-eentUl')' icon. Virgin and Child Sur·

munded by four angels. Co,,,t,,;)' Coptic Mu;eHm.
Cairo

Few kens from lhe ,e\'enteenth cemul)' remain.

The eighteenth cemul)', by com",st. witnessed an
.normou> production of icon painting, Large quan·
titie; uf cighteenth·cen'ul')' icons can be found in
the churthes ,hroughout Egj.l't. The majority are
signed by lbr:'ihim al·Nasikh and Yell",nna al-
Armanl al·Qud'l, and man)' paimers We['e inAu-
.need by their style. The figures depicled on lhe
icuns aTe hea\-ily OUllined and ha\'e o\'al faces with
large. almend·shaped eyes. Because of some difTe["
ences in st}'le and quality among the icons signed
by these ''''0 paimers and be<:ause of the enormOus
production, it i. likely ,ha, lJ;Ir:'i.hirn and Yul;>anna
were the leading painters of an icon wOTkshop_ In·
scriptions in "'rabie and Coptic give information
about Ihe theme depicted or the identity of the
saint and occasionally rcwal Ihe place of origin uf
the icon and the name of the person who e()lnmi.·
sioned h. A forllluia of in"'rtcs,ion is often presenl
"lord r""o"'pense in Your Kingdom of Heaven
him who toiled" Tl1e Coptic and Islamic dales on
,he icons correspond ,,-ilh lhe second half of the
eighteenth century.
The paimer ASTMI AL.R()MI aJ-Qudsl was respon,i· Eigl\lccnlh-cen'ury [con. SainI Dimyanah, Church of
ble for tbe larger pan of tbe icon production in th" al·Mu'allaqah (Old Caim). C,,,,ru.<y Atab Rep"blic of
n,i<ldle of the nindecn,h cemu')'. CharaCleriSlic of EI:)-pt.
1280 IDELER, JULIUS LUDWIG
BlBUOC....PHY
Candea, V., ed.. Iconu m"lltilU. Exp...itio>t org",,_
We "., I" m.. s~" I.'icdu S..,soc.l:. Brirut. 1%9.
Habib, R. TIl" ""cienl Copric Ch..rehc of C..iro: "
Sh_ .... ~_"'. Cairo, 1961,
Mulocl<, c.. and M. T. ~don, n."I~rnu tJ/
JiJI.""o ".,d n...hi", Ih" &riiH:. London, 19"6-
O~ary, De L 11u: Saints 0{ Em', AmKerdam.
197•.
OwJ)(nKy, L Du Sin" tiL, llone Ik.", 1952,
Robem. D...Z ....ei Fmgmnue Antinol!." leu-
sdIrifI fl" die "eUleM"""nlflic/u Wi.swucha/l 37
(1933): 183-91,
S1~,",~, J. Ei"" o.lUIJ"t/n'"isclre Weltch.o"ik.
pp, 195-97, pL 34_ Vienna. 1900.
Wei,unann, K. TIt" Mon<l$'ery of 54inl C.. ,herin""l
/101""", Si"oi. 11u Icons from ,'" 5U11t ro l/u Te,,/h
C"",..,." pl. I. Princelon, 1916.
liNDA U"'CI;N
HAl'S HONOEUNI\
IDELER, JULIUS LUDWIC (1809-1842),
~rman scholar who published many worQ on
EiYl't. His contribulion 10 Cop'k sludi.,. was the
publication of the Pultuiu... Coprice, ad Codic"...
Fidem R"u"...i1. mlio"is V"t1eI""'", ." Ps..lmos
Apocryphos s..hidicl1 Dio.lu'.. ConscrlplOJ "c
Pri·
m....... Woidio Edi'... "d;«;,. (Berlin. IS37).
• IBUOC.... PHY
Bnopch, H_ F_ K. !lei" Leben .."d INi" Wond.,.,.
p.•5. Berlin, 1894.
Dawson, W. R., and E. P. Uphill. Wlto Wu Who in
qyptoJocy. London, 1912.
Karrlln"rer. W.• compo ,( Coptic B~. Ann
.ltboe, Midi.. , 1950; repro New Yon. 1%9.
A21l S. AnYA
IDFA, cily in the Zlricl ofS"Idj. Calloed heb;n lhe
pharaonic period. 'and then in Hellenjscic limes
liOn 0' 1105, Idfi is. menlioned in llle Chrislian peri-
od only in lhe 5U"''''''''IY lha, the rece .... lon 01 lhe
SYAAXAIllO/l of the Copts from Upper Egypt de,'OIe.
10 lhe martyr hermits rA/ll"~ uID tANEU II , Kiyahk.
Pan. of lheir Ufe is preserved in Coplic, but nol lhe
mention of Ihis smalllown, Afte, ludin, a wande,-
ini life in lhe Fan....m in Ihe valley of Qalam;;n,
Ihey returned nea, 10 Idfii, in lhe dcsert of Adribah,
where laler Shenule wlL< 10 found his fam<luS mOno
astery, It was at ldft, near a pool lhat h:u disap-
peared, ehal lhey were heheaded.
In the fift~nlh cenl"')' lhe Muslim hisroriarl aJ·
MAQRIzI namell Ihill.....·n sever:al limes. In his cata·
log of the names 01 the mona:uerics of ~p1. he
~ 01 the !)AYa, A"aA BI5Al>.\Jt, and places it "in
the dislriC1 oil"', opposIle Minshlt Akhmim, 10 ,he
...'eSt." In his list of lhe Christian churches, he .......
tions dial of Pachomiu5 "in the district cI. !lfl. an<!
this is the .... church, on the east side."
This chUJ'Ch Is also named. perhaps; foIlowinll the
p ge from a1·Maqrtzl menTioned obove. by 'Ah
Mub1ralr. in hQi n;,,,, Gl-hJrdtUl. There remain.
one difficuhy: a1·M;oqrW piKes this church 10 the
.... and 'All MuWnk ""riles thac il is the church of
the 1O'Wn. The buer la .itualed on the left blonk of
Ihe river, Ml>Ce 10 lhe west.
The spelli"ll of the name has 10 some exlenl been
modified. AI-Maqr1zT and abo Ibn Duqmaq wrile
"11ft," which wilh ehe "I" recalb 1M spellinll of
andem EtYPtian o. of Creek, while lhe modern
name i. "Idfl,"
BIBLIOGRAPHY
'Ali Mubirak. Ki'4b 11.1 Khi!tl! 11.1 Tawfitliyyah a[.Ja·
dldtlh. Cairo, 1886-1888.
Orlandi. T. l/ doss;e. copre del marlire Pmte. Te.ti e
Documenti pe, to SuKlio den'Amkhi!i 61. Milan,
1978.
Sauneron, S. Vilks " li,e..du d'Egypte. (Firsl ap-
pea,ed in larae pan in 8,,11,,;.. de rI... 'i',,'
f""'Cfis J',('chlologie om..,ok_, Cairn. 1974.
Ro;t-(;E01IQS CoouL~
IDIOLECI. See A~ndu.
IDKtJ, eity b:ated in the non",,", Delta of E«ypt
about 10 miles (16 km) IOUliI.....1 of lUshid in the
Behei,w, prvvil>Coe.
The fi"'l certain .etesw>on of Christianity in IdkQ
C<)ItV$ from the HlSTOlY Of mE MnWlOlS. ,",'here it
is TC"C'O<ded thai when lhe chun:bes of lhe MelcltileJ
and Copts in A1eundrla were dosed by order of
..loYinn'! durinl lile petriarchale of CIIJ.lSlUllOlU15
(1047-1077). lhe wAil (sove."or) of Alexandria laW
to il Ihal a church ..... rc<)pened in Alexandria and
collecled 200 dina", fr<:,m lhe Chriseialls in Rashkl,
Idkll, al·ladldiyyah. and MaJ:lallal al-Amlr, which he
gave to lhe Copll<: pat';lIr~h, The account suggests
lhal lhe Chrbllan community in Idkii in lite elev·
enth cenlul)' ....al relatively well·lo-d".
In medieval lists of Egyplian bishopric, lhe foI·
lowing equi,'alenee of names is given: Menelialou

(Greek); Thbasloor (Coptic); Idkol (Arabk) (Mun~r,
19<t3. pp. 45. 51). The absence of indfopt:nd.-nl eor·
roboratins e-;ideDCe rnwleR tIti$ ~u;Uion _peel
and suWSU 1M three dilfeum cilies arc ~fcrnd
10. a Meneliacou wt..- CoptX and Anobic nama
Wft"e unknown. a ThNshor whose <:i<"Nk and Ara-
bie names """"" no!: m..wn. an<! 1dh1. NOMtMleu.
the ~ of Idhl ift wcl'l aim ~es lhat lhe
dly _ Ilorne 10 ,. a.i&:r>ikant Coptic commu.nil)" in
the MidcUe Acet.
IIII1UOCaAPtn'
""'~ine... E. LI> Glogr-ap/rie de r£cpu 1I Npoqut
OOple. pp. 156·S9. Paris, 1893.
MunieT, H. Rec..eil des IUles ipis<:op<llu de Ndin
cOpft. Cairo. 1943.
TlJIlm. S, Du christlich-lwptischt Agyple" j" 4...•
bi.ch.. 2e;l. pl. 3, pp. 1202-1204. Wif:oba<!en,
1985,
RANDALL SrEWAU
IGNATIUS OF ANTIOCH, SAINT (c, 35·
107l. bi$hop of Anlioch who wrole irnportanlleut",
10 OIher ehurch""",n on his way to rnanynlom in
Rome (leasl day: 17 Oclobcr in the Vies!. 20 ~.
eember in Ihe Easl). Eusebius reports in his
NUlorifl 'UkSUUlka (11I.36. 2-11) lhal Bishop
Il";tIius of Antioch was broughl 10 Rome from
Syria as a prisoMr in the rime 01 Trajan (9S-117)
and _ Ihe~ ddivnt<l 10 the wild be&$U beuuse
of h.. bith in Ch,,*- While slayinc in Smyrna on
hia .....,. 10 Rome, he """"Ote Iette", 10 Ephesus, Mat-
ncsU on the Meander. Tr~J1es. and Rome, and then
from Tl'OIdI 10 Philadelphia, 10 the chureh in Sm)T'
na, and in particular 10 its bishop. 1'OI.l"CAlU'.
~ q..>oIes seclions from the ldIeJ3.. finall)' he
draws aliention '0 ....-ide""", in iT........"" of Lyons
and Pofyarp of Smyrna rcprlijr1g Ignatius (111.36.
12-15). Amon, OIMr things. he' qU<:JlO; \hoe follow-
inl paMq'" from II><: oepistloe rtf Polyowp 10 lhe
church at Philippi, Ihrough which Iplatius \tad
passed as" prisoner: ''Thoe I"ne" of Ignalius.....hkh
he hu sem m ..... d all ,.... oth"J>; in our po5sesskln,
...." a~ Kndin, to y<.>u in accordance: with your
&sire. They are ",nclosed. with ,his leller"
(Eusebius. 1II.36, IS; Polyca'l', To Ihe Philippi4"$
13,2), Thus, &hortly after Ihey were writt"n, Ihe
episiles <.>f Ignatius began lO be colloe<:led.
MQre leuers in lhe name of Ignalius have ~ome
down 10 us in manuscripl form Ihan Eusebiul men·
lions. This raises lhe "Halled Isnalian queSlion.
IGNATIUS OF ANTIOCH. SAINT 1281
aboul th", a"wn,iei.,. of lh" letlers. There are three
fonns 01 'ran.mis.sWn: a Ion" " medium. and a
.toort_ The !JO'CaI1cd Longer Roec:enslon. nansrnil1cd
in Grt<'k and in an eich,h (?~nlury latin lnlmla·
lion. contains in a toni venioa lhe sewn letlen
menOOned in E..asebius wgem.,r with sis. <.>ther \es-
IUS (only &.~ in Lalin). The M"dium Roec:tnS......
the se>-<:allcd mind ~Olloeclion. ItllO>Smitlt<l in
Greek. Armoenian. Coptic, and in a lhineoenlh-<:en-
IUry latin lramlation. inchldQ a:lhoner to1 <.>f the-
se....... leu"'" DH/'IIlioncd in Eusebius and fin or six
<.>f the ~Icn nOl found lhere. T1teTe is a Shon
Re<:en.ion. prC!iC:rvoed only In S)Tix. <.>f ,he three
let'ers 1<'> Ihe Ephesians, Ih", Romam;. and P<.>l)"Ca'l'
<.>f Smyrna. 11 was roec:o,nilcd at Ihe ",nd rtf II><:
ninelunlh e"ntury as an ucerpt from ,he mi.,,,,,,
~o/"'clion. Sinc", Ihen lhe COnsenSUS has held that
the soe,,,n "'lie" menliont<l in Eusoebius in II><:
mix"d v"rsion are auth"ntic lenen of Ignatius.
Thcse se"en leners were expanded h addili<.>ns
around A.D. 380, The interpol;t!or addt<l lhe six in-
authentk ietlel"S.
In 1951. L.·T. l.efon ediled the Coptic fragments
<.>f two codkes, A and B, with leuers of Ignalius. E
Luce"""'i discovered a further folio bdonJing 10
Codex B: Cod. Paris C<.>pl. 129".101.79. Ju II><: pans
in doublc trall$mission liho,,·. Codex A and Codex B
~n'Sl'nl 1"'0 independem lransilllions. The in·
fcrud or Innsmincd Kq""nce of the leu",,,, in C0-
dex A is as follows: (I.I 10 Her<.>. [1.J 10 lhe
Smymans. [3.J 10 Po~. [4.]10 Ihe Ephesians.
[S.)~. [6.) 10 th" Trallians. [7.) 10 die Phibd"lphians.
[8.) 10 ,hoe Romans. As oumbers 2-4 and 6-8 corTe-
spond proec.... ly t<.> the Annenian rollKIIon. bul II><:
"'tier to the Itbgn""Si.ans Kandt bel""""" ,h" len<:rs
10 the Ephesians and 10 the Tralliam. Lefon supp0s-
es the """'" sequence lor Coda A. ThUlo in the pp
for numl><:r S II><: len.... to ..... M........... mUSl
once have stood.
The Coptic colleclion <.>l Cod.... A boeJin. "ith II><:
i....ull><:ntic oepist:l", to Hero. Then come ,hc soeven
aUlhenlic lellers. The Atrnoenian eollK,ion has Ihese
St'vtn len,," ~rsl. followed by lhe iii. lnauth..... tic
one•• with ,hat 10 Hero in lhe penuhirnatoe posi'ion.
Since Codex A breaks <.>If In Ihe midd'" <.>f ,I><: epis·
lIe 10 the Romans. "'" can <.>nly speculale as lO whal
morc ,,'as in il. Lefort has inferTed the foll<.>wina: as
II><: sequence for Ihe pan of Code. B that can be
checked: Polycarp, lhe Antioch"ne•. Hero. Eph"si-
ans. Roman•. This is lhe order of Recension G' L'
(d. F. X. Funk and F. Dlekpmp, Parr.s aposlolici
[2nd ed" Tubingen. 1913J. Vol. 2. ~vH). Following
this soequenee the epistle 10 lhe Phl1adclphians (3,]-
 1282 IHNA$IYYAH AU,tAD1NAH
6.1 on lite folio ediled 1»' Lu~ch<:$i) millt, hlo"e
stood In lite ~'enlh JIOI511ion, follo,,-.,,;j b) ,Ite let
I... I'S to lhe Smymans and 10 PoI~·carp. 80lh COpltC
' ..nsbllOns ~ Icsoimonles 10 lhe mi.e<! ' .... nion
(ulled lhe shon ,-enton '" Lefort)
teron adds 10 Itio edition 01,........ pistles or
ISnali
us lhe SMidic and 8ohairi~ ,.... ~ olll~ Roman
M&n,nlom" ollinahus (as <>ppo::>sed to the ·'Anuo·
che"" .\larI,-rdo;.n·· or ,1/"","",,'" ColHrtm.....). The
Grttk ori&i....l could hlo.......... me inlO e\~ence in
Ihe fif,h cm'lI" (cr Banknhewoer. 1902. Vol. I. pp.
143-145), The app"r1<k-d '-"us or 0 ... ,>0 lIeron.. is
• eulopsl .... and pnl,ionary pra..... r add..... _d 10 II'
nallUS (cf BanlenhewCJ". 1902. p 126).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Ahaner, IJ" and A. $lui""'r. P",l'(I/oK,e, SIlt ed., PI',
47-50, 551ff Frriburg. Basel. and Virnn". 1978
Bardenh... """,,, O. GeM},ic},'... • ltki....hlic},cr Ultrtllur.
5 ,'ols. J'r... iburg lm Br... isgau and Sf. Lonls, Mo"
1902. Rcpr, Dam1Stadl, 1962.
Baumeis,er. T. "Die Aor.nge der Thc'{)l(lllie deo
M'I"I)'riumo," MiJ"<lcri<cll< BeilriJg... ;:I" Tllt%gio
45 (1980):270-89
Bihlm ...'....r. K..• nd W, Schn .... melcher 0;0 apo<l<>-
rl>chen Villcr. Sammlung ausgcv.ahher kirchen·
und dogmengescltkhtlkkr O"dlenschritien
2.1.1. Tubingen. 1970.
eamek>l. T Itn"...o <I·An'ioch... I'ol\urpc <10
's"'.,.,r. ull,e•. M"rI)7<' tIc Po/r<".'M. Sources
chrttiennes 10 Paris, 1958.
Fi",lw:r. J "'_ Di... Ilpos,oIbcht:" I'ii'.......,It cd., pp.
109-225, DannsladI. 19SI.
Ltfon. L·T Us Pues "poSloh'1'<rs "" copu. 2 ,'OU.
CSCO 135-136. Scnptoru CopllCi 17- 18 Lo..l\'
.,n. 1952
Loi. V. Di:;o...no p.rlrisri<"o r <I, .,,'i~hl~ ..."SI'.......
\ol. 2. cob. 1743-45. Rome. 1984
...
l.ucchni. E. ··Complh..enl$ ao.u pht$ ~oliqu.n
~n copee·· "'''Ill~...,. Bo[k""';.",, 99 (19S I);395-
Qua:sI... n. J. ",,~."'''' l. lIP· 63-76. UlrKhl
and Bruosorls. 1950.
'V .... lhll..... r. P. Geseh,ch,... <I~r Nrr:hnstl.d.tn L.I....·
","r. PI' SllO-52. Berlin and ~ ....... "orit, 1975,
THEOFRIED BU'\IElSTU
IHNASIYYAU AL·MADINAH. Stt "'hn.is.
IKHSHIDIDS. Set Tulunids and rkhshids. COP15
Und .. ,he
ILLUMINATION, COPTIC. The po.in'ed d<-cr>-
ra''''''. or i1Iumlna,ion. ol CoptIC 1>00I<. :appea.. '0
h... e had its origin in pharaonic ~l" 'i:umeTOll.
oamples from lhe Ei&hl~nlh o,...... ,~ on...ard
grac<' fun<-ran '''~l$ and lhe pap'-ri lhal accompa-
niotd mummia '0 1hcir 5arcopha.gi. lbough OAt
m;p.. think ma. ,h.. Indilion ..""Id hll,.., been pn>-
lonxed "h, 00-.--.. '0 lhot Coptic period. ;1 .."" nolo
n.... C0pt5 "'-en' lOO much SlJppo ,d boo lh... J>toIe.
maic. Roman. and 8,-.an,i"" oc..... palIOn. of lhtor
c""nll} 10 conlinu~ '0 produce dl'c-oraoe<! ~
ibc an languishtd until Ihe siMh cenlUrY. ""hen
'''''....'i,.., .-Ifons al book decoration reappear'C<!_
They ",..,rt limi'ed, hQ.,."'tr, On the one hand 10
embellishm"n' in , rom, of splrab. plants. and
birds. and on Ih" o,h hand '0 Ihe 'r:ut$fonna,ion
of anain puncll.ta'iOfI marks bom,mw from Greek
...ri'in •. Th... dependcncc on th" Greek is clear
91'l·N'J:.!'JI:.l
U fit :.ur\tr
.,-....u..N'1:.u.u/lU
-uI-LUT I NXJ
frtITnl-;«'-
rrU ffillYNUI
)t-UNnltjll
T WTNU'UH
....A,l.N lTl TT1ifL
fTIYLU· N
fHI'TWt-O'
.lYWNt-HU
...·CION· '1'1
NIYU'WNIY
OttWNLu...
tyUlIJrtNi
NfetUlJ1N •
-. :
Coplo·"'"bic illuminated manuscript. Par"hmen'
Fanum. Tenth c"n,ul)'. ufl ~idc: End of th.. firs"ext
of Ihc tnan~rdom of Elias. 1I,.. ltor unknown. Right
.ide: Beginning of th... ~ond ,.... t of the mart~nlom
and cnComiurll abou' the manH Eli... Writtcn b)
Bishop S,ephanoo of Ahnby,,1t Co",,''',,, Coprie Mil'
''''m, Cairo.
 ILLUMINATION, COPTIC 1283

si, <ompanmcnlS arranged two by I"... On Ihree

registen, as in Ihe Cop'<rAn>bie T,,".......anadium of
the Calholic [nOlitule in Pa"'"'-
Isolated figures or seenell ",a"fill a "'hole P"lle:os
in 'h" maiori,}' of 1M c,"anl"lisl. of the ''''0 T(,,"K"'-
"ngelia_ In biblic"l ,",orb from Ihe r\.'W T"~lamcnl
Ihnc o.ingle figures rna'" include. in addilion 10 ,he
e,,,ntdislS. the- amhon of epiOlles. wch lO' Paul.
PetCt'". lallM'«- Jude. an'! John, lIIw;traUnlllltc Old
Teotamen. ""e fin'! >careel}' more 'han ,I,lQ5<:s an'!
lob "ith his famit~ rc-prc:scmed full face, side b,
,ide. In collce'iom of ~mns or th.. li\"ei of samu
and martyn. 'he \'cpn Man Or ...., p""",n ... nUcn
aboul is n:prcscmed. alone or ""lh compcutlQl'l5.
Angds were olIen dcpicIe.!, ....pec:iallv Mte......1 and
GM.riC'1 and Lhosc :KCOmpan};nl .\Ian- or Sain. SI....
phe"-- Especwh' popular am<>"1 lhe manyrs and
<lIher ""nlll were lhe saints on ~ k (,1,1.......
lhe Mu.... 1C' Worl<..... Merc:ul"iw. PloIem' and The-
OOonlS. bu. DOl Gto'1e. allhough he ..." peTt1ap5 of
~-ptian origtD). Slcphm. John an'! Simeon. CYril
I. Epip!laniw;. an<! lht 0Ibb0u Mos<:s """ BI..,k and
Sbenule_

Copc<>-Ar.oboc Illuminated manu;;cript. AD 1620. Lp-

pe'l"iC'C.ion. Psalm 54 ~... riC'C.ion; ()uouIlion from
Il~ Go5peI of Luke COM.nc<:t Cf>P<iC M.. seu.... C.rro

enOllch in I"'" ,)w, Copu elll a",,..- from pharaonic

modilion ltv adop!ina: .he Glftk alphabcl. bu' 'h",
linked up agaIn "'"h lhal lradilion .hrouch lhe in-
....n.i'... u""' of decorlillion Such dCCOfalion pt'M'-
ttl lor lh" nul Iwo cen.u~. u!"n. 'nk "'I/>ou'
addilio<u.l "010. and .,..... 1, emp!o'inc ,h" human
!ip= Gradua1I~, ho",~'er. color e .... pl in. along
wilh lhe o,,"lina of heads and small buman WmlS.
From Ihe ..iJ!hlh eemury on. Coplic book illumi·
nalion Ilo....iohed unol>lrw;i ....ty, pnncl""lI~ on bil>-
lical and olher relia:ious works. Allor and fig".,.mc
mOlifs inc.......ed and ",ere oflen combined ""ilh
r...,tangular cal'louches (ornamen.al fl1lmes) u,uall~
fin..d with dccorali.,,, inlerlae,n8- ~ eanouches
somelimL"!C we'e at ,h.. lOP of a pale and eanicd a
litl.. or continued on on" or bulh stdes of a !>"lIe.
""melimes eor"l'lctel~ fnunin, ;1. They 11""" pfomi-
nen"" 10 either lhe leXl or a r.gurn\w.. 5Ccnc, Some·
,imes, ho"ner. 5Cenf/S WilhoUI any r,-ame "'ere in_
...ned in1U Ihe teXl. "'hich filled lh" rCSt "f the
page, An example is th.· Copto-At..bic Tem,,,.-anllc- Coplo-Arabic illumina'cd manu"",'ipl. A.I> 1620.1..<)",
lium in Ihe Na\ional Ubr.,.~, Paris, in regard 10 ef seclion (Iowcf two·third.) comains a quota'ion
sc.-cn'y·fo". 80spd 5Ccnes QUI of sev"nty-,,,>,,n illu_ from the Pfoph~t Isaiah, ("ourtes)' Copric M"se",,,,,
minaliollS. O(len the emirc pagc "as didded ;n... Cairo.
1284 ILYAS BUOTUR

is. 1914, RC\'icwed by R. G. (oquin. Bihli"lheco

'- or;~nlalis. 34 (1917):181-90,

.o'oN:!_.U
.U.... 6U'U n:; ·UC.<-,
+...u.l
u.u'u -.·
ZUnlZ, D. '·Th. Two Slyles uf CoPli", Painling. ' Jo",·
"Ill of F.:g,·ptilln Ar,'hoc"logy 21 (1935).

·..
hU n
""'''''''' '4-"A'~O-:U~ PlEIU<E DU BoLFCUET. S.J,
ci G .... "~U ~I.>

t•. MYRlA.\! ROSE~·AYALON

• ..U

.....
h
..,.~~.U··
· "•• · U y
V···· ·..U
'L~ . . "-' ••U

~",.
.
U .....

ILYAs BUQTUR (1784-1821). Icame<J COpl as·

Dayr Anba Maq~r, Church of Sl. "tichael. Manu'OCripl
Wilh figures of sa int•. Courtesy the Met'opo!ium MUM-
um of An, New York.
Another important subject was th, cross. either
Ihe emx aMsala (Ioo""d ~ross. or a"kh) or the ~ross
enlarged al lIS eXlremities, which was decorated
wi'h interlacing or ,,,,rious smaller crosse •.
The style of lht'SC illuminmions is in wn[orn,ily
wilh lhe general e"olution of Copli~ style. the stag·
es of which have been lraced ~lsewhere (see ART,
COI'TIC). In the lhit'te"nlh cenlury. if the slyle of lhe
C"p'o-Arabic Tell'devangelium in 'he Vatican (COpl.
9, f,gs. 12. 13, 98) i\!pF",ntine. il is all isol~ICd
inslance. /I was ralher the Muslim influ~nce thaI
infd'ra'e<J 'be COplo-A,..bic T<o' .....e.'ange1iulH of lhe
(alholi", [nSlitulC. and il pred()min~le<J in Coplie
book dc~omlion as in olhcr gcnr~, down to lhc
nin.leenth cenmry.
HlBUOGRAPHY
C'amcr. M, KOpl;sche Buchmllierei. Rec'klinghau·
sen. 1964, lI.e"icwed by P. du llourguCl in Bibl;,,·
lhecll Or;emalis 23 (1966):48-50,
L~roy, J. l.es MOMtiSC,,'ls copies el CoplO-<l'llbes illtis-
mh. [~stil"t [mn,ai, <J·arch.olugie de Beyroolh,
Bibliotheque ~reheologique c, hiMoriquc 96. Par-
""'ialed with Napoleon Bonapan.'s Fren~h Expedi-
lion 10 E~l't, who produced lh.first Arabic·French
diclionary. lIyas lluqlur. known in French soorees
as EJbo"" Boeh"'r. wa. boro inlo a highly re'pect-
ed family in Asy,;, on 12 April 1184. His pare~t'
nOliced his intelle~tual lende~~;es an<J pTO\'idcd a
good .arly educalion, In 1801 h, foll"w.d General
YA·QC~. his u<tde, 10 Ihe cily of Bani Sud and uhi-
ma,dy 10 Cairo. whcre tbe French E"p"dition had
arriwd. He 'ludied Fren~h lanlluage an<J h!cra!t"e
to prepa", himself for service in the F,'cn~h .rmy.
fir.. as imerpreter and I.ler as Bonapan.·, pri"ue
,ecrelary,
When the Fn:n(;h depaned from E\l.VJ>', lIyb left
with lhem in thc ~ompany of Gc~er~1 Ya·qiib. !\flcr
landing at Ma .... illes. he lived on the pillanee he
.amed as inlerpreler for Ih. Egyplian refugees, 1If-
tcrn'ard he moved 10 Paris, where he had an ;mro-
dUClion 10 the councillor of .late and direclor of
poblic inslruc!ion for a posi,ion in lhe Nalional
Libra'}' as lra~sla1Or of i\,..~bi~ manus<:ript~. His life
in Paris, howc\'er, was imolerable. and he dc~i<Jcd
10 return to Ma...eilles. Apparently this is where he
slarted compiling an Arabic-French diclionarv,
whicb ~came famous as lhe fi ...1 of ;IS kind. In
lR12 he wa" rcerui'e<J by the Minislry of War 10
translate imponant military do~ument~ from Egypl
Ihal ",ef(" e'lremc1y difficult 10 d.~iphcr. While per_
forming Ihis lask, he became acqua;n1ed with Edme
F",n~ois Jomard. Napoleon's engineer·geographer
in Egc,l'l and mem~r of lhe InsTilot d'Egyplc
founded during the French occupalion, 10m.rd was
~ommis-~ioncd 10 ,upc,."i"" Ihe publication of lhe
utensi,·. Descript;oM d~ j·Egyple. In \818. hi.. col·
Iaboralion w;lh J"mard "ffere<J him a stipend.
which enabled him 10 continue ~ompilation of his
diclional)" In 1819 h. was named pr"fessor al the
E<:ole Rople des Langues Orie,ual.., where he
dc"eioped ad\'an~cd Course.. in Arabic. nOlably tile
,poken Arabic of Egypl. Hc lx..,amc a~qoain'cd
Wilh some of the leaders of Fren~h lilcra')' ~irclc.".
such as Chaleaubt'iand. and he wrole anicles for
Frcnch Iiter~ry publicalions, He was dccle<J a
m.m~r of the lnstitol d·Egyptc.

During this time, 1I)';1s concentrated on the com·
pilation of his Arabic-French dictionan' and collect·
ed a stipend of 2,(XlO franc. to encourage comple-
tion of that work. He finished it in 182!. In
September of the same )'ear, he died, at the age of
forty·seven, before hi. work was published,
The Marquis Amedee de Clermont·T(mnerre, who
took an interest in Oriental studies, decided that
such an important work,," Ilyis' dktionary must be
publishe<i. He commi..ioned a profe...or of collo-
quial Arabie al the &ole Ro)'3le, A, Caussin de
Perceval, who had leamed Arabic in S)'ria, to un·
<Iertake the e<liting of the dictionary. De Perceval's
e<lition (with some addition. it was more Ihan 800
pages) was reproduced .everal times. Il must be
remembered, ho".,..,ver, thai the <Iietionary special.
jze<l mainly in colloquial rather than literary Ala'
bie, II is still in use,
BIBLIOGIl"""Y
Bochtor, E. Disco~rs prononce ~ /'o~v..tlure du
rOuT< d'oro1>e vulgoire ill'Ew/e roy"le u speciale
des I""gues orientales vivan'e. pres d. /a Bibli-
o/he"u. du roi, Ie 8 decembre 1819, Paris, 1820.
_ _, Dicrio,maire fran9ais·ambe, 3rd ed., rev, and
enL b)' A. Cau...in de Perceval. Paris, 1864.
___, Dktionnaire fmn90is,o'abe, rev. and enl. by
E. Gallab, 3 vols. in 2. Cairo, 1887. Vol. 3 con-
tains the supplement of E. Gallab,
Brockdmann, C. Geschichle der arabische" Liler-
<l/U" Vol. 2, p. 479, Weimar, 1901,
lomard, E. F, "Ouverture du cours d'aral>e vul-
gai,..,." Revue enrydopUique 5 (January 18101:
33-45.
___ "Notice .ur Elliou. Bocthor." Revu. ency·
dopMique 5 (October 1821),
Louca, A. "Ellious Boclhor, sa vie et son oeuvre."
CohierJ d'h/sloire egypriemu, 5th ser., fascs. 5-6
(December 1953):309-320.
Louca, A., and P, Santoni. "Histoire de l'enseigne·
ment de la langue arabe il M;>.rseille:' In L'ori,,'"
des prO\'"n~aux daMS I'histo)1'e, pp. 113-23. Mar·
seilles, 1982.
Ramzi Tadn"ls. Al Aqbar fi ol·Q~rn aj.'/.hrln, 3 vols.
Cairo, 1911.
Riy~<! SuryaL A/.Mujtamo' al·Qib(i fi o/-Qarn a/-Ta,,'
'Ashar, Cairo, 1984.
ANW~R LoucA
IMMACULATE CONCEPTION, doclrine held
by the Roman Catholic church that from the "ery
firsl moment of her conception, the Virgin Mary
was free from the stain of original sin, and that,
IMMERSION 1285
unlike the rest of mankind, she inherited human
nalUre in an unsullied condition to make her wor-
thy of being the Mother of Christ. A fe""l in honor
of tlte Immaculate Conception (8 December) was
established by Pope Sixtu. [V of Rome in 1476.
Pope Pius IX promulgaled the dogma in hi. act
/n"/fobi;;. Deus on 8 ~cember 1854.
This d<>gma had had man)' opponent. as well as
proponents, The Orthodox church, however, repu-
diates it on the ground.~ that salvalion of all human
beings was effected only through the incarnation
and crucifixion of Jesu. Christ, and thaI, in the
words of P.ul the apostle, "Therefore as sin rame
into the worid Ihrough one man. , . , as one man's
trespass led to condemnatioJl for all men, so one
man's act of righteousne... lead, to .cquinal and
life for all men" (Rom. 5:12, 18). The apostle Peter
al.o states: "There is salvation in nO One ehe, for
there is no other name under heaven given among
me" by which we must be ""ved" (Acts 4:11).
Again, Ihe Virgin Mary's word. "My spirit rejoices
in God my Savior" (Lk. 1:46) confino her need, li~e
all human beings, for God's salvation,
BIBLIOGRAPHY
f,lablb Jirjis, IJ/.~akhrah a/·Unhudhuk:siyah, pp. 84-
87. Cairo, 1948.
MI1<ha11 Mln~. '/1m oHahid, Vol, 3, pp, 556f£. Cairo,
1938.
O'Connor, E. D. The Dogmo of lhe !",rnacu/ale Con'
ceprion. Notre Dame, Ind., 1958,
ARCHBISHOP BA.SJUO:S
IMMERSION. It ordained b)' Jesus Christ
w,,"
that water represents the visible sign of baptism:
"Unless one is born of water and the Spirit, he
cannot enter the kingdom of God" (In. 3:5). In
confonnity with Christ's teachings, the apostles
used wate. in administering the sacrament thmugh
complete immersion. Thi. practice has since been
followed by the church, as stipulated in the DJ[)~CHE
(7.1-4): "Baptize in Ibe name of the Father, and of
the Son, and of the Holy Spirit, in living [Le .. run·
ning] water. If)'<>u have no living water, then bap-
tiu in other water; and if you are nol able in cold,
then in wann" (Jurgens, 1970-1979, Vol. I, p. 2).
The following poinl$ pro,'ide further confirmation
of Ihis practice:
I. Matthew 3:16 says that after baptism, Jesus
came up oUl of Ihe river Jordan, a clear indication
thai He ha<l been completel)' immersed in water.
1286 IMMERSION
2. Had Ihe sprinkling of water been considered
proper, it would have been superfluous on the pan
of John Ihe Baplist and the apostles to take the
persons desirous of baptism to the riwr (MI. 3,6;
Mk. 1;5: I.k 3;3; In. 1:28). Act. 8:36-39 make. dear
thai Philip and lhe high official of KIlndake, Queen
of Ethiopia, went down in the waler.
3. Baptism $ymbolizes the dealh, burial, and reS'
urrection of Christ: "Buried with fljm in bapti.m,
wherein also yo' are risen with Him through the
faith of lhe operalion of God, who hath raised Him
from the dead" (wI. 2:12). It i•. therefore. a fonn
of ritual death, where the belie"er bC<'omes incor-
porated with Christ in a dealh similar to His and is
united with Him in a resurrection like His.
4. Through complete immersion the early fathers
practiced what they preached regarding baptism, a
point they S1ress<:d in their writings. Saint Justin
Manyr (c. l00~c. 165), the first to mention this
praclice as an essential Slep toward regeneration.
said, "Whoever is convinced and believes that what
they are taught and told by uS is the truth, and
professes to be able to live accordingly, i. inslruct-
ed to pray and to be=h God in fasting for the
remission .of their former sins. while we pray and
fast with them. Then they are led by uS to a place
where lhere is ""'ter: and there th")' are reborn in
the same kind of rebirth in which we ourse!>'e.
were reborn" ("Firsl Apology," in Jurgen., 1910-
1979, VoL 1. p, 54), likewise, Saint Cyril of Jerusa-
lem (c. 315-386) wrOle. "When you go down into
the water. then regard not simply the water, but
look (or salvation through the power 01 the Holy
Spirit. For without both you cannot atlain to perfec-
tion. 11 is not 1 who say this, bUl the Lord Jesus
Christ, who has the power in this mauer"
("CalC<'hetical Lecture.•. "' in Jurgens. 1970-1979.
Vol. I. p. 349).
A funh.. excerpl fmm Saint Augusline sums up
the point distinclly: "~t is Ihe Baptism of Christ?
'The washing With wate?' in the word,' Take away
water, and it is not Bapt~sm.
, Tak~ a""ay the word.
and it is not Bapti.m" ("Homilies on the Gospel of
10hn," in Jurgens, 1970":1971. Vol, 2, p. 111),
Various equally dear testimonies abound in the
writings of Herroas {A. c. 140-155), Tenullian (c.
160-c. 220), G1i~GORY OF N'XSSA (c. 330-c. 395), JOKN
CH1t.YSOSt'OM (c. 347-401), and olher early fathe....
5. Etymologically. the term "baplism," derived
from the Greek verb bapli;;p (dip in ""ater). signi~es
full immersion. Appropriately Ihe epithet qualifying
John the Baptist as used In the diplychs of the
Coptic liturgy is the word filbigh. which originally
meant "dyer."
Nevertheless. the Coptic church recommends as-
persion (i.e .. sprinkling of ""ater) as an e,ceptional
dispensalion allowed in cases of baptizing the han·
dicapped.. crippled. or sid infants who may be on
th~ "erge of death,
II person receiving bapti.m is imme"ed three
times in waler, in the name of the Father and of the
Son and of the Holy Spirit (Mt. 28). in accordance
wilh the Didache, canOn 7. and Ihe teaching. of the
early fathers. At times, the.e teachings were diso·
!>eyed by some heretical sects, For e.ample, Euno·
mias (d_ 395). ""ho held edreme, unorthodox ,'iews,
ad"ocated the discontjnualion of baptism in the
name of the Trinity. and us<:d words that made it a
baptism in lhe name 01 lhe Creator and into the
death of Chri.t (see at"" Marrioll, 1908. p. 161),
The Aposlolical Canons ",'ere explicit in con·
demning such "iews: canon 49 .tipulate. that if any
bishop or presbyter baptizes anyone not into the
Father and the Son and the Holy Spirit in accord·
ance with the Lord's ordinance, but into three be·
ginningle~ beings or into Ihree sons or into three
comforters, let him be deposed. Acconling 10 canon
50, if any bishop or pre.byter doc. not perform
three immersions in making one baptism, but a
single immersion, that given into the death of the
Lord, let him be deposed (Perdval. 1956, p. 597).
Canon 7 of the """ond C(lundl of Conslantinople
(see CONSTANTINOPLE. cOUSclL OF) reAect. the impor-
tance attached to the lhree-immersion baptism:
"Eunomians. who are baplized with only one im·
mersion. and Montani.t.. wh(l are here called
Phrygian•. and Sabellians, whc> teach the identity of
Father and Son, and do .undry other misehie,·oW>
things, and [the panisan, of] all other here.ies-for
there are many such here, panicularly among those
who COme from the count')' of the Galalians. all
the.e. when Ihey de.ire to turn to (lrthodoxy. we
reeeh'e a. heathen, On the first day we make them
Christians: on the second, catechumen.: on the
Ihird, we exorcise lhem by breathing thrice in their
face and ears: and thus we inslruci them and oblige
them to spend some time jn the Church. and 10
hear the Scriptures: and then we baptize Ihem"
(Percival, 195b. p. 185).
BIBLIOGRAPHV
HabIb Jirgis. Asrilr al-Kanlsah al·Sab'ah. 2nd ed .. p.
46. Cairo, 1950.
Jurgen" W. A., ed. and trans. The Failh of Ihe Early
Fa/hers, 3 vols. Collegeville, Minn., 1970-1979,
Marriott. W. B. "Baplism," In A Diclionary of Chris-
lia" Amiq"ili.., ed. W. Smith and S, Cheelham.
Vol, 1,?p. 155-72. London. 1908.

Perci,,,,I, H. R" trans. "The g.,\'en Ecumenical
Coundls." In A. SeI'ct U!Jrary of 110, Nicme ,md
posl·Nicene Falher$ of 110, ChrisJ;",,, Church, s<r.
2, Vol. 7, ed. P. Schaff and H, Woce. Grand Rap-
ids, Mich., 1956.
A.RCIIBISIIOP BASIU06
IMPERIAL CULT. SU Peneeution.,
INCARNATION, a central doctrine of Christian
lheology affirming thaI the eternal Son of God, who
is lhe Divine Logos and second HYI"OSTASIS of lhe
Holy Trinit}" took human lIesh from lhe Holy Spirit
and lhe Virgin Mal)' in order to accomplish the
work of our salvalion,
The doctrine is held to be a mystery difficult to
understand by unaided human reason. It is revealed
in lhe New Testament: "The Word be<:ame flesh"
(John 1:14) and ··Greal indeed, we confes', is the
mystery of our religion: He was manifested in the
flesh" (I Tm, 3:16). As a basic principle of the
Christian faith, il fonns part of the NlaNE CREED
(A,D, 325); "We believe in one Lord Jesus Chrisl, .. ,
who for us men and for our salvalion came down
from heaven; He was incarnate of lhe Holy Spirit
and of lhe Virgin Mar".; and He became man."
Referenct1; to the Incarnation appear in two early
liturgies. The Liturgy of S<iint James refers to lhe
Word, ".• _who, having descended from heaven,
and become flesh of the Holy Spirit and Virgin
Godmother Mary, and having sojourned among
men ..." (Early Liturgies, p, 544), The liturgy of the
A.po,I,,/ic Con'/itutions comains Ihe following
pra~r; "Holy also is Thy onl)'·begonen Son our
Lord and God, Jesus Christ.... He was pleased by
Thy good will to become man, who "'as man's
Creator, .. , and was made o{jI virgin, and was in
flesh, being God the Word, die beloved Son, lhe
firsl·born of Ibe whole creatior!, and was, according
to the prophecies which were foretold' concerning
Him by Himself, of the seed or'David and Abraham,
of the trihe of Judah. And He was made in the
womb of" virgin, who fonne<l all mankind that are
born into the world; He took flesh, who was with-
out Oesh; He who was begotten before time, wllS
born in time" (ConSli/alions of lhe Hoi)' A.postlrs
8.12,1951, p. 489).
Patristic writings also contain numerous texts on
the InCamalion. A.rcording to IgruHius, bishop of
Antioch, "There i. one Phy,ician, who is beth flesh
and spirit, born and nOt born, who is God in man,
INCARNATION 1287
true life in death, both from Mary and from God
_., Jesus Christ our Lord" (Ephesians 7.2, in Jur·
gens, 1970, Vol. L p, 18). Aristides of Athens saY'
that "Christians trace their origin to the Lord Jesw
Christ. He that Came down from heaven in the Holy
Spirit for the ...Ivation of men is confe""ed to be
lhe Son of the MOSI High God. He was born of a
holy Virgin without seed of man, and took flesh
withom defilement" (Apology 15, in Jurgens, 1970,
Vol. I. p. 49). For Te"ullian, "This Word is called
His Son; and in the name of God He was seen at
various limes by the patriarchs, and has alwaY'
been heard in the Prophels; and at last He was
brought down from the Spirit and Power of God the
Father into the Virgin Mary. and was made nesh in
her womb; and having been born from her, came
forth as Jesus Christ" (The Demurrer Against 110.
Here/ie' 13.1, in Jurgens, 1970, Vol. L p, 120).
Saint Alhanasius the Apostolic writes; "In the be-
ginning, indeed, was the Word; but at the consum-
mation of the ages the Virgio conrei"ed in the
womb and the Lord was made man. And He that is
indicaled by both statements is indeed bm one; for
the Word was made flesh" (Letter On the Opln;(m of
Dlonysius 9, in Jurgens, 1970, Vol. I, pp. 325-36).
And according to CvRIL OF ALExANDRIA, "We confe""
therefore that our Lord Jesus Christ is the Only.
begotten Son of God, perfect God and perfect Man,
ha"ing a rational soul and a body; according to His
divinily, born of the Father before the ages, and in
these last days, according to His humanity, born of
the Virgin Mary for us and for our salvation" (The
Celebrmed Creed of Union 39, in Jurgens, 1979, VoL
3. p. 201),
The question of the necessily of the [ncarnalion,
thaI i', why the second hypostasis of the Holy Trini·
ty had to become man, is closely linked with the
doctrine of the ATONEMENT. Besides being the only
possible c""nnel to provide proper satisfaction to
God the Father and propitiation for man's original
sin, Christ's incarnation was also a unique oppor-
tunity in the history of mankind to learn from Him
at first hand. This WllS " miraculous event, which
left the deepest impact upon Christ's followe..,..
Hence the overflowing joy and exultation in the
words of the Aposde John: 'ThaI which was from
the beginning, which we have heard, which we
have seen with our eyes, which we ""ve looked
upon and touched with Our hands concerning the
word of life" II In. L1),
Hence also the deep sense of conviction con·
,'eyed by Saint Peter's words; "For we do not follow
cleverly devised myths when we made known to
you the power and coming of our Lord Jesus
1288 INCARNAnON
Chr;u, but were eyewitnesses of his majesty" (2 PI.
1'16).
In view of the inability of man, with his finite
nature, to give satisfaction to the infinite Creator
against Whom he sinned, the Incarnation was the
only adequate means of reconcillation betweell
God's mercy and justice: "But when the goodness
alld loving kindness of God our Savior appeared, he
saved us, not because of deds done by us in right-
eousness but in virtue of his Own mercy" (Ti, '>:4,5).
No other mode of satisfaction could have ~n as
efficacious as the Incarnation of the logos in bring-
ing about full restoration of man to his earHer state
of grace,
The Incarnation elevated mankind to a more
honorable and dignified pmition, and entitled hu·
man beings to receive the divine graces and sacra·
mental blessings: "B)' which he has granted to us
his precious and very great promises, that through
these you may eseape from the corruption that is in
the world buause of passion, and become partak·
ers o( the divine nature" (2 Pt. 1:4).
The unfathomable suffering undergone by the in·
carnate Son of God is in itself evidence to man of
the magnitude of his sin, which necessitated such
an immense sacrifice. [n the words of the apostle
Paul, "Christ redeemed uS from the curse of the
law, having become a curse for us-for it is writ·
ten, 'Cursed be evel~Y one who hangs on a tree'"
(GaL 3:13), Furthermore, the Incarnation is a clear
indication to man of the inestimable merit and sub·
lime value of the end to which th. Incarnation was
the means, namely, salvation, which no one less
Ihan the incarnate Son of God could achieve: "For
God so lo,'ed the world that he gave hi,; only Son,
that whoever believes in him should nol perish but
have etemallife" (In. 3:16),
The incomprehensibilily of the myslery of the In-
carnation to many unaided minds led to various
misconceptions during thieArly centuries of Chris--
•
tianity. These misconcepti nS nn be summed up ill
• solved only by the Word, "He takes to Himself a
.
two mam groups:
,
,,
I, Those who denied Ihe dh'inity of Christ and
His miraculous birth from' Ihe Virgin Mary, among
them the EBIONlTIS, a Jewish-Christian sect that
flourished in the late fil'$t century; Cf.RtNTIll$, a
Gnostic heretic of the ~rst century in Palestine who
held Ihat Ihe logos had ~n created, not born;
Anemas (or Atemon), a Roman heretic of lhe third
century; and Paul of Samosata, a Syrian heretic
who became the bishop of Antioch (260-268) be·
fore he was excommunicated.
2, The Phantasiasts, on Ihe other hand, held that
Chrisl had an ethereal body, thus denying His man,
hood. Valentinus, Salurninus, Marcion, Tatian, Bar·
daisan (or Bardesanis), Mani (or Manis), Apollinari-
us, EUrYCHES, and Julian were all Phantasiasts.
These heretics were condemned by the falhers of
Ihe chnrch and anathematized for their unorthodox
leachings,
No study of the Incarnation can be complete
without reference 10 Ihe subtle perception of this
mystery as displayed in On the h'CQrnQlio~ 0/ the
Word (De ;~cQrnalione V"mi), a trealise written by
Athanasius I before 318. while he was still in his
Iwenties, According to J. A, Mohler (1790-18'>8),
the German histonan and theologian, it was "tile
first attempt Ihat had been made 10 present Christi·
anity and Ihe chid circumstances of the life of Je,
sus Christ under a scientific aspect" (Bright, 1974,
p, 181),
Athanasius open. his discussion of ,he mystery of
the Incarnation "which Jews traduce and Greeks
laugh to scorn, but we worship" (l.J), by stressing
Ihe faci thai the sole remedy for corrupt human
nalure was its complete renewal h)' the Divine
Word. The sal,'atian of man necessitated the ap-
pearance of the Creator, the selfsame Word who
made man in the beginning_ To elucidate th. point,
Athanasius refutes Ihe erroneous views of the Epi,
cnreans (who held thai the creation was a fortui-
lous ael), the Platonists (who taught the pre·exis-
tence of malter). and the Gnoslic. (who drew a
distinclion belween the Demiurge and Ihe Divine
Being),
The following seven main poinls are significant in
Ihe course of Athanaslus' argument, In discussing
each point. he employs an analogy to illUSlrat. his
concept of Ihe Incarnation of the Logos.
I. As a result of the fall of man and his loss of
God's graces, Ihe human race was wasting, The Cre-
ator, in His divine mercy, could not tolerate this
stale of affairs for long, The dilemma could be re·
body capable of dealh, thai it, by partaking of the
Word Who is above all, might be worthy to die in
Ihe stead of all, and might, because of lhe Word
which was come to dwell in it, remain inconupti·
ble, and lhat hencefonh conuplion might be stayed
from all by the Grace of the Resurreetion" (9,1),
A twofold purpose has thus been fulfilled; the
Word ga,'e His flesh as an offering for Our souls
and, by taking a human nature, He impaned im·
monalily 10 us, "like as when a great king has
entered into some large cily and laken up his abode
in one' of Ihe houses there, such city i. at all e"enL,

held wonhy of high honour, nor does any enemy or
bandit any longer descend upon il and subjecl il;
but, On Ihe contrary, il is Ihoughl entitled to all
care, l>ecause of Ihe king's having taken up his
r"Sidence in a single house Ihere; so, 100, has it
1o«n wilh the Monarch of all" (9.3).
2, Making use of Ihe same monarch ..ubject anal-
ogy, Athanasius shows how this great work of re-
demplion was panicularly suited 10 God's goodness:
"For if a king, having founded a house or cily, if it
be hesel by bandils from the carelessness of its
inmates, does not by any means negieci ii, but
avenges and reclaims it as his own work, ha,'ing
rega<d not to Ihe carelessness of the inhabilants,
but 10 whal beseems himself, much more did God
the W"rd of the all·good Falher, nol neglect the
race of men, His work, going to corruplion: but,
while He blolled out the dealh whkh had ensued
by Ihe offering of His Qwn body, He corrected their
neglect by His own teaching, reslQring all tha' was
man's by His own power" (10.1).
3. In deviating from God's way, humanity fell
prey 10 ,,,rious forms of IUSI, superstition, and men·
tal degradalion. "Once again, a merely human king
does nOI let ,he lands he hILS eolonire<! pass to
others to serve them, nor go over 10 other men: but
he warns them by letters, and often ""nds to them
by friends, or, if need be, he comes in person, 10
put Ibem In rebuke in the lasl resort by his pres·
ence, only that they may nol sel'\'e olhers and his
own work he spent for nought, Shall nol God much
more spare His own creatures, thai Ihey be nol led
astray from Him and sel'\'e Ihing. of nought?"
(13.5-6),
4, Another consequence of man's fall from grace
was Ihe oblileration of God's image in which he
had originally heen created, The proper restoralion
of an effaced portrait must be from the original,
hence Ihe Creator took human nesh 10 renew man's
Godlike image. "For as, when the likeness painted
on a panel has ~n elfaceJty slains from wilhout,
he whose likeness it is must heeds come once more
to enable the portrait to be',renewed on lhe same
wood .. , ; in lhe same way illw the most holy Son
of the Falher, being the Image of the Falher, came
to our region 10 renew man once made in His
likeness, and find him, as one 10Sl, by Ihe remi ..ion
of sins" (14.1-2),
.5. ThroughOUI Chrisl's life on eanh, there never
was any incompatibility between His divine, Iimil'
Ie"", all·penading nalure and His human nature, as
the Incarnation did not limit lhe omnipresence of
the Word, nor did il lessen His sanctity. "Word as
INCARNATION 1289
He was, W far from heing contained by anything,
He rather contained allihinp Himself" (17.1). To
illustrale this poilll Athanasius uses an analogy
based on lhe ubiquit~ and purity of the sun: "For if
Ihe sun too, which "'<IS made by Him, and which
we see, as il re.-ol,'es in lite heaven, is not defiled
by touching the bodies upon eanh, nor is it put out
by darkne"", but on the contrary itself illuminales
and cleanses them also, much less was the ali.holy
Word of God, Maker and Lord also of Ihe sun,
defiled by being made known in tlte body" (17,7),
6, Athanasius dewtes a con~iderable section of
his trealise 10 the anlicipation of po.sible obje<'lions
raised by nonbelieve", regarding the Incarnation
and the crucifixion, such as, if Chris!'s dealh was
inevilable, why did He not choose a more honora-
ble and less ignominious dealh? Why did He not
withdraw His body from the Jew," Why did He
choose a public death? Why the cro,", of all dealhs?
These and other objections Athanaslus refutes wilh
deep insighl into Ihe m)'51ery of the Incamalion,
"JUSI as a noble wrestler, greal in skill and courage,
does nol pick out his anlagonists for himself, lest he
should raise a suspicion of his ""ing afraid of SOme
of them, but puts it in the choice of the onlooker,;.
and especially so if Ihey happen to be his enemies,
so that againsl whomsoever they match him, him
he may throw, and"" believed superior 10 them an;
50 also the ute of all, our Lord and Sa,'iour, even
Christ, did nol devise a death for His own
body , . ,; but He accepted on lhe Cross, and en-
dured, a death inAieted by other,;, and above all by
His enemie" which they thought dreadful and igno'
minious and not 10 be faced; so thai this also being
deslroyed, holh He Himself might he believed 10 be
the Life, and the power of dealh be brought entirely
to noughl" (24,3).
7, Anolher significant Iheme in Alhanasius' lrea·
tise is ,hal of Ihe radical change Ihe Logos has
effecled in lite very nature of man, namely, endow-
ing man with imm<lr(ality, without which he would
have remained, like Mlnm, sub.fect 10 death, The
analogy Alhanasius draws here i. lhat of straw and
fire: "Just as, whereas stubble is naturally deslrucli-
ble by fire, supposing (fi",t1Yl a man keeps fire away
from the stubble, though il is not burned, yet the
stubble remains, for all that, merely slubble. fearing
the threat of Ihe fire -for fire has Ihe natural prop·
eny of consuming il; while if a man (secondly)
encloses it wilh a quanlily of asbeslos, the sul>-
slance said to be an amidote to fire, the stubble no
longer dreads the fire, being secured by its enclo·
sure in incombuslible maner; in Ihis very way, one
 1290 INCENSE
may say with rega<d to the body and death, that if
death had been kept from the body by a mere com·
mand on His part, it would none the less ha~e been
mortal and corruptible, according to the natu<e of
bodies; but, that this should not be, it put on the
incorporeal Word of God, and thus no longer fears
either death or corruption, for it has life as a gar.
ment, and corruption is done away io it" (44.7_8).
BIBUOGRAPHY
Athanasius. On the /ncarnQtion of Ike Word. In A
SeI.ct LibM'Y qf the Nicene and Post-Nicene Fa-
thers of Ihe Christian Church, 2nd ser.. Vol. 4, pp.
36-67, ed. P. Schall" and H. Wace. Grand Rapids,
Mich., 1953.
Bright, W. "Athanasius.'· In OCB l. pp. 170~203.
Repr, New Yori<, 1914.
lsidhiJrus. Bishop. AI.Ma(dUb al.Nadh~ri}'yah Ii 0/-
Mawddr ~1-ilJhiyyah, pp. 158-66. Cairo, 1930.
Jurgen•. W. A. The Faith of the Early F~thu., 3 vols.
College~iIle, Minn., 1970-1919.
Mikhl'il Mina. lim ~1·IAhut. Vol. I, pp. 162~82.
Cairo, 1938.
Ottley. R. L The Doctrine of the Inc~rnaliot1, 2 vols,
London. 1896.
Roberts. A" and J. Oonaldson. eds. The Anle·Nic...e
F~thu$: TM".I~lio,,< of Ihe Fa/her> Down to A.D,
325. Grand Rapids, Mich., 1951.
Seeberg. R. Text·book of the History of Docrrines,
Vol. I, pp. 88-89. Grand Rapids, Mich., 1954.
Thornton, L S. The Jnc~rn~le Lord. London. 1928.
Wilberforce, R. L. Th. Doclrine of Ih. IncarnalWn.
London, 1884.
ARCHBtSHOP BASJUOS
INCENSE, substance producing a pleasam odor
when burned. Ibn SiM'. the thineenth· or
foun~nth·century writer. mentions fandarus (Lal'
in, sandrax) . .. resin obtained ITom a small conifer-
ous tree Callilr!. q~~driWlU•. f.-om Ja~a or Sumatra.
",bich is ....id never to '/bve been offered to idols;
lilia" jJwi (Latin, I~s iav.,n<e); and has~ liMn (lat-
in, olibanum). that is. frankincense.
Ibn Sib.1· states that lilian was the incense offered
by the Magi to Our Lord. It is not permiued to offer
ambergris (Arabic '~nbar), because it is extracted
lTom a sea animal.
MlxHA'!L, bishop of Damietta, mentions among ex-
c1usi~ely Coptic observances incensing ",ith sandar-
ah alone, and argues against using liMn or m;'ah
(styrax) because they were used in the olfering of
incense to the d",'ils; as regards aJoeswood and
mastic, he says that the fathers did nOl permit these
10 be offered as incense to God, but they permiued
them only because they are supposed to repel dev·
ils and destroy the works of Ihe magicians.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
'Abd-Allah, A. L'OrdiMmento Ulurgico di Gabriel V,
88 Patriarcha COplO. pp. Z87-438. Cairo, 1962.
Burmester, O. H. F.. ''The Saying of Michael, Metro-
politan of Damieua." Orient~li~ Chris/iana Period-
ic~ Z, 1-2 (1936):115-16; 1Z6-28.
EMILE MAHER ISHAQ
INCENSE BOX, SU Liturgical Instrument,
INSCRIPTIONS, writing on long-lasting materi-
als. Inscriptions. like texts wriuen on papyrus (see
UPVROf-.O(;Y). are important primary sOurces of in-
fOllOation about a society. In Egypt the)' appear on
stone, plaster, day, wood, metal. and textiles, ThC}'
may be scratched, carved. engraved, stamped.
painted 0< inked. Or wOVen. Those wriuen on cia)'
sherds or limestone fragmenl$ are called O:'lTRACA
Those wriuen on coins belong to the study of nu·
mismatics. Inscriptions on buildings and IOmbs,
",hich are the majority of Coptic inscriptions, arc
dealt with in sepamte sections later in this anicle.
In",riptions are found in all paru of Egypt. from
Alexandria io the nonh to Aswan and Nubia in the
south, and also in the Egyptian oases (sec BAG~WAT).
They are often in the open air, on rocks and build·
ings visible to all, but they arc also in the interior of
buildings, especially monasteries and chapel •.
The inscriptions date from the founh 10 the eight·
eenth century and are couched in many languages,
In the early centuries they are in Greek: later some
are in Greek, mo.t arc in Coptic, and some are in
both languages. From the beginning of the "'rab'c
period. there are also Arabic or bilingual Coptic·
Arabic inscriptions. There are i,olated cases in
m<)nasteri.s of inscriptions in Syriac. at PAYR At·
SUl<yAN, and Armenian. at DAYIl ANBA SHINUDAH.
Content and Value
The ,·ast majority of inscriptions deal ,,'ith reli·
gious matten-theology. church history, and mo-
nastic de~otion. Of thc..e the preponderant number
coosist of memorials to the dead As in the
pharaonic period, th. readen of these inscription.
are caned upon 10 remember Ihe dead (Thompson,

1912, no. 335; d. Krause. 1983, p. 91). II group of
the,e memorial inscriptions on the walls of monas·
teries are Identkal with tomb inocriptions (see be·
low) and are called "prayers In litany form." These
memorials give us the name and date of death of
the deceased. Often, as in KEJ..IJA. only these inscrip'
tions have survived, not the tomb,tones themselves.
In onR EJ'IPIiANJUS at Thebes there are several
imponam long dogmatk inscriptions of the sixth·
century patriarch Damian and Se\'erus of Aminch,
and also Syriac inscriptions. AI50 interesting are
slatements about the life of the evangelist Luke and
about lhe Gospels of Matthew and Mark In the
chapel of a monastk setllemem in Asyt:i! (Cle<!at,
1908. p. 221).
II large number of inscriptions are in the form of
list., Example, are list. of the commemoration days
of the disciples at Is"A (Sauneron el aI., 1972. no.
67). tbe patriarchs of Alnandria (Thompson, 1912.
no, 265). monks (at AYN MURAH). abbot. of DAYI'. ANBA
SlitNOOAH (the Wbite Monastery) at SuMj in Karnak
(Coquin. 1972, pp. 174-76). II list of the bishop. of
Hermonthi. (ARMANT) i. preserved on a dipl)'ch
(Crum. 1908), A catalog of the books preserved in
the library of Dayr AnbA Shiniidah has also come
down to US (Crum, 1904, pp, 56.4-(7), as has the
beginning of Psalms 51-9.>, found in a cave at Nag
Hammadl (Bucher, 1931). II wine list has survived
from DnR Al'A JEREMIAH, whkh shows how much
wine was drunk on the feast days of the saim
(Thompson, 1912, no. 226). A festal calendar has
also bun handed down in fragmentary condition
from OAYR APA AJ>OlLO, !lAwlT (Cledat, 1904, p. 5).
Ins.oriptions al50 allest visits to monasleries and
chapels by pilgrims, especially in B~wit and al-
IlAGAwAT. They often name the place from which the
pilgrims tra"ele<! (Maspero, 1931. no, 222; beg;,,·
ning of eighlh century). The pilgrims' homeland
can also often be deduced from the dialect of their
inscriptions (Roquet 1976. p~,45).
A large number of inocripftons are legends to
wall paintings, for example, the names of the per·
son.~ ponrayed (e.g. Munier and PllIet, 1928, pp.
67_74)_
Only sporadically do inscripti<jns give informa-
,Ion of secular events, such as the e~tension of
roads (&uriant, 1893), the caplure of Ibrtm by the
Turks in liB (Bouriant, 1886t or the foundation
of buildings (see below), The value of Inscriptions
as primary sources is great_ For example, we leam
Ihe age of Christianity at Indl,'idual places in Egypt,
especially in the oases, From building inscriptions
we learn the age of churches and lhe date of the
INSCRIPTIONS 1291
translonnation of pagan temples into Christian
churche•. " large number of dergy are named, cs-
pedally bishops, of wham there is no other evi-
dence. The same holds for functionaries In Egyptian
monasteries. We learn their titles and Iheir names,
can draw condusl(lns about Ihe organi'"tion of the
mona.teries, and (lbtain material for historical ac·
counts. Ins.oriptions are a150 imponam for PROSOJ>O-
ORA?H¥. We learn what names (Egyptian, Christian,
or Old Te.tament) the monks and laity of Egypt
bore. From graye inscription., we can detennine,
in addition to the name, the date of death, and
sometimes the age of the doceased. Dated memorial
inscriptions in monasteries set up alongside paint·
ings sometime. help with dating Ihe wall paintings
(d. Krause, 1966,570).
Frequently we learn the names of the craftsmen
and anislli at work on a building; and from a few
inscriptions, in addition to the name, we learn the
period at which artists worked. For e~ample, the
anist Mercuriu. from the Monastery of Shen".e,
who also worked in DAYR ANBA HADRA at Aswan, was
painting In DAYR ANBA BtSHOI. SuMj, In the year
1301. In 1124 the IInnenian anist Theodore had
already worked in DaJT AnbA Shinudah at Suh:l.j
(Crum, 1904, pp, 556f.). The artist's financial spon-
.or is also named.
There is no collecti\'e edition of inscriptions in
Coptic. The .ituation is better for inscriptions in
Greek through the works (If G. Lefebvre, panly ,..,.
placed by the more r""em work of E, Bernand.
Groups of local ins.oriptions are variomly trealed.
Of those in Dayr Apa Apollo, for uample, only
those dioco"ered by J_ Maspero and edited by E_
Drioton (Maspero, 19:>1) me<:t modern standard. of
publication. The publicatl(lns of J, Cli:dat olTer no
translation of the ins.oriptions, and the Coptic text
must be checked for accuTacy. The Coptie inscrip-
tions from the necropoli. of al·Bagaw:l.t, published
by the EID-Ptologlst A. Fakhry in succession to W.
de Bock, have l>een ",,·i.,ed and edited by G. Ro-
quet. The digest published by II. Mallon in 1914 is
base<! on old material and has in part been super·
seded by inscriptions dlocovered later or restudied.
The Greek inscriptions were collected and pub·
lished by Lefebvre in 1903 and t907, later other
inscriptions ",ere published by Lefebvre (1908,
1910, 191 Land 1915) and other scholan;: E_ Bree·
chia (l919), H. I. Bell (1932), H, Munier ([949), S,
Donadoni il957), R. G. Coquin and G, Wagner
1292 INSCRIPTIONS
(1970), G. Wagner (1972), and J, larry (1973), A
Copto-Arabic memorial inscription in DAYR ABO HIN_
NES ""as edited by Lefebvre in 1901 (no_ 222) and
afresh by M, de Fenoyl in 1964.
Until the 1940s only a few late gra.'eslOne., from
912 and 917. in the Bohairic sphere were kn(>wn
(Mina. 1939)_ Since then, tWO graveslOnes showing
a .emi·Bohairic influen<:e bave been dis<:overed.
One, from 887 or 927, i. in Vienna (Till, 1955, PI',
177ff.). One. from 913, i. in the Lom're. Paris. no. E
21.220 (Coquin, 1983. Pl'. 103f); it nameS a local
bishop, Victor. alongside Gabriel I, patriarch of AJ·
exandria. A greater number of inscriptions in Bo·
hairic have be"n found on monaste!)' walls such as
in Kellia.
The number of g"weSlOnes wilh Fayyumic in·
scriptions is larger (Zunt" 1932, pp, 23f. and 27-
33; Leclant. 1%2). Meanwhile, further gravestones
have becomc known (larry, 1969). One was pur-
chtl$ed by the Stale Museum of Berlin,
Building Inscrlpllona
Inscriptions appear on religious and secular
buildings in both Egypt and Nubia_ Some buildings
are inscribed in Greek. othen; in Coptic. Some are
in both languages. but the text varies so considera·
bly that Ihe Coptic cannol simply be a translation of
the Greek (ef. Kubinska, 1974, Pl'. 18ff. with lak·
obielski. 1972, pp. 400).
Ecclesiaslical inscriptioM may be on churches,
such as One daled 710 On the church in Tafah,
Nubia (Preisigke, 1913. Il{'_ 1594). Some may refe.
10 the reconst",clion or renovation of a church,
such as an inscriplion of 707 in Facas (Kubinska,
1974, pp. 14f.; Jakobielski, 1972, pp. 401., wbere the
reference to the renovation is missing). The Coptic
inscriptions are in the Sahidic diale<ot. A fifth· or
Sixlh·century inscription from Nazlah in tbe Fay'
yrlm, in Greek, describes tbe marble enhancement
of a church dedicated to ';Wint Menas in the time of
Bi.hop Peler (Lefebvre, iJII). A mucb later Coptic
inscription of 1713 in Ihe Bohairic dialoct note. the
restoration of Dayr Anb! ·Bul! in the Ea$tem De-
sert; il is ....ritten under ihe dome. Because these
inscriptions name both the secular mler of the time
and Ihe bishop or priesl, Ihey are of greal value for
dating.
Above the entrance to Dayr Anb! Shinildah at
Su·Mj is carved a Greek inscription, in which the
comes (attendant) Caesarius names himself a'
founder. In Ldebvre's opinion (1920, p. 251). Ihe
inscription dates from the first half of the fifib cen·
tury.
It C;U1 be noted from inscriptions that Egyptian
lemples were transfunned into Christian churches_
This i. indicated by several inscriplions in Ihe Tern·
pie of Isis in PHIIAE. which under Bishop Theodore
of Philae was rebuilt into a church dedicated to
Saim Stephen (ufebvre, 1907, no. 587),
A Coptic inscription in PHIUE dated 753 atleslS
the foundation of a workshop given by a layman f"r
the Monastery of Saint Mary in Philae (d. WreS2in-
ski, 1902, p, 64; Ihe same inscription was published
by Mallon in 1905, ....ilh di"..,rgent readings). This
was the second year of the episcopacy of Bishop
$e.'erus of Philae.
In different monasteries, notably al Dayr Apa
Apollo at B,wl!, individual complexes consiSling of
a chapel and several dwelling room, were built
within the enclosure walls (d. T",l', 1981, plan I),
Abo,'e the entrances to Ihese submontl$teries were
filled lintel beams of stone or wr:>od, whiel! are
ins<:rihed among olher things with the names of Ine
inhabit-ants and their offices (Krause, 1988). Often
lhe abbols named in the ins<:riptions can be pre--
cisely dated.
The chapel. were decorated with paimings that
were given legends in Greek and Coptic (d. e.g.,
Clerlat, 1904, PI'. 54-61 and piS. 31 and 34). Occa-
sionally the painters give their names, for example,
Phoibammon and Abraham in Saqqara (Thompson,
1909-1912. nos. 92, 319.14). In Saqqara also appear
the names of copyists (YJI<>~) (Thompson, 1909-
1912, nos. 13.7 and 203.31). ln B!wj( copyists (Mas-
pera, 1931, nOS. 149.5, 354, 452.20) and painters
(nos. 58.1, 60.2, 8Ll) give their names_
Two secular ins<:riptions in Greek allest the build·
ing of a tetrapl'lon in Albribis (ATItIB) in the year
374 (Lefeb.'re, 1907, no. 64; Boyaval, 1966, PI'.
36lf.). Inscriptions note the renovation (Lefebvre,
1907, no, 43 and 561) of a series of .ecular buildings
in various other places in Egypt. Building inscrip'
tions are particularly numerous on the island of
Philae. In addition to those already mentioned,
olher inscriplions report lhe renovation or repair of
walls (ufebvre, 1907, no, 584 from the year 577;
nos. 592 and 593 from the time of Bishop Daniel;
00. 594 without rlate; no. 596 from 796; nos. 597-
603 undated).
Ins<:riptions on wooden lintels from le<'ula, hous·
es io the Fayyum mention not only the n.mes of
the inhahitants but also the name of Ibe builder and
the date of conslmction; in the year.; 942-943 (Ro·
quet, 1978, p. 342. no, 4), 958-959 (Roquet, p. 342,
no. 3), and 959-960 (Roquet. p. 341. no. 2).
Inscriptions give the flam .. of a number of crafts-

m~n wbo w~re a~ti,'e in the building. above all in
Dayr Apa ApollQ and Dayr Apa JeTemiah in Saqqa·
ra. Named in tbe inscriplions are builders (GKt>T,
,kat) in Bawlt (Maspero. 1931. nos. 100, 348.2,
548.2) and in Saqqara (Thompson. l'i09-1912. nos.
89, 177, 294), ~arpemers (t»lQI6, hQm,he) in B~wll
(Maspero, 1931, nos. 96, 108, 124, 149.21. 203.4)
and in SACQARA (Tbompson. 1909-1\112, nOS. 6. 78,
89, 145. 146. 157. 177. 182, 192. 198. 202. 224), and
SlQne'cult~T!l (M.~) in B~wi! (Chassinat, 1911,
plate 36) and in Saqqara (Thompson, 1909-1912.
nos, 13. 106. 192.232).
Tomb Inscriptions
Gravestone" or STElAE, were pro"ided with in·
scriptions that gave the name of the decrased, often
the date, and a pmyer in a more or less set formula.
On most tombstones the inscriptions are in Greek
or Coplie. Occasionally stones bave inscription, in
both Greek and Coplie, espedally in Nubia. Stones
beating inscriptions in Coptic and Arabie are ""re.
The majority of tbe Coptic in",riptions are in the
Sahidic diale~t. There are also some in Fa))umic.
Akhmimic. and Bchairic,
There is an unpublished Akhmimic gravestone in·
,cription in the Coptic Museum in Cairo (no,
17727, d. Liiddedens, 1978, p. 201 and n, 28).
In addition to a series of gravestones wl1b ele-
ment. from neillhborinll diale~ts, the greater pan of
the known Coptic tombstQne. from Saqqara as far
as Nubia i, ~omposed in Sahidic.
The essay' of A. MaHon (1914) reflect the state of
work at the heginning of the twentieth cent'll')'
(Brown. 1986), There is SO far no catalog of tbe
in",ribed gravestones in the la'ller museum colle~·
tions, pal1icularly the Coptic Museum in Cairo.
W. E, Crum', catalog of 1902 needs to be supple-
mented, not only by information regarding origin
given by G. Daress)' (1914). but also by the works of
G. Biondi (1907). Lefelme 1i203, 1908, 1910, 1911.
1915), Muni~r. R. Engdbacr (1937. 1939), and
others. In the m~antime these .tdae ha.'e been
transferred from the Egyptian,' Museum to the Cop-
tic Museum and have been given new inventory
numbers. Numbers of tbe Coptic'Museum are given
in the publications by T. Mina (1939. 1941) and
Raouf J:[abib (1955), The works of H. Hall (1905)
and E. R~villoU1 (1885) should be replac"d and
completed by new Ones. The ultimate aim is a COl'
pus of the Copti~ and Greek tombstones.
In the same way, local set forms must be treated.
as was don~ for Aswan by Muniu (1930-1931). w~
may also compare Ihe investigations of the laments
INSCRIPTIONS 1293
for the dead from ANTlN(J<)POUS by M. Cramer
(194i), the Fayyumic g",vestones by J. Ledam
(1962), that from Saqin)'a by M, Krause (1975), and
that from tSIIA by S. Sauneron and Coquin (1980),
Only at the end can we corne to a comprehen.i.'e
work such as H. Junker (1925) proposed fOT Ihe
Nubian tombstones. Hi, work, however, i, in need
of supplementing. owing to the many new discove ...
ie. in Nubia. Here the set forms of th~ Greek tomb-
stones mu", be finally compared with those of the
Coptie (for Saqinya, d. Krause, 1975, PI'. 781). Umil
then any work on tombstones is provisional.
Dallng. Munier'. research on the grave.tone. of
Dayr AnbA HadrA is important. He identified three
distincI long redaction, of the ..,t form of inscrip'
tion,. The first tun" "The day of commemoration
of the blessed brother." Then follow the name of
the deceased and the date of his death (month. day.
and indiction year, a fifteen·year cyde). In the ,ec·
ond redaction, these data appear before the date of
death, with the addition "on which he laid himself
down t<> rest," The third redaction expands the text
afteT the date of death by a prayer. In tbis, entreaty
is made for rest fOT the soul in lhe bosom of Abra-
ham, I.....c, and Jacob.
While the tombstones carrying inscriptions of tbe
first redaction are dated only according to indiction
years, tho.e of the second and third also mention
the years of the era of the many,,", beginning with
the )'ear 284 (after Diodetian). From this it follows
that the three redactions ~an be dated to different
periods. Munier sets the first in the sixth centu')'.
and the second in the ""vemh, and the third in the
eighth to ninth, A funher check (Krause, 1975, p.
79) has Ie<! to a .hift in these dates; the second
redaction is dated in the years 71610 768-that is.
the eighth cenlury~and the third in the years 786
to 792. The applieation of Munier's method, of in-
vestigation to the la'lle Nubian cemetery of Sa·
qinya, ~ontaining 314 tombstones (66 GreEk and
248 Coptic), has fully confitmed these methods.
Only the datings of the third redaction are some·
what later in Nubia than in Egypt (Kraus~). Hence
Munier', methods must be applied to the investiga-
tion of all Coptic and Greek gra',,",ones in Egypt.
Here Ihe tombstones must be investigated separate·
Iy according 10 location.•ince we have to reckon
with th~ possibilily that the "".'era! re<lactions may
sometimes shift in period. as is shown by a chrono-
logical comparison of the redactions on the tomb·
stones from Dayr AnbA Hadri and those of Saqinya.
Many gravestones (both Greek and Coptic) can)'
only the indiction year (from 312-313 there is an
1294 INSCRIPTIONS
indiction cycle) and thus cannot he more precisely
dated. [{ is, howe,..,r, to he assumed that many he-
long to the first redaction. The oldest G,..,.,I: grave-
stones so far dated according to the martyr era
come from the necropolis of Alexandria, al·
Dil:haylah. They are dated from 524 to 590. "The
blessed singer Abba Dorotheos fell asleep in the
lArd on 16 Phannouthi of the eighth indiction, in
Ihe year of Diodetian 246." On ",me tombstones
even the hour of death is given (Bell, 1932), The
oldest Coptic tombstone dated with certainty so far
deri>'es from the necropolis of ~NfINOOPOUS and is
dated 620 (Lefebvre. 1915. pp. lllllf.). Some toml>-
Slones are dated both according to the em of the
martyrs and also according to the Hegira of Mu·
I)ammad, for example, a Greek grnvestone from
Jsn~ of Ihe year 119O (ldebvre, 1907. no, 541),
Fonnwas. Some prayer fonnulas ar", found all
over Egypt. Oth...rs are chamcl...ristic of a particuiar
l""ation. A very frequent formulary attested
Ihroughout Egypt ghes the quoted fonnulary of al·
Dikhaylah expanded by a prayer at the end. F,..,.
quernly it is matched by the formula "God is one"
or "One is God. who help$."
Less frequently auested on Greek tombstones are
Ihe fonnula. "God [lArd or Christ] gmm rest to Ihe
soul." "God be mindful." and "Lord, God, have
mercy on the soul" (Lefeb",e, 1907, XXXI),
Typical for gravestones from ~KHMIM i< the for-
mula in the firsl redaclion "Slela of Ihe blessed
[name]. H... liv...d [ . . I years [and date of death],"
In Ihe second re<laction "be not sorrowful, no one
is immortal" is added.
In stones from Hennornhis it is noted after the
name of the decused that he "ended his lif.....
(;uMimjoo-v). and the dale of death i. gi>'en (Lef·
...bvre, 1907. no. 413), In the second redaCTion "be
1'101 .orrowful. none is immortal in this world" is
added. On the formula. in Nubia, see Krause (1975.
1'1', 78f,). ~ll
The COpIS. 1;k... Iheii'Egyptian
, forerunners. a"oid
Ihe ose of the verb "1<;> die" (Krause, 1983, p. 92
Wilh references; exceptions: Munier, 1926, and the
tombslones with lamentalions for lhe dead), In-
stead, lhey speak of "going out of the body," "lay-
ing asid... Ihe body." and above all "laying oneself
to rest." The last description is known also on the
Grel'l: tombstones of E.&-vpt, on which lhe e~pres­
sion "10 end (one's life)" (hf.loi>T>l<rt"v) is employed.
One group of inscriptions, attested boTh as tomb
inscriptions and also as memorial inscriptions-
especially in monasteries-are described by Junker
(1925, p. 143) as "prayers in litany fonn." Charac'
.erislic of these are invocation. of saims, in which
their number may be of var'ling size, so that the
lenglh of lhe inscriplion also may vary considera-
bly: one of the 10ng"'SI lilani...s is Saqqara no. 203
(Thompson, 1912. Pl'. 6Of.). Thi. in.cription invokes
Ihe Trinily, Ihe archangels Michael and Gabriel,
Mary, lhe four-and-twenty elders. lhe powers of the
Spirit. our fath... r Adam, our mOlher Eve, our fa-
Ihers the patriarchs, our fathers the prophelS, the
judges, lhe righteous kings, our holy faThers the
Aposlles; Ihe Evangelists; lhe archbishops; the mar·
tyrs (si~leen names); and monks (Iwenly names).
They aTe all to pray for Ihe sool of th... deceased,
whose date of death is given as 25 October 775. At
Ihis lime, we learn, Mena. "'as archbishop of Alex'
andria and George was bishop of Memphis.
This in.cription fonnola i, atte.ted in Egypt, from
Saqqara as far as Isnil, in monasleries and hermit·
ages. II seem, lhal it was prerlominamly, if 1'101
exciusively, used in mona.~lic circles. While tbis in-
scriplion in $aqqara was chisde<! in limestone, we
lind it in other place•• for exampl..., in Isnil, wrilten
on the walls of chapels (Sauneron, et aI., 1972, no_
89 and often).
Tombslones from Antinoopolis and its surround·
ings from lh... middle and second half of the eighth
cemury fonn a special group became of lheir phra·
seology. The dc¢ea.ed is nOI rclerred to in the third
person but ralher speaks him.elf in Ihe first person.
He does not, as is usual elsewhere, avoid th. o.e of
Ihe words "dealh" or "dying." He lamem. the
"shortness of his life," "the sudden corning of
death," or of "the messenger of dealh," and empha·
sires lhat the relatives will be "leh behind in great
sorrow." W... lind Ihese lenns a. early as lhe phara-
onic period in the lomb inscriptions of this region
(Krau.e, 19113, p. 92) and also in Coptic te~ls
(Cramer, 1941; Wddecken •. 1984). The lex1-5 arc
often enriched wilh biblical cital;ons. In outward
appearance some of the funeral slelae, which are
wroughl in the f"nn of an Egyplian offering lable,
are dilferem from The customary stela fonns.
The prayer formula in titany form of varying
lenglh, already menlioned, is particularly character-
istic of tomb.lones in Saqqara. Beside it is found
the im'ocation of God as "God of .pirit. and Lord of
all ilesh" (Num. 16,22) and the prayer that He may
ro>'e mercy on th... soul of lhe deceaoed. Both fo....
mula. are, however, also allcsted in other regions.
For Middle Egypt the invocaTion of God as "good
God" is typical, for Aminoopolis the invocation as
"God of CollUlh..s," for Upper Egypt (HennoOlhis-
lsni) lhe affinnalion "One is God, who help$." The
fonnula from ~SW~N investigated by Monier i. also
auesled al other places in Egypt and Nubia.

11 is striking that in Egypt-in contrast 10 Nuhia
(Jakobielski, 1972, and Kubinska, 1974)-no lomb-
slone of a bishop has so far ~come known. The
stone described as the "gravestone" of Bishop Pus;
of (Mallon, 1914, 2880 and ilL 3283) does
PHIl.>\E
not contain any date of death and i. therefore to be
into'l'''''ted as a memorial stone, unless the date of
death bas ~n broken off. Bishops are indeed
named on other, incompletely preserved. lomb-
Slone. from Aswan (Mun,er, 1930-1931, nos. 121
and 145), bm these a", nOlthe tombstones of bish·
ops. Clerro' of lhe rank below the bishop are, how-
ever, represented, as are all the offices in monasti-
cism from abbot of a monastery down to monk and
hermit_ Among secular occupation•. doctors and a
large number of craft'men are named.
Tomb.ton... with No Dale or Known Place of
OrigIn. Most lombston~ are neither localized nor
dated. Although cemeteries of the Christian period
with lhe grave,lones in silu were found during the
ex~ava\ion, in Nubia and published by schola'"
such as Junker, lhe larger part of the tombstones of
the Chri"ian ])<'riod in Egypt does not derive from
excavations thaI meel modern requirement< for sci-
entific study and publication. Rathe<. 10mbSlones
either w~n~ found by people wh" were digging for
manure. and lhen reached the museums through
the antiquities trade, or else they derive from
ninelttnlh-century exca.'alions, of which only brief
communications we<e publi,hed, but nO complete
excavation reports (for the tombstones of Dayr
Anba HadT1 at Aswan. d. Munier, 1930-193i, PI'.
257ff.). Only laler did it become known where the
museum lombslones came from. Thus. for example.
one mu,t "'ad Daressy's essay to learn the place of
discovery of lhe 'telae lhal were in the Egyplian
Museum in Cairo, since the volume of Crum's Cata-
log,," g"~bal (Crum, 1902) often doe, not conlain
lhis information, The gravestones from Dayr Apa
Jeremiah al Saqqara we<e lI?t excavated in the
cemetery of the monastery bur, were buill in inside
the monaslery. The tomb'lOnfs from Wadi Satjah
were not found in the cemetery bUl' "in various
chambers on the hillside. qllile apart from .he cem-
etery" (Cmm and BeU. 1922. 1', 57).
For tbe slelae wilh no information about their
derivalion and dating lhere is, therefore. the prob-
lem of hnding such i"fonnation. At; aids 10 locali~­
ing we may use the material of lhe tomb,tones,
their form, lheir decoration, the form of the lette,,;,
lhe language (dialecl), and the wording of lhe in·
scriplion. Since the gravestones, as a rule, were
wrought from local stone, invesligation of lhe male-
rial is importanl. The tombstone' in the neighbo._
INSCRIPTIONS 1295
hood of Cairo come from .he nearby Slone quarries
of lurah. In the Fa)')'lim, hard while limeslone,
which is light gray on lhe upper surface, was u,ed
alongside nummulitic limestone. In Luxor people
used the local limestone; in Hermonthi,. sand,tone,
of a lighl to dark ochre or reddish·yellow to red·
di,h·brown; and in bna and Jdfu, light, roft lime·
slOne. In Aswan and Nubia. graveslones ""ere made
from san<!stone. tn addilion there are isolated
grawstones of teJTIl·~otla.
The form and size of lhe tomb.ron.s also varie"
The majorily or lhe graveslon", are reclangular. bUl
there are also Slelae. especially in Isni, which are
small and rounded on tOp (d. Zunlz, 1932.!'P. 27ff.;
Sauneron and Coquin, (980).
For the Fa)')",m tall, re~tangular graveslon.s are
characlerislic. They are often develo])<'d through
round arches and col limns or pillars Wilh archi-
trave and gable inlO a niche. in which lhe de.:eased
stands or sit<, often as an orant (fIgure in pra)'er) Or
a woman wilh a child (d. Effenberger. 1977), A
cross may al .... appear in place of the deceased.
The numerous stelae from Hermomhi' ap])<'ar in
several varialions. Ther. are rectangular 10
lrapezium-,haped stelae with a gable top. in the
middle of which Sland, a cross surrounded by a
garland of leaves. Other slelae are longer, gaining
space al the lo""er end for an eagle, which now
bears lhe cross in the garland of leaves. In ,orne
stelae the cross in lhe garland is ",placed by a
monogram with palm branches, and alpha and
omega an be written above lhe cross bars. Finally,
lh. monogram may be supplemented by an ankh
.ign. These symbols may be combined in various
wa)'s
Characteristic for lbe tombstones from Isna
(Sauneron and Coquin, 1980) is their rounding at
lh. lOp, lheir adornment wilh the eagle, and their
architectonic shaping (Bada"y, 1947). Most of lhe
tombslone, from Dayr Anb.. Hadra, which are char-
a~teristic for Upper Egypt, are small and quadran.
gular, often "luare.
The form of the leuers has not yet been correlat-
ed 10 the localhing and dating of t"mb.toncs. since
there is as yet nO palaeography of Ihe Coptic in·
SoCri!>tion •. The form is nalurally de])<'ndent on the
material (whether it is hard or soft and lherefore
difficult or easy 10 work) and on lhe abilily of Ihe
stone cutters. Alongside ""ell-executed insc<iption.
as in Saqqara, where there were craftsmen in the
monastery. there were also ill.'lcriptions by Ie...
well'lrained workmen whose cbiseling was not so
,ood.
The a..illnment of Copt;~ tombstones with a non-
1296 INSCRIPTIONS
Sahidic ins<:ription to the area in which the dialect
of the inscription ..... as spoken presents no prolr
lems, since the sphere of influence of the several
Coptic dialects is known. But the I<><;alization of
Sahidic stelae presents great difficulties, because
Sahidic can be traced throughout all Egypt and Nu-
hia. The formula of the Sahidic tomhstones can be
~mplo}'~d for the localization of th~ stelae only ..... ith
reservations. since at almost all sites not only one
formula but several were utiliz~d-.....hether con-
temporan~ously or in succession. For the locali",,-
tion and dating of these tomb.tone•. theTefore. all
the aids m~ntioned must b~ brought into play.
[Sa ,,1';0: Hayz, al·; DOsh; Jabal al-Tarlf; Jabal
Tafnis; Nubian Inscriptions, Medi~val; Q",!r
Nislmah; Shams ai-DIn; Umm Dabadih; W6dl
Sharkh 'Ali,J
BIBUOGRAPHY
Badawy, A. "La Persistance de I'ideologi~ ~t du
fonnulaire paiens dans I~s epitaph~s copt"':' Bul·
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1-26.
___ , "La Stele funeroire eopte II motif architectu-
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(1947):1-25.
___. "II Funerary Stela with Coptic Cryptogram
eJ:' Bi/1/iolheca Oriemali,; 18 (1961):17-19.
Bakry, H. S. K. "Two Coptic Epitaphs." Arlna/e, du
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Bell, H. L "II Christian Stele from Qau el-Kebir."· In
Sludi", Pre,;emed 10 F. LI. Griffilh. London, 1932.
Bernand, E. Le. /"'c,iplio",; gruqu<.< et /olines de
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$3ndrino.'· Bulldi" d. la SociilJ roya/~ d'archi<>lo_
gi~ d'A/exa"dri~ 17 (1919):179-81.
Brown. K. "Coptic and Creek Inscripll<>ns from
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EC'p/ian Chri,;liorllty, ed. B. II_ Pearson and J. E.
Goehring. Philadelphia, 1986.
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INSCRIPTIONS 1297
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 INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION FOR COPTIC STUDIES
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Torp, H. "Le monastere de &louit. Quelques nOles
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Wagner, G. "Inscriptions grecques d'Egypte." Bulle·
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Wreszin~ki, W. "Zwei koptisclte Bauurkunden,"
Zdtschri!t lur iigypl/,che Sprache und AI1",·
tumsKlmde 40 (1902):61-65.
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MARTIN .KRAUSE
INTERDICT, proltibition ·~gainSl administering
the sacraments in a village or a monastery. [n tlte
correspondence of Bishop Abraham of Hermonlhis
from around 600, "'" learn of a case in which lite
doing of things Ihal were nOl fining either for
monks or for the laily in a monastery (....e are not
told anything more precise), <lnd lheir loleralion by
the abbot, led 10 lhe pronouncemem of the inler·
dict by lhe bishop. It was limiled in time, up to lhe
poinl at which Ihe wrongdoer came 10 the bishop.
In addition, lhe abbot was lhrealened Wilh excom·
municalion if he contra.-ened the prohibition and
held a service of communion in the monaslery,
1299
In a second case, we see in a letter from the
bishop 10 lhe village officials of a locality thaI the
interdicl was decreed againsl the place because a
man had been unlawfully arrested. Baptism and the
conducl of public worship were expressly placed
under penally. Anyone aCling in contra>'ention of
the prohibition was to be excluded from commu·
nion,
The imp%ilion of the interdict i. threatened in a
further incomplete leuer, after the inhabitants of a
township declared the bishop's canons >'oid and
threw the clergy inlO lhe river, When the bishop
called Ihe inltabitants 10 ,""counl !xcause of lhis,
they snorted at him, In all the cases the punishment
has a time limit until lhe wrongdoers corne 10 the
bishop, or until the wrong has been remo>'ed.
BIBUO(;~APHY
Cmm, W. E. Ca1a!ogue of the Coplic M(1I'Iu>crlpls in
Ihe Brilish Museum. London, 1905.
_ Cota!ogu~ of Ihe COPlie Ma~u'criplS in the
Colleclion of Ih, John Rylands Library Manches-
ter. Manchester, 1909.
Reinhardt, K. "Eine araltisch·koplische Kirchen-
bannurkunde." In Aegypliaca, Fesl«:hn'fl !ur
Georg Ebers wm 1. M~rz /897. leipzig, 1897.
Ste,ndorff, $, "Eine koptische Bannbullc und ande-
re Briefe." Zeitschr;{1 fUr ~lO'plische Sproche und
AberlUmsJ"'nde 30 (1892):31-43.
Yas... 'Abd al-Masih. "Leuer from a Bishop of eI-
Fayyum." Buller;'; de la Soclbt d'orcheo!ogie cop-
M 7 (1941):15-18.
MARTIN .KRAUSE
INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION FOR
COPTIC STUDIES, founded in Cairo in 1976,
under the auspic... of the Ell)ptian Anliquilies Orga-
ni,.alion, on Ihe occasion of the Fin;l lNT~R"ATIO"Al.
CQNGRESS OF COPTIC sTUDIES.
From iI' inception, Mirrit B. Ghali served as hon·
oral)' president and Tito Orland; as honorary secre·
tal)'. The [nlernational Associalion for Coptic Stud·
ies (lAC) is a nonprofit organiz.ation designed to
PTomOte Coplic studies, inviting ",holars from all
over the ",'orld 10 contribute to a field hitherto al-
most neglected. The lAC issue, a newsletler that
gives information on ne.... publicat;ons and discov·
eries, It also makes available a lis, of scholars in·
volved in Coptic studies, During the fi"t Interna·
tional Congress of Coptic Studies, the rules and
regulations of the association were eSlablished.
One of ilS functions is also to announce in the
1300 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESSES OF COPTIC STUDIES
"""..leu"r The date and place of up<;oming meet·
ings of The Congre." of CopTic Scudi"•. which usual·
J}' convenes eve... four years. The new.lener ap-
pears periodically at least twice a year.
BIBUOGRAPHY
GhaH. M. B. "Le Premier congre. inlernalional de
coploJogie." Melanges de l'loslilul doml"ico;"
d'imdes orientales. 13 (1977).
Robinson, J. M. "The First International Congress
of Coplic Studies." Bulle/in de /0 So;;i'lt d'oF'
c!le%gle cople 23 (l981):282~98.
MIRRlT BOlJTROS GHAU
INTERNATIONAL CONGRESSES OF
COPTIC STUDIES. The International Commit·
''''' for the publication of the Nag Hammadi Codi·
ces founded in 1970 and responsible for the prepa·
,.."tloo and edition of a facsimile edition of the
codices envisaged a grealer activity in Copti<; ,lUd·
ie. than emaile<l by their work alone.
Under the sponsorship of the Egyptian Antiquities
Organi>.ation and UNESCO, the First International
Congress of Coptology was held in Cairu. 8-18 De·
cember. I 'n6. Aoout one hundred scholars frum
.ixteen countries anended the congress. MQSt of The
papers read were publishe<l in three volume•. The
main papers appeared in The Fu/ure of Cop/;.· Slud·
i.. (ed_ R. Mcl_ Wilson. Coptic Studies l. Leiden.
1978). The papers aoout Nag Hammadi and gnosis
were printed in Nag Hammadi and Cnosis. Papers
read al Ihe First fntemtllional Congre.. of CoplOlogy
(Cairo. December /976) (ed. R_ McL Wilson. Nag
Hammadi STudies 14. Leiden, 1978), and papers
aoom philolog_ and linguisTics as "I, Internationa-
ler Kongre.. fur Koptologie Kairo 08.-18. Dezern-
ber 1976." in Enehoria. Zeilsehriflfiir DemoliJlik und
Koplofogie (Sonderband {197 8]: I '[47]-125"[1 71]l_
At the end uf the con~ an InTernational Asso·
ciatiun for Coptic Studies, (I.A.C.S.) was Iaunche<l,
statures were adopted by'rhe participants, a board
was elecred. and It was agreed to publish a newslet-
rer. According to rhe statu'tes (published in Newsfel.
ler 1. March 1977, changed in Newsletter 24, June
1(88). the LA.C.S, WQlJld have close relations with
the Socine d'areheologie copte and would hold
congresses ar four-year intervals,
The Second Internari0021 Congress of Coptic
Studies was held in Rome, 22-26 September 1980.
Again, abuut one hundred scholars from twenty
countries auended the congress. Thiny papers of
The congress were puhlished in ACls of Ihe Second
Imernatlona[ Conguss of Coplic Studies, Rome, 22-
26 Septembu 1980 (ed. T. Orlandi and F. Wis..,
Rome. 1985).
The Third International Congress of Coptic Srud·
ies was held in Warsaw, 20-25 August, 1984. About
150 scholars and students from more than twenty
countries attended the conference.
The Founh International Congress of Coptic
Studies was held in Louvain·la·Neuve, 5-10 Sep·
tember, 1988, The congress was attended by abOUT
200 ~cholars and Sludenrs from about rwenty coun--
lries.
Beside the international congresses of the
I.A.C.S., rhe French section regularly holds naTional
congresses. The first such conference meT in STras·
bourg on 28 May 1'f82 and the papers were pub-
li.hed in Eer;tu'es el IradilionJ dans la [literature
copu, (lournie d'Etud.. Copus - Slrasbou,g 18 mai
1982) (Cahi.,.. de Ia BiblioTheque copTe I, Louvain,
1(83). The second conference was held in STras·
bourg on 25 May, 1984~ the fifteen papers were
published in Deuxieme lournh d'Eludes COpieS
S/raswu'K 2S ma; 1984 (Cahiers de la Bib1iorheque
copte 3. Louvain, 1986). The third conference was
held in Pari. on 23 May 1986. The founh confel'
ence met in Stl1Isbourg on 27 May 1988.
In addition. at the Martin·LuTher·Universiry, Hal·
Ie, six congresses ha\'e been organized since 1964.
and their acts have been published. The first was
held on 14-15 December. 1964 (Koptolog;sche Sm-
dieM ;n de, DDR, Wissenschaftliche Zeitsehrift der
Manin·Luther·Universital, Halle'Wittenberg, 1965.
Sonderheft). The secoud was held on 12-13 De-
cember 1966 and was devoted to problems of Cop·
tic lite",rure (Probleme der kopti,chm Literatu', ed.
P. Nagel, Wissenschaftliche Beirrage der Manin·
LUlher·UniversiUiT, HaJle·Wiltenberg, 1(68). The
nexr congress was held on 22-24 February. 1971
(Sludio Coplica, ed, Nagel. Berliner Bpanrini-
stische Arbeiten 45, Berlin. 1(74)- The fourth .ym·
po6ium in 1976 (25-27 November) was devoted to
.tudies about man in gnosis and Manichaeism
(Studi"" zum MeMschcMbi/d in enosis und Maniehlil·
"",us, ed. Nagel, Wissenschaftliche Beirrige der
Maniu·Luther-UniversitJit. Halle-Wirrenberg, I 'f79).
The fifth symposium in 1983 (25-27 May) was de·
voted to .Iudie. of Greeks and Copts in Egypt dul'
ing The Byzantine period (Craeeo-Copriea. Criechen
u"d Kopten 1m byzanfinisehe" AtypiC". ed. Nagel,
Wissenschaftliche Bdtrlige der Manin·Luther-
Universirli:t, Halle-Wittenberg. 1984l_ The sixlh can·
ference was held in 1988 (27-29 April) and was
devoTed 10 The scientific work of Carl Schmidr
 INTERPRETATION OF KNOWLEDGE
(1868-1938), whose studies were concentt:ll.ted on
the Coptic Period of Egypt. Twenty,nine pape.-s
were read by schola.-s of ele,'en different countries.
[See also: International Association of Coptic
Studies.]
MARTII' KRAUSE
INTERPRETATION OF KNOWLEDGE.
The Interpretation of Knowledge (NAG HAMMADI U·
BRARY, XU) is a homily with polemical content
probably delivered before a GnoMic community. II
is a good demonstt:ll.tion of Ihe internal dissensions
thai upset Cnostic communities in the first centur-
ies A.D. This trealise is not the only one to attack
this problem. Comparison with other te~ts from
Nag Hammadi, such as lhe Sophia of Ie,,,, Chn'j/
(see EUGNOSTOS THE BlESSED) or the TESTIMoNY OF
TRUTH (Kos<:horke. 1978), rna}' throw some light on
this complicated piece of writing.
In his discourse the author of the Interpretation of
Knowledge emphasizes the negativity of the wodd
and the body, He describes the former as "th. place
ofunfailh and death" (XI.!. 37) and the lauer as "a
temporary dwelling which the rulers and authori-
ties have as an abode; the man ""ithin, after being
imprisoned in the ,'eose!. fell into suffering and lhey
compelled him 10 sel"\'e them and they coostt:ll.ined
him to serve the energies" (XL6. 31-38). The au-
thor mention> the slavery o£ the body as well as the
slavery of the wul (XL6. 21), 21); both body and
soul are desired by the archons (hostile heav.nly
rulers), who oblige man to serve lhem. This passage
recalls the AUTHENTtKOS tJlG();S and the EXEGESIS ON
IHE sou~, There could be sketched here behind
these heavenly powers, as in the A"then/ikos wgos,
the phantasm o£ eanhly powers. ecclesiastical or
secular,
Funhermore, the body is compared to a pit or a
hole into which men have fa.ll~n. From this place
bolow, a darl< place, and from flte body, a carcass,
only Christ will be able to deli~er tho.e who wish
deliverance: "I became very small so that through
my humility I might take j'OU up \() the gr.at height
whence you had fallen. You were lalen to this pit.
If now you believe in me. it i. I who shall take you
above through this shape that you see. It is I who
shall bear you upon my shoulders." The means or·
fered to man 10 escape from tho negath'eness of lhe
world i. a holy and pure faith that will oppose lhe
"unfaith" of the world. Christ is, therefore, a Sav-
ior. The author presents him as a being clothed in
1301
humility, bearing humanity on His shoulders, After
being crucified, say. the text, He looked down to-
ward hen so that thme wito wcre down there
looked upward (XI.D. 25-30). Finally, He pro-
claimed the Father. "when the great Son was sent
after his ~mall brothers, he spread abroad the ooict
of the Father and proclaimed it. opposing the All
and he removed tho old bond o£ debt, the one of
c"ndemnation,"
Christ also communicates a teaching: "Do n<>l
call out to a Father upon the earth. Your Father
who is in hea,'en is one. Y"u are the light of the
world. The)" are my brothers and my fellow com·
panions who do the will of the Father. For what use
if you pin the world and you forfeit )'Cur soul? For
when we were in the dark, we used to call many
'father' since we were ignorant of the true Father.
And this is the great conception of all the sins:'
The Gnostic must imitate Christ and with regard
to his neighbor beha.e according to the example of
Christ. The laller "answered her with humiliation
since in this way he bore the suffering which he
had suffered." He also made himself very small in
order 10 help humanity. From this injunction to
imitation is deri,'ed a series o£ teachings cOncern·
ing the conduct required of the Gnostic in the
midst of his community, He mu.t not know jeal-
ousy; he must ~hare with the brethren the spiritual
and prophetic gifts he possew:s; he must rejoice,
give thanks, and lift up his prayer to God. The
Gnostic who is humble, who avoids all discord, and
who has humility shows tbat he is anentive to the
no". (mind), not to the world. Besides, the persecu·
tion of which the Gnostics are the object i, point-
less, for it is e~erdsed against th~ who already
ha". the Word. The !£ITER OF PErER To PHJUP runs
in the same sense, proclaiming that persecution is
apparent, as was Christ's suffering on the cross.
BlaLiOGIUPHY
Kosch"rke, K. Die Polemik de, Gnostike, gegen da.
kiFchliche Chri.,.nlt<m "mer /x,sonderer BerlJcks-
ichlig"ng der Pelm,,,pok,,lypse ""d de. Testimoni·
um Veri/alis, Nag Hammadi Studies 8, Leiden,
1978.
Menard, J, E. "La Gnose et les textes de Nag Ham-
madi." In Colloq,," international sur les lexlts de
Nag Hammadi, pp. 3-17. Quebec, 1981.
Turner, D. "The Interpretation of Knowledge." The
Nag Hammadi Library in English, trans, J, D,
Turner, ed, J. M. Robinson, pp. 427_34. San
Francisco, 1977.
MAnE~EINE SCO~EU.O
1302 10D AL·MADHBAH
IQD AL.MADH.BAH. Sa Archil~lu...1 Ele-
menls of Churches.
IQUDIYOS lABIB (1873-1911), EcYPoian Cop.
101ocist. He 14S hom ;n Ibe CopI;c rill. or Mlr In
"'e proviMe of Asy\i! in Upper EcPc ..ilhin reach
oflhe aMN:nl rnonasl:ery of Our Lady boo....n .. I),\n.
AWtlM.U.RAO. He ",,'U aoCUSl<lCDed I'n:>n> his early
you'" to accompany bis family in anendinl weekly
socrvka at Ihlot monastery. After lbe COll'lplecion of
"'e liturgy. he U5ed to linger wilb lhe n>Onb and
disc,," lhe Copt:ic language with I""m. His intelQl
in lhe ..n...... probably bepn hue. With his ck·
~nure to live in Cairo. Ibis inleJn( "-as accelenot·
ed. and he bepn 10 sludy Coptic sY5,emalkally and
scierllifieally from all available manU5<:ripta in liM:
~Iriarch.al library. which Pope CYRIL V ordered to
be placed al bia disposal. In Ihe mean lime. he
learned modem foreign languagca and ia said to
lIave become proficienl in Englisll and Frenell. as
well lI!l in " ...bie and Coptic.
AI home. iM: in.isled on Ihe u~ of Coplic .. Ihe
only language of communicalion. Ahhouch the U5C
of COplic had long been limiled. 10 cburc~ as a
lilurckal lancuage. he urged other CopIic families
10 U5C ;1 as a spohn and living Iangua&e. This
implie(l liM: leachinl of Coptic 10 Arabic~lng
Copu. SO he h_ened 10 open classes for C;>plic
Iancuacc instruction in Cairo. Though these c~
"'ue enthusiaslleally ,....,.;\'Cd and widely I'requem·
rd. appare1>Ily very lew families ........ able '0 impleo
men, lUI sc""_ of rft>derinl CopIie lheir dally
means ol eommuniation..
He ~bliahed a special periodical Cfllidf'cl Moja/-
I., '04,... SMms lor-Ihe I"OtI>otion of his ideas.. Fu....
lhe<-. he Imponcd a special prinrinl ~ from Ceo--
many. whh hlcnJ@lyphicaswell as CopOc letter tela
for the publication of his sources. II is said lhal this
_ I"" seeond .pccialifd puss broughl into
EcYPt. the firsl be;,., the pnntinc prns of the 11lSl1·
"" fra~als d·An:.heoIogie ~enlale in Cairo. With
h, h~ ..... able to publish his own Coptic I"'mman
:IOnd most of lhr liturgical books hi'''''no .""ibbl~
only in manuscript in churcm. ThrQU&houI hils
life. he USlJmed Ih~ post of professor of Copti, in
lhe ""wly establl$he<i ClEJ.1CA.l. COl..U(';E,. One of his
main contribution. was h;, allempt 10 compll~ the
first COplo·Arabic diclionary. of which he complel'
ed fi.e paru before Ihe work was illlerrupled by his
dealh.
Hi. other publicalions include Majmi<' ,,1·o4lfa~ al·
O!bliY)'"h (Cliro. 1901). a collection of Coptic
_..-do that had passed 1...10 Arablc; o4l-llu..... ,,1·
Nu,..,iY)'Wr Ii M"'rill" "U'''llu,h .1.QiJ>/iyyJllr (CopIk
Gnlmmar; 2 pts., Cairo. IS941; AI.K."",,, "UbliJ"'iyy-
Wr Ii T.·/bn »l·u-tlll'l. 1I1.Qfb#yylJ1r (C;>pI>e lan-
guage; hi Kr. Cairo. 1897); 'The ..... Im. (in Coptic).
folk>wed by Biblical caMiela and prayttS. accom-
pan>ed 1». an Arabic lransblion. ~"'-I and COl"-
n,ct", by HqumenOf ..tJl(l ~ SIoLlII ...... ~
and ediled by Mac:arius, art:hblshop of Asylil. and
I.abib (Cairo. 1197); Ki/Qh aJ..A~lmW<liyyll1t .1-SlJ,,-
a.,;yy.,Jt .1--M~lU41r (Cairo. 1908-1911); The
Burial Rile (Coptic; Coiro. 1905); 1M Rile of E..-
....mt UDCtion and th~ Prayer of AbW Sd"''POI>
(Cai-ro, 1909); li,,,rgic:aI Telll$ In C;>plic and "nobie
(5 "",b., Cairo. 1900-1902); Lu 11tioIoJeies. Vol•.
1-2 (Cairo. 191 I); and o4I.J....h",.h .t.Noflsllh li'U--
tum lIj·K""i.sllh (Encyclopedia of COfJ'Iic (:h.. rch
Doctrine. Uo.age. etc.) by Yul}anni ibn Zakariyy!.
known ;U Ibn al·$abbA·. edhed wllh Coptic equival·
enU by lablb (Cairo. 1902).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Kammerer, W.. compo A COp/l'c Bibliography. Ann
Arbor. 19SO; repro New York. 1969.
Masri. I. H. oJ·. The SIO')' of rhe COP!'. Cairo. 1978.
Ml,.II'.:t. BAs'"
IRELAND. &e British lsles and I...land. Coptic
In8uences in lhe..
'(RyAN JIRJlS MUFTAH (el 1888). Coptic
~ special.... H<! ..... appolmed lcachet- of
Coptic in the l\rwIy esgbllshed Coptk Coflege
founded by lhr mhn- of Co¢<: monn. cn.JL IV
(1354-1861)...no aimal at modrmi:ri. . the Coplle
church. 'Iryin is known 10 ""\"C' ..Tillen m;Utn;lls
and gnmmar hooks for leachl... lhe Coptic Ian-
IJuaee in a I.,fo"l~d modem style. This probably
OCCUfTed uncle.- the inlluena: of the «"....,nical
spirit of his .... lXrior. Cyril IV. who aimed al bring-
ing the Greek and Coptic churcm eI<>$Cr logelhe:r.
It is known lhat ·11)"6n... he WllS called. departed
from lhe old Bohaitic system In Ihe chu.--ch offices
and tried 10 introduce lhe 1\I1ea of modem Greek
pronunciation into the anliqualed slyle of lb. lradi·
lional church. This found Opp<.JSilion amid the cler-
gy of Upper Egypl who cluna 10 Ihe old Bohairic.
now wrongly de.cribed as Sahidic. Through ·]ryan·s
innuence and lIis leaching of lhe C;>ptic tongue on
the modem Greek model. his aystem spread rapidly

in tower Eg:n't and the metropolilan cities of Cairo
and Alexandria.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
'Al"J.aI-Masi~ al-M",,'udi al-Banlmusl. AI-Asas al-
Malf~ fi {Jab! Lughal al·MI~riyyi", Cairo. 1888.
Emile Maher Isl)Aq. A/-Laf< al_Qib!; al.Bul;oyrf. al·
Qadim, Cairo. 1978.
Worrell, W. H. Coplic Sound•. Ann Arbor. Mich,.
1934.
___, Coptic Texis In Ihe University of Mlchlgml.
Ann Arbor. Mich., 1942,
___, " Shorl AC<'ount 01 the Copls. Ann Arbol.
Mich" 1945,
y~ 'Ab<I-al-Masi~, $al~ah min Tarikh al-Qib!. Ri-
sollat M!i.r Min!i. 5. Alexandria. 1954.
MOUN1R SHOOCR]
ISAAC, fort)'-fi~t patriarch of Ihe See of Saint Mark
(636-689). Isaac w"" a native of the district of
Shubnl. now pan of modern Cairo, before he took
the monastic vow at I)AYR mIlA MAQAR, Unle is
known about hi< early secular life. In his monas·
tery. however, he became the spiritual .On of a
bi.hop by the name of Zacharias. who was known
for his Christian virtues, hi. dignity, his theological
learning, and his humility. Following his mentor in
his qualitiC$. Isaac also concentrated on the literary
activity of the monastery and be<oame a noted
scribe of religious and biblical works. When JOHN Ill,
his predecessor. came to know of him, he invited
him to join him in Alexandria, where he actively
assisted the patriarch in combating a three-yeal
famine and panicipated in the discharge of all the
rest of Ihe patriarchal re.ponsibililies.
John III willed his succession to Isaac. his admi-
rable assistant. Soon after his death. a council of
bishops mel to elect the new patriarch. Thi. ~ouncil
consiSled of Cregoriu., bishizl? of al·Qays; Jacob,
bishop of Arwat; JOHN OF NIKil'lu; and a number of
<lther unnamed bishops. together , with tbe c1crgy
and tlte archons <If Alexandria. To the arn"".cment
of the congregation. the;1 choice fell. not on Isaac,
John's nQmin"". but on a deacon from Sa1<hl by the
name of Jirja. The election was made Qn a weekday
without consulting 'Abd al Az[z ibn Marwan. the
Arab governor of Egypt, for his ad,ance approval.
The archdeacon of the city of Alexandria protested,
as the clergy wele taking rapid steps to cQn.ecrale
their nominee. He insisted lhat the election should
be made on a Sunday in agreement with established
tradilion and that the late patriarch's recommenda-
ISAAC, COPTIC TESTAMENT OF 1303
tion must be respected. At this moment Ihe gover·
nor's delegates reached Alcxandria and stopped the
preparatory measures talen for consecrating Jilja.
On reporting to the gtwenlOr, 'Abd al·Mi, decided
in favor of the late patriarch's nominee, and so
Isaac was fonnally invested. The HISTORY Of THE
PATRIARCHS comments on the C>'ent as being the will
of the Lord,
In .pite of the bre,'ity of Isaac's reign, for he
remained on the throne of Saint Mark only three
)'ears, his days were pregnant with major ".'ents,
both locally and intemationally. First, on the local
.cene, he re.tored the crornbling walks of Saint
Mark', Cathedral and renoyated the patrialchal res-
idence. Second, be celebraled the Coptic liturgies
in many churches previously dominated by the
Chakedonians. Third. he huHt a church and found-
.d a monastery of Our Lady in J:lih"an; at the same
time he encouraged the Coptic archons of the
country to build dwellings at J:Iilwan in the neigh·
borhood of the palace of 'Abd al-Azlz. who fa.'ored
!i,'ing there. On the intemational scene. without
con.ulting the Arab gove1TlOI of Egypt, lsaac medi·
ated between the emperol of Ethiopia and the
Christian king of Nubia, who were in conflict at the
time. Apparentl}', this infuriated 'Abd al·Az!z, who
put the patriarch undcr house arresl in Alexandria
to pre"",nt him from crossing the fronticr to the
African polentates with whom Eg}pt was nOl in
harmony. But curiously his ful)' went beyond the
patriarch to Ihe wholc of th. Coptic church, and
the govemol ordered all crosses. e.·en gold and
.iher ones. to be broken ITom chuI~hes. Furthel-
mote, he issued an orner that posters .hould be
fixed on the gates of all churches bearing the in·
scription thai Mul)ammad i, the apostle of Allah
and that JC$us is only the prophet of God and not
his son. for Allah is neithel bom nor bearing.
At this unhappy juncture. Isaac died in 1>89 and
was quietly buried in the Calhedral of Saint Mark in
a tomb that he had prepared for himself next to
that of his predecessor.
BIBLIOGit,4.I'HY
Lane-Poole, S. HislM)' of Egypl In the Middle Age•.
London, 19(11.
___. The Mohammad~n DY"asties. Paris, 1925.
SUBHI y, U,81B
ISAAC, COPTIC TESTAMENT OF. See Cop-
tic Testament of Isaac.
 1304 ISAAC, SAINT
ISAAC, SAINT, or Isaac of ~1'Qal~li, fourth·to-
liflh·century monk of Kellia (feast day: 19 Bashan.).
He had been a disciple of Cronius, lhen of
Theodorus. After having fled to escape the priesl'
hood, he had nonetheless allowed himself to be
ordained. In his Dialogue o~ Ihe Life of Sl. John
Chry<oslom, PAtll.DtUS praises him as "a man e,cep"
tionally versffi. in the Scriptures and veT)' hosplta·
ble" (PC 47, pp. 59-DO). Him",lf very stricl In his
asceticism, he blt1erly deplored lhe laxity lhat was
being introduced among lhe monks, Isaac. priest of
the Kellia, is mentioned in both recensions of the
Copto-Arabic SYNAXARJON. He is nol to be confused
with Saint Isaac of Scdis, another monk. BOlh are
often named in the Aro"fn-Jf.GMAU fATRuM.
BIBUOC:;RAPHY
Cotelier, J. B.. ed. ApophlhegmaJa Polrum. PC6.5,
pp. 224-28, 348, 357, 368.
Evelyn-White, H. G. The MonaSleries of Ihe Wadi 'n
Na/TW1, pt. 2, pp 134, 141, 144-146. New York,
1932.
Luc[E~ REGNAVLT
ISAAC THE DEACON, seventh-wnlu!')' biog-
rapher of the fortieth patriarch of Alexandria, JOHN
111. He .....as born in Samannud (Sebennytus), a city
dating from dynastic times that still exists on the
left hank of the Damiena branch of the Nile in
Gha.-biyyah Province. Isaac appears in the HIST<lRY
OF THE PATRIA~C~~ by $iowlrus ibn aI·Muqaffa' as the
secretal)' and dose disciple of Patriarch John III,
his spiritual father. Isaac is described as "a wise
man, loving of his fellows, learned in the Scrip'
tures, and vinuous," TO'A'ard the end of the biogra-
phy, it is said that the dying patriarch sailed to
Alexandria, "and the writer of this history [Isaac Ihe
Deacon] was with him, iW he was his spiritual
son," The biography, ",'hieh; muSI have been written
in Coptic, includes details:concerning Ihe Chalce·
donians and anti'Chalcedonians in Egypt as well as
the rdations between the church and the Umayyad
caliphs Vazld I, Mu'awiyah n, Marnllil I, and 'Abel
ai-Malik.
BUIUOGRAPHY
Kamil ~11l) Nakhlah. KiUI/J Tarikh ",a·J~ddwil
B~!J,ikal al.lskandariyyah al·Oi/'(, Cairo, 1943.
AzIZ S. ATIH
ISAAC, DISCIPLE OF A.POLLO, known to us
only through lhe Apophthegmata Pa/rum. 11 is likely
thai Apollo is the one to whom the HlSTORIA
MONIICHORUM devotes a long nOtiee in Chapter 8
(FeslUgierer, 1971, pp. 46-71). If this idemification
i. correct, Isaac would have been a monk at the
end of the founh century in lhe Thebaid, where he
founded a large communily of monks. The mosl
prominent fealUre of his personality, according to
the apothegm, appears to be his intense lo\'e ror
stillness.
BIBLlOC:;RAPHY
Colelier, J, B., ed. Apaphlhegmata Patram. PG 65.
Festugiere, A. J.. ed. HislOria Mo"ach,,,,,m in Aegyp·
10. Sub.idia Hagiographica 63. Brussels, 1971.
Guy, J. C. "Isaac Ie Thebain." In Dlctionnaire ,I,
JpirilaaUtt, Vol. 7, col. 2006. Paris, 1932-.
RE~E·GEORGES CoQUtN
ISAAC OF QALAMON, Two personages are reo
corded by the name of Isaac and in relalion Wilh
the DAYIt MOB,!, ~M(rll at al·Qalamun. They are per-
haps one and the ",me person. The first calls him·
self priest and ascetic of the monastery in the Life
of Samuel (Alcock, 1983, pp, I, lin,," 4 and.5 [text],
and 74, lines .5 and 6 [trans.]).
The second is revealed by a passage in Ihe recen-
sion of the SYNAMlltON of the Copts from lo""er
Egypt, at 13 Ki)'ahk, which recalls the consecration
of lhe church called that of Misii'jl. This story is
placed in the mouth of an abbot of the monastel)'
of Anba Samuel of aI·Qalamiin, called Isaac.
lf the first can be dated approximately to the first
half of the ninth cenlury, the """ond story olfers the
reader no indication that gives any possible dating.
BIBLlOC:;RAPHY
Alcock, A. The Life of Samuel 0/ Kalamon, by Isaac
the Pr~sbyter, Wanninster, 1983,
RENt-GEORGES CooUlN
ISAAC OF TIPHRE, SAINT, manyr in founh·
century Egypt (feast day: 6 Bashans), Isaac is com-
memoraled in the Coptic Chur"h but is unknown in
lhe tradition of other "hurch,,". His Passion is pre-
sen.'ed in Bohairic in three manuscripts: one in the
Brilish Mu",um (Or. 8799), and two in the Vatican
Library (Coptic 66f. and 69f.).

As faT as can be deduced from the OIyle of the
text, this Passion belong. to Ihe late period (sevenlh
and eighlh centuries) in which the lexts making up
the various cyelLS were compose<!, although it does
not in fact belong to any of these. It was probably
simply composed around a locally venerated name.
The texl opens wilh the anti-Christian edicts of
DlOCl.EI''''', promulgated al Antioch and brought to
Alexandria by Ihe prefect Culcianus, who Ihcn sets
out for the wmh. In Ihe vlllage of Tiphre ([)ifrah),
ncar Panau In the Delta, lives a twenty,five,year",ld
Christian, Isaac. An angel appears to him and ex,
horts him to confess his faith. He therefore presents
himself to Culcianus, who is passing through Ihe
city on his way To Damietta. Culcianus hands him
over 10 the soldier [)ionysius, who Tries 10 pe.... uade
Isaac to sacrifice to Roman deities when Culcianus
comes back to Panau_
On his return, however, Culcianu, ~nds that
Isaac has con.'ened Diony.ius by means of a mira·
c1e, and he kills Dion~'sius, Then Isaac's tonure
begins, after which he is entrusled to the governor
Arianus, who takes him soulh. Here some Chri$-
tians care for him, His trial follows, with the usual
episodes: argument, tonure, visi"ns, miracles, Fi,
nally Isaac is beheaded, At The end of the text, a
certain Christopher is presented as the author,
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BaumeisTer, T, Martyr lnvielUs, D., Miirryrer als
Shmbild der Erlosung In dor Legende und 1m K"tr
der fri<he~ kopti$ch"n Kirclu, pp. 115-16, MUn-
ster, 1972,
Budge, E, A, W, "The Manyrdom of Isaac of Ti-
phre," Transactio~s <J{ the Socl"ry <J{ Biblical Ar·
cheology 9 (1893):74- Ill.
TtTO ORUt.:DJ
ISAIAH OF SCETIS, SAINT, or Isaiah the
Hermit, fifth--cenlury anchorit~~whose spiriTual ad·
vice to other monks greatly inOuenced the Easlern
churches (feasl day: 1\ Abjb): Of all the Is;>.iahs
mentioned in Egyptian monaStic sources of the
fourth and fifth centuries, The most renowned is the
author of the asceTic treatises that had" wide vogue
in Ihe Christian Orient, UnfonunateJy, we do not
find in these treati""s much in the way of autohi<>-
graphical information. We learn merely that Isaiah
had begun his life as a monk in Egypt, probably at
SCETIS. where he was in contact with several per·
sonaliTies mentioned in the APOPHTHEGMAH PATRuM,
ISAIAH OF SCETIS, SAINT 1305
John, Anuh, Pocmen, Paphnutius, Amun, Peter, Lot,
Agathon, Abraham, 5isDeS, Or, and Athraeus, Had
he perhaps been " disciple of Ammoe' and of
Achillas? When he in tum had become an old man,
he was surrounded by numerous disciples, among
whom there stands out one called Peter, who care-
fully collected Isaiah'. teachings to pass Ihem on to
his own disciple•. From EIOPt, where Ill' still was in
431, Isaiah went to live in Palestine and died a
re<:lu"" in a monastery near Gaza on II August 491,
without ever having adhered to the Council of CHAl-
CEllON, Such aT least is the thesis pUT forward in
1899 by G, Kruger and commonly accepTed today,
de.pite the objections put forward b~' R. Draguet,
Isaiah's wrilings occur in section. or chaplers
entitled logo;, the number and order of which great·
ly vary in the different manuscripts and edilion•.
Often, too, Ihe contenT of each logos differs from
one collection 10 another. This is attributable to Ihe
fact that most of the logo; are compilalions of di.pa-
raIl' pieces in which maxims, apothegms, oral ex-
hortations, or letters sent to a disciple Or a group of
monks can be recognized. Logos VI of the Syriac
Asceticon is simply a collection of apothegms that
has sub.equently been used b}' the compiler of the
large alphabetical collection, The probabilily is ,hat
the lsaianic corpus as we now have it was collected
and arranged by Peter aT the end of his masTer's life
or after his death,
Draguet had noted in Isaiah's work numerous
CopTic isms, bUT if scmI' of tile master'. sayings were
made in Coptic, iT is almost cenain that The writ·
ings as an entirety were compiled in Greek, In any
evem, the Coptic Ascetkon we know was cenainly
translaTed from the Greek just as the Syriac Asce·
tkon was,
Closely linked with The apothegmaTic literature
and related to it, I....lah'. work is interesting in the
firsl place for the failhful echo it transmits to us of
the leaching of the great Egyptian monks, but with
a more didaclic and synthetic character, Through
the various recommendations of the old man, we
can con.tandy di$<:ern, like filigree work, the moTif
that inspires them and the fundamentai preoccupa-
lion of the desert anChorile. How is ne,ycnia, Ihat
blissful quietude e..ential for the monk, to be
found and constantly maintained? The struggle
against one's thoughts, reading and medilaTion
from the Scripture., manual labor and austeriTies,
all the observance. and tasks prescribed, are so
regulated and measured out as 10 guarantee to the
recluse the most favorable condition. for the lrue
1306 ISJ:lAO IBN IBRAHIM IBN NASTA.s
fre~dom of Ih~ h~an, liaiah does nol disdain 10
..nit:< inlO Ih~ "",,"I minul" details of ~ .... ryday lif~,
bul n~ilh~r is h~ afnaid 10 ta.. kl~ Ih~ d~q><"M reali·
lin of Ih~ spirilwl lif~. H~ is constantly SIU$Sing
inlerior fr."nel of mind; ~Y~l')'Ihing has 10 \)0, done
"with knowled&<"," that is. ""ilh dilC......",.. nl. with
r""lilude, and with purer>eM of ;nlulion. Humilit)".
th.. prirn~ Yirt~. is me-nlioned birly fnquently. but
rno.., often is indicated b)' its elf«ts. in panicubr
by "counlina on~( as of no r.-putalion" and by
circumscribing one's OWn will. All Ihis ..... already
~.., in th.. lea<:hing of th.. dewn blM"', but .....
find il apin in Isaiah in an originallionn and wilh a
penona.! ;Kcenl that ~eal a bilhful disdpl." who
in hi5 tum has bc<:~ an emln..nl masl", of spirit-
"'il)'. In particular, we admire his discmion &fId
his balanc... wIleth<"r in tho: rebcions betWfttl the
ph)l!i<:a! and 1M spiriwal. or in the re:sptel",e dr-
mands of solituodr and lhe communal life
FInally ....., may nGfe In.. cenlral pb« oJ. Christ ito
asceticiom reprd<"d 1M the faIdlful imiuotion of J...
IlUS in hi> li&:. his Passion, and his dnth. The theme
of the -....c'em of the c.o."-,"",ingt)' Isaiah's
bninchild.. lor bd'ore him ..... find h n(..... here-ls
tied up ",ith Paul's leachl"l on baptism, which
identifies ... with the crucified Christ. .... u ascelki§ln
I~d 10 • libenticn from lhe papion thai in Isaiah
has noth.... of 1"" StoM: aboul ii, lor il is w..pIy lhe
full blO53Oming oflhe life ci lhe Spiri, in Ol>l' ...1>0
lova the Lord Jesus "wllh a ,otaI Jo-,e:'
Isaiah's .........k is the fruil of rich n>edilalion On Ihe
Scriptures with fuquenl reson 10 aIletorical inler-
p........I>ons. In addilion to the predominanl inllu-
ence of ,.... d.....rt bthers. ...., may not" also thai of
EVAGItIIJS. which cannoc he denied IsaWa had a
V"'I inll,..,ncc in allihe churches of lhe Orient. He
had friends amona C"-lce-donians as 1 as non·
C~c~nians. For all ChmtiartS he re ins a mas-
le~ of genuine splriluallty,
.
BIBUOG~l'tIV
....ugou>(inoo Monachos lOf"daniles. TOY OIIOY
JIATI'01: HMnN .... aa.... HIAYOY ;.orOI "6. J....
rusalem, 1911: 2nd d .. Solenos N. Schuln"",
VoIO. 1962.
Chilly, D, J .......bba Isaiah:' T~, Icum,,1 0/ Tlre"logi.
col S",die. 22 {l971):41-72,
DrnKu~l, R. lA., cinq ,e..e".lon. de /'A.al'-""n .y'i·
aqu. d·abba !Jaie, CSCO 289-290. 293-294. Lou·
..ain, 1968.
G~baUl, S" ed, Synualre Irhioplen, PO " p, 310.
Pari., 19(11.
Gu;l]aumont, ..... l.·Axeti..on COpl. d. /,.bW I.aie.
Fragmtnlt 5tJ.hidiqu" Jdili. eI Iraduiu. Sibli,..
Iheque d'E1udes "opIes 5. Cairo, 1956.
"rug,,'. c. "Wer ..... ~ de.- Psaldn-Dion)'Sios:· B)'toIltf-
lini$("he uil>ehn/I 8 (1899):302-305.
R.el.-JIt, L "Isaie dr Sc~tt ou dr Gaza." In D,c_
lionnaiTe d, Spin"'alilJ, Vol. 7, pp. 2OSJ-95, Par·
is, 1932-.
UlCle; REGNAUl.T
ISI:IAQ mN IBRAHbt IBN NASTAS, ....bU
Ya'qr:;b, I.. nth---<elevenlh-anlury physicbln and annd·
son of NAS]:As IIIN IUUYJ. also • ph)-sician. He was
bom in Old Cairo (M~) at an unkno\o.-... <bl...
He emend the ....mee <Jl the falimid caliph aI·
l:.IAJ;.lM BJ..utIO. .wJ.H (966- 1021) and became his per-
sonal ph,..ician aboul 1004.
n,., Mdchil" historian Ya!:>Y* ibn Sa'ld a1·An~l,
in his Appf'n<li>. 10 th.- A......Is of Sa'ld ibn Bi!",!
(<:(""posed befon, th.- ~< 1015 and revtse-d and
completed b,. 1028). informs us that ... hen .... bo Va'·
qilb became the priwle pbysician 10 aI·J:W;Im. ''M
..n'istd him 10 drink wine, lelli"& him of iu benefi·
cial dk:cts. A1-Hllim lislened 10 his advic.., and
lifted th.- ban he had imposed .. QnC'fffti"' ..in.... H..
th.... invite'd a leam of singers and m"';ci_ 10 his
COlIn, and took 10 drinking lI-ID011ll their songs. las-
ing all w.ame in their c:ompany .nd piling r.,,;:.urs
upon them. Thus peop'" ,etumed 10 Ihrir form...
"'''''- of In.ing_ Some time !loICT, the pft)'Sician AbIl
Ya'qub [ibn ~ ibn Ibnahim) ibn NasJls died,
and aJ·Hikim 8"'''' up ..int and imposed a vigorous
ban on drinking i1" (&om the IranslMion by "'ratelt-
.ouI<y, 1932, p_ 480). Aft". this, Y~)'f, ibn S.'id
males an event thai <>crUlTed durina Lent 1001.
1betdore .... bu Ya·qilb probably died around 1006
or al the beginning or 1007, and while aI·l:lnlm
....... S{i11 Ii,int.
Abo Ya·qilb ar>P""l"$ 10 haV<! I.. ft no wrillen
...u.
BIBLIOGRAl'HY
Ibn Abl Usaybi'ah. 'Uyiin al·A"M' tr raboqlJl ol"'!,
ibbil·. ed. A. Milller, pp. 85-89, Kl:Inigsbf'rg, 1884,
M. Midor Ridl. pp. 544. 549. 8eil"\lI. 1%5.
Kralchkovsk}'. I.. and ..... Vasili~", Hiswire de Ya~)'o
Ibn Sa',d d·Ant;oche, cOn/inuateur de Sa'/d Ibn
Bilriq. PO 23. fuse. 3, 1\0, 114, p. 480. Pam, 1932.
Rep~. Turnhom, 1916.
Schachl. I., and M. Mey.~hof. The Mldlco·Philo·
S<lp~icQI Co"'r,,,,~rsy ~Iw.,u Jbn Bullan ,,' 8agh.

dad "nd Ib" JUdwan of CIl",O: A C<>t1lrib~li(", 10
tht His'o.., of G'ed ~Ilmi"g Among lire A,ab.,
pp. 12,38. Cairo, 19J7.
KHAUL S,......Il. SJ.
ISHNIN AL-NASARA. ~e t>ilgrimago.
ISIDH(JRUS (l861-1942), bisllop and abbol ·110
a history of Ib! Coplk church. lsidhiirus .
....rot..
bo... III l:Iom,. S}Tia. inlo a pious ChrUt"n bmily
named "'a·ilm. In 1880 he .. mlarated 10 Alb.alldria
III !he age of thil1eer1 in the COfRp8ny oIa rebt.ivoe'.
Hqu1llel1OS llaiah. who wu the resicknl priesl in
charK" 01 the CopI>c community .t Aleundria.
~r compI~in& his edl,lcalion In !he newly es-
tablished Coptic School in CaIro. hidltilrus was .....
lecled to teach Arabic. CopIIc. and lite rudim~us of
French in Cloiro. At tM _ e 111M, he COfIlinued
the Rudy 01 ad¥anced French with a mon.
ColI~ des Frhe.. In 111I5 he loot mooasric _ ..
from the
from Pope CUlL Y. who KR! him 10 his own formtr
mollaSlery. DoO.n. ~, In WidJ .J·Nalriin.
Thcre Iw: bK......, the pu,pll of the nnm...nl lit~nry
monk 'ABD AlMASll:l $WI Al.-M.W:roI.
Rt:luming 10 Calro in 1W. lsidhl1rus "'"'lIS made
.....,"" III Saini Mark', CalMdral in aJ...AzbUin"ab.
then pricslal Mlr Mini'. chureh II Fum ... aJ.Khlij.
Mnn ...hiIt. ht ~ a dow clisciple 10 boIh
Pope Cyril V and Anbi ~arius, bishop of "'yUI.
He _ pul in chute 01 the relilious properties ~
DAn. "I.-MItA.IolOs and DAn ~'lJARlAO, bul dec....
ed 10 leave tMw worldly obllptlonllo devoIe him·
self 10 .pirih,a1 ~h Ind wriling. TMn he was
nominaled for • bishopric bltl esc.pe<! consecra·
lion. In lhe end. he _ made abbol of DioYJ. AL-
~v1<... wilh Iht rank of bishOJl ...hile headin, Ihc
mo.....ic school .1 Darb aHbrihlml. A$ abboi. he
decided 10 tle","le a number jl{ monks 10 !he ....nk
of archpriw. witho.1I ~I'$ co~ruhing Cyril V. This
placed Itim in an .... kward posllion wilh lite pIltri·
..-ch. who removed him from office. When the Ret-
man Catholic clturo:h offered 10 adopl him, he re·
fused. Uhitnlltely WadI' Sa'ld (laler OaWlld al·
Maq!ri) mediated for Itim with Pope JOHN l(lX, who
gmnled him pardon on 4 Cktober 1941. He died on
19 January 1942.
lsidhl1ru. usc<! all his lime 10 ... rite. He left be·
hind him 3 massive bibliography consisling of two
periodicals, ...hiclt Ite edited for more Ihan forty
years. Ih,...e hi~lorical tales, a number of e~egetic
ISIDQRUS, SAINT 1307
works, and a f..... moralist;e tJ"IC15. Hi. rna;':'r work
remains a drtailed history of Ihe Coplk chun:h in
two .-olumes entitled AI-KJr~nfdah Ill-Naftuh fi
TarikJl .u·f{""i""h {Precious (O<Oms; in lhe Hillory of
Ihe Chun:h).
..wzS.Ann
ISIDORUS. SAINT, or hidore of Arllio<:h. a
martyr under DTcx:u:TlAN (fcasl day: 19 Basham). He
is knov.-n in both the Greek and the Coptic lradi.
tion. bul his legend in .he Coptic lraditlon ~ been
complcldy rdutbished. The lexl 01 the Coptic Pas-
sion is prcscned in Sahidic in a compiCle coda in
the CopIic M.......m in Caim {Munier. 1918. pp.
rn-I90) ..... in fRgmenu from anooher code.>. (Till.
1935; von Lemm, 19B).
The Coptic P'assion clai.... 10 be composed by an
eycwimcss named ~UI. who is named only al
the nwi 01 lhe IUt. The openln& scene is In Ant;"
och. .....t...re Diodetian p .........lpus Ilis &mous edicl
dtmanding ..."Onhip of papn .,xis. The ~r,
Pantalcon. with his wife, Sophia, and his _ , lsi·
doNS, renWns &iIhfuJ 10 Chrisllanily. OOI'iSTAIm"'£.
the future cmptror. takes refucc ....i1h lhcm. At Ihis
poinl Basilidco the &encral and ViclOl", .we chanc·
It... from d,e cycle of Basilidcs, an also named.
The archan,o:el illClUEL appean to bidoow 10
anl1Ol1nC<O his forthcomin, martyrdom....·hich will
lake place after- he ba5 bc= Irllltd and broughl
back to life Ii.... times. Then follows a lenllby de·
scription of the six manyrdoll1$, in which Diode·
lian plays. dirra pan as JOOee. The devil appears
frequently. and there are accounU 01 en!)' I>ve of
miracle being pcrforrncd by the saini and of visions
of In... h and of Jesus.
Al a ccnain point me scene moves 10 Seleuci.
and then 10 Rhodes, bUI from Ihere the saini r...
tu.... to Antioch, where he suffers linal m.rtyrdom,
The las.t part of the text describes lhe end of Diod...
tlan .nd Ihe ..h·em of Constantine. and lhe lransla·
tion of the relic. of Isidonn 10 Consu.nlinople.
The redaclion of Ihis PlUSion lCem, 10 be very
late, even compared to other!! of lhe cycle Iype. In
particular, it pre$Upposes the PlUSion of Pltilolheus,
as ...ell as Ih~ of George and Victor.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BaumeiSler, T. M'lF/y, lnv;C!U$. Du Martyr" "I.
S;""bild dcr Er!bs""g i" du Lttend. ~"d i.., K"'t
der /,j;he" kopti.chm Kin:he. MUnMer, 1972.
1308 ISIDORUS OF PELUSIUM, SAINT
BoHandiani, Socii, e<l. P"ssio Bibliothua Hagin·
graphica Gr"ec". Brussels. 1909: 3rd ed.. 1957, p.
''''
Lemm, O. E. von. Bruchstlicke koplischer Martyrer·
"kren I-IV. Saint Petersburg. 1913.
Munier, H. "us Actes du manyre de Saint Isidore."
BuUeth' d. /'/nsulUl fran~ois d'Archeologie orien-
101.14 (1918):97-190.
Till. W, C. KOplische Hdligen- und MQrryrerlegend·
en, Vol. l. Oriemalis Christiana Analecta 102.
Rome, 1935.
TtTO ORlANDI
ISIDORUS OF PELUSIUM, SAINT, fifth-
century monk. priesl, and scholar, who wrole a
large number "f lellers on church affairs (PC 78),
Truu....onhy documen15 infonning us of the life of
Isidorus are relalively few. SEVERUS Of ANTIOCH. e,·
iled to Egypt from 518 to 520, was led In inquire
there as 10 lhe iclentit), of lhe man from Pelusium
and possessed a letter from an as<:etic thai had the
following comment: "greelings from the venerable
priest lsidorus, an altar of Christ and vessel of the
minislry in the Churches, a lreasury of the Scrip-
lures, the falher of words (writer), a dSlern of "ir-
lUes and a temple of peace" (Contra imp;um
Grammaticum 3. 39, CSCO 102, p. 182). For Sever'
us, who qU<Jtc< <orne <Jf lsioorus' leners, lhe laner
was a priest at Pelusium in lhe time of the bishops
CYRIL 1 of AleAandria, Eusebius <Jf Pelusium, and
Hennogenes of Rhinokorua.
The few references accompanying lhe Christolog·
ical anlh<Jlogie. or Aorilegia that are quoled in lhe
si~th century by Ephraem, !.e<Jnlius <Jf Bj1%3.ntium,
Facundus of Henniana, Pelagius. Rusticus, and
Slephanus Gobar merely indleate mal this priest of
Pelusium (called also "abbas" by Ruslicu~) blamed
Theophilus and Cyril on a~l:0unl of their hostilily
toward JOHN CHRYSO$'TOM. E~AGRIUS
, the Scholastle
(Eccle..;asucal History 1.15); recalls thai IsidonJS,
who was renowned for his ""'etle monastle life and
for his writings, lived in lhe time of THEODOSIUS 11
and Cyril.
The hagiographlea.1 accounls vary perceptibly
among themselves. According 1<J Ihe oldest life,
lsidorus, after being lrained in the Scriptures and
in Greek studies, is said 10 have been a monk al
Nitria and then to ha"e been ordained a priest by
Athanasius, before banishment at the hands of
The<Jphilus and returning to the desen from which
he exhoned his contemporaries by his letters. The
recent Lives often confuse him wilh Isidorus of
Ale""ndria, and would have it that he was an Ori·
geni.t refugee with John Chrysoslom. According 10
the Alexandrian Synaxarion (cseo 78, p. 489) and
the Arable Jacobite Synaxarion (Coptic version: PO
56, p.814), lsidorus of al-Faram~ or Pelusium (feast
day: 10 A.mshlr) was a relati"e of Theophilus and
Cyril; to a"oid becomiag "patriarch" of Ale'aadri",
be Aed as far as Pelusium, where he became a
monk.
Reading the Isidorus C<Jrpus and stud)'ing lhe c"r-
respondence provide us initially with some useful
markers. The oldest are surely a lener to GREGORY Of
NYSSA (no, 125) and, perhaps, another 10 Evagrius
(no, 251). Though he had nol heard ChrysoslOnt, as
ha< been believed, he was an admirer of the laller
and was able 10 tell the story of his tngedy (no
152). He knew Ammonius, bishop of Pelusium, and
condemned lhe e'aetions of his successor, Eusebi·
us, In two "civil" cases, Isidorus called into ques·
lion two iniquitous wrrecWres (governors of the
province of Augustamnica prima, al Pelusium), Cyr-
enius and Giganlius. He aadressed his complaints
10 high imperial functionaries, whose names have
come down in hislOry (F!orentius, Synesios, Isidor-
us, Seleucus), In panicular this was lrue of Rufinus,
prefecl of lhe praelorium al C<Jnslantinople in 431-
432 (to be distinguished from the Rufinus assassi-
naled in 395). Several of Isidorus' leners relate to
preparations for the couselL Of EPIIESUS (431) and
ils aftermalh. Also when we compare lhe names of
the bishops who c<Jrresponded wilh the Pelusiol
and the lists of the bishops who were signalories al
the Council of Ephesus. lhe "Robber" Council of
Ephesus (449), and then the COUNCIL <Jf CHALCEDON
(451), we can see lhat m<Jst of those who wcre
bishops in Augustamnica prima around 431 re-
ceived letters from Isidorus,
On lhese assured foundations, and taking into ac-
count various indications scattered about the corTe-
sp<Jndence, it is possible In relrace Isidorns' iline·
rary (though with a degree <Jf uncenainty). Born
aronnd 355 in the region of Pelusium, his initial
studi.,. were nndergone by hIm in thaI city. He
pursue<! his education al Alexandria, where he was
perhaps togelher with Synesios, a disciple of Hypa-
tia., lhe female phil<Jsopher. Returning to Pelusium,
ISldoTUS pursued lhe profession of master of rheto·
ric and sophistry, Then this eApert in the an of
speech embraced silence by choice, and retired t<J
the desen of Nitria where he investigated scripturc,
drawing on the knowledge of lhe Cappadocian mas-
ters, C<Jming back to Pelusium he was ordained as

a priest (doublleso by Ammonius) and fulfilled doe
dillies of a didQshlo. upoundinll and comment·
in& on lhe sacred tulS. Bill when atOIlnd <I(l8 Eo-
OC'biIiS succ«ded Bishop Am..-.illS. bidorus could
DOl ab;d,o lhe way in wflich !he Word he U .....I _
out of ,ear ...;tb the disotdc.. llw _ .... incrusilll
in I,,", church .. P..JIl$iu...... So on« apin he cboK
I,,", delen IlI'Id wi.hd...-w in.o a monaslery of !he
cenobitic or ~i-anc:horite typr . ..".,., dis&anc:e 10
the e;llSl of !'elusium (ptrltaps __ ApIlnaioo).
from lhat spoI' he wrot<e the majori1y of 1M leners
lhat have come dowIl 10 us; and il "'ZI lhere ....t he
was ~ed by a n"mber of 1m former disciples "'110
wr:re allBCted by h .. eloquence. his knowlcdaot of
...
scripture, and hi$ cxp<ricnce of lite montitic life.
The«. 100, he died at a very old "ie. aboul ·US-
The workJ of lsioolU5 of Pelusium have come
down 10 uS in the fonn of a co!plls of Ienen num-
bering lOme 2.000 ilemo. Sc,'e",o of Antloch COllnt-
cd nearly 3,000 lell"''' dimibuted through $eventl
booQ, bill nOied thai in a .ingle book $Orne leller"
had been copied twice or thrice and Ihe original
numerical order had nO longer been followed. Aftcr
successive edi.ions, it h.,. been possible 10 n:con.t~
tule a numbercd collcction of 2,000 ilems thaI has
e..cry chance of being very old, if not ori,i~l.
It was long thought ...., Isidorus had also COf'll-
posed IItr~ lrI~atisoea. and Ihat !hen: uisud cenain
unpublished IClten. Act.... lly lItese IItmc trca1iK5
co"",ilUte an intcvaJ PM' oflhc COJllUS. n.." arc a
little trealisoe on .... """""islencc of ~iny (no.
9S4). a 'Muise apinst the Giftb (no. 1470). and a
cuJosy of vln... (no. 646), As to !he i1cnu claimed
in the pac 10 haye been unpublisbcd. ICSU show
llw ,.;thcr lhey an: in the corpus or an: nne by
..........
of......
Qucttion. an: oIlm raised on !he authenliclly and
!he Ionn IClten. Many of them lack the
cuslomary introduclions or ~1.... ioJu,; othent are
splil into _raJ. fr8gmell"; Mhf:rs again arc Q\>OU'
tions or paraphrues from classical or patristic
worts. Wt may SUSpecl that some wen: ""hool Cit!'
docs add.rtiicd 10 fiCl'lioul ~espondcnlS. Never-
theless. the consistency 01 lite prosopognophy. both
g~ical and historical. argu<s in bvor of the
aulltenticilY of thCS/! Itlters. All lite correspondents
(and thtlr tilies and occupations) a.... contemporary
wilh lsido...... (!hue art more than 420. amons
whom 104 btlons.o tht aUlhorities, 34 to the 10wn·
ship of PtlllSium. 171 to Ihe church. 64 to !he mo-
IWilic ""ene. and for Ihe most pan they lived in the
region of Peluslum or elsewbere in f.Byptl.
ISIDORUS OF PELUSIUM. SAINT 1309
The gaps or dtfttl$ in the COrpt15 arc cCTUinly
lItril:nnable to those ,,110 compiled il shonly after
the dealh of lite Pdusiol l1lese compilers "'ere
.'Cry probably monks from .... rca:loc> oJ Pdus'um
(!'Cler lite lln'himandrite. and lite monb Nil....
Paul. Orion. Ouintiam.ls. ClC.) wllO around 4-<W-4'iO
e<:IlItclCd the ~knersR of Isldol'\ll and numberN
wm withoul mucb discernment. Very soon this
co.Iltttion. or sdcetions (llorilqia) deri,-cd fnxn il.
spo'ud throughout the Easlcm empire. lbul it " ....
lhal rn.m the 5CCOJId hall of the fifth ccntury lsido-
rian c:uracts ~ in the: fim eol1el:l;oo of ap0-
thegms of Palestinian origin.
Tht cOTn"Spondencc of Isidorus mirrors an era.
1hu monk. who li'-cd in iaobtion from the world.
........ined intef'CS1Cd in a1llhe problem. confronting
the men of his day, As was Iht ,,1Ih of John Chrys--
OSl:om, he bad a ",nst of solidarilY wilh 'hou Ch,;,..
tian. ,,'110 remain<:d "in the world," Hence he in.er-
venes to tlpound and comment and noon. to
encoumse. 10 admonish, 10 censure or 10 Ihreaten.
With an untrammeled frctdom of sptech, here was
one who could condemn Ihe inJulticO$ of governors
or ju~C5 and the euctions of the soldiery. or ur,e
bishops and clerg)l to lead a li~ mon: in accord·
ance with ,he Gospel nr. simply. to be more moDI.
I-lis ..aried upericnce permitted bim both to advise
in matter.! pcnain~ 10 education or to rhtloric.
and to explain wilh pn:c:isIon difficult """,,","*0$ of
""ripllli'C or litur&ical """IQ. and 10 Ihrow lichl on
the narrow way of the ascetic lile. Himself a priest.
he ....minded other memben of lite ck"IY (particu.
brtyaround Pelusium) of tht dulilel of the church's
minmry. and urzcd !he bilhful to r-cspcel the
priest hood
If ,he: rcpulalion of lsidoNs ;, prinurily lhat of a
moralist (doubtless bcalUSc of.he brat number of
len.... addressed 10 a pvup rJ simonlacal and de--
pnt~ dergy-EuscbNs, Zllosimus. Maro. "ian;'"
ia...... o-''''moo. E..asllthill$) toe """ril$ our inler-
til and adrnilalion on othu SCores. For a SUln. dtis
fine rbctorician ..--riles an admirable Gred< (he ""as
later held up as a model alongside Cl£OOIY OF NAZt_
ANZUS. IMStL THE GRaT. and UBANIUS). I-It .... an
excellent uegtle, nourished on Ihe readin, of John
Chrys"'i1om. and ..... const.anlly expoundinl and
commtnlina on !he Old and New TO'lIlaments. mo"
frequently in reply to qutstion. lhal had been
ntised on passage. of a tickll.h nalure, If hi. predi-
lection was for allegorical commen.aries, he ne,'er-
Ihde.. often rested contenl wilb a literal e"plan,,·
tion (his philological knowleclje was a help 10 him
here) lha. hi. correspondtnla could grasp, The ue-
1310 ISIDORUS OF SeETtS, SAINT
aetkal calenae in which his remar'" frequently ap.
pcar indicate the I=>tneu of his rame In this licld.
The numerOUS pi"es of adyice pcruinlnl 10 as·
cetklsm thai tic lavished on his disciples make him
a sou",e of knowledae for a type of ascetic Ii'" in
which inftucnces from EIYJIl and from Cappododa
......rc mingled. The Kmi'anchorilic: EaJp!;;on ten·
dency, in which the role of the I.piritual master is
cons.picuous. is linked wllh a cmobitism of Basili""
type. the ....1" oJ. whi<::h a~ _Il·known (no. 1)-
Sc:ript;ure is nOI just 10 be ··dileueel" and memo>-
rizcd., bul is abo the starlio, poinl lor a Iorm of
conlemplation thai Is lin.bd wilh a '·practicc." 1"01·
Iowinl John OIrysoslom'S a.trice, Wdorus, thouch
Kparatcd from !he world, ~mained a,...ibblc 10 it.
and comributecl by his uample and by h.. inlcn."nl·
lions 10 thc "",ri&cation and cdificalion of !he
church.
In the .alh emtu" the Monoph)'$ites and !he
Chakedonians made nfUin oJ. tho: "Chrislolocic&l"
letten of IsOdoond their own as e,idcnoe Otl Ihcir
belWr (nos. 23, J03. 323, ~S). A... Schmid has
shown w+w inlCfJdalions lhis irlYOh'ed. But was
the PcI<ISio< a theoJoajan? We can Ay )'CI, 10 the
c:ItIenl that in the s t " ' . apinR lhe Arians. £Uno-
miaDs. Sahdli-.- and others he shovo-ed his faith.
fulnrss 10 Nicxa and 10 Achanasi\ls in w br as ho:
defended !he uniry of Chris! and rcjcc;tcd any
change or admi>.ture in thc IncarNllon III the lime
of the Council of Epbew.s (431) and !he Ael of
Union (433). He cenalnly did nOlI We pan in lhe
wlyd"an ~rsy. but a fonnllb fueh lIS "Ihe
di_inily and ..... humanity In Chrisl have become a
single 'protOpOn: a sinale hypostasil:, the objecl of
adoration·' (no. 360) is nOlI wilhoul an inUrnalion of
the Chakitdonian formula.
Lsi<Ioruf, however. Wll$ nol a IheolOSian in the
Ic<:hnical SoefUA!. For him. God Waf nOt 1M ob;cel of
diocoune wt of contemplalion. In ~u~mml inlO
lh.e desen and in mflIjtal~ on $oC~ure bidolllS
the lOphi.. pve up pm" .of rltetone '10 ....t h~
could ent,... inlo the filenee of lhe di~ine Word.
BIBUOGRAP1...,·
Bouvy, E. L A. D~ sanclo Isldoro Fe/us;ola, libri
Ires. Nlmes. 1884.
Evieu •. P. "Isidore d~ P~lwe. II. num~rotalion des
leures danf la tradillon manuSCrile." Revu. d·His·
IO;re dos Te'I.S 5 (1975):45-72.
_ _. "Isidor~ de P~lwe, L"oeUY~ el Ie milieu:·
Doctoral diu. Lyons. 1984.
FOlLSkas, C. M, Sr. {.Ido., of Pe/u,/"", and Ihe N~w
T.Slam.lIl. Athenl, 1%7.
_ $/. Isidore of Pelu,;u",: His Li/~ and H;s
Works. AIMns, 1970.
Niemeyer, H.·A. O./sidori P~I"sHua. v;/". script;. ~I
dOClrlna ,,,,,,,,,,."1"110 AisJt>rica IA.oIogica. PG 78.
PI'- 9-102.
Ilicdingcr, R. P..u<Jo.Kau"rios. Obert;.I.....
schichl. ....d Yerla..."".,.. Byuntlnlsches
"'>'.·
An;...... 12. Munich, 1914.
Schmid, A. Die ChrisiolOfli. Isidors _ P.t..s/u",.
Pandosi> 2_ Fribou... Swil2.et"land. 19'13.
Smilh, M. "An Unpuhliohcd L.ife of Sol. WOOr of
Pelusium:' In &4d,,,ris/eriorr. pp. 429-3S. M~
Ianges A. S. AbisalOl. AthC1l$. 1958.
'1£U.f;. EvIWX
ISIDORUS OF SCETIS, SAINT, ~rtlH::iM·
tury monk and pricsL The a1phabeli<::al coIlCC'tion of
the ~T" ...TUN de¥Oles tWO distincl
cbapcen 10 lsidorw and 10 lsidorul Ih~ priest. bul
apan from 'lOme extn><lS from ISlDOIlUS ~ I'£L.lJ5lt"M
if; apptaI'!I !hat all lh.e it~lI'S relate 10 lIM: Ame
pcnoll.: 1sidorus "!he veal:' priesl of Sc:ctis, of
whom Casoian also speaks in his Cooferencn. A
sUenUOUl ascm and a man of pn~. he was
l:nown for Itil gcnlkness and J:aticnce. From the
ume be became a monk, he nc...-r burR into anger.
and this masler)l of hilnsClf WOO for him an 0 . 1 _
d;....., authority o',er the demons. and al'lO mir;K....
working .,.,.....~ o.w day he reQOred sight to a
blind man. Aboy. all, Ite had the gift of heali",
fOUls. and was successful;n lho: mQfI difficult eases.
WithOUl remission he labored ...ilh all his miJht
because, he Aid, "lhe Son of God has come he~
ror us."
No special lIOIic:e is de1>oled 10 him in lhe SYN.\.X·
IdUOS buI he is dcs<-n"bed .... a pinl in an aJ'Olheam
Wen up in the notice in lhe Alnandrian Synauri·
on devo«'<l 10 Zacharias.
BIBUOGRAPHY
ArTIlf. V.• cd. CoJlecoo MO"ASlie" 14.38. CSCO 238,
p. 118.
Cotelier, J. 8.. M. Apopltlheg"'Ala Pili","'. PG 65.
pp. 219-21. 232-36, 252. Paris. 1864.
LuCI£>l RI!GNAl!LT
ISLAMIC INFLUENCES ON COPTIC
ART, rhe cffects of Islam 011 Coptic an from the
Muslim conquest of Egypl onward. There can he no
absolule appraisal of ouch onc-sidM a"tstlc de"el·
<>pment, for eyer since th~ ~onqucst. Ihere has been
 JSu\MIC
an interaction of Muslim an<l Coptic art, Tech.
niques developed b}' Muslim <'rdfhmen, such as Ius·
ter painting in melallic oxide over glass, were
adopted by Cortic ;>T1ists. and e"entoaJly art objects
"ere manufactured by MllSlilm for a Chris'ian eli.
entele. At .he same time. there were fields in "hich
the COPIS Entditionaily excelled, such as in textile
weaving or w"()()<lcarving. in which they continued
10 produce under Mllslim rule. not only for the
Copts but for the Muslims as ",ell. This situation
created a new term, "Corto-Muslim'" art. according
to P. de Bourguet. This term particularly reflects
the rich artistic Cor'ic rroduction Iypical of Ihe
Fatimid period (tenth-twelfth centuries),
H"",e,'er, Islamic influences on Coptic art can I",
detected even before the tenth century. Both wo<><J·
carvings and ivory provide ""-eral e'amr]es of par·
allels ""tween Coptic art and the contemporary
Fragments of a fre<co with circular motifs. Uma,)"dd
period. COll1tesy M. Rmen.A)'alon.
INFLUENCES ON COPTiC ART J 31 1
Pand from a haykal. Stucco. Dayr aJ-Suryan (Wadi
al-Na\ri'ln)_ T"nth century. COImesy Ihe Muropolitan
Mweum ,,' ArI, New yo,k.
Uma,-yad an, b"'h in sl}'le and in m<>lif,. Inter-d<'-
lion between ,,,riOllS media may be seen in "'me of
Ih~ ~()mmon Coptic textiles, which use geometri<'a]
patterns with intenwlned motifs and recall some
comparable m"tifs in UmaITad mosaics, Detail. of
Muslim fn:scoc. such as thO£e in Qa.r 'Amra or in
the mos;>ics of Khirbat al-Mafjar, both Umayyad
monuments from the eighth eentu'J', c(mld have
influenced frescoes in the monaster)' of Apa Apollo
at &\W11 One painted relid decoration was based
on an o,·e.-all pattern of lozenges made of buds of
Aowe", (Clwat, 1904, pI. 12).
The "e!)' material of the carwd stuCCo dec"",'ion
of [)AVR A~BA .\\,IQAR (Monaste,y of Sain, MacarillS)
and of OAl"R AL-SURYAN (Monasle')' of the Syrians) in
Wadi a]·I\atn:in, attributc'd to 1he years around ""0
900, cell"". the influence of Islamic an. Indeed
CoptiC an has been Intditionally known '" use
stone for carving and architectural decoration,
whereas .mcw is an ('\'idem import from 'he Mus·
lim East, especially Jran and Meoopotam;a, The
style of 'chematiU<:l half-palmette. recalling their
Sa.sanid an~e"o", is in perfeci accordance "'ilh a
somewhat earlier decomtlon of Ihe Abbasid capital
of Samar", of 'he ninth cemu!)',
Doubtless 'he ,,'idest range of interac,ion in Cop-
tic and Muslim an was to be found duting the peak
of the Fatimid period, The ,ypieal Persian a'ch.
poimed and with both ends 'enninated in parallel
1312 ISMA'IL
arms, characrerized both Muslim and Copric archi·
tectur", Woodcarving, abundantly manufacru""d by
both CoptS and Muslims, was very close in styl",
and can sometimes be distinguished only by its
Christian embl"ms, The same can be said for nu-
merous examples of luster POll"')', when a Christ or
other obvious Christian subjoclO distinguish a par·
ticular Coptic piece from Muslim ceramics of the
same period. Glass, mainly luster·painted glass,
which by its fragile natu"" has been preserved in
le....r quantities, displays characteristics similar 10
th05C of pottery, In any of these crafts it is not even
clear whether rhe c",£Ismen were the same, pro-
ducing their wares for both cli~ntel"".
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Bourguet, P. duo Coprie Arl, London, 1971.
Cledat, J. Le Mo~a"i:re ella nicropole de Bow/I.
Memoires publies par les membres de I'lnstitut
fran"ais d'Archeologie orientale 12. Cairo, 1964.
Coche de la Fene, E. "Un Fragment de .'erre copte
et dew< group"" de verrerie mwihale." CaMer
de la dromique el des art. du feu. 5evres, 196L
MVRl~M ROSEN·AYAW'"
ISMA'IL. Su Muhammad 'Ali D)'nasty.
ISNA, the Arabic name of a city in Upper Egypt
that was known in Greek:as Lalopolis and in Coptic
as C/l6 or """ (Sne). The city is situated on the west
rnlllk of the Nile some 30 miles (48 km) southwest
of Lu~or in the provinc" of Qina.
Ism; has a long and rich Christian tradition. E.'en
before the Council of NrC~E.", in 325, Latopolis was
a bishopric under Arnmonius, who had been or-
dained by Patriarch PETER I (300-311) Bishop
Masis .ucceeded Ammonius in 347.
11te SYNAXAR'O'" commemorates a number of
manyTS fro~ Latopoli~ineluding Bishop Amm?~i.
us, on 14 K,yahk and-r9 Tubal:>. Both the Sa.h'dtc
and the Bohairic U.'es Of Saim PACHOMlU5 give Sne
as the binhplace of the famouS father of monko.
The same te",. relate thar Theodorus, the succes.or
of Pac hom ius, was hom of arist<>eratic parents from
Sne/Latopolis.
BIBUOGRAPHY
Am~lineau, E. La Gi:ographie de l'Egyple iJ. l'i:poque
cOP", pp. 171-75, Pari., 1893.
Lefon, L T., ed. S. Paeham;; Vila Bo/rairice Scripla.
cseo 99/100. louvain. 1952.
___. S. P<lchomii Vil"e S"hidice Scrip'''' cseo
89, Louvaill, 1953.
Munier, H, Recueil des Ii.,... episcopale. de /'i:glis<
copte. Cairo, 1943,
Timm, S. Das chrisllic/r·!wpl;."he Agyplen in ara·
bisehu Zeit pt. 3, pp, 1181-93. Wiesbadell, 1985.
RAND~U. SnWHT
ISTlFHA.M BA'D AL_ISTIBHAM, AL-, an
anonymous worl: who.se title could be lranslated as
"Book of Asking Ouestions after Being in Doubt." It
was wriUen by a Coptic Catholic layman in 177i,
although A. Mingana and G. Graf speal: of 1772. The
author wishes to demonstrate the falsity of rhe be-
lief of rhe Coptic Onhodox called Jacobites, espe-
cially as concerns Christology. He say. of him.elf
that the book i. by "a Coptic la}'man, attached 10
tlte holy Onhodox Catholic faith, addressed to every
lay Coptic brother attached to Ihe recent Jacobire
belief."
The work is extensive, containing twenty cltapteTS
and a conclusion, The fiTSr chapter deal. with the
Unity alld Trinity of God. The others a", not illdi·
uted in the catalogs, with the nception of tlte last,
which is enritled "Tlte Reasoll Why lite Apostolic
see of Rom. Has Sent Missiollaries to Thi. Copric
Community and to Ollter Communities." The con·
elusioll i. imended to summarize the foregoing
cltapters and to give some advice to pennit tlte
reader to rellJrn to the truth so as to attain etemal
.alvation.
At least three maouscripts of tlte worl< are ""tant,
two at Binningham (Selly Oak Colleges, Ming"na
Chrislian Arabic 32 [Catalog 69), A.M. 1534/~.H,
1233/June 181., on commission from the priest
Bu!IU-S, son of the priest lslt~q Ibsltay al·Raqi! [sic],
122 loIs., the first being lost; and Mingana Cltristiall
Arabic 33 [Catalog 70), c. 1850, 89 lois.) and at
Faytnln (Dayr Mar !?Umil, no. 46 [llo date], 222
pp-l·
After "J.Jsrifam ba'd <l1·lsl/blla"" the Faytnln man·
uscript contain. two que.tion. pur to the author to
which he replies. Ullfonunate1y nothing is known of
the answers, Tltese treatises were not mentioned by
Graf ;n his brief description.
The first query was posed by the pari.h priest
Mas'ad of Mi~r al-Qriliiralt (sic) on 2 January 1783;
it is a seri"" of questions on sin., This is quile
certainly lhe Greek Onhodox parish priest Mas'ad
Nusltu', born in Damascus but living in Cairo. (Note
that this Iormula Mi~r al.()riliirah is found several
times in Itis writings.) Tltis author's specialiry was
refuting the Larin$; thus he wrote a ",futation of the
infallibility of Ihe Roman pope in 1740 (Gral, 1951,

!'P. 140-41), of U"~'"el'1ed bread in 1747 (C.... p.r.
141."0. 2)•• ntl uf •.", Council of Florence (p. 14).
no. 6). ~ esp..·cially his little polemics. ollen in
the form of I.. ,,<"f'$. containnl in two ll'WIuscripu
(Coplic: Patria,d'ale. Cai..... Theology 119; CraI". nO.
619; Simaybh. no. 464; and Binninp,n Minp~
Ch....ian Anobic )8 (Catalog 50]).
1\0'0 other quQtions "..ere put 10 him in C.iTO In
1183 by lhe famouJ tn.lH1M Al.-J.\W>U~ (<I. 31 "'ay
1195; d. Gnlf IV. p. 136. no. 10) on faith.
These ~ion~ and aJ"IS'o'o'elll show WI the au-
thor ollhi5 work _ in Cairo a' the be&innin, of
amon,
1783 and !hat he ..... well Jr.no""... the Coptic:
Onhoclox and lhe Grttk Orthodox circles of his
ti~.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
An!Qni)'lls Shib1!. ··lawlah fI Kisntw;i.n··; "Jnyr ""r
QUmi! faytriln:· AI·Masltriq 26 (1928):4511-59.
1>44-49.917-22; 21 (1929):192_95.
Minsana, A. CaIGIOf'" of lite Mingoana C"lIectio" of
Mo"",criplJ, Vol. 2. p. 98 (nos. 69-10). Cam'
bridge. 1936.
KHAUl $It."M. SJ.
ITFll:I. a dly on .he easl bank ol.ne Nile SOme 2S
mi\.es (40 km) northeast of B.\.'l!suF.F. In Creo:k. I!~
IZBAWIYYAH. AL· 1313
was k........n as AphrodilOpolis or Aphrod.ilo, and in
Coplic as noJrn&t or 11Il'Tft4iI.
In JJ9 .nu.."lASIIIS .«orded in his ninet~lh pa$-
chal let•.,.. 10 Senpion WI Serenus was the 5UCC..,..
I « ol Theodorus as bishop of AphrodilOn, indicu·
in, that the city ...... a bishopric by Ihe lint third of
tM founh ornlW'y at the Wnt.
ilIO $oUlI;l THE .....UIl-V< (.",~lhh-lhin«nth centu·
ry) "'J'Ole that m~ wen: more than.went)' church-
es in and aJ'OWId Itfil!., bu. only .en d them ",~re
_ill inlaCl. Amon,!hese ch~ba ..<ere a church <Ii
.he DUciples in the districl of B;ol(ljalt, a chutth <Ii
Merr:urilll, "'00 churches of.he Virsin Mary. one <Ii
.he many.- Tbe0d0m5. One of Co5tnas. one of AI'"'
Jut and 1\0'0 Menas churches. One 01 ,,·hleh was
callccl.hc. Church of the Column. Under lhe rubric
1!f1I:i, AbQ !;>ilih abo menlioos • monas!el)' of !he
Mule, which he ....)'5 was the home of many monks.
Su "Iso.- Da)T a1-o~nyya.h.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Amelineau, E. La Giolr"phi, d, /'Egypl /I /'~poq"e
copl<. p. 326, Paris, 189$.
Tlmm. $. Vas cltriJlliclr·kopl;Jclr, AOPI," in GrG-
mselr,. Z,II. pl. I, pp. 2S7~6S. Wiesb.den. 1984.
!l.At!I)AU SnWAkT
IZBAWIYYAH, AL-. Su I"ilgnmaga.
JABAL 'ADDA, a hilllop fonre;s in Lower Nubia,
~r.". 1M riWT and aliahtl, upslrellm from the (a.
mollS temple of Abu Simbtl. Il wu. alone ""im ~
tBRIM and fARM, Qf1r of ,I><. til,.,.,., mCl4t important
admini<lrative crnters in Lower Nubia in the med-
Ieval period.
Be<:ause only limited .""avalion was do..., in the
fort~ of Jabal 'Al!<b prior 10 its fk>oding by d>t
.....,,1'$ of ~ N_r. many detait. of ilS h,..ory
are ~uu. The original foni/i""uions may lb.e
from the P'tolemaic • . lI$ do lhoo similar fortilia..
tiom of ~ !brim. Al II slightly bIer dale. Jabal
'Addl became a major admiftismoliw! center ill
Meroilk tirt>f$; it appnn in Mn-oitic IUI$ undn-
the _ Ad<>.. The place may ha,'t' ..,IFe«<! .. Inn-
ponory eo.lip>c under the post.MeroitH: klncoom of
NO'AlL\. bullhe large cemetery found nearby ih.......
thlt il continued 10 be o<:<:upied.
'abal 'Addi i, "amI!<! by IBN SAUM Al.-ASWANt a.
one (Of the thr"" main lowns in LoW\"r NubIa at the
end of the temh "emury. h is not idemlfied by him
or by any olher Al1Ib author "" an epl.s<:opal sec.
but the main Jabal 'Adda chu~ch _ una ...., far
Ial'C't'r !han most OIhen in ~ Nubia. The...,
_11: .100 at lease three other c'hurchel in lhe im-
~iale vicinuy.
Jabool 'Ad<!i eridenlly attained its a~alnl impor-
~ce in .he laIc medieval pciod. when iu fonif>c,d
hilllOp K'tIing _umcd • new smllcgic silnl6cance_
The plaet: .. menlioned rq>eIledly by ABb chroni·
clers afler the 1,,~lflh cenlliry, us.... ly undtr me
name Qa"'W (sec OOU""O). From th.,,, sourcu we
learn lhat the eparch of Nob"lia, or "Lord of Ihe
Mounl.in,"' had his main hca<!quaners al !;laww in
Ihe Ihinee,,'h and founeenth cenluries. lhough his
name is associaled also wilh ~r IbT1m and wilh
ME/oI.U.TI. The lonN$5 was lempo..."ly seUed by
1315
Mamluk invaders in 1215; in IM>S!he ",len of Ihc
crumblina Nubiall killgdom of M.W:)IIJRIA .lIemplcd
10 euabli,h their "","II cap;tallhere_ Afler 1M break-
up or Makoutia, Jabal 'Addt evidendy 1>«.".., lhe
ce,,'er of Ih. splinter klnldom of DoIawo, to which
it gave ilS name. Here a Christian monarchy sur-
vived for anolher cenlul)' "r more. ~nally d;,ap-
pca,;nl ncar Ihe elld of lhe ~flttnch cenlury.
....'heD Ihe Onomanf annu.cd Nubia In Ihe Pa-
I"nth eeDIU!J', a IUNlIl prris<>11 Iorce was IUlli<lned
011 Jabal 'A.ddIi. Apparendy it occupied Jabal 'Add;J
unlll ~ Ii..... in the el&hlC1Cnth «nlul)'. n.erc
is
.., indicaI;.,., as 10 cuedy when .,.- "'by lhe sctok-
I!1C"fII was finally abandoned, ....1 it _ evidently
before !he ,'isll 01 J. L 8w'ckhanh ill Ig13.
BIIlUOGRAPHY
A~s, W. Y. NUMII.. CorridO" 10 Africll., pp, 350-55,
400-401. 494, 534-35. Princeton, N.J .. 1977.
Millet, N. B. '"Momlli.. Nubia."' Doctoral dissetU·
liQn, Dep.nmenl of HislOry, Yale Universily,
195•.
Mom'ere! de Villard. U. L4 Nubill. midioewtle, vol-
I. pp. 116-111. Cairo, HIlS.
V"'lin~ G. Clltiwm/1 i.. 1M Sud...., pp, 194-200.
BoIo&na, 1981.
JABAL BISHWAW. SC1C Dayr Mlr ~ur
tOamulah).
1ABAL KHASHM AL-Qu'OD, mountainous
,ile a\>oul 20 miles 10 the wesl or Ih~ W6d! aJ·
N;>.!Nn, lhal is 10 ~y. from the sally lake farlhesl 10
lhe Well. cxcavale<! in 1912 by Prince OWAa TO!.$-
1316 JABAL OUSOAM
SOUN. who Interpreted It as beinSI"" I(~UJA (Ornar
TOUMOIJn, 1933, pp, 106-7: lind .bo~e all b" publi·
~.Iion (;.. lIi.. ., s... eouum., 1935).
But H. tV£UN.WNtT'2', sludy Th. JoWn"p..tI.s 0/
lit.. W"df 'n H.. " .. n (;.oo"e an Vol. 2, the bistory 01
the monast.. ries) was 10 show thai th" idenlificalion
WM i""ornet. E""Iyn·..... hile's demonstration was
adopt..d by all. BUI ,,·hat could lhe hennitage$ dis-
,ov.red by Omar Towsoun be?
It has becn ~ to s« here the site called
"Pdra~ in SC'VCnol a""lhqms, ...... ich would <:orTC-
spond well enOU&b wilh the sil", ror the ll9O'hegms
speak ola pit ol Pelra (Rqnauh. 1911, SOsoes, no-
33. p. 292). this i......rprelalion appnn w be foI·
__ed by L Regnaull In the map rhal he gives of
the ITIoOO\llStic: sita (1976. p. 31t).
A. de CosIon (1935) also ,".,_.....,.,." 10 ..ee in it
PclnI or !he 8ijlj. of which dil&rcnl Inlll speak
...i1h rcpnIlO sans (1935, pp. 144-4S).
One miaht aOO identify Ihls place "";!h !he Phe....
me ........tio.-l by P.wADIUS (Hmcm. ......ioo<: ••
<:hap. 20). Ment;on of this tit. will also be found ill
the Gr=k hh.toriall 5Ol.OIoltN (H~ ..ceksUluic...
6.29) and also lhe late'!" hisclorian Nkephorus Callis-
tus (HiJlorilr ecduj"w" 2.36). One "ill KC Ibis
idrnti6altion with Phenne proposed in D. G. Chitl)'
(1966. p. 61).
The.site ~ould abo be the C.lamus olwhkh John
(:M$WI speaks, as F. IlIOC/olA$ has ",gelled (1968,
pp. 407-408).
1lS8UOCRAPHY
Chitly. O. J. Th. IH~,'" Ciry. London, 1%6.
CosIon. A. de. fd",lOOs. LonOon. 1935.
Daurnas. f. "foul1les et tra\'1U~ de l'IfAG duran.
l'armk 1967- 1'}68:' (;omptcs ,.."dll. d•• ';"nL:es
de rA.ciUll",~ du il.turiplton. el beltts lell""
(1968):397 -403.
E""lyn·White. H. Th. N.o~".terU, of lite W.di ....
HAtn.... Vol. 2. N...., -fork. 1932.
Omar TOOJssoun. "'tine' e.~ilion de reconnai..
sance dans I.. dber1 libyque."' Chro~ique d·Egypt.
15 (193)):106-107,
_ . Cd/i" .t .... 0011"..111•• Mbnoil"CS de la So-
dJ:IJ: d'ArchwlO(lle d'Ale~andrie 7/1. Aleundria,
1935.
s
Rellnault, L. L.. S.~tella. dOl ~,e. au
dhe't. Tro;-
si,,,,..
,"~II.i1. Sole,mes, 1976.
_ _, Les Sentenc ..l dOl p,.. .
d.. d...rI. Nouveau
,u"oil. Solesmco. 1977.
_ _ L.. S'~IC"C.' de. pt'es du dhen. Col/u·
t;Oll alphabhlqllc, Solesmcl, 1981.
R£N£.(jEORc.ES COOUIN
M~u"lC£ M~R!lN. S.J.
JABAL QusQAM. S ... Pilgrlmagcs,
JABAL AL.SILSILAH (n>OlInlaln of Ihe ~lIain.
so called because 1~ Nile at Ihis pla~e presenls •
narrow defile and was fonnally closed. it is said. by
a ~hain), me of lhe ruino of a CoptiC monaslery. "
Roman and Chrislian ~emcl'ry is shualed belween
the ruins of the Coptic: monaslCry and !he village of
firio. Greek Chrislian p;tffili in the tombs and
quani... of the: Jabal al-8i1silah perhaps belray lhoe
presence of hcruoits who found rcfua'e there.
n.csc ~mainJ of Christian o«uplItion ..ere
poinled OOJI lIS early as BonaparIC'S campeian by M.
M. Chabrol and E. f. Jomard. T""O ~huoIOl'""
have upiornllhe site: f. L Griffuh (1889, pp. 93-
95) ond A- H. Sa)« (1907. p. 99). G. Lefebi.'re has
published a Gr«k inscripcion from a lOmb (1907. p,
102, no- 560). O. Mcinardus mnlliono In- ruins
.nd !he Chris.tian t~ (l96S. p. 327: 2nd ed.
I9n. p. 442).
Unforlunaltly ....., do "'" know the pl'imili\'t
name of th.. n>c>nM>e,..,. of ....t.ich 110 ancient iiie'!"'
a'Y lal spnh
BIBUOGltAnfY
Chabrnl. M. M. dr, and E. f. Jomard. ~Dac:ription
d'Ombos ... do- ses enriT'Ons.·· In lA ~riPljo,t
de rEgypte. Vol. I, pp. 2601f. hris. 1821
Grilfuh, f. L "NOll'S 011 a Tour in Upper f&)'P':'
Proceedin&, 01 lite Sode/)' 0/ 8ibliedlllf'ClrdeoiOV
12 (1889):93-95.
l1R:bvre, G. fUc".. i/ des m>Criprions ('....qu....
eltRtienllc, d'Egyplc_ Cairo. 1907.
Meinardus, O. Clrri>tuln EO'Pf: A."~i",,, ."d Model'll,
Cairo. 1965; 2nd ed. 1977.
Sa)"". A. H. "Exca~·",iOlU at Gebel $tlsil.:· 1I"....lts
au Se"""., des IInliqMilu d.. j'EDP'e 8 (1907):97-
U".
Ra<£.(jEOllGES COO!JIN
M......ICl! MAans, SJ.
JABAL TAFNls. The hennlutllel of Ihe Jabal
Tafnio, a mOOJntain chain thaI owes its name It> th.
fael Ihot il is on the 1,IilUde of Tabenn!!!, in the
v"Hev of Ihe Nile, are about 5 miles (8 km) nonh.
east ~of Shams al·Oln, almo.t at the summ;, of lhe
rocky plateau. Al Ihe oil" are some small ~avcs,
which serv.d as CellI. and" opring. There are some
drawings (sla" of David. candleltlckt). and some
red graff,ti among which we may recO(lnlze tbe
names IUCHt......,...oc I1l"8CI, i¢t!ph paulos presho
!he inilials lC xc. is ~ho, and Ihe sequen~e .... .,..o.oc

_.....,.,.: ...CTf............,.....,. ~\o$
th<:6d6los pes,-
lradtI/d~ ,,-hkh mllSl boe "ndel'Slood as "$t. Paul.
Theodore the commander."
Guv W~GNE~
JABAL AL-TARIF (Nag Hammadl). mounbiroous
on I"" niht bank of lhe: Nile. being Ihe to",n
I1Ia$iI
of Nag Hammadi on lhe oppos.ilf bank and fomtinc
put of !he Ar.abU.n chain. J( is pieltotd by Clvtll and
ancienl lombs 1hM wen: occupied by hermiu and
still ~ Incf5 of them. Thbf loa\'" been Clore-
fully noted by P. Bucher (1931. pp- 157-60).
The search for the prec$e place ",here !he fa·
mous Nag Hammatli Coplic papyri ............. found has
Me" lhe C'1l$f l)f $Orne archuoloi;C.1 prospe.::t1ng
In Ihe region. Coins have been found lhal sho'" Ihal
...
lhe sil'" ""re occupied in the lifth and .iath centu ..
Il.lIIUOGRAl'tly
B\lcher. P. "I..e$ commenccmenlS de5 Psaumcs U •
XCIII.: inscription d'une lomhe de Ka>:r es-Sai.
jid" Kemi 4 (1931);157-60.
El<krtn. 8. 'lOn. ''T1te NaB H.rn"",di Eaca\·uion."
Bibl;,;~1 Archcoioo' 42 (1919):225-31.
Goehring, J. E. "Byzantine Coins from Ihe Jab.l
al·Tarif in lIl'J'fr Egypl." BulleU" de I~ Socitrl
d'~r<:h~olo&;e cople 26 (1984):31-40.
I..«I.nt. J. "foom... et tnavaUi en Egypte et au
Soudan:' Orie",,,/j,, 46 (1977):233-99; 47 (1978):
266-320: 43 (1979):340-412.
Robtnson, J. M. ''T1te F""D'$I Sn$on of lhc Nat Ham-
madi uca\-aUon. 27 Nowmber-19 December
1975.~ GOI:Iin~T Min !2 (1916): 11~19; ~ also:
American Researc-h Cftller in !:gypl. Ne""SlerteT
% (1976):18"H; and 99/100 (1977):36-54.
___ "From CJilf to Cairo. SIOI)' of the Discover·
ers and the Mlddl"men of the Nag Hammadi Co-
dices." BibliOIHque de N~k H~",,,,~di. pp. 11 -58.
Etud". l. Outbt:c and Lou,'al\" 1981-
_ _ ''The Discovering and """k"linS of CoptLo;
Manuscripts: The Nag Hamrmdi Codie~ and lhe
Bodmer Papyri." In Tlte Roots of EKJ'p1i,,~ Chroli·
."ily. pp. 2-15. cd. B. A. Peanon and J. E.
Goc:hrine- f'hiladelJlhia. 19&6.
Robinson, J. M., and B. ,..., Ekkrcn. '"The Second
Season of 1M Nag Hammadi [,.<:IO,..tion. 22 No-
'..,mbcr-29 December 1916:' GlHtin~~ Mist. 24
(1911):57-13.
RE.N£.GOOlGES COWtN
MAUIlIC£ MAI<T'''. S.J.
JABAL AL-TAYR (Kharph). A f...... miles to
the nonh. of the c"",...ery of fbpwil 00. the ~I
JABAL AL·TAYR 1317
of • Sleep path clambering up the musif of Ibe
Jabal aI·layr.' wiler u........ !he rock opens eJliplj·
cally. lIS .,nu'Wlee facing """lb. The ea,.., Il3lTOWll
to. deplh of 13 to 16 f.... t (4 or 3 m). Its ceiling
fonns a cornel in, above a t"rraCe of small S1ones,
which overhan,s Ihe bed of th" "adi (valley). This
is a choice place for Ih" abode of an aDeMrite.
In addili"" 10 some siVU"u~ of Weslem Inl~el.
.".. in !he nineteenth c....tury. as well as -SOme rudi-
mentary paintinp and wvrral inscribetl Cl'<IOISCS. tM
sides .nd pr<ljeclinc ledges of the then.... arc COY-
ered W;lh Coptic graffiti. ~Icd or incised. rough
or .......1 finished. There arc at leaSt lwenly tats.
ranJini from sianatures to elaborate invocalions.
all legibl" sine" th~y aT" "",II shaded. Some thaI
ope" to the e~lerior hav" suffered from th" weather
and Ihe sunshine. which have eaten away the painl'
"d Iellen.
W, 0.. Bock (1901) ,;sited the ";t., and published
.orne scraps of 1....11 (Sf<' !he rq>I!1ilion of Ihc2 in
Mallon, 1914. col 1864). Fakhry (l951) published
the majcrily of them. His rcadinp arc ope-n 10
nnendation and i"'J>'"O"CT1l....,. ElIcepI for a brief
plOinled gnolIilO in Fl1)'Umic (Roquet. 1976. P. 43).
these sMrt U,Kb. allow;n8 for the inevitable mis·
takes of tM wrllen. are in Sahidic. An inscript;on
of ilKleen line._a lltanic prayer of a known Iype
",ilh minor ...riams-iho"" careful workman~hip.
From one Ii"" 10 the nut, bro"TI Ink ahemal,,"
w;th yellow. I" add ilion. tile em",n(., 10 lhe wes!'
ern ,ide of !he ~ller .............. .n it>5Cription of
....·et"" ""I)' faded lines painled. in rcd. n... only
ceruln line to !he first, ",hOd> bqim ",;u, HKlta
......onoc (Memo episcopos). Another painled in·
Kriplion. flanked by an in""n"bed CI'OloS. mentions
.he o;osis. Fill,., does not nOl" " ' - two imcrip'
l;onl. Th., m<)Sl significant g",ffilo was pIlint"'" 0..1
"" such by H. E. Winlock. Datable be1w...." 7J4 and
88). I~e inscription aue'I< Ihe presence of a
"1~sh'1I1. [magislrale, official] of Hibis," a person·
age "'110 also oigned 110'0 grallili at &Pw.lol.
BI.UOC....PHy
Bock. W. de. M"'~ ........poou >ernr iI r"rcloiolog>e
de I'Ec1"e "Ior/tienn•. Saint Pelfrsburg. 1901.
Fakhry. A. ''Th" Rock Inscriptions of Gahal "'·Tei.-
at Kha'P Oasi.:· A"""I... d.. Suviu de. ~"n··
quirl. de I'Evpl., 51 (1951):401.4)4.
Mallon, A. "Copte (tpiiraphi,,)." In Dktionnaire
d'au:httJIogie chrirl., ....., el d. 1t'1IITgic, Vol. J, pI.
2, cola. 2819-86. Paris. 1914.
RDqud. G. .. l.t:s If'*IIit... copt,," de. Baga"""l (Oasis
de Kharp)." BNlle1in d. iii Sociil~ fU1l1t;ai>e
d·ic,.,~ 76 (1916):25-49.
 1318 JABAL AL-TAYR
Winlock, H. E. The Temple of Hibis j .. Ella,,,rz~"
o.S;I. New York. 1941-
JABAL AI.,.TAYR ($.amillil). !k~ Pilgrimages.
JABLONSKI, PAUL ERNST (lb9}-17S1).
German InMop;u. :and OriftlUli$t. He s,udied at
,he Unlv~rsily
ued his sludie!l
of F.....kfun...n-<Ie....o..kr. H~ conlin·
a,
Berlin. where he leame<l CoplK
under Ihe supt'rvision of ...... emu. During his 'rav",1s
l'rom 1711 '0 1120. he copifil Coptic manUKripts at
hris. Uid",". and Odtwd. which he pve '0 ......
emu. In 1111 he bec..me profu.•or of IheolO8)" al
lhe Univ~rsily of Frankfun...n-der-Qder; laler he
was choun rrH:mber of Ih", Berlin Academy of Sd·
~m::es. ~ide. his publishe<! slUdies, he left unpub-
lished sludies lhat were issue<! po$lhumously by W.
Ie Waler: P",,/.- Em"sti Jablonskii Opuscula Quibu.
Lingua "'I ilmiqulta. ilegyprio",,,,. Difljcilia Llbro''''n
Sacrorum lAxa "I m.roriae Ecclesiastica", Capila
JII"slrrmt"r EJidil alque AIlim"dve.sio"",s Adieeir
JOlla Guilielm". T, Waler (4 vols., Ll:'lden. 1804-
1813).
BIBUOGaAPHY
Helderman, J. "Jablonski en Te Wale.., T..~e Kopt·
olo&en uit de lijd van de V ....lic:hlin,. - 1'JIr;"""i:<
JoO (IW):S4---62.
Qu.alremhe, E. Ihderches eritiquu CI IIis10riques
SOU 14 l_npe tI '" lilloalUTe de rEm"". pp. &2.
IIs-n. I"aris. IlIll8.
JACOB, SAINT, 6f1!.... h pawrch of ,he Sel: cL
Saint Mart (1I19-UO).~ (V..'qoib) is known to
hue been .. monk of 1hf: monwel)' of Sain, r.taca.·
Ius (DlOYlt AliDA .....oAlt) at a lime "'hen Ihe bedouins
from ,he Western I>es1m rak\ed wAul tUala and
pillased lu monasteries and destroyed many of II<
dureh«. Tb... occurred during ,he ~l\er ""rt uf
lhe reign of MIln II. his predecessor. Apparenlly
Jacob fled to the ""curily of Ihe distant monanerles
of Upper ElIYPl. where he remai...,d until Ihe n,a,
",uding bedouin. left W~I HabIb. SO rhat be w;lS
able to retu,n '0 hi. old abode in Wid! al·!'laINO.
Evidently he w;lS known 10 Mark II durlng their
Slay in Ihe Monastery of Salm Macarlus. Jacob's
OlInctily was wdl known 10 him, and on his d~alh·
bed he menlioned Jacob's name '0 rhe bishops
pJ\"£Cnl as a nhy JUCCCSloOf"'o the throne of Sain.
Mark. 111m hen Mart died.•h", bishops imrnedi-
alely ..-en! 10 WJ<l:1 Habib and brought back .....,h
lhem 1"'" monk Jacob lOr consccnllon.
Jacob "''as .. contemporary of the ra........ Abbasid
c::oliph a1-M.a·...... n (1I13-IIB) al a lime .. hen war
betv>-een the Andalusians and !he ......khmids ...... S1ill
"""'putl round Ale...ndria. Tbe c::oliph appoinle<!
one of his gmenl$ II!I JO'l'mor of Ff,)'J'I. 'Ab<bllah
ibn 1:lhir. who in tum nomlnaled II),*" ibn Yarld II!I
his. deputy in Alaandria....·hh lhe mission '0p...''''''
!he patriarch for .... ,.......,tof the annual IOtARAl ",-",
Bu' lhe pa.._reh was impecunious bo:<:......... of.he
<:\eY3sIJdion thaI had befall"", AI"",,"ndna II!I Ihe ....-
51111 of .he ~gh.lnl In ,he elty. and he had '0 pro-
duce ..n ..,... llable SKnmtntal ulensils of gold and
silver as a suMli,ute in kind for the requested c:r.:sh.
In this difficulty. he was supported by a rich archon
named Maqlrah (Macarius) al·Naboor;l.w1. Maqlrah
is said to have gone 10 lhe caliph 10 "l'P""al fo. the
...dief of the beleaguered parriarch. who was on a
visilation tour in Upper Egypt. If we belie"e the HIS.
TORY OF THE PATRrARCHS. Maqlrah did not r~ltlrn
empty-handed, for ,he caliph graoted him his wi.h-
es. But it i. more reasonable 10 im"''l'rel the patri-
archal ,'i$it '0 Uppcr Ea:YP' as a means of r;tising
funds to mee, his liabili,ies. In fac•• lhe His/ory
provides us wi,h ttoOChing COnUde on me .,....,ms
,hal ,ook place in Jacob's 'imes. beyond the lISU.ll
tail'S of healing lhoe siclc and raising .he d}.. ng_
SUM' V, lABtB
JACOB BARADAEUS (c. s00-S7I1l. the apostle
of Monoph},ite Christianity in lhe church of Anti-
och <_ fIOOIIOftlY$lT1SIoII). Throuah his dJons to pt'C-
sen"" the Antiod>ene church from pe~m be is
........,. II!I the found« of lhe Syrian Orthodon
ehurch. or Jacobite church. whicb rcganls him U:l
saint..
Jacob Baradaeus ...... bom in the village of
Gama.."i nonh of Telli (Constanti....). in ,he upper
reaches of ,he EuphT'll\C$. He took holy orders a,
1M: Monastery of Phasihh1 (Ihe Quarry) on MOlln!
Ir.ala ..nd received his reliaious education al lhe
nearby college of Nisibis. where he resi<led For
aboul fifteen years. Jacob was '" rigorous ascetic
who chose 10 live in dire poveny and dressed him-
self in a mule'S saddle, from whi~h he earned lhe
tille Harada."" (Arabic al-Band'l. "saddle man").
He was con""ct<ltcd bishop of &lessa in S42. Aflcr-
ward he weill 10 ConSlantinople with a monk
named Se.gi..... whom lie later consccr;tte<l as palri-
arch of -'mioch. l"O"lbly In S4}.

Al the rime of 181:00', ~rr"'lp;ula: inlO pmm~
nenee. the Monophysile churches,. especially in An-
tioch. ~ brine peneo;w<:d by the arm~ of the
B)urol''''' emp"w JllST1NIAN, "'ito aimed at eccles;'
til;e.l as ""'ell .... political unity. Under his heavy
hand. lhe church of Antioch W3.li near colllJ'!<'. and
;,. salvation was l.rat1y due to the "lfuru of Jacob.
He 5<'cmo '0 h;,,-e bun dandcstine1y supponcd by
Justinian', empress. THtoOOll, who ""ali said to
have been the daughter of a Syrian priest .nd who
had concr:aled ~njnp toward the chu~h of ht:T
bmhpboce. J.,ob's untirina: and continuous ..... ,',,1$
through Syria dodPnl his imperial punucrs. IOnify-
Ina his Rock. and confirm'o. them in dw: Monophy-
silc profeWon saved !he church. whkh uhimatcly
bon: his name .. Ihe Jacobi,.. church. He tried 10
,,~ ;, in Ii"" "';1lI ilS sisler church of A1nandria.
la«>b's life as a Ilru1 sainI in an ;meien. chu.-ch
was "'.... ppoed in apocryphal r.aJe,,; of his ......nd
lndef'lipble u~vcls, mainly on fool. in SyrIa. A,..
meni•. c.ppadocia, Cillda. ISiluria. Pamphyli•. Lyc·
aonia, Lycia, Ph!)'gi., Cairo. Asia, and the "island.
of the ""a" (Cypru$. Rhode•• Chlo$. and MytHene
[l..esbos). Thew were In addllion to the capit.al eil.
Ie5 01 COIt5Uonlinople and Ale>:aodria. as well lIS the
....'hole of MC5OpOlamia. Anlbia. Persia. Sinal. and
EcYJM-ali insuumcntal in the sunival of Monoplt-
)'$lle Anliochn>e Christianity. n..-:s.- greal travels
&l"t ",miniKenl 01 lhe apo5lOlic joumeys 0( Saint
Paul in the defenx oIlM bith. P'robo.bly 110 cleric
in hiSlOl}' ordained lIS many "ishops and palriarchs
lIS Jacob. !hough he himsdf nevcr &5pired 10 allain
the palriarchal diSnity. According to the allihors of
hit a"PO"ryphal biographies. he consecraled 120.000
priests. These ... me ICCOun15 mention among thi!;
enGrmGus number eighlY'seven Gr elghty·nlne bish·
ops, lhough the confirmed rec<>rds mention only
lwency.seven-which it stU! consi<Jl,rable. These in-
ctudcd lWO patriarchs 01 Anli<>ch: s.e,rgjus and PAlil
THE llI.ACs:. an EcYJMian by bi"'I&
In AnbU, Jacob one., lonk re"tuee from hif im·
pmal perwodors .. lht coun 01 the Ghassanid
Cm;$Iiu kins aH:Unlh ibn Jabalah and his
WC«Si<W, al-Mundhir. In Pft'lia he is uk! 10 11a~
Y\siIed the coun of C ~ I (mo.,.-" in Arabic lIS
Kisrll Anu-Sharwln) at Seleucia in 559 10 pin loler·
aIlt<! for the Jacobile ChrUtiaJls. While on Ihis mis-
sion, he consecrated a bishop of Beth Aralnye
named A~lIdemmah, and raised him to Ihe dia:nlty
Gf mw"('polit.an of Ihe East, thereby laying the foun-
dation of the maphrlanale of Persia. The new met·
ropo!iu.n was active in tile preaching of Christianity
and succeeded in convening a number of Chouoes'
family•• hereby incuning the wrath of that empen:w,
JACOB OF SARUJ 1319
..no ewnnWJy manyred .he btshop. Neve~.
both the Jacobile and the Nestorian ehurche5 were
IOlenued 1ft ""nil>. ...-~ lhey survh'ed .side by sW
until Ihe coming of the Arab$.
Jacob'. laler yean a~ c-nveloped in obKurily_
One of hi. last e/fons is known to have been his
"(sit 10 Alexandria wilh a delegalion of Syri.n bi.h·
ops in an allempllo cemenl Ihe union between the
Jacob!!" and Ihe Coptic chure"e5. However. he and
Ihree other memben of his delegalion mYSleriously
cIIed toward lhe end of Jul~ 5711 al lhe Monaste!)' of
S.fnl aolllltnll$ on MOIInl Casion, n~r the ~em
fronl"" 01 ~l't. On .his occasion, u... Coptic pain.
arch t>out...... set1t a "-arm Ie'll.... al condolen<:e to
lhe elerl)" allhe EaiI. Jacob'. remairu _re trans-
fcn-ed 1m- burial at his fann.... monastery 01 PhasiI·
thJ,. Thanks 10 his m~cy efforts, the Jacobite
church had an auu.ecl survi',,", with <lOKr ....1.·
tion. 10 Alexandria.
BIBLIOCRAPIIY
Atl)':t, A, S, A Hi$lo!)' of Eostem C~ri'I;Q~iry. Lon·
&o~. 1967,
Cheho!. J. B .. ed. and lrans. ChTon;que de Michelle
Syrie.., pttlritm:1N: jtlcobile d'A"titxhe IIM_99. 3
vob. Pari... 189'9-190),
Honia n. H. Evlq"u el hhhb ~UIU
d'Asie fmtNte "" VI',;uk. CSCO 127. Sl<hsul-
ia. Vol 2. Lou""n, 1951.
Klcyn. H. G. l""",,,s &""ulU-de Slichler dn
Syrisehe monopIryufische Ke;k. U;;d'"". 11112.
Ruslum. A. T1le Ch"TC" 0/ flu City of God, Gte'"
.t"riot"h. 3 vols. Bel".., 1966.
AZIZ S. ATln
JACOBITES. See Jacob 8aratlaeus,
JACOB OF SARUJ (Ya'qub al-Saliijl. 451_521).
"lonoph~le S}Tian wriler. He "'"as bont at kunatn
on the Eup!tnt" and was proboobly educated at
Edessa.. He hec2rne " pries< and sen'fli .1 !;bwr:l ill
the Sartlj dUlricI of Mesopoum;a.. Durine the lime
ot Penian doo<ninatlon 01 part$ al II •• opotamla. he
rallied lhe Ch....'an populalion ...·ith his lellers. He
became bishop al Sa!""'e (Baman) "t the .... of
.i~IY-Je,'en. He was called "Ihe Flute of tM Holy
Spirit and Ihe Harp of Ihe Believing Faith." An
Incessanl. voluminous wriler. he i. said 10 have
compll$ed 760 menical homilies. ~ well as OIMr
prost! ,",'orb, lel1ers, and hymns. The verse works
are Iar...ly in lhe Jacobile t....eh'e'Syllable meter.
His "'ril;ne does nO\ emphasiu his o....n Monophy-
 1320 JAHSHIYARI, ABU 'ABD Al.l.AH. AL·
5"00 ~Iit:ious aIIiIialion, and translaled illlo Anbic
from S)'I'4o, it makes up an imporl/lnl part of !he
nonbiblloal ....ading lessons for Jacobites and (opts,
Bc:djam. p" ed_ Homillu &Jecl"e M,,, J"com Sallll"
e.. sis, ed. P. Bedjan. 5 l"OIs. Paris and ltipzlg.
1905-1910 (Syria<: tut).
McLean. N. "Jacob of 5mish. In Encyc.dilli
N
Bril"nnk",. Illh ed. VoL IS. pp. 114-15. New
Yori<, 1911,
Olinlkr, G.. ed. ("cobi S",ugensis EpiSlui"e OUOI'
quol Supu'unl, Paris, 1937. Repr. in csea 110.
Lou"ain, 1952.
Wrighl, W. Sium HiIlO? of 5,"",c l.ilerdlU~e. Lon·
don. 11l9J.
JAHSHIYARI, AB(J 'ABD ALLAH, AL-,
I.... qi man of leuen and native of Kafah .... ho seltl.. d
in Baghdad, He succeeded his father in the service
of the viti... 'All ibn 'lsi, whost personal guarda h ..
commanded in 918. He died in B.achdad in 942/
943.
Al-Jahshiyfor1 is knooo-n fot- hi> B«Hc at 1M V~,.,
II..J Surel"ria. the finc pal work of its kind in
Arabic lit..ntu..... This hiSlol')' proc«d!l to I~ year
908. e,'fll lhoush the s«ond part has been lOS!. The
only known manU$Cript Is prese",ed al the National
Library, Vienna (Cod. Mlxt. 916). It canLa;ns Ihe
first par'!, ending at the reign of al·Ma'miin Cd, 8B).
This unique manuscript WlI$ copied by an anony-
mous Cop! in 1151-1152 ("..., fol. 204b), !he foli~
brinl numbered wilh CoplK numft1lls from I 10
204. This facl ilJUSI"'ltS the inlertll that Wamk
cultu.e had for the Copts. TM manU5<:ript was t"'l1-
ocribed in a vel)' skilled script and ..... enti.ely
vocalized. Besidts It>e facsimile edItion by H.•0'1
M,ik (1926), a*"lnlec! edition of the text Wa5 pub-
lished in (airo in 1938 by MIl4\;lb al·Saqq~,
IbriM .... al·lby.trt, an~ Abel al-Haf'lt Shalabl_
BlBUOCRAPHY
Bmckelmann, C. ~hkhte de, .,."lti<clom Li,·
e,.,u•• IlUppl. I. pp. 2191'_ leiden, 1937.
Miik. H. VOn. DIu Ku~b ..I-W"Q1'<!· ,.,.-1 KUII/ib de.
AbU ·~!xJ"nu. ",.. J,.mm"d Ibn 'A!xJw$ "I-C.JI$;ydrl
(Fds/mlle herQ"$'ttt~~ ~ach dern ha~d,ch,iflli.
cJ.. ~ U~ik"m de. Nat;Otlalbibllolhtk in Wlen. CoJ,
Mul. 9J6). Bibliothek arablscher Historiku und
Gcographen I. L.elPZil!. 1926.
Sezgin. F. Ge!f(;hich,t Us ..... bl$<'I..... Schri!f'W'U.
Vol. I, leiden, 1967.
Sou,*" D. "AI·Djahshi)"jrt.. In Encyclopedi. at Is·
10m, Vol. 2, pt. 2. p. 39'9 (",fth bibliography). lei·
den and L:>ndon, 1%5.
KHAlil SAMIll., S.J_
JAMES, SAINT, uceIic (Ie,,", day. 3 Amshl.). It
is nOi kn........ from "'w family James the AJcetk
came no. from what country. The ~Iory In It>e SYW.-
XAlltON begins wilh hi> ...",.C_ESts in a ,a'l' dur-
ing a period of fifteen years (all the SQur<:es five
this figure)_ The Greek Synnarion, and h alone,
spedfies lhallhis cave: was nea'lhe 10"''1 of ~mar'
... ¥>to)' probably the.,..., in Paltslint. called Se-
basiC in hoDO. of lhe emperor Auguslus (27 B.c.-
AD. 14)...-hieh has bcco<ne lhe modem Sebiostiyya
in Isncl- We shall '101 be..,,,, if t>e " ... an Ei)l'!1an
who ..i1hd.ew to Samaria 0' a PaleMinian SO 10'11
as the ....."'e of lhc G..,ek Synau.riool i> nOl
known.
All &ourceo mentIon th" fcrvor of his lIllc"tldsm
and his gIft for drh'ing oul dt:mons. The Coptic
S)'JIaxarion adds tltal this won for him the hoslilily
of Ihe discipl.... of the <kril, "-00 -St'<lt 10 him a
woman of oml life 10 mUll him fall, wilhoul we·
c....... TMn lhc deonon made uJe of another SUllla-
gern. He lOOt possesaion of It>e bo<IJ of the dallgh-
ler of a rich nOl.lble, and "'Rested to t>er blher
that only James the Ascelk could deliver her. This
came aboul, and the f3lher, fearing that Ihe devil
might reco,'~r poS6tssion, resolv~d 10 leave hi.
<bushter In tt>e no: of Ihe hermit. What mlghl
have been forueen came to paliL The hermit dis-
honored the Ii" and. karl.. disco>ery, alew her.
Full 0( remone, t>e multiplied hb penance. hoping
lhat God would p;lfdon his cnme.
Some time after lhat, a se......... drt>Ugh1 ""er-
whelmed t.... people of tt>e ~Iion. NO! knowing
what to do, th")' thoughl that only th~ prayers of
James Ihe Ascetic could obtain for them the rain
I .... y awaited. So lhey we'll in search of the bishop
10 eel him tl> ;'Iluvene. James conress.ed his crime,
but Ihe bishop persuaded him lhal God could par-
don """tyIltinc. on ~ondilion thal the JUilly one
repented of hi> crime and did penance. filially
Jamea agreed '0 suppl>cate God; a heavy ",infall
nme 10 .tl....~ Ihe people of Ihe region. He died at.
a ripe ofd ag<:o The Creek Synaurion ,tales that he
was then se"enly·five )'cars old,
This "edifying 110ry" has bul one aIm, to show
lhe mercy of God and the power of the penances of
lhe ascetic_ If Ihe description of the crime:s b ac-
complisJted ..·ith ~ism 10 tt>e point of shocking

us, it is to bring out more clearly the divine good·
ness and the efficacy of the hermit', asceticism.
BIBLIOGRAPH'a'
Budge, E. A. W. The Book of Ih~ Sai>tts 01 th~ Ethi-r
pian Chu,,'h. 4 vols. Cambridge, 1928.
Deleha)'e. H, Synaxarium uclesia' Cons/tl.ntinopo/.
;Iana., Propylaeum Ad Acta Sanctorum Nov.m·
bris. Brtt$scls, 1902.
Sauget, J.-M. "Premieres recherches sur l'origin. et
les caracferistiques d.s s)'naxaires melkil.s." Sut..
.idia Hagiographica 45. Brussels. 1969.
Troupeau. G, Ca/tl.logu~ des manu,cri/> arab's, pf.
1. Man",;crits chri:li~ns, .2 vols, Paris. 1972-1974.
RENE·GEORGES COQum
JAMES INTERCISUS, SAINT, or Jacob the
Sawn or al·Muqana', a Persian manyr of the third
century (feast day: 27 HatOr). He is fully document·
ed in Syrioc, Greek. Arabk, and other s()urees, The
bask text c()ncerning him is a Passi()n extant in
.everal redaction•. The redaction closest to the
original, according to P. Devos, is th. Syriac (Bed·
jan, 1%8). One of the four Greek redaction. appar·
enlly derives from this one (the other three .eem to
be reworkings), and the other Oriental versions
would appear to derive, directly or indirectly. from
Ihe Greek, In Coptic we possess fragments ()f the
Passion in Sahidk (British Museum. Or, 7561.120-
21. ed. Winstedl. 1911; Valican library, Borgia. 109.
145a: National Library. Paris, COpte 129,16.78 and
78 bis). In Bohairic we possess the complete te.t
(Valkan library, Coptk 59f. 1-29, ed. BaI.,.tri and
Hyvemal. 19(3) and fragments of another codex
(d_ Evelyn.White. 1926, p. 14). These lexts ..,.,m to
be in su""tanfial agreement. However. if is impor-
tant to n()le that the complete texi ()f the Passion
has a hi.torically interesting ap~9dix, which is a
long passage dellCribing Pefer th !berian's mo,'ing
of the relics of Jame. from Jenlsal~m t<> a site near
Oxyrhynchus in Egypt. This passage .hould be at·
tributed 10 the end of the fifth century.
A summary of the complete Bohairic redaclion of
Ihe Pusion follows. linder the Persian kin& !skarnf.
son of Shipur I. a great persecution/was unle....hed
againsl the Christians, James was a nobleman. and
a member of the king's council. Although he was a
ChriSlian, al firsl he did not react. His mOfher and
wife u'<led him in a long letter to hoid fast to Ihe
faith. James repented his sH.nce. "''as reported to
the authorities, and brought before the king, There
foil",,' the scenes ()f torture. and various di,put""
JAMES OF SCETIS, SAINT 1321
usual in accounts of martyrs and also James' vision
of Jesus and healing.
James was eventually condemned 10 death and
carried to the place of e~ecuti()n, The execution
scene is the principal part of Ihe Pass;o, which
consists of a descripfion of fhe manyr's limbs being
cut ()ff and hi. pronouncing a long prayer at the
I""" of each piece. He is then decapitated. Some
believers recover his body, and hi. moth.r. siSler,
and wife build a mal1yrium. However. Ihe king
gives Ihe order for all manyria 10 be bumed. The
martyr's remains are then rescued and taken to
Jerusalem.
The appendix concerns th. translation of the re-
mains to Egypt. Pefer the Iberian. who was from
the Georgian royal fumily. was a monk and bishop
of Mayuma near Gan, He was persecuted for being
anti-Chalcedonian and fled to Alexandria. where
two of his disciples joined him with the relics of
James. Howe"er. at Alexandria he was persecuted
again and he ned to Bishop MMes al O.yrhynchus.
At Paim near Oxyrhynchus he and his disciples
built a shrin. where James's relic. could finally rest
in peace,
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Balestri, I.. and H. H)vemal. Acta Marlyrnm. 2 vols.
CSCO 43. 44. Paris. 1908.
Bedjan. P.. ed, A.ela Marlyrum el SonclOrum Sinoee.
7 vols. Paris and Leipzig, 1890-1897, Repr. HH-
desheim, 1968,
De"os, P_ "Le dossier hagiographique de S. Jacques
l'Intereis," Analecla Bollandia ..a 71 (1953),157-
210.
Evel)'n·Whife. H. G. New Coptic T~xts from Ihe Mon·
aSlery of Saint Maca,ius. New York, 1926.
Winstedl, E. O. "Coptic Saints and Sinners," Pro·
ceedings of Ih~ Society of BibUcal Archwlogy 30
{19(8):231-37. 176-83; 32 (1910):195-202. 246-
52; 33 (911):113-20.
TIro ORUlNOt
JAMES OF SCETlS, SAINT (feast day: Sal·
Nasi'). The notice that fhe SVNAXARION devotes to
this saint is very decepti"e Ihrough its banalil".. We
do nOi know at what age he died. and hence we
cannot fix the date of his birth. We do not know the
place of his origin. He lived in the eleventh century.
He dedicated himself very young to the monastic
life. having reached the Monastef)' of Saim
Macarius (DAYR ANIlA !.MaAR) in Seetis. He withdrew
into one of the cell. ()f 10HN coLOOOS. He was
named archdeacon of the church of the monastef)'
 1322 JAM'IYYAH AL-KHAYRlYYAH AL.()lBTlYYAH, Alr
of Saini John. Hi. ~\IlII reached !he lou,," of
M~•• and he " ... ch<;lKn 10 be iI. bi.hop. Hi. P'o-
moIioo only ea~ hill humility and hi...... 1 '0
beeom.. e~en gr..ale•. He reprimanded the negll.
genl prie.!> al Ihe moment of ""orince 01 the divine
m~l ..rie•. He knew lwo ~Itiarch$. Anblo CIlRlSro·
DQIJI.l.IS (1047-1077) and CYRIL II 11018-1092).
We know from Ihe HI$JORY of 1ll£ ~"T1UARCHS
thaI James di...:! in 1088 ah~ occupying hill ~o­
pal l a l r.... 1WeI>ty-lOou. )'011
BlBUOGllAPHY
Cas.an.,. P... ~ Nom$ copies du Calre ..11<>e:alilb
voisin Bu/I"liM d .. f"lMSliIU/ ''''''fiJis i/'A.",/U.,..
IVIlI.. ori..m"l.. 1 (1901):139-224.
Munier, H. Ru" ..iI tI.. s US," epl$cvpvl..s de ['EgUse
CoP/". Cairo. 1943.
JAM'IVYAH Al-KHAYRlVYAH AI..-
OIBTIYY AM, AJ..., SU Iknnolenl Societie$.
Coplic.
JAM'IYYAT ASOIOA' AL-KITAB Al.
MUQADDAS. S.... Friends of Ihe Bible. SociCly
of lhe.
JAM'IVYAT AJ.,ISLAH AL-OIBTI.
tic Refom> Sadety.
JAM:MA, AJ.... S.... Madinal H5bU; M.. mnonia.
JASON. Sa Mylhalollkal SubjcelS in Coplic An.
"'
JAWHARAH AL-,NAFISAH, AJ.... S- Ibn
Siboo' Yul:w>N Ibn Abi ZakariY)'f,.
JAWSAQ. S.... Kttp.
JAZIRAT Al·DAYR. See Dayr al·ll.um~niyy.h.
JEME. s.... Madinal HibU; Memnonia.
JEREMIAH, APOCRYPHON OF, SU
Apocr}]>hoo of Je....miah.
JEREMIAH, SAINT. Very linle is knQwn aboul
Ih;" ..int. II is plausible Ihal the monaslery al Saq-
qara had been pluM under Ihe ~ln:>nag~ of a
J~iah. la whom a pank"lar holines$ """5 allrib-
,,!£d. ,,·beIh.... 0< n01 he " ... m first superior. 11M:
chronkle of Ihe bishop JOHN OF N1JUOI! ~ 10
speak 01 him. whkh makes him a e<>nl.. mpon.ry oi
the ~mpen:>' Anaslasi.... !he dales of whosoe <risn
_ know precis<'1y (491-5181_ Befcwe be<:oming
emJM'Mr. Anaslas1u5 i$ Aid 10 have been banished
by Ihe ~mpe.or Zl'.NO (4'4_491 l. no doubl for his JtIO.
NOPIlYSITP. opinions. John of Nikiou's text app'ars
fairly e~I'ain, for he mcntiOM lit<: island of Sitint
He""; and lndkates lhal It was al Memphis. He
rep<HU lhal AnaslaSitu ~'slIM Sail'll Je miah and
buih a chureh dedicaled 10 Sail'll He Ii is curi-
ous lhal John of Nikiou calls Saini Jeremiah "of
Akundria"; did he thus wish 10 show his place oi
binh or ,he pbc.. of his manaslery~ H~ 5eC'n1S 10
!Oly lhal hi. mon ry was n....r Il.kmphis. In any
ease. h;" f\'Idence ures u. 01 th.. period when
J..remiah lived. lhe end ollhe fifth e~ntury and Ihe
beginning of Ihe ,iXlh.
The in)Criplion. found at Saqqara_in Ihe ab-
sen~ of a Coplie life or a 5Ummary in Arabi<: in lhe
snax.o.ll1ON-supply lil1l~ infarmalion. We karn
lhallhe anniversary of his hinh was celebnlloo on 4
s.... C0p- H:iliir. and thaI the day on which he _ lon-
surd_a cby com" .. mor:ated- ..... lhe fim oS B.o.-
ohans. He ..... ordained a pries! ;n the monlh ol
&'0""". and he died on 22 Tubah. In each ease lhe
ye.... i. ItQl indicaled. The 1...1 dale appc1>rs la haw:
been commemoral...:!. Par1i.cular vene""ian was
paid 10 Ihe c.. 11 Ihal he had Oo:cupied as ,he pl.c",
wher.. he had prayed for Ihe entire- ,,'orld,
Two inscrlplions seem 10 allud.. 1<> a perseculion.
blJl given thaI Ih.,.., leXIS are 110I daled. we eannO!
know w~r thew: eoo...n", "..,re conl<'mporary
"m Ih~ saini. The whok. al least. &!tows lhaI lhe
..............ion «!he monu 1.,....n1 Sain. Je",miah "'as
~,by I'UISOn of the fr,equency of the Inyoulio....
c:onsiderin& lhal his nam.. is oIIen in""k<'d in.medi-
alely afI~. IhOSoC oilhe Ihm!' divine Penon•.
We may add lhat a pilgrim. an ....chdeacan named
Theodoslus. menlion. IwO monaslenes al Memphio:
"unum CSt religioni, Vandalomm saneli lercmiae:'
Thi. I",veler wrole hi. itin..rary around 530.
The eXCa,·al;""" al Saqqara ha,'e ....,...aled. a fre>-
cO repreifnt;rt& Jerl'miah. bIll Ihis is perhaps only a

pai~ti~g indicating how the monks of the mon.....
teT)' imagined their saint, rather than a true por-
nait; J, E. Quibell reproduces a watercolor (19G8.
Vol. 2, pI. 60),
[Su Qi$(}: Christian Subje<:lS in Coptic An.]
BIBLIOGRAI'"HY
Amelineau, E. L> Geogmphie de /'Egypte ~ Npoque
COple, Paris, 1893.
Charles, R. H. The C!mmkle of 10hn, Coptk Bishop
of Nikiu. Text and T"mslation $o<:i<:ty 3. London.
1916, Repr. Am'terdam, 1981. Trans. from ZOIcn-
berg's Elhiopic lexl.
Ouibell, J. £. ExcQVQlio"s ,,' Saqqara. Vol. 2. Cairo.
1908.
Reymond, E. A. E., and J. W, B. Barns, Four Mort)'r.
doms from Ihe Pierpom Morgo~ Coptic Codices,
Oxford, 1913.
Thompson. H., N. The Coptic l"scriptions. Text in
ExcovOIkms 01 Saqqaro [Ill]. 1907-190S, [IV],
1908-1\109.1909-1910. Cairo. 1909~19l3.
Zotenberg, H. Chroniq"e de Jean eviqu. de Nikiou,
pp. 125-605. Notice et extraits de< manuscrits de
la Bibliotheque nation ale 24. Paris, 1883.
REN~-GEORG~ COQUtN
JERNSTEDT. PETER VIKTOROVICH
(1890-1966). Russian linguist, papyrologisl, and
Coptologist. He published Greek texts such as Die
Kome-AphrodllO Papyri dec Sammlung LichQCOV
(Tbitisi, 1927): and SpiJ/TiJmische und byl.a~lin;sche
Tale, with Zereteti (Thilisi. (930). in Papyri ms·
sischer und ge<>rgischer Sammlungen 3-4. He pub·
lished Coptic texts such as Kopli5Ch~ Tat~ aus de",
PU5chkin·Muse"m Maskau and Kaptlsche Texze "uS
der Eremirage (hoth Moscow and Leningrad. 1959),
He also worked on Captic philology. mainly .yntax
BIBI.1OGIl"i'lfY
Elanskaja. A. l. Wissenscha/tlic" Zeilschri/t de, U~;·
vers;riit Hall~-Witlmber8 26 (1977):93-99. includ-
ing bibliography. "
Fikhman, I. F. 10urnai of Juristic Panrolog)' 16-17
(1971):257-60.
Irmscher, J.; P. Nagel: and l. Zemke, Bywnz ,md
b)'umUnischer Orient in d~r sow;el;schm WiS5e~­
sclta!I, pp. 28ff. Halle-Wittenberg, 1968.
MARTtN KRAUSE
JEROME, SAINT (c. 347-419/420), a father of
the church who was one of the greatest biblical
scholars of all time. His roremost accomplishment
JEROME, SAINT 1323
was translating the Bible from its original languages
into Latin,
Jerome (Eusebius Hieronymus in Latin) was horn
in Stridon at the head of the Adriatic, His advanced
education began in Rome and was continued duro
ing many years of travel to cities of the East. includ·
ing Antioch. Lo.odicea. and Constantinople. In Chal·
cis. as a hermit in the Syrian desert, he learned
Hebrew and Greek. In Alexandria he attended
da.'IS"s under OItIG£N in the CATECI-lETKAL SCHOOL. [n
382~385 Jerome returned to Rome, where he was
secretary to Pope Damasus I. began his bib[ical
translalion at the pope's request, and laughl Paula
and other Roman noblewomen. wI><:> were his disci·
pIes.
After the death of Damasus, Jerome, accompa-
nied by his disciples, roturned to the East. ""here he
visited Egypt and Palestine before settling down in
Bethlehem to devote the remaining three d«ades
of hi, life to a vast lite raT)' production. Throughout
his life he practiced a strict asceticism that he must
have encountered in the East, especially in his visits
to Coptic monasteries in Egypt. He may ha.e been
made a cardinal by Damasus. although the o~ly
evidence is a late ,hirte<:nth·century image of him
in a ca<dinal's red hat. He is one of the four doctors
of the Roman Catholic church, which celebrates his
feast day on 30 Septentber. He is not in the Copto-
Arabic Synaxarion.
Jerome's translation of the Bible is notable in
that he based it on original texts in Hebrew and
Greek, creating a more accurate "e~ion than the
Old Latin version Ihen in use, The Vulgate. contro·
.'ersial at first, eventually became the official vel"
sian of the Roman Catholic church. Jerome also
produced many biblical commentaries, wherein h~
excelled in covering a wide range of linguistic and
topogmphical topic. concerned with interpretation
of :scripture. He continued the great Hislaria ecele-
siasri"o af EUSEBtUS OF CAESAREA on church hislOry
and wrote D. iIIuslribu>, an account of Christian
authors. including the Coptic church fathers. that
was the first great work on patristics. He tran,lated
many works of such Coptic fathers as Origen and
IHDYM1!S THE BI.IND. J~rome abo combated prevail·
ing heresies, notabl}' ARIANtSM and PEUGlANtSM, and
he turned. against Origen as a result of the rising
tide of Origenist controve~y,
BIBLIOGRAI'"HY
Leigh-Bennett. E. Handbook of Ihe Eod)' Christian
Falhers. London, 1920.
 1324 JERUSALEM, COPTIC SEE OF
Wright, F. A. FQlh,n; of 11t~ Clt..rclt. New York,
1929.
A~r~ S. ATIYA
JERUSALE,I\I, COPTIC SEE OF. From the
bq:inni"l <Ii the Chriolian eB. EcYJll "nd EK:)JMa.,.
k.ave had • privileged swua in JCTUsal,..... I" lIHo
Acts of the ApoWts il is ~ntioned t/u.t fC)l"Itans
were al'Jl(\l'lltho5co "'100 wl"".,..ed the descent of the
Holy Spirit On Pellle<:05l, 11 is also mentioned (Ael!
6:9) Ihat AleMndrian., with olhel'5, had their own
.ynagogue in Jerusalem.
The ancnto1'5 of Saint ~ ..... ,,"',.., 1~ ,,'no ""tnl
lO Em>t dunn,; thc uign of Pto~m)' I. Thty "'..,...,
senl 10 live in Cyrene, whleh at !hat lime brlo~d
10 Egypt.. When the bedoui"" in,-aded Cyr=t. the
family of M"rl Idt for Jenua!t1Il.
After Ptnlt<:O$l,. " n..dtuS of Egyptian Christian!
was formed in tlte Holy ulld. They Wt<e la".
joined by otlter-. who traveled to Jerusalem and
settled the...,. Egyplians went to Jtn..rsalem after ir
had ~n deslrtl)'el! by Til\i$ in A.D, 70 and rebuilr
by Hadrian. CUIllENT Of' AJ,.£XAl<i"DRl.\ tool< ~fu"
there durinl the perseo;:ulion of SepllmlU!l Sewrus.
and o~ abo ""nt <hen: and was otdained priest
by ,",under, bisOOp oJ Jenua!em••1Id Theoctistus.
bi>hop oJ Caesa.-ea. He often preached at rhe
chureh in Je",..lem, and he founded the $Chool of
theology in Caes.area.
In rhe ,."ian of OONSTANTINE THE GREAT Ihe place
of tbe holy Cr<)$$ and other holy p1.ces were redis·
covered.. ""d chu""~ were built on rhe HIes. 1'lltA·
tIMI~ I the AleJ<andrian ,i.ile<! the holy pi""", in
}4J and "'as well recrived by the bishop. Maximus.
who convened" IocaJ counril ill 346, aI ,,·hieh 1M
vi"dieation of AthanalitG apirw. the c~ dil"tCt·
ed "I him by the Arian. was upheld. From then on,
roany Coplle mOl'lks belan to visil Ihe holy places.
Alm"'t half " ce",~ny .fter the inaugun.tion of Ihe
Church of the Resurr«tloo. Copric monk. had an
independem identify In Jerusalem, as was C(H>'
firmed by Pa.. la, "f.o visiled Jerwalem in 386. n"
pilgrim Atria. who "'as in J.-rw.alo:m al !ho: same
lim<:. a1Io commented Of! the pt'eSeJ'lCe of ErrPttan
monk$. Around J~. four Coptic rnonb known as
Ihe Tan 8rother-. ".,...1 to Jerusalem as" TI!:SUIt of"
dispule Mt"""n lI>em "nd lheir bishop. TH£OPJUl.U5
Of Al.EXANDRIA. They were followed by nearly fifty
monks from WAd] al·Na1nln.
Many other Copts also went 10 JeNsalem, some
On pilgrimal". same to .isil, and ...._ to live there.
11. small ehur<:h "2$ eOllsullctcd near lite Church of
the ResurTeclic>n at lite very !pIll where MARY rHE
EGynrAN Is said to have ..,pemed in 382. The nu",-
beT of Copts visitina the "ity incr<>ased sreadily_
Copts are mentiollCd among the sects represo:nte<!
in the Church of Ihe Resurnction in the leiter of
cIiopensMion lhal tbe caliph 'Umar ibn aJ'.l(ha!!.Ih
g:... o: 10 lhe ~Iriarch Sophronius after he look over
tbe ltado:ohip of the city_
SevI!:....1 Copts were appointed to high posts in
JeN5alem and Palelrtine. Al'Jl(\nl tMse art Shaykh
Abu ,,1'Yumn Ou~mln ibn Mini. the scribe, who
was appointed mlnlsler in Palestine in 975 by the
Fatimkf caliph "I.',ulz, and M~r al·Tilb41nl. who
became gcwernor of Jerusalem in 1092. When the
CJusadoen entered the city, they re"""""d some
dt'l:)' from the Eastern chur<:hes. ......... litem
Copts. They also oonfiscated the sacred reUes and
prevented the Copt. from ....ilinl the holy places.
However. II seems 1/u.1 they were later r«onciled
with fhe CoJl1-' and allowed Ihem to ..,tum to Jeru·
.alem. John of WiJTlburg, a pHlrim who vilrited
Jerusalem in 1165 and Itft a record (Runcl"""n.
Vol. 2. 1952. pp. 294. 430). "nd Theodoric. who was
there in 1172. menlloon that the Copts wtrc amon,
the C1trlstDn sectS in the city .t lhe .i..... (Mem-
anIus. 1%0, pp. 15-161-
The Coptic historian ABO At...... KA"'... Sa'd:aUah ibn
Jiljis ibn Mas'i:Jd .... id that lhe Copts were not
allowed 10 visit Je",."lem under rhe Crusaders un-
til il was reconquered by Saladin in l187. After
him. his broth"r .1:Adil rwpen~d the Church of the
Resurrection to Coptic piigrims e>'ery yo:.ar. In his
campa... In Ec;ypt. Saladin "'105 Kcompanied by a
largt number of Copu., and after his vie10Jy he
rr:stOO'ed 10 them most of their propenies. monas-
t"ries, and chu...,hes.
After lhe Otloman OOrtqI.ICSl of Palestine, the SQ.
tU! of the Cope. _ , lmproV<!d, so thai Germanos.
lite Greck Orthodo~ patriarch in Jerusalem, wriling
to Ivan the Terrible in l5S9, compared his own
statu~ and the cotHiition of hi. "<:t unfavorably
"'irh thaI of rhe Ar~nians and CoplS (Mein"rdus,
1960, p. 29).
n.e Copt> io Jerusall!:m have pt'ucrved their sa-
cred relics and <heir richl< throu&hout lhe ages.
They have boucht propeny and built monasteries
and chu...,hes in many lo",n! in rhe region. In Ihe
second half of Ihe I"'entieth century, Ihe Copric
O"hodo~ palriarchate of tile See of Jerusalem and
the Near East and Sinai bl!:came &eli.'e in ."ndering
sel'ices and preaching in most countries of the

Near Ea.1. It now ..... mon"'l~ries. xhools. lind
orphanages in _ cities of lhe area and in Sinai.
Coptic Archbishops In Juu..lcom
stnce .....rly in the Christlan era. Copt:s have main.
~ned .ilible SIlII... in lhe Holy Und. They ac-
quired pmpeny. buih chun::1ws. and looked afIer
lhrir rdigious and administ""i~ alIain in In-usa.
Ie... th"""'Ch the Copt:>e ardlbishop of lRmiella
(Dumr5!)...too .....,nl 1(> Jcorusalem each reu boefo...,
Chrisunas and ...,rnaincod until aflcor E.ulC"r.
In 1236, Popco (Y'Ul lit appoinled Anld IlA$lUOS I
archbishop (If the newly cre:alC"d dio<;esc of lhe See
of Jeru ..lem and All lhe Eal\. He was gramed au.
lh(lrily to look aflcor Coplic ImereslS, churches, and
sacred p<>5l1Clllionl in JeN$alem. otl>et" pa.ru of PaI-
eIIine. Syria. and a1(ln& tM El>pbrales.
Since thaI lime. Ihe se<: of J~lU!Ialem has lxoen
divided tMeco: ~ after lIMo death of Archbishop
nlllOTHFD$ I In 1925 and lpin after the death of
Archbisbop T1W)PtIIlOS I In 1~5. Un.il 1925. me
dioc:eoe consisled of JelU$a\~. the res!: of Pales-
line. the Orienl. 1M Egypllan ~"",nol~ (If Ihe
Suez Canal. lhe province, of Daqahli)')Olh. Shar.
qi)yah, and mOSl of Gharbiyyah. "" well a. lhe clly
of Damieua and SinaI. H(lwe.'er. lhese e>clenlive
recion. were rcoduccod in Ihe middle of the I_nl~
eth century l(l Jervsakm. PaIaUI>e. Sinai. and thco
Oricm. n(l'" bcoin. called ,he Diocese of Ihe So« of
Jeru....lem. lilt" Near Ea!.t. and Sinai. "The spiritual
leader of lIMo I « has bun a metropo!iW! "tN>.
acc<>l'd.i", to Coptic Ortbodo:>x tndition, stands finI
an1O"ll the" archbWonps ....d follows the" pope of
AJeu.ndria in sconiorily_
There e~iSlS no detailed history of Ihe an::hbish.
ops of the 5« of Jerusalem. Tile following li'l of
the archbishops .Ince BasillOI I is derived from
manU5CripI~ prt:lC"rved in llf5,. patriarchal archi",.
in Cairo. lhe library of lhe ~ic Museum in Old
Cairo. and lhe JMIriarchalco In Jerusalem (somco gaps
r~main 10 bco fillcod):
1. BasiliOJ I (1236-1260) .... eonsecr.l1ed ~rin«:
the rriJn of Popt Cyril III.
2. Bu!ruI I (1211-1.306) ..-as comt:<:..... ed during
the reill" (If Paln..rch JOH.'f VII. H~ rook up resi-
denee in lile Church of lite Virgln Mary al Da.
mascu~ and was join~d 11lC"..., by lh~ hlstorlan
Ibn al.Makln Jlrjl. Ibn al··...mld.
3. Mikhl'lI I (1310-132") wall con5<"C<ated during
the reia:n of JOHN VUI (1300-1320).
JERUSALEM. COPTIC SEE OF 1325
... &1'._ n (1331-1J62) ...... C<)rl$ft"""led in the"
...,Ign of PETEIl Y (13-40-1348). His n,u.,e i. cile<!
In tlte "'nnunclalion Codex in 11lC" Coplic MUSC".
urn nu.nuscript of lhe Gospcoll (no. 90), dalcod
1J41.
~. zachari"" I (IS1~-I600) wa,
a conlernpofilry of
JOHN XIV (lS10-1S8.5) and Go\BIlIEI. \'lIl (1.586-
16(1). in whoK consecrali<)n he had me pri.
mary role.
6. Vacobos the HCOJUmenos (I6lM-1618) ...... a
coruemponry of Mad V (1602-1618). In a
docu",",nt dated .ut. 12 Ba'O"ah 13M/A.]). 16
June 1604. il is ~laled that Mart< appoinle<! Vae-
000s p""lor of at! Coplic ~iolU in the
Holy u.nd_lhe Clturch of lhco Resurn~cli<ln
and the Holy Place~. the .hrines. Ihe sancluar.
It$. and m<>nl*leries outside the Church of lhe
Resurreclion.
7. ChristodoulO$ I (l6JI-I~J """ a e<>nlCtnpO-
rary of MATTHtw HI (lo3"-16ot9).
S. Gabriel I (1680-1105) ...... a roTllemponory of
JOHN X\1 (1676-1718).
9. Chmlodou!os II (1120--172~) _ . contempo-
rary of PETDl V1 (1713-1726).
10..... lhanasi... I (172.5-l1oo) Wall a co....emporary
of Palriarch Peter VI. "'ho. accordinlj: 10 tlte NI5-
TORY OF TH~ '~Tl\IAI\CHS, appoinled him 10 suc·
ceed Cltrislodouk». whom hco lransfened 10
Ethiopia..
II. Viisib I (1170-1796) was a conlemporary of
(1169-1196).
JOHS XVIII
12. Chri,uodou\os III (1797- IB19) ""as a con,CtnpO-
rary of IoI.UIo: VIn (11%-1809) and ruu "ll
aI·Jawll (1809-1852).
13. Abraham I (1820--185-4) """ a conlemporary of
Pcoler VII. He ~rtic-ipated wilh Anb! Saraba·
mun. known as .... bU Tarl:<ah. bishop of Min·
ufi)Yah. III promoling DaWlld al·An~nl (Ialer
CYIltl tV) 10 the patriarchate.
I". IlASlUOS II (l85O-1 899). called .. thco Greal," was
consecraled by Pa.riarch CYRI~ IV (185"- 1861)
and S1Jrrive<l into the" rrign. of llDoIETRII/$ "
(l au - 1870) and CYIlJ~ " (187"- 1927).
1.5. Timodle05 I (IU9-1925) - . COftW>rraled by
C,TiI v as bishop 10 aid Basilios II in 18%. He
succeeded &silios In 1899.
16. BASlI.IOS III (1925-1935) ...... a c011lemponory of
Cyril V and JOH~ XIX (1928-1941),
17. Theophiloo I (193.5-1945) was a conlemporary
(If John XIX.
18. Y'\coIIOS n (19~-1r;s6) was consecn..ed by Pa·
uiarch YOs.I.B II.
1326 JERUSALEM. COPTIC SEE OF
19. Ibsilios IV (1959-) .... consecrated in 1969 by
Clltll. \1.
Churches
The Church of the RaulTKtion _nds .hoo-e 1M
Holy Sq>uIcher. So~ n~.rby ~rtioes are res!-
lWn<:C'S for Ih~ Copolc priests ""'00 conducl lhe reli·
giou. ril..... They also own Icons and lamps that are
used during sen'len. The Copts' right of resic!cnce
at the church dates back 10 3&4 ""h~n the Tall
Brothers lived ther~.
Many authors and pilgrims have written about Ih~
Chri.tian groups in {he church, In 1697. Maundrell
(18101 observed that Greek. u{in.....rmenian. and
Coptic pricst5 laboad th~re. NOl:ing payment~ im·
posed by the Turu and high salaries. h., wrot., that
1M only Sttts who _re able to 1'l""C'S"''''''' Ilv:ir plac·
es ~ .... tht: u.ins.....T1lH'nians. and Copr$. BoIh
Elttarius Horn (1738) and &norm (1'23) obse. ooed
that !he Latins. Grub. and C<Jpu w~ .... lh~ only
I«IS ",'hose p";""'tl; resided inside the church.
The Copts ~ the following l'C:SCi'Yed areas:
I. A plac., that ben the Coptic church in the
Chun:h of the R~ction. It h;as ''''0 doors and
two ",ories. ",i'h '10/0 rooms on the fii'$\ and three
On the ..,.,ond. Coptic priests reside in thesf rooms.
2. Colum'" 10 and 11 under Ihe dome. ""'hich
bnr two Coplic icons. In front are two Coptic
lamps.
3. Three arche, conn«tlng column. 9. 10. and
II. on whi<;h hang Coptic Icon. and lamps.
4..... IWO'","ried ,Iructure wesl of lhe main pte
of Ihe Church of the Resurrection. Th., fi~ SlOI)'
hQ on., room and the upper I~,'CI .".., room and a
balcony ""i!h windo\o.'J O\-erlooking 'he 1",,'0 porches
of the Church of the RcsutTeetioll and Go1iOlft:to as
""-ell as tlv: SlOne of Unction. The roomslhernM:lves
~rrc .. residences for Cope;" pricsls.
5. A bell thai is runlt:.rior 10 1M opm.inC of lhe
l'l'lain door of me churcll. Only Latins. Gretb.
Copu. and ArmeniaN F Sff- bell. at the Oourch of
the Rtsurn<:llon.
Of tht ChriMian S«ts rqll'Qe'l1tM in ,.,., Oo\l~h
of the RtsurrtCtion_Gr«k Orth<>don. La'in, Annt-
nian. Coptic Orthodox. and Syrian Onhodox-lOfIIt
ha,.., soIt respon.ibility for cenain ..,lies in Iht
church. ""ht..,... the Greeks. Latins. Artntnians. and
Copts ,hare r'Csponsiblllty for otht... A(c(lrdina to
Ptlissit du Rau$llS (1902-1905. Vol. Z, pp, 148, 152,
154). Ihis division ...., made to prevent disputes.
Tlte five group. jointly posse$s th., passllg"'5. hall·
ways. the lalenl nave. tile dome. tI.t .... Ircases
leading to lhe chapel of lhe Invcnlion 01 the C......
the .....Ier ciscem in the north.....,.., a>rneo" of lhe
c....rca. and the pqsace that l...ds then'. The 110/0
COm"""" pos.....ioM of ,he Latins. Gr«k Orthodox.
Armenians. and Copts an: the SlOne of Unction and
thO' Chapel oIthoe Holy Sepulcher.
Tbc ..,eci6c rights and "'">..",u,," 01 Copts in the
church arc as follows:
I. They possess udusive"'" and care 01,1, Can·
delabra imide the Holy s..pukher and tltt Sanclu-
ary of the Ao&<,1 candelabra (four within the Holy
Sepulcher. one In the Sanclu"ry (lf Ihe Angel. and
one .bove the Stone of Unction).
2. The Copts have a rialtt to official ent",nCes to
the church, .. do the otMr communiti~ repn:sent·
ed the..... ThrouPt Ihese ~ntranc... pass fOlTilal pI'<>
cessin,n, ....ch occasions customarily occurrina On
Satunla)"l and Sundays or [..,nl and on roe.,1 days.
l. The Copts haoe a pcmtalM:nt richl to oold p ....
Cc:ss>ons whm hold,,,, :lemc.,., .especially on Good
Friday. on Ho.!.I' Satun;by. at dawn on Easler Sun-
day. and on WhitsUnday. V"'" £c:rnont said lhal he
""w the WhitsUnday pNeeuion. which 'nvol'o.>cd
Gre"*,, and Armenia.... roUowed by Copts and SyrI.
aos. On Good Friday. lhe Chwclo 01 the Resurrcc·
tion is opened in the na..... of the Cop!$.
the holy relks it>
fust day•.
I""
4. The Copo, have tlv: right 10 cmM btcfore all
chu~h lorict dIlily. indudiPJl
5. The Copts also ha"e the right to ctlebnlle tlte
morning and evenlna prayers of the Holy Utany.
Within tit., Church of the Re<Urreclion th~ C"plS
have a chapd named after the Virgin Mary. which
is ,'ener.>ted ... most IaCred not only because It is
situllId behind 1M Holy s"pukher but abo be·
<:au... it i. consilWred an intql:nol pan of the
chu.--eh·' $InKtt"..,. Cont~m!"OJ'UY with the Church
of the Resurrfftlon. the charnber$ of this ",hapel
h....e housed Coptic monks since the second half 01
the fourth century.
Wb~n Empel'OC" Constantine Monomachos c0m-
pleted the rebuildinl of the Cht.m:h 01 ~ R.esurn:c·
tion in 104&, the Coptic sanctuary behind the Holy
Sq>ukher was left intaci. n.. Crusaden. ""hUe pc1"'"
s«u'ing lhe dCTIl:)' of OrienUoi churches. P'""Mt"Ied
this Coptic saotcl..:ll)'. Wllm Saladin en•.,red Jenua·
lem in 1187. he rewarded the loyalty of the Copts
by restoriotg In., plx"'t that had Men tak",n from
them.
When f,re ."read from the Anntnia" chapel on
30 September IW8. It destroyed th., dome of the
Church of the Res.urrection and dIlmaged the col·
",m"" and marble floor. Onl\' th., dom., of lhe ~I"

uleher, the Latins' church, the eave of the Cross,
and the museum of the hc>ly relics <undyed intact.
By good fortune, Ihe church chapel sulfered only
superficial damage. It was redecorated in 1901.
Abo"e the chapel's ahar is an icon of the Holy
Virgin catT)'ing Jesus; above it is an icon of the
Resurre<:tion, From the ceiling are suspended
twenty-four silver lamps, some or all of which are
lit at prayer times and during feasts. The archbish·
op of Jerusalem has a ,pecial throne, ....-bich is
placed oppo,ite the chapel, between columns 9 and
10 of the rotunda.
The Church of Saint Antony is the principal
church in the Monastery of Anb1 An!uniyOs, situat·
ed next to the Church of the ResulTection. The
monastery was renovated and enlarged in 1875 and
again in 1907. In 1912 il became the official hea<!-
quarters of the Coptic Orthodox Patriarchate of the
See of Jerusalem, and it has been mentioned by a
number of travelers, including Luke (1922, p. 45)
and Hanauer (1926, p, 97),
The church i, on the first Aoor of the monastery.
It was built before the days of Anb1 Basilio. II,
archbishop from 1856 to 1899. It was renovated
and decorated in 1913 by Anb1 Timotheos, then
archbishop. This is recorded on a marble plale
fixed to the door of the church, There is one sanc-
tuary in the church, which is One of the few Coptic
churches whose main entrance opens to the east.
Over tbe years, atmospheric conditions had affened
the ceiling and walls, and extensive renovations
were carried out in 1960, including the installation
of a marble altar, a new door, and a new pulpit and
a bishop'. throne. All the icons were repainted,
except for those on the iconostasis.
Moss and prayers are held in the church every
Saturday and daily during pilgrimage and visiting
seasons. Evening prayers are hdd every day, and
mass is eelebroted on feasl da)"S.
The Church of Queen Heleut is on the ground
floor of lbe Coptic Patriarchate)n Jerusalem, dose
to the ninth station of the eros$, where Christ fell
for the third time. Opposite Ii~ the Coptic monas·
tery n~YR ~L-SUqAN. The historical significance of
the church lies in the water reservoir beneath it.
This reservoir, called the Well of Queen Helena,
can be reached from within the church. It i. said
that Oneen Helena used ""ater from the reservoir in
the building of the Church of the Resurrection in
thc founh century. Neophytos (i 938) referred to its
redi..overy by Copts in 1835.
The church, which has one sanctuary, was en-
large<! and completely renovate<! io the 1980.<. The
JERUSALEM, COPTIC SEE OF 1327
alt:lT was replaced and a Coptic iconostasis insert-
ed. A new chapel dedicated to Oneen Helena was
built. Mass is usually held evel)' Tuesday and on
feast days, but doily during the season of pilgrimage
and visiting,
The Church of the Apparition of the Holy Virgin
was built to commemorate the appearance of the
Virgin in 1954 at that site. There is one sanctuary in
the church and an icon obo>'e the altar depicling
the Holy Virgin carr;ring the infant Jesus. There is
also an image of the Holy Virgin on the ceiling "f
the church. Mass is celebrated every Monday mom·
ing.
The Churcb of Saint G<lorge is in the Coptic Or·
thodox Monastery of Saint George near the Hebron
gate in Old JeNsalem. The exact date of its con-
stNction is unknown, though Tobler (1853-1854)
mentioned that the monastery and the church were
in the same place in 1720 and were visited b}' pil·
grims and others. Ulrich S«tzen (1854-1869), ",,'1'10
visited Ihe Holy Land in i806, mentioned the mon-
astery and its church among the possessions of the
Copts at the time.
In the Patriarchate in Jeru...lem there are three
official documents that refer to the monastery. The
first i. an inventory dated 1820; the second. from
the same year, is an order by the Islamk court that
includes a pennit to ,,,pair a number of monasteries,
including that of Saint George; and the third, dated
1821, records that the repaired parts of the monas·
tery were examined and found 10 compI}' with Ibe
orders. Neophytoo (1938) mentioned this monastery
while writing about the houses bought by the Greek
Catholic sect nearby. It was also menlioned by Rob·
inson (1841), who said thai it by north of the pool
of He.ekiah. Tobler (1853-1854) said thatlhe mon-
astery's budget depended largel}' upon the dona-
tions of pilgrims and ranged between 3,000 and
5,000 piasters annually. He also described the
Churcb of Saint George inside the monastery, say·
ing that the accessories were simple and that it
contained some of the remains of Saint George kept
in a red rdiquary. Lorell2en (l859), Petermann
(l860), and Galt (1877) mentioned the monastery
and said that a number of Coptic monks lived there
pennanentl}'.
Anha Basilios II renovated the monastery and the
church. He also made a By",ntine iconostasis for
the church. His successor, Anb1 Timotheos, carried
oul further renovation in 1901, In 1961 and 1962,
Anb1 Basilios TV carried out a complele renovation
of the church, including the installation of a new
altar and new sealS. There is on" altar in the
1328 JERUSALEM, COPTIC SEE OF
church. Mass is held n"n}' Thunday during the
season of pillrin>a«e and on feast da)". Two annual
m _ ne hdd. tbt first on Saini Ge<llle's Oay and
the second on the Tllursday before the end 01 Lent.
Nut to the Church of $aim Ce0lle. on Ihe grounds
of the monastery, a Coplk e<>Ilege for women was
esiabllshN in 1953.
~ Church oJ. MichKI the Archangel is one oJ.
twO churches in Dayr al&l}in in Jerusalem aod is
ooc of the oldest Coptic: chun:hes in the Holy ~d.
It ...... possibly bWlt by ~r a1·1'iIbin1....-no ...-as
ptifor in Jcrusainn and other places duri"i! lht
_ d half of the elcv..nth cer>!ury.
This church was 50 famous that Its narne _
ginn to the mon~lery In which it il nOw housed.
as evidenced by many documents in the Coptic Pa·
triarchate in Jerusalem in which lhe monastery is
called the "Monastery of the Anlel."
The door of the church opens ontO Ihe }...-d of
lhe dlurch of the ReAuTcction. II can also be
rtaChecl from lhe Coptic Puriarc.1Iau. 1beTe is one
altar in tbt church aod an iconostasis oJ. wood and
i......-y in the form of crosses in t)l'ical Coptic style.
On the sanctuary door tWO lines in Arabic a'" in-
scribed. The first line reads. "COnsecralftl 10 the
Archanlel Michael in Holy Jerusalem," and the 1«.
ond, "0 Lord. rcstore the weary."
The inscription tells liS tMt the i~onOSlasis was
made In 1742. 11 has tW<l sid<' doors. On the right
one is "'mlen, "He who entcn throullh this door is
redeemed. and who belia-es is oa\"Cd." On the left
door is writlnl. ''The Lon;l Jt:SUS sat by the taberna-
de In the oanctuary." On .he konosusis are icons
oi the twehe disciplcto, and in the mlcldle is an icon
oi the Resurrection. Olher icons in the clIun:h a'"
of AnW. A,,!i1niyiis. Anbl. Bolla, Saini Thcodorus
(T.idrus). Ihe Holy Vi...in. the C~ifu.ion. Jnw,
and tile ardangel Mk:hael,
On ,he right of the. san~IlI"ry are three ancien!
enapeb, each comaillJl8 a Coplic Icon. One of
the$e, an icon or the ,rchangel Mich..el, dates 10
1.79. and the o<hers arc probably of the $arne period.
The Cllurfh oJ. .he fOUl ~as;ts of the Rcyclation
is lhe I«ond Coptic ~hurch in DItyr a1-&1~ in
Jerusalem. 115 RaIne derh-es frun, tile four crcallu'"
mCfllioned in tile boot of Revelation (4:2Jf.).
Chuf"l:ha have been built 10 commemorale these
ere.atu,..,.. .and their memory is ~elebrated by
preloC:hers On ! tUltdr every year.
The church is lituated above ,h"t of Michael the
Ar~han&el at the monUlery. It ~an be reached from
the CopIic PllJ.riarchat~ through the monast<:ry. It
~an also be rtaChed through the Churfh oJ. Saini
Michael by means of a slaircase_
The d'u",h Is very old and has one sancluary. Its
Iconos""" Os made of wood and i......-y in Ihe old
Coptic style, Upon Ihe icono6l.tiis are two lll$<:rip-
tion•.•he firsl eons"'ts of two lines: the first line
f1:'ads, "Yoor dwellings arc beio.'ed. Lord God of
Hosts." .and the s.econd. "Ye C1ernal gates open and
let th.. L<:w"d of Glory in.'· The ae<:ond inscripllon is
al50 of twO lines: the first. wrinen in Coptic and
An<bi~, reaIb.. "Hail 10 the altar 01. God the Father,"
and thor second. -~....." 0 Lord. thor ... ury in the
Ki~ of Heavao_" On lhe k:onosta.>Os Ihere arc
,Ilree very old icons and on the southern wall an:
Icons of Ihe archangel Michael. Jesus. the four crea-
Illres, and lhe Holy Virgin. On lhe eastern wall.
behind tbe alUllr. tll<:r<: is an icon representing Abra·
ham and~.
The church I. sulTOunded by an iron fen~e. 11 has
a door ,hal leads to the Sancluary of the Vault of
.1< ern..
The Church of th<: Sepulcher oJ. the Holy Vll"Jin
in Gcthscmane is in the valley oJ. KlNlron. nocar me
Soot of the Mount of Olives, "'Nrc the l.CJlUlcher of
the Holy Vlrtln lies. A smail chuf"l:h ..... built abo'"C-
the sepulcher In the middle oJ. the founh ~enllU)' in
lhe days of Theodosi... the G.-I (J79-395). In the
fifth ~entury • la'l!er church W3$ buill. Ihe Church
of the Holy Vi'1in Mary, It "'a5 damaged during Ihe
Penian invasion in 614 but was SOOn rebuilt. It was
damaged '/laln during the reign of the Fatimid sui·
Ian al·l:I~m and was rebuill in its present fonn by
the eru-:lers in I 130.
Amico (I95J) N>d Nau (1679) both menlioned an
altar in the cllurch used by the Copts, n.e .Itar
....t>cre the COflts p~ today lies we:sI oi the weU,
which is ilKlf -Sl of the Scpuk:her oi I"" Holy
Yirpn. Pra)"CfS are held III thb alQlr on Wedn~
and Frida" throughout the ynr and C>'ery day duro
Ing fasting and f~as~ of the Villin. Masses are also
celebntftl a, the ~hurch. and these are attended by
the Coptic clergy and the peopl~ in a Fonn.l pro-
~C$Sion from ,he Coptic Patria",hate 10 the chu.-.:h
"::tll,," the Via Oolorosa-
Pierre Loti (1896). wrill", about hOI wisil 10 the
Holy Land. S&)" about the Sepukher oi the Hoi)'
Vi"";", 'W~ IIOOd by the ScpWcher of the HoI}'
Vi,..in. an old ~hu.-.:h from the founh CCII'UI')I 0 ......
which all lite sects hav.e disputed ro..- many centu·
ries. It now helong,; jointly 10 Ihe Greek.. and AI'1JI<:-
nians, but the Copts have a .pe~ial pla~~ for
prayer."
A~cordinllO Neophytos (1938) the Church of tho:
Ascension "had a biG dome IIpon ",-hich a la'1l"
c"""" of brontt was hell and CO\'ered wilh colored
a:Jass. At sunrise the ""Y" of lhe ..... refte.cted Ihcs.e
 JESUITS AND THE COPTIC CHURCH
colors on the city of Jerusalem. Ahe,- the Anob Con·
quest of Jerusalem in 640 the cross was ,-emoved.
During lhe rule of the Crusaders this church was
preserved, but it was demolished during Saladin's
conquest of the city. Only a small dome remained
covering the place where Christ ascended to hea,',
en. Saladin prese .....'ed this dome due to the Mos·
lems' respect for the spot This could be the reason
why they built a mihr~h Kluth of the dome."
The Copts ha"e a pennanent stone alUtr in the
church, where they pray on lhe eve of Ascension
Day ilSelf. On Ascension Eve, prayers stan al 2:30
~."l. The Copts enter the church in procession and,
after visiting Ihe pla"e of the Ascension, perform
their prayers, which end at about 5:00 P.M. The
procession then relUms to Ihe patriarchale. On As·
cension Day, mass is held at 7:30 A.M. The proces-
sion visits lhe place of the Ascension and then
pnoyers are offered. During mass, deacons make a
procession un<ler the dome bearing incense, and
after prayers they visil the place of the Ascension
and return to the patriarch.le.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Amico, B. PI~ns of th. Sacred Edifice, of lhe Holy
Land, lmns. T. Bellorini and E. Hoade. Jerusa·
lem, 1953.
'/\,..f al·'Araf. AI·Mula~~~1 Ii Tilrikh ~{·Quds. Jerusa-
lem, 1961-
Borsum, J. F. J. Rd,e nach Crmslantinopel, PMos/-
ina, und Jgyplen. Berlin, 1825.
Bushell, G. ehu'che. of !he Holy Land. New York,
1969.
BUlcher, E. L. F. The Story of Ihe Church of EgypI,
Vol. 1. london, 1897.
Ceruili, E. Etwpi in Palestina. Rome, 190.
Colbi, S. P. Christianity in the Holy L~nd. Tel Avi,',
1969.
Condor, C. R. The Latin Kingdom 01 Jerw,a/em. Lon·
don, 1897.
Cust, L. G. A. 11le SI~lus ~o in Ihe Holy Plaus.
Jerusalem, 1968. ,
Egmonl, J. A. van. Trawls Ihrough Pari of Europe,
Asia Minor, Ihe Islands ol'lh. A,chipel~go, Syria,
Palestin" Egypl, M. Sina;,' trnns. L. Davis and C.
Reymers. London, 1759.
Elston, R. Th. Travel/e", H~~dblXlk for Palestin.
and Syria, p. 142. London, 1929.
Gall, G. B",ch"lbung iiber hrusalem. Fribour-g,
1877.
Gibbon. E. Th. Dedine and Fall of 11,1' Roman Em-
pire, Vol. 4. New York, 1932
Hanauer, I. E. Walh in and Around Jerusalem, p.
97. london, 1926.
Hoade, E. Guide 10 Ihe Holy Land, 4th cd. Jerul-a-
lem, 1971.
1329
Horn, E. {can08raphiae lacorum el manumemorum
vetuum TerrM SanClae. Rome, 1902.
Jeffery, G. A Briel Description of the Holy Sepulch",
p. 58. Cambridge, 1919.
Loren,en, F. Jerusalem. Ki,I, 1859.
Loli, P. La Galilee-La .wO'lIu;' vu1e. Paris, 1896.
Luke, H. C. The Handbook of Palesl,ne, p. 45. Lon·
don, 1922.
___, trans. A Spanish Franciscan's Narrative of a
Journey 10 Ihe Holy La~d. London, 1927.
Maund,-eil. H. {aurney from Aleppo 10 Jerusalem a!
EaSI.,. A.D. 1697, lrans. R. Clayton. Many edi·
lions.
Meinan1us, O. F. A. The Copts in {.",salem. Cairo,
1960.
Moore, E. A. The Ancient Churches of Old Jerusa·
lem. Beirut. J961.
Nau, M. Voyage nouveau de la Terr, Sainle, enrich;
d. plusieurs cemarques particulii"es qui se"'ent il
/'intellig.nce d. la Sainte EcriIU". Paris, 1679.
NeophytO$. Am.als {)f Palestine (J 821 _/841). Jerusa-
lem, 1938.
P~lissi~ du Rausas, G. Le Regime des capilulations
darn I'empirc olloman, 2 vols. Pans, 1902-1905.
Petermann, J. Reisen im Orient, 2 vols. Leipzig,
J860-1861-
Robinson, E. Biblic~i Rue~rehes in Palestine,
Mount Sln"i, and Arabia Perraea, 3 vol•. London,
J841.
Roger, E. La ncre sainle, OU Description lopogra-
phi,!ue Ires partleu/Ie.. d.. sainls /j.w; el de la
lerre de promission. Paris, 1664.
Runciman, S. A History of !he Crusade.. 3 vols.
Cambridge, 1951-1954.
Seetzen, U. J. Rei5en durch S,'rien, Paliis!in", Ph1!~i·
eiM, die Trans.Jordan Ulnder, Arabia Pelraea .md
Ultler-Aegyplen. Be,;in, 1854-1869.
Tobler, T. Topographie VO~ Jerusalem u~d sei~.n
Umgebu~gen, 2 vols. Berlin, 1853-1854.
William, R. E. Picturesque P"lesline, Sinai and
Egypl. Vol. L p. 1l9. New Yo,-k, 188!.
ARCHBISHOP BASIL/OS
JESUITS AND THE COPTIC CHURCH.
Three slages mark lhe relations between lhe Jesuits
(or Sociely of Jesus) and the Coptic church, as well
as lhe Coplic community in general. Al lhe OU1sel,
Ihese relalions ""ere intermiuent and may have
e"en been limited to two tentalive attemplS at reun-
ion of the sees of Ale,andria and Rome by a Father
Giambattista liUANO, who was bom into a Jewish
family wilh ties in Egypt. He launched hi, project of
reunion in 1561- J563, during the reign of Patriarch
GABRIEl. VII, with the assistance of Chrislophe Rod·
riguez, a Roman lheologian. The second attempl
took place in 1582-1584, in lhe reign of Patriarch
1330 JESUS, BATH OF THE INFANT
lOtI .. XIV(1570-1585). H~..., be was aI;~om~n~
by anOlher Jes.til named Fatbn- Fruoo;ois Sasso.
ibey mrl Ih~ palriarch in a holy synod summoned
Oil 1 Frill\lllry 1$34, bu. lbe results ...,mained am-
biguous and contes<ed th"""lh mlltual lack of """
d~rIlandins between lhe lwo pan;n. 1MII John
XIV died in Srptttnber. and EJiano ..~ I~mponrily
imprison"' by ~ Turks. Throu&hout lhe scYet\.
lee<lth centllf)" Iinle of note occurred between !he
hsuiu and the Copts; "m"evn. 1M interut 01 h-
tiler Anastasius klKIIER (d. 1680) in ,he CopIic Ian·
,~ shwld ~ noled. He had a fftlilll ,ha, a
Silldy of Coplic ~ould lead to lhe deciphennenl of
hierolJyphics.
The second SIage began in 1697, Whell the JesuilS
eSlablid>cd a small house in Cairo from which they
could Launch missionari.,. 10 Elhiopia. To facilil.lIe
this ;l5siSnment. lhey ~OUr1ed the ""PJXln of patri·
arch JOHN ltVl (1676-1718), who ac~orded a fa,'Or'
able welcome to ,hem and even comml$l!ioned one
of them by ,he name 01 Falher Du\>t:mat to carl)' to
Ethiopia the CHRISM consecnlled In 1703. Father
Ollbemat. who died in l711. recounted thl. Ind·
dent to a Bollandi.t C<.>l1ea8tJe by the name of Jean
BaptiSie SoI.leriu•. ""M "''TUte a treati..., On the pa.
"ia-rebate of Alexandria. His ,uccenor in Cairo was
Cl:aude Sicard, whose ..Tilin,. are a principal
• ource 01 knowledge aboul Copt:ic ll'IOnaslkism in
IllIs period-l.ller lhe Jesuits Opet'led I modes! coed·
uCI'ionaJ school, ..ito5e uisten~e "'as ralher pre-
carious, and in 1173, tbe M1ppf"C$fiOIl 01 the d«....,
permininl its tsl3blishmen.1 ended its IoI;ltvilies alto-
r ther .
Tht- ,bird ota.se of <he .-eia<ionahip bet-.en .Jesu.
its and COplS bepn in 1379, whell the Jesuits ""'...,
called back to Cairo in order '0 found a- ~inary
lor the be""ti, of the Copt:ic Calholic community.
EWftlually this seminary bca""" a coll~ open to
all. Since lhen. ho , lhe SOdC1y of JelUS hooi
continued to col~r;>Ie in the edi6calion and
prcpaD,lon of Copnc CaIholi~ clergy. a funetion
Ihey ha~e occasion"'ly ......med alon.... Morco~er.
acantnl from lheir own hOU$<: al MinY'. built in
1387. the Jesuil$ fou;'~ numtrw. schools in lip-
pl'r EI)"pl. in !he ~illagcs <ien$Cly popuilled by
Copts, These scl>ools were e-..,nlually united in
1940 in ,he Association 01 Schools cf Up~r Ec1>t,
founded by Father Habib Ayroul. Und~r his auid'
ance the number of ",hool. incr~ascd to 130. fr•.
quented mainly by Coptic Onho<!o. cMldren,
In a more ...,cenl siage of the relationship. many
Jcsuil:j have made contributions to Cop,k ..udies,
Among othe .... J1'Uly be cited M. Juillen (L'Egypl.,
souunl,-s bibliquu .1 chrtlWnJ. Wle, 1Sll9). M.
Chat"", (Chmno:>IQfi. ths lemp. chri';"",. de rEDPM
10' de rEdriop;•. Beirul, 19(4). M_ de Fenooyl (Cou·
I.."",• •eli~.. ~ du etJpIU, Cairo. 1953). and u
S4m:toral Copl. (Beirul. 1960).
like 0IheT ...,!ip:.ua orde.. of the La,;n rile. the
J-.i<s intqr:a,ed thcmsel,",", with thc Ioc.oJ c'-'reh,
,,-hich they oonlinued to anve boIh by swclli"l
their nun>bcn. ""';Ih new rccruiu and 1>,' adopt;",
the Copt:ic rite.. In U- ways. their priDcipaI orien-
wion b«amc ecumenical in d.arael.....
BIBUOCllArtly
Deccari. C. R....... Aelhwpic"",,,, Scripro:>'YS Occi·
tIen,,,I•• In.di,; " Sateu/c XVI (1.d XIX, Vol. 14.
Rome, 1914.
CaslellanL G. "La mi$fionc pontific;' pres.so i copti
5OIto Crellorio Xlll.'· Civil/(}. Ca/loliCtl 4
(19411):~9_68, 154.. 63,
Del...,. J. M. "Comributlon. I'ttude de. relalion. du
Patriarch. Cople Jean XVIl a~ec R<.>me de 1735"
1738." SI..dl" Or/eNlalia Christia.na. ColI.ctarlca ~
(1960):123-81.
Perieo!;, R. "La misslone pomitlel. pre,,"o iI pal'
riarea copto dl All'u;Ilndri. Cabriel. VII nel
1561-1563." ReviJ;la de,li sl"dl oriento:>/i 31
(19St»: I H_ 57.
Rabbllh, A. /Joc:..",e'\Ii irtti,'I. POI" .uvir .. I'hi•.
,<>ire d.. clltisl;arti....e .rt Orient, \'01. I. Paris.
1905.
Scadulo, M. ·'Chrisloforo Rodrigu.... p..-. H pam.
area ~opIo.'. In l.'epoe. di Giacomo l.lIinel. Vol.
2, pp. 92_108-.. Monumenta Hislorica Socioetalis
Jcsu. Rome, n.d.
SoU. J. C. "£I P. Juan 8apIisia EJiano. un docu·
.......to autobioJrafioo Inedill>.·· hdl....'" HiSI.,...
"'...... Sorictalis i,... 4 (1'JJ~1;l91~321.
SoIkriw., J. B. Traet<l'IOS HI.<IorictH:hrr",<JIDfOc", tk
P"""'n;hu Alu"rtdri..u. Antwerp. 1108. Abo in
MI" Saft~IQnI'" S (1719):1·160.
Trossen. J. P. us Rew"",. I>Ulonq..e. du pat.
riuehe ""pl. ie.n XV, .....~ Rom. (/676-17IS).
wxembGu.... 1948.
JESUS, BATH OF THE INFANT. See Chris·
tian SlIbjects In Coptic An.
JIRJA., ,own in UPpl'r Egypt on the West Bank of
lhe Nil" some 20 miles (32 km) """,theast of SuMj,

A number nf early Coplic gravestones Come from
Jitjl\, which may indicate thallhe lown had a Chris-
tian community at an early dale, b'" the firsl defi·
nite witness for Christianity in the senlemem is
from the sevem..,mh cemury. A manuscript in the
Vatican (MS copt Barberinianu. 51) was copied
from a manuscript dated to 1629 thai was preserved
in Jirja (Hebbelynck and Lantschool. 1937, no. 51,
pp, 19811.).
In 1714 C. Sicard reponed that Jitjl\ formed a
bishopric together with Naqadah, Abu TIj, and As·
yU! (.ee Munier, 1943,1'. 65),
BtBUOGRAPHY
Hebbelynck, A., and A. .'an Lant.chonl Cooke'
Valican;, Barlle';"'-a,,i, Borgia"i, Ros.fiatli. Vatican
City, 1937.
Munier, H. Recneil des Us/es ipisCQpoles d. l'iglis<
cople. Cairo, 1943.
Timm, S. Da< christlich·koplische Agypl'" in aFabi·
scher Zeil, pI. 2, Pl'. 860-62. Wiesbaden, 1984.
RANDAll SU:WART
JIRJI AL·SIM'ANI, Melchite monk (the name
mean. that he was a monk of the monastery of Mar
Sim'-an al·Ba!)rt near Suwaydiyyah, southwest of
Antioch) engaged in a rdigious disputalion with
Ihree Muslim fuqah(l.' during a two-day period in
Aleppo in 1217 in the palace of the amir al-:?afir,
known as al·Malik al·Mushammar, son of Sala!) aJ·
DIn, The Muolim sages were Abu :?ahir ai-BaghdAdI,
Abu Sa.lamah ibn Sa'd al·Maw~ill, and Abu Fagl al.
!:Ialab!. whose place was laken on the following day
by al·Rashld ibn Mahdi.
At least ninety manuscripts of this debate are
known, the earliest from Ihe end of the si~teenth
century, with the exception of a fragmem Iwo folios
in lenglh that dates from t~ founeemh cenlUry.
The texl was translated int, French in 1767 by
Saint-Anloine Legrand, and i~to English in 1816 by
F.. B. Pusey, and it was published three times in
Lebanon in 1932-1933.
The debate was known in the~ Coptic chun:h by
Ihe se~enleenth century at the lalesl, as can be seen
from lhe manuscriPts. Six are of Coptic origin: Ori·
enlallibrary, Beirut, 677 (copied in 1687 by Yiisuf
Mus;! Khuzam of Cairo from a manuscript dated
t883-1884); a manuscript belonging to the Cliro
GTeek Onhodox shopkeeper Dlmitrt Qandalaft: Cop'
tic Museum, Cairo, History 547, Simaykah, no, 110,
seventeenth century, sixth item (incomplete]; Cop-
JIRJi AL.SIM'ANI 133\
tic Museum, Theology 295 (Gmf, no. 259, Sima}'·
kah, nO. 73, eighteenth century): Coptic Patriarchate,
Cairo [Theology 86, Grnf, nO_ 469, Simaykah, no.
420, copied in 1790, commissioned by Ihe Mu'allim
Tum~.); and Aleppo, Shalh 1006 (copied in 1867-
1869).
These six manuscripts originaling in Cairo should
be supplememe<! by Ihe three manuscripts copied
by 'Abd al-Kartm al-l?a'idl al·'Adawl, an Eg:!,ptian
Muslim conven to Christianity who ..tiled in Rome
under the name of Clement Caracdol;, and who
copie<! Ihe.. manuscripts betv.-een 1713 lnd 1715
(Vatican library, Arabic 128, and the Orienlal Li·
brary, Beirut, 672 and 676).
The style of the debale is lively and simple, em·
bellished with parables recounted by Ihe monk,
who di,plays a streak of ironic humor. Thi, explains
Ihe success of the debate among the Christians, as
is e'idem from Ihe numerous manuscripts,
The central idea of the debale is that Christianity
is doser to God's spiritual nature, whereas Islam is
a "dense" religion, lacking refinement and spiritu-
ality both in morals and doctrine.
Aside from the introduction and the c(",elusion
(chaps. 26-27), Ihe debale falls into three major
section. according 10 Ihe di'ision into twenty·eighl
chapters establishe<! by lhe editor, Bulus Qar'al,.
The first considers whether Mul)ammad was a
prophet. Unlike Christ's apostles, who worked mira·
c1es, spoke all languages, and preached Ihroughout
the known world, Mu!)ammad spread Islam by the
sword and moral license. Jirjl refutes, in passing,
the lccusation of alteration of the Gospel,
The second argues that Christ is God incarnate.
Speaking of Ihe Our'an, Jirji e~plains thai Chri.t is
word and spiril, ha~ing laken on the nature of
Adam in the body of Mary: howe,'er, the divine and
the human both preserve their propertics integrally.
Adoration rendered to Christ is explained by' a para-
ble. In any case, Christ is recognized by the Qur';!.n
(39:4) as the Son of God, His Passion does not
contradict His divinity, but it was necessary, and
Ihis is why Christians ~encrate the Cl"O$.~.
The third compares the four religion. of lhe
Book. These are the religions of the Sabaeans, the
Jews, Ihe Christians, and the Muslims. The true re·
ligion is thai which cOlTesponds most fully to the
creati~e divine nature. The sublimen.ss of ChriSlian
life, according to the Gospel, contrasted wilh the
"grossness" of the Muslim ideal, shows that Christi,
anity is the true religion. There follows a parable of
a .ick king's son and four letters of attestation. The
monk then propose. 10 prove the lrue religion by
 1332 J1RJIS IBN AL-QASS ABI AL-MUFAQOAL
means of ordeals, but the Muslims decline. [n any
case, ""Y1' the monk, Christ proved his mission by
miracles. whereas Mul)ammad can alfer na other
proof than his military victorie•.
BIBUOGRAPHY
~mir. K. "Bibliographie du dialogue is[amt>-<:hrt'-
tien. No, 32,[' Girgl. moine de Saint-Simwn en
12[7." lsIamochristiana 7 (1981):299-307 (Wilh a
complele bibliography).
KHALIL S~MtR, S.J.
JIRJIS IBN AL_QASS ARt AL.
MUFAJ;)J;)AL, son of the priesl Abu al·Mu~4a1
ibn Amln al·Mulk Lu!fallah and a famous copyist as
w<'ll as a fine artist of lhe middle of lhe louneenth
century. His full name is mentioned in a manu·
$Cript in the Nalional lib .... ry, Paris (A ....be 12, foL
29Qb: d. Rhode. p. 120).
His falher. AbU a1-Mufao;l<;lal. was priest of the
Church of lhe Virgin in Damascus in 1355 in the
time of Bishop Bu!"," 11 of Jerusalem. His grandfa·
ther Amln al-Mulk must ha.'e occupie<! an impor·
tant po$ilion in the Mamluk administration as his
title show•. Jirjis lived in Cairo and worked for the
eighty·fourth patriarch. MAliK IV (l348 -131>3).
whose seat was at the Church of the Virgin in l;Iarit
Zuwaylah in Cairo,
Two of his Arabic manu~ripts of the Bible are
famous. They are dated 1353 and 1355. The first
(National library. Paris Arabe i2) is a large quarto
(38.5 x 26.5 cm) of 290 page. containing the tellt of
the Pentateuch. This Arabic lransJation was made
from the Greek version of the Septuagint. bm re-
vised a<<'oming to Hebrew, Coptic, and ancient Ar-
abic ven;ions. as confirmed repealedly. This first
revision was probably made by Jirjis himself. He
finished lhe revision of GeniSi. on 16 September
1355 (fol. 71b). but Ihe whoil manuscript had been
enli,,~[y lranscribed by 1353:, (fol. 29(11). One can
find in Rhode (1921, pp. 6. 1.8, 35) the text of lhe
Arabic chapten; I-I>, 18, and'SO of thaI u-anslation.
as well as a plate reproducing folio. 47b-48a and
containing 1I.e lext of Genesis 35:23 to 36:15. It
shows how well Jirjis uecmed his work, both sci·
entifically and aesthelically.
The manuscript is also beautifully decorated. In
folios Ib-2a are found illuminations of ge<>me1ric
designs, At lhe beginning of each of lhe fi"" books
of the Pentaleuch as well as althe end of the manu·
script. title, appear in two pages in kufic lellers in
golden ornamentation on blue background. Thme
litles are relranscribed in Slane; verse. are separal'
ed by colored floret> and in the margins numerous
cammentarie. containing crilical notes of the leX!
are wrinen in Nasta'liq scripl. For all proper names
an interlinear equivalem in Coptic characters is giv·
en. The whole manuscript was worked out from
Ihat of the priest and encyclopedist Shams al-
Ri'asah Abu al·Barakat tBN MBAR (d. 1324).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Cmf. C. C"wlogu. tie m,,'m.criu arab., chretien.
canso",e. au Caire. pp, 98-99, !O1. Vatican Cily.
1934.
Rieu. C. Supplement to ,he Ca'alogue of th. Arabic
Manuscripts /n the Briti,h Museum. pp. 1-4. lon-
don, 1894,
Slane, W. McGuckin baron de. Catalogu. des manU'
,crfts ar"bes de la Blbliorheque narionale. Paris.
1883-1885,
Troupesu. C. Catalogue des manl-'Scr/ts arabes de la
Bib/lOlheque natlona/e. Vol. I. pl. L M"n"scrfts
ehret/en•. Paris, 1972. Vol. 2, Paris. 1974.
JIRJIS AL-JAWHARl, a noted Copt (d. 1810)
who after lhe death of his brolher IBRAHIM AL-JAWHA·
R1 (1795) replaced him as dir-eClor of the Egyptian
adminislfation of taxes and finances. and aiso be-
came an inlimate confidant of the dominant Mam-
luk amirs. He was-like his pre<:lecesson; in Ihal
position-a sort of gray eminence, in whooe hands
all threads of lhe Egyptian administration con· I
verged, The beY" were aware of his services and
eSleemed lhem. AI·Jawhari lived in a splendid
house siluated nexl to the newly built palace of
MuJ:lammad Bey ai-AlIi at Bithl al·Azbakiyyah, a
region where , ..'eral olher beys and leading
·"Iamf!' (religious chief juslices) had their villas. He
owned another palatial residence near Qanlarat al-
Dikkah. In addition, al·Jawharl owned houses and
business buildings in other quarters of Cairo and in
Bulaq. where French officers were billeled during
the occupation.
Napoleon'. conqueSi of Eg)-pt and lhe expulsion
of lhe beys in 1798 did not damage lhe position of
Jirjis al-Jawharl. He immediately sought 10 gain
Napoleon', favor, and he provided th. furnishings
of the palace of MuJ:lammad Bey al·AIf!, which Na·
poleon had chosen as his headquaners, perhaps at
al·Jawharl's sugge"lion. Napole<>n reconfirmed him
in his POSl as al-mub~-,hir af.'·~m finlen<!anl gener-

a1), and k:ft t,", c.u.-ulo.tion and coll«:.ioo of the
publk re'~ue '0 his and his top'ic func,iooaries'
management. Moroo'·...-. al·Ja,,·hari had '0 infono
the freoch prtl"Iincial governors in ","'inc <;on·
cemin, th admini$lralh"e pea1laritir:$ oI.~lr dis-
.ricts of command; he had 10 "00 au' terThorlal
reforrm of ,he prorinces; aDd he had to make- rqu.
1o.r ~ 10 !he commandet- in chid concemm,
revenue, c&1h holdinp, art"UrS, lID<! OllIer fi.n.ancial
......Ien. The french Iill~ the provincial lo,endan·
des will. people he proposed.. AI·Ja"·h.arl compul~
thoe lOW amounl that was to be paid by each pro¥'
ince. and he inform~ the iDten<bn1 oilhe pro,ince
01 the amount to be collected by him. All his em·
plo}ecs in Cairo and in the pl"O¥inces were paid
from his cent...l office.
Jlrjis al·Jawhar1 was a factolum in the admin"t",·
tion of French Egypt. In coope ...tion ,.ith the ad·
min;strator lenenl of finance, he took pains to Pt·
isfy the wishes of Napolwn and his generals. He
looked aher t.... maintenance of canals and dams,
and saw to their protection against unauthorized
usc. He took clre that the salaries were paid \0 ,he
memben of prov;ncial d"...dwfn (.Inil., diwlllf,
council), their interpreters, and their secretaries, a.
_11 "" Inc un;IS of janlssaries and the native police.
It was hill "",pon.iOllily to sec that food supplies
from the estates of Mamluks who had Bed or died
were broughl 11110 the f~ch swrehoUjC$. He sati...
I>ed the anny. need for 3,000 horses by havi"l
lhem plhered in the provinces. In the pro,ince of
Beheinh. in a short tinw he implemenled a special
WI in kind. as an aetvance on the _oes to be paid.
In onIer 10 remedy the food shona&e oi the tlOOfll'
in that dislricL
At the end of A~ 1798, NapoJt.oa demanded
from Jirjs al.Ja-..barl the immedi.a.... cdl~1on of
an amount ooWffn ..--ftfd, and oou'uth of the
mfri. lhe publk l"1'''Cnlle from the """'- U01. He was
c~ ",hh the taB of eu.cting the puniti..e levies
N:apokon had inllieted upon\be rilla&CS. which had
been hostile 10 the fnnch. Under his lupervision.
two officn worked toeethet on the cdiling and
traruJalin, of a land regisler: He had 10 5<:11 wheat
and rice owned by F""",e that could l'J« he $lored.
He neJOliated with the MU51im leaders of Cairo and
the French on the accommodation of the greal car-
avan of Muslim pilgrims from the Maghrib. He took
care 01 the pneion. booty lhat the army had seized,
and he procured tho animals neCC55a!)" for starting
a camel COrpl,
AI·Jawharf'l readiness to heip the French wa.!l $0
strong that in $Om. cases he personally wem OIlt
JIRJIS AL-JAWHARf 1333
inlO the provinces '0 SO"Cure wha, the french wanl-
ed. Whenever N"f'OI<'Otl wenl aul Inlo lhe count!)".
al-JawhaJi "'"as ",ilh him. Jirjis :aI·Ja",hari'. """,tion
as an agenl oi French inlerests was loO great that il
rendered him a POICllt1o.l ~tor bei,.'ft'n the
Ieade~ of the army and his e:oftligKlnk1S. He ,.'"
also called to arbil ... te brt""ft'n the French and the
MU$lims in cues of difficuhics bet""ft'n them. In
addition, he u"<lenool: II", taSk of provisioni"l and
ieedi"l the anny. He orpnlud an intelHllence
senice thai spread I<:r all the provinces. from
among his rich corelicionisu he \VU able 10 raise
enort'I1OIA Iooo.n. thac he pbeed al the dispoM.l of
the French.
For a long .ime Jitjis al-Jawhaori "'*" able 10 main-
tain his impo..... nt pc»idoo under Napokon·. suc·
cessor, Gene,.,.] Jean·Baptiste K1~r. BUllheir rela·
tionship WOlS Ol·.nhadowed by KI~her'. demands
for suMidi"" and loans from the Coptic populaticn,
on thc ass"mplion that they would be ",paid from
future public revenUCI, Moreover, lh"r" was grow-
ing dissatisfaction among lhe French adminislrative
agents \lith the Coplic melhods of lax collection.
which they regarded 105 ineffioient and fraudulent,
Allhough the french leaden did nOI doubt al-
Jawharf'l personal sincerity and unsellilh"",... lhey
made him respomible for alllrrquiarilics of h;s tax
collectors. In mid·January 1800, K1~ber lost h;s pa.
lienee and onlet-ed Ihe arroest of a1·JawhaJ1, Ihreal'
ening to execule him if lhe money he had demand-
ed ,..... noo immedialely paid. Bul thanks 10 lbe
Inlervemjon of me leadln, f""nch official. in the
administ...tion, K~ decWed 10 SCI him free.
During Ihe ;nsurTK1ioS1 in Cairo lhat followed the
failun oi the Treaty of a1.'Ar'bh, JirjU a1.Ja....nar1
.. ~ Ihe M....im mililal)l k:iIdcrs fa,- a euaranlN
of oe=rily and Il'" it by paying a larJe WnL ~-er­
theles6. durinl the bali'" UOI.lnd 1M neighborinl
French headquanen. his house woukI ha,... been
lei on fire, and he hi_If would ha~e been kill~.
had it nol bern for lhe French troops ... ho rncucd
him. After the reconquest of Cairo, his colleague.
the Coptic I""'eral YA'OO1I. R'pbced him in the poa;'
,ion of bVOl" wilh Ihe F~l\Ch commander In chief.
With the reorpnization of the Iinanclal admin;m...·
'ion, al·Jawhan was relieved of responslhility for
the collection of public re"en\lel. which was elven
to a Frenchman named. Est(-l<e, Ho ....-ever. '"' conlin-
ued 10 work as one of lhe live leading prov;ncial
gene...i int.ndants.
Al·Jawharl·s w;i1i"iness to support the French
was motivated by the conviction thai lhe Coptic
ccmmunity would !la,'e a bett.r future under such
1334 JIRJIS AL·JAWHARI AL-KHANANI
a government than under Muslim rule, be it Mam·
luk Or Ouoman, During the first momh. of French
rule In Egypt. he went to Napoleon on behalf of his
community to ask for the suppression of discrimi-
nation against Dhimmis (people of the Covenant)
and establishment of freedom of religion with no
distinction, Napoleon granted some of his requests
immediately, in anticipation of earning further Cop-
tic suppon. Al·Jawhart's sympathy for the French
remained unshaken even after their failure. When,
more tnan a year later, one of Napoleoo's envoys
visited Egypt, he highly praised al-Jawharl. Accoro-
ing to the French officer, al·Jawhart offered him
regular report. on th" Ero-ptian situation and a
promi.., of Coptic .upport in case of any future
plan' in the Oriem.
After the departure of the French in 180l and the
Ottoman take<)vcr of the go"ernmem, the Coptic
intendants general of the provinces, of whom only
General Ya'qub had preferred to emigrate to
France, were confinned in their functions. Conse-
quemly, Jirji. al·Jawhart was able to gain favor with
Mul)-ammad Pasha Khusraw, the firsl Ottoman gov·
emor after the French occupation, by splendidly
furnishing the house he moved into. He then re·
gained hi. ronner p<);Sition as the leading figure in
the collection of revenues_ AI-Jawharl was treated
like an Ottoman dignitary_ Hi. advice was taken
seriously by the new Turkish leaders,
During the rebellion of the Ottoman military
against Mul)-ammad Pasha Khusraw at the begin·
ning of May 1803, Jirjis al-Jawhan narrowly es-
caped the murdering and plundering soldiers, but
his house was devastated, Howe,'er, the leader of
the insurgents, T~hir Pasha, promised to indemnify
him for hi. 10= and cQnfinne<! him in office.
When TAhir was mnrdered three week,; latH and
the Mamluk beys seized power in Cairo, Jirjis al.
Jawhan became reconciled with hi. former master,
Ibrahim Bey, At the be&;!nning of December 1803
he nearly became the vi!tim of a plot b)' some
members of an Ottoman :corps
, who were out tn
murder him and two other leading C<>ptic inten-
dants, He escaped after payment of a heavy mnwm
to his attackers. In 1805, he was confirmed by MU-
,!AM"An 'AtJ on his accession to power. [n the
meantime, Al)mad Pasha KI)-urshid, the representa·
th'e of the Sublime Porte, confinned him in his post
of Msh mubJshir (intendant general)_
lJnder Mul)ammad 'All, who had finally seized
power in Cairo in July 1805, al·Jawhart fell into
disgrace b«ause he resisted Muhammad "All's de·
mand. fur money. He lost his leading position in
the financial administration, whirh was given to
Mu'allim GHAU, and was pot under arrest for some
time, along with other Coptir intendants. Once re-
lease<!, he fled to the Mamluk hey:s in lJpper Egypt
-after placing his pr01"'rty under the care of the
Coptir patriarch MUR()1}:'\ Vll!, who paid a heavy in-
demnity to the vireroy, AI·Jawharl was pardoned
only after four years of exile. He then returned 10
Cairo, where, al-Jabani says, "'Muslims as well as
Christian., educated as well as uneducated men,
came to greet him,"
Jirjis al·Jawhart enj<>yed the greatest esteem
among the Mamluk amirs, the leading 'ulama', the
French milita,y administrators, and the Ottoman
official•. Like his brother lbrnhim, he always took
great pain. to preser..-e their favor with gifts and to
find ways 10 sati:sfy their material wishes_ The loss
of his position and his exile undennined both hi.
wealth and his heahh, Ten momhs after his return
to Cairo, he became seriously ill, and he died in
September 1810.
HARALD Mo-rzKt
JIRJIS AL·JAWHARi AL.KHANANl, eigh.
teenth-century priest known from three manu·
scripts of the Coptic Patriarchate, Cairo' Theology
90, Liturgy 102, and Theology 54.
In 1776 he was pastor of the Church of the Virgin
at I;t~rit aI-ROm in Old Cairo. In 1777 he copied an
Arabic manuscript of 207 large .heets (32 " 23 cm;
C<>ptic Patriarchate, Liturgy 102). This comains two
worh. The first i. a description of the consecration
,
of CHRtSM perlonned during the reign of the patri-
arch, JOHN XVI (1676-1718); It was comp<);Sed in
1704 by 'ABD AL.MASIl:!, pastor of the Church of the
Virgin at Minyat $urd (d. Graf, Vol, 4, p. 134, no.
1), The second manuscript contains three accounts
of miracles perlonned by the deacon and archon
al-Mak!n Jirji. Abu Man~ur al·Tukh'.
For the first work, Jirjis al·Khan-linl probably used
the autograph original by 'Abd al-Masil)-, dated 27
Ba'unah A.M. 1420/3 July 1704, which the author
had beqoeathed to the Church of the Virgin of Harit
al·Rum.
For the second wori<, Jlrjis al·Khan-lint probably
took as his model the only other known manuscript
(Coptic Museom, Cairo, Liturgy l28). The whole of
this manuscript W',," copied by 'Abd al-Masll)- of
MlnY'lt ~urd in 1710. It indudes both works, as
doe. the manuscript copied b}' Jiljis al·Khan~nl.
La.~t, in 1778, Jirjis, now calling himself Jirjis lb·

rMllm Jawhan ,,1·Khanani, completed his copy of
lhe firsl pan of the epilome of the commentary by
JOHN cH~¥SOSroM on lhe Gospel of Jonn in forty.
seven homilies, made by al-$aR ibn al·'Assal in
1232. This is a large manU$Cript-33 )< 23 cm~
containing 152 sheets. copied from a manuscript
dated 25 Mism1450/29 Augusl 1734, whkh in tUrn
was copied from a manuscripl dated A.M. 1027/
1310-1311 originating from al·Damn. This is now
the only known manuscript of the epitome of al..;;all
ibn "VAssal (Coptic Patriarchale. Theology 54).
BIBUOGRAPHY
Gmf. G. Catalog", de manu,cn'/s arabes chrttiens
cons.rvis all Caire. Vatkan City. 1934.
Kl!AUL SAMIR. S.J.
JlRJIS MAKRAMALLAH AL-BAHNA-
sAw" eighteenth.cenlury deacon known from
two Arabic manuscripts of lhe Coplic Patriarchate.
Cairo (Bible 140 and Theology 295). He came from
al·Bahnasii. It is possible lhat he was the .an of
MAKRAMAtLlH. who li~ed in Cairo as a priest in 1724
and was HEGUME1<OS in 1737. The dates and locales
of the lwo men cOTT<!spond very well, and the name
Makramall<lh is inlTequently found in Mabk.
On 22 Ablb A.M, 1459/16July A.D. 1743 he finished
copying a manuscript (Theology 295) of 196 sheets
(19 " 14 em). containing various collections of
canonkal consultation found in the palriarchal resi·
dence and v.'Tilten b}' the ninety·first, ninety-fourth.
and ninety·fifrh patriarchs, GABRIEL Vt al-'Arabliwi
(1466-1474), JOHN XIlI ibn al·Mi~rl (1484-1524).
and GABRtEL VII (1525-1568). This collection was
also copied in the eighleenth century by an anony-
mous copyisl (Coplic Palriarchale. Cairo, Theology
294). Folios 122a-96a conrain three canonical
works, including an anonymous Spiriwal Medici"e
(TiM RU~d"f). The manuscrill Jirjis copied was be-
queathed 10 the patriarchal library
, by Ihe patriarch
IOH" 'Wilt (1769-1796),
In November 1752, Jirji' MaJ..ramal1;1h began
copying a folio manuscripl (42 X 28 cm) of 372
.heels containing Ihe four Gospels in Iwo columns,
Bohairic and Ar;tbiC (Bible 140). He completed his
work on 14 Ablh 1469/8 July 1753. Thi. manuscripl
was bequeathed 10 Ihe chureh of lhe priesl Abkalilj
(or perhaps Apa Jlilj). which Is al al·Fan!, This was
probably a church in the region of aI-Bahn,,-,,"-.
since we find anolher manU$Cript of the Coptic Pa-
lriarchate (Bible 146), copied in 1753/1754, thai
JlRJIS AL.MUzAl;IIM, SAINT 1335
was bequealhed to this .same church by the bishup
of al·Bahnas.l. The manuscript of JiIjis Makmmallah
is al presem al the Coptic Palriarchate,
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Graf. G. Catalogue de manuscrit' arabes chritiens
con,ie,,·i. au C~ire. Vatican City. t934.
!(HAUL SAMI~. S.J.
JIRJIS AL.MUZAI:IIM, SAINT, or George. a
"new manyr" of lhe eighth cemul)' (feast day: 19
Ba'unah), He was the son of a Muslim by the name
of Jum'ah al-'A!wl, who had married a Christian
from Damlrah. a village in the QalyOliyyah pro,',
ince, Murol)im used 10 go to church wilh hi, moth-
er and very much wanted 10 partake of the Holy
Euebarisl. BUI his mother told h,m thatlhis was not
permilled except for those who were baptized. She
gave him a mo",et of lhe bread. and he felt il like
honey in his mOUlh. Henceforth, he becamc con-
firmed in his desire to become a Christian. As he
grew older. he married a Christian, to wbom he
revealed his intention to be baplized. BUI the local
prieStS were apprehensive aboul baptizing him for
fear of mob retaliation. So he went 10 Damiena,
where he had his wish fulfilled. and he changed his
name to Jitjis. On hearing Ihis. the Musiims ",ized
him and beal him. but he managed to escape and
Oed 10 Sa~ Abu Turab, where he slayed for Ihree
years. Then he moved to Qurur, where he served in
the church of Saint George, Afterward. he decided
to retum 10 his native village of Damlrah. where
the Muslim population ",ill remembered him,
",ized him. and delivered him to the governor to
chasliz.e him as an apostale from Islam. But lhe
governor did nol take immediate action against
him, owing to the ,ntercession of his wife. who was
a Christian. He placed Htjis in prison, bUl lhe infur-
iated mob broke into lbe prison and lynched Jirjis.
On the following morning. Christians carne to bury
him, bUl found him still ali,'e. On discovering th's.
the Muslims came ba<;k and took their prey to court
with menaces for further ,'i<llence. but their viclim
remained /inn in his con,ktion. They dragged bim,
and after wnuring him by lying him 10 a mast,
returned blm w prison, where: Ihe vision of an an·
gel strengthened him and informed him that lhc
end of his suffering was approaching, The Muslims
went to lhe govcroor and demanded his e,ecution
in conlonnity wilh Islamic jurisprudence. Inslead,
the g<l,'ernor chose to hand him over 10 lhe crowd,
 1336 JIZAH
who took him ...... beheaded him bdore thf: church
of Saini MOc~1 in Damf03h. The datt of his Uccu-
tion was 19 8a'unah in the yea. A.M. 61S/A.D. 9S9.
Afterwa.d, the mob wanted to bum hi! body,
which n:mained unscathed, So Ihey bundled him in
a lack and threw him in the river. The body was
finally C/l$t on the ohon: of.n loland and TU(lvered
by <he mlIr'lyr'1 mother. The ChrisliOilns inlerred him
wilh all rclipous honors and built a church OVer
his 10mb at the villace of T.nab1ira. • f""", mil,..
Wftt of Dltmlrah.
Nau, F. N. L'J Mb.ok;F,J deJ iv"ng,/i"i,u COplU-
",,,be., PO 10, 1, pp, 104, 2OS,113, 134, 213.181.
Paris. 1915,
O'leary, DeL TIl. S"inl' of "typl in Ihe COpiit
C"/e"d,,,. Loodon, 1937,
JIUB. See Oi"..
JlZYAH, a poll tax, or caplu,lion ta~. imposed on
all able-bodied non-Mu<lim subjects of the hlamic
state. It w;os required of Ohlmmis (see AlfL ~L·
DHu.u.tAH), "flo wen: Chri5Ciall$. Jews. and OIher
~i$lic non·Muslims wilh a prol«ted _us.
They wen: ... <Ted from e1Ilistln.g in lolamic annia,
...... their poll lU ....... ""l'\l'OIeIl to JMl' .... M\lISlims
to take thrir plan in ti&htlnl the batiks of blam.
The: iiuM was Iotally i~ndenl of the KIWI.ll.
which ""lOS le-tied on land nothe. d"m individuals.
The fi<yah, fi~d in IN sevemh Ce1llUry by C/lliph
'Umar ibn al'K~a!!.;l.t. oriain/llly amounted to fo1'1)'-
eight dirlwm for the rich, Iwenty·four for the mid·
die <lass, and twelve for t h r r (Ye'or, 1985, p.
US). This estimllte. ho",e'er. "'U ,ubject 10 Jrcaler
Inc~ by the imams. who did DOl h,..ilale 10
multiply it under bole< caliphs.
8'8UOCIUf"ffY
~hem. M. van. E.G ProprUli ~rritorUJe tf rimp6l
{tmdu. leipzig. 1886.
Butler, A. Tire A,,,b Con'lU.JI 01 Egypl. adOI'd,
1902. repr, New York, Iln3; 2nd ~d., Odord,
1978; paperback ~d. N~w York, 1981.
Fagnan, E., Iran•. .4bou Yousuf y,,'Koub: U Jjv,~ tf~
/'impM 1000c1., (Khlll> ~I-Klrll,ad). Paris. 192 I.
"Kha~" In Enc)'<"lt>pa~Ji.. of,dam. Leiden. 1978..
Kram~., A. ......... K"I/urruchiclole d~ 0ric<IJ; UnuT
.Ie. CIr,,1i(en, 2 \'OIs. Vien.... la75-18TI; rq>rim
ed.. AaIen, 1966.
W~lIha'-'Sen, J. Dill ",,,lnsdle R.iclr "nd 5.i" SI"~
Berlin, 1902.
Ye'or, Ebr. Th~ Dhimmi: Jews "nd Clrristi,m. V.. Ju
1,I"m. I",ns, from French, D. Mai~l, P. F~nton,
and D. Unman. Ruthetford, Calif.. and London, I
1985.
JOHANN GEORG, Prince of SPony (1869-
IU8). ar'l h~ori .... and tnl\'~lt:r. He ..... the S01I or
Prince Ceo'1 and Maria of Ponupl. H~ stndied the
hlslory of an, national ~cOn<)my, and philosophy II
Freiburg and leIpzig (1888-1891), Then. unlil
1918, h~ purs.ued a millta!)' career, be«>ming com·
mande. of a bnpOe. From ..... end of the nine·
I«nlh centu,), he lraveled 10 all .he countries of
Europe and many ol th~ Near EaR and EcJpt. In
1910 he risited Saint Catherine', MonaSlIer)f at Si-
PIll, II.. eburches of Old Cairo, and IN mona5l:~riea
of Wadi a1-Na!riIn. accompanied by Murqus Sitll/l)"
bh_ They lraveled to lite JOU1h /l! .... as Nub;a, •
[lurins h.. travels 10 E£ypI in 1927. 1918. and 1930,
Johann GeOI'J W/lll accompanied by J, Sau~r, Ht
published n:pons (Kammertr, 1930, p. liB) and
boob. with plal~" al>out his tnovels lhal au still
useful: S/Yeifziqe durclr die Kil'Cl.... untf KI6ue,
A,,'pfeJU (Leiprig. 1914); Ntue ~ilU4e du,cIr die
Kil'CIoen und K16Jte, Auple,.. I~ 1930); Nett·
es.u Slrei/:li<,. dlat'1r die ((/i)"tT ~lenJ (U:iJ>zi&.
1931); and KoprUdle KloJltT der G.~nwtUI 1M'
ellen, 19181_ On hilliftietb binhday he n:ceiwd a
fesucltrifl, Ehren,,," deulJCIoe, WiuenJCIr"fl .I""
t;<bot.n dem Print'n JoIt""n Geo'l{ Hen.og Vol S.·
.!ten tum 50. G.b"rlll"! vo" katlroliJ(:h"n Geld"..,
(Frciburg im Br~lsgau, 1920). The bibliog",ph y
,0mpi1ed for his sixti"th binhday was reprinted In
1981. His colleclion. which includes a "umlter of
Coptic anliquilin, is oow al M/linz.
""8UOGRAI'HY
Jenophion. G. D. "In memoriam S. A. R. Ie Prince
Jean Gco~ <It Sa.'e_'· Om,"..li" ClrriJli4n" Peri-
•
oJic" 3 (1939):235-38.
Kamm~r.... W.. compo A Coptic 8ihliot,,,pby. Ann
Atbor, Mich,; 19SO", repro New York, 1969.
Di~ Prim. Johan" G"org-S"m",lu ..g des Ku ..,rg•.
scMdHUc!t"n /"";lulJ d", Johan"". GUle"berg.
Vnive..i/QI M"inl- Maim. 1981.
MARTI.... KRAUSE ,

JOHN 1, ~d Hem..b. sain' alld r-my·ninlh
p1driatth oJ. the S« of Saint ~ (494-SOJ). a Ih.. lime, ...-hen he waf in the minify of lite
formeT monk from Ihe mona'llery of Salnl Macari....
(DAYIl ANM MAO"). he marb !he br,inning of the
d~e of pani.~hs from !he lkslon monasteries.
rathe~ than from Ihe leamed clergy of Ale... r>dria.
According 10 lhe HISTOII.Y OF TIlt PATII.IARCHS. he is
crediled with ,,"curing gifts of Wheal. wi"", and oil
for his old monaslery of Saini Mae.rius from the
Emperor Zeno (474_491). Though firmly anli-<:ltal-
cedon~ hirn5elf, he remained in communion witlt
tltOle who accepIed .he HENlJIICXlf,I of uno "'i!houl
impoo.ing • fonnal anathema on CHAl.I;£OOH. and for
thill reason lhe $C.... m of !be M:mW.Ol conLioued.
The Acephalot • • IJ'OUI' remained hi'lterly hoslile
lO Chakedon and opp<>sed the coodllalory nalU~e
of Zeno·. Henocicon. Thry were 50 named because
they had no conspicuo.... leader.
JOHN II, surnamed Niciota. saint and Ihinie!h pa.
triarch of Ihe See of Saini Marl< (503-51 S), He was
• relative of JOHN I. and formerly • hermil and
monk of the ,,"'lATON monastery. He took a "'lOftge~
Ii"" than his p.-edece..sor in e~pecllng an analhema
On CHAt.£mOI!! from .hooe wilh ",·hom IH: was in
communion, allhouch he "''iIS "'" ~essful in ....
.:uring this deere.! from COll5larlljnop~. whoM pa-
lrian:h. "Timothy. tool< one ~ne ar home and anoth·
.... throu,h hi$ represcniatn-es ... Aleundria. John's
IOlenutce of lhis double Man<lanI anrtoOyUi SEHlIU5
<It' ANTIOCH. wilh ",·hom he e:u:hanee<J IeneB in Sl2.
In a rioc a' Ale.....dri.a. John n's hooue was burned
by the soldie~. and lhe people retalialed on the
house of one of hi. suspected enemies. Perha!", in
repa"'tion. Ihe cltlzen' erecled • Stalue of lhe em·
peror.
BlBUOGItAPHY
Frend, W. H. C. The RiR- otrhe "'""ophy.ire M<n-e·
menl. Cambridp-. 1972.
JOHN 01, THE MERCIFUL,. saim and fonieth
p;olriarch of 'he S« or Saini Mark (677-6ll6). John
"'a!I born al SalTUnnud in Wwel" ~I on Ihe Dam·
leila br.mch or the Nile, He WitS pre"",red for hi.
po,ilion in the Coplic church by his ..ducalion in
ecclesiastical and secular malle". IS well as by his
purity of body and heart. It was durin, a pil,rimage
in Ihe desert .ha, lohn became III wilh a st"""e
JOHN III, THE MERCIFUL 1337
mal8dy from whieh he "'. .. minteulously healed. Al
""'''u.s-
~ry oJ. SainI Ma.carius (('M,YI. A.."U MAO!"), he nper-
ieneed a dream.... hieh funher Prepllred him roe his
t\nu~e dulies.
After his healln" John and two disol:ipln .....ired
10 Ihe monaslery of the Brothers (OAVlI. AL·IIII\W",')
In the Fayy\lm, Bishop Mena\' of lhe Fay)um un·
doubtedly ltad ordained him as presbyter. and palri·
Irch AGATI1O!'l, becoming aware of him, asked lhe
bishop la ....... "Presbyter John" for .n .udience.
Tht- patriarch made him the fiT$! pries, or hi!; ci'y,
thus e1......tinl; him lO a position nf church seniority
in Al"""",dria-
Despile so",," disputes widt the rnacf$!rale and
"""" the Chakedonians. John be<:ame patriarch .1-
~r the deslh of Aplhon ","ithoul mucll lrouble.
his posilion .pin..
Sohn nee<kd Muslim help, however.•0 .. ren~hen
the Chalcedonians. who were
eager to controllhe Alexandrian churches. Survi,.,.l
depended upon collusion with Ihe Muslim gover-
nor. 'Abd al-'AzI1; ibn Marwin ibn al·J:lahm ibn Abl
.)."~ (684-703), since the palriarch perceived ene·
mles wilhin the ",nlul of hi' 0"''Tt church, as well as
in ocher areas of lite religiow see.or.
Although .he Mu.lim authoriliu macle htoI"Y
rnooetary demands and suie. req~...... ts of rev-
erence .....-anl 'Abel aJ.'Adz. and ahhou&h John .......
imprisofted and barely escaped 10~. 'Abd ;01.' Am
p«wed itt the Ion, NO 10 be hi' ally. Consequoently
Ihe p-emor p""" him suppon against .nc- who
.....&!tl 10 denigrale him.
John's dealh occu","" as a result of illi>n5 wi.h
gouC. and an ache In his lide 'hal caused him to
return from .I·fusl'! (Old Cairo) to "Iexandria,
where he died.
John's contribulion. during his ministry included
Ihe rebuilding and decorll\ing nf the Chu~h of
Saini Marl< wi,hl" a Ihree-year period as well as the
Installation nf prx.ieal establish",enlS auch as a
flour mill and a linaeed oil press. Wi.h II"", help of
these es<abli.lunenlS. John could pro'iide aid '0 !he
pooo- w,-;nl a ,hree-year dfOUCh-t. He also con·
'ineed some Chal«doctians to rewrn 10 lhe Coplie
Onhodo>. Church. and he left an impocum litenry
lepcy.
John's "riIinp mow .hal he " . . a fi&hler far the
failh of Ihe Coptic: church. Firm in imponI.nce is a
work of Ihe so-called Iype of E,owr<>tr~.. (Erola-
pokrisels: see PHV$10LOGUS). in which an unknown
prub)'ler named Theodorus. probably a m~n of let-
te~. poses twenly·three '1uesl;ons concerning the
exegesis of the Bible. The queslionl address Bible
1338 JOHN IV
p"'" lhal could have ......... ;nlt'~ion$.
bul the palriarch prnrides Ihe accepted Coptic ,_-
sion. Some importanl 1ISpeC'1$ of th.. work arc lhe
usc of allegory and lhe: usc of parts of II'lc Ph)'5i<>-
logus, for Ihe explanation of the Sacramenl of Bap-
tism 115 !:>oing Ihe only key 10 Hea...en and the major
Orthodo~ Coplic Chrillian distincl"'n from Islam
and K<:larianism_ In Ihe l>eld of CluiSlolor;y. John
defines lite Coplic posllion concerninl God and
Man io 0.... Body. Ht ditcusscs lhe fall of SaJan
and the ill$litution of SainI Micbad• • _11 as mou
of the imponanl p.-obIems of fanIt in EcYPt at that
lime.
The le~1 is: nUlnt in a Salridic version. copied
rather carelessly aboul 900 in the monllSlery of Ihe
archangel Michael (DAYR ~J,.loIALI.K IoIfKIIA·IL) at 56·
pehes (HamOll) in the Fayyt>m. There arc $e>'eral
Arabic versions lhat correspond 10 four Bobairk
fragmtnlll of that worl<. and ".,mc E.lhiopk ..el'
5Jonl., WI'Onaly attributed 10 other aUlhon.. The
EIhiopic ~rsions. c~ partially or C<lmplCltly.
$h(no,. the imp<>naJl« of thcolognl qll$W:>ns and
the l"CSJ>OflSCS cons~ 10 be canonical. The dif-
f.....,n<:cS in patrian:hal _nion, prcwldc hints
aboUI p"lble..... of theolor;y in dilJercnl places :and
limes.
Anolher documenl aboul • eontrO\'eny pf lhe: pa.
lriareh with a Jew and a Melchile exi$l$ in Bphairic
and Arabic, The texi deals wilh Ihe wue of assets
becomina state propcny when a Jew died ,,·ithoul
hotirs. In onc casco amon, Ihe p<>5&CAions of the
dccnscd ""<1$ found a pr«ious vcsstl containing.
pic<:e of wood. The .,.Iriat'ch, I>rina prnocnt in this
au<!ience with 'Abd aI··A&, pcttei>~ lhot......-l to
bt pan of the tnH: crosa of Our Lord. The ......-I
"'as l"'Sted wilh lire and did nt>l bum. Ulli.....ldy it
was purchased. for 3,000 dina..... The aovcrnor !hen
;niliated a dispule between the palriarch. a Jew
named Aaron. and a Chalce<lonian. Undaunted,
John stood finn in his ·beliefs and succ~ded in
convincing his ad>'ersa'" lhal ",ilh faith, bread
and wine can M converted inlo lite flesh and
Blood of Ihe Heavenly One.
Ant>11ter impomUII work. an En<:omiu.... '.-cars
SainI Apta ),knao. lhe famous Ioainl ofl..o<ovc<" £cl.'J>I.
Some disavcemenl nis!s aboul its Aulltooship-
....-heth,..,. il had been ",,·i1len by SainI John. arclt-
bishop of Alexandria, 01" John III or IOH'" IV. Its
edil.,..-, J. Ore",""r. lends 10 ascribe il to Sohn I""
""eo"OmOS of $a.int Men,,' church, while Tilo Or-
landi attributes Ihe ,,'ork to John III "n the basi. of
lhe pro~imlly of Saint Men,,' church 10 the monas·
lery of Ihe Brolher's wl'lcre the palriarch resided.
n.e Eneomiu ... consi515 of I\\'e pam: an illlroduc·
lion from luke 1:1. and an assu"".... that the SlOr·
ies of Saim Moenas come from aUlhtnt;c sources.: a
discussion of Ih,"", feats by the saint; the life of lite
ulnl including his descent from noble parentage
and his martyrdom: the fate of hi$ relics and Ihelr
burial in a shrine ",hot", miracles were performed:
and finally. an exhortation for people 10 Visil Ihe
sIlrin" of S;tinl Menu.
n.e rdcreoce 10 lohn as the author of ~ Ene<>-
mium come:s only at the conclusion. Whether I""
is John 111. should IlOII detracl hvm his importance
as a Mtte fighler for orthodoJty and as • eood
",riter and preacher whose wort is only panly
known 10 U5.
BIBUOGRAI"HY
Dt-cs.che<. J. AP<' MenQ. Publications de 1,0. Socittt
.....
d·ard~olt>Pe copte: TeJllel et Documents. Cairo,
E..elyn-....'hi!e. H, G. Tlte Mond"elUs at ,he Wadi 'N
Natn.N. Pan I. New Coptic Tuu from ~ Mooo••
Ivy 0( Sooinl Macariw. New YorI<. 1936. Includes
an :appendix on a CopIo-~lc MS. b,- G. P. G.
Sebhy.
.... ntsehOOl, A. V,o.n. us "OuUIi<>tts de TIt«HJorc:'
Studi e Te$tl 192. Valican Cily. 1957, s.,e the
review by C. D. G, Muller, in O,;entoU.I;sche UI·
erowru;lu", 54 (1959):eoll, 136-41.
Orlandi. T. Element; di ij"l"" e lelteral",o copto.
Milan. 1970.
C. 0EnEF G. Ml'tLEa
JOHN IV, ~nt and ron~aJllh patriaTcll of .he
Sec or Saint Marl< (nS-799). John is known from
the HlSIUf;Y OF THe PAnt'AItCIIS 10 ha~e been a monk
of ..... ADI HABIB. without any spcci6c mention of lhe
monastery to which he belonlled, lhough In all
probability it was Ihe mon"l~ry of Saint M.acarius
(DA"1t ANM MAO"'). After tlte death of Anblo MINA.
his prcdecessor. Ihe Ihrone of ~ln. Marlo: <etRained
>-.canl for- nearly I".., ycal'$, because the bishop"
and Ihc de'l)' 0( Alexandria wuld nt>l rcach u...•
nlmltyon a s..lIable candidale lor tbe patriat"chale.
They ultimalely rnchcd a cornprnmisc ...hcr'rl>y
lbey "TOle the ""mlOS of IhT« pos.sible <:andidate$
on Ihree: tkketa, placed Ihcm on the altar, lhen
$penl lhe niaht in praye.... and l$Upplication to the
Lord to guide them 10 the ri,hl person. They lhen
had a child selecl Ihe lickel. Thi$ process was rc·
pcIlled Ihree limes, ,o.nd e",h lime Ihe name of J..,hn
etnC'lled as Ihe winner. This left no doubt in thrir

minds thai he ..'as Ihe ODe chosen by lhe Lord. and
Ihe ..... a1 procedure 1.,....-anI consec",rion follo.... fli.
Accordin, lO Ih", Hi$tory of 1M: I'lI.mll.rclls, John
..... a /nOnk of "~I ~. insptr.,d by God In
all alfairs. And eYeJYO"C desired 10 bd>oId his wei·
C()IIM: form; and it ...... granled 10 him 10 be a«~'
ahl", 10 all priMa and CO''''mnrs" (Vol. 2. pl. 2. p.
38l). Durilll his patriom:hat",. u.,. CCIpIS sumed 10
fa", "',,,U and Ii•., in 5eC\Iril)". and lhe pMriaTdl's
chief conUm ~ lO build or rcscon lh", dwrclws
in W capilal wilhOUl brio& distnrtInI by llIe Mu.s-
lim roIen. 10 whom he rendered the jus! K>u....... Or
annual u",. wilhoul lroubIc.
~rhaps Ihe only ....Iurbing elemrnl in doe early
ynrs of his palr"rchale ....... precipilai«l by a Chal·
cedonisn named JIlI"nUlS. who was a de"er physi.
cian hishl,. reprded by Ihe Muslim ",len on ac·
cOIlnl of his skill in h" profc$5'on. He tried 10
pol"", Ihe Muslim ",Ie",' mind. loward John. bUI
app.sremly failed 10 rouse Ihem againsl him.
John IV was aided In his buildinG I'l"OlIram by a
deacon named Mark (Murqus), who beca"", a don
disciple and partici""led with Ihe patriarch In the
c",leb....tlon of lhe Lilurgy and read Ihe Gospel with
a beaullful ~oice. which allrncled the COn,re,lllon.
He helped John 10 complele the majestic ~I'\ICIU",
of Saini Mlch&el·. Cathedral In Akundria in lhe
span or (i"" ~al'$. And when famine befell the
counuy. Man: lirelessly slood by Ihe palri.arl:h In
dis"ibulln, provIsK"" 10 lhe needy. Uhimalely. the
scll".....nyi'" deacon decided 10 take lhe monastic
vow. and tloe palriarch accomputicd him 10 the
monasIery of s.ml Macarius for this Purp<l6C. AfT"",
he had ~n In !he monasIic prb for SOme lime.
his sanClily became knowD ouWdc lhe con(i,," 01
h.. ~ry. A man of 1"'&1 pic!)' named JIIjis,
from doe disIrict 01 Burulluo. nominated him for the
biohopric of M~r (a].~)• .....n.:- bUhop. AnN
Jilji, Md ;USI died The pauian-h readjly oum·
moned the deacon lO comccnu: hi... for lhe >Kant
biohQPric. Thou&h Mad: res;,tnded 10 Ill", palriar-
chal command by coming 10 Bu",IJus, ht ullttly
ufused lhe el"""lion 10 Iht q>i5cop:101e, and lhe
bilhtul had 10 chain him in anticipation of his ac:.
c~anct. BUI ht penisltd in his rd'usal and man·
"lied 10 escape hi< iron ftllers and return 10 his
convenl. The p"lriarch's ""ralh for lhis; disobedl·
tnee and AlGhl was appeased only when a min of
,",al plely told him Ihal Mark was nol meanl fur
the episcopale, ben Ihat a prophecy had dtsianaled
him for $uccesslon 10 Ihe Ihrone of SainI M.. k,
t~tn againSI his will.
n.e pa.niarc:h. in Ihe company of Anbl Mlkhf'U.
JOHN IV THE FASTER, SAINT 1339
bWIop of M~r, and Anbl Jirji, bishop of Memphis,
wenl 10 the gm"'mor, al·La}1h ibn aI·hol!. "'110 ......
sympalJ>elir 10..-anI!he Chrioli.llns, 10 pay !he annu·
al U.r(tj tall. after wltirh !hey sailed back 10 Alex-
andria. 11 ....,.. .... ring their ~ 10 !he QpiIaI
that John fdl the end ~hlnc- Befo.... his
death. he declared 10 the ~ lhal he regarded
Mart; "" his won!»' succ_.
BIBUOCtAPHV
f'riM. F.• ed_ ~ Book at C.h"d.,s. New Vork,
1982.
~I Y. UIIIB
JOHN IVTHE FASTER, SA.• NT (d. 595). pa-
lriarch of Con",anlinoplt tnga~d in a conlro.'ersy
O~er a lilk ";Ih lwo popel. John, born in Cappado-
cia. was calltd Ihe Fasltr (Jejunalor in Greek) b",-
cause of his exlreme asctlleism. As palnanoh from
58210595 he took Ihe Iitie "Oecumenical (unl~er.
sal]I'Mriareh:' which had been gl~en 10 hi. prede·
cessor by Ihe emperor and had also been used In
Rome. Pope Pelagius II and his succes........ Gregory
libe Greal, proIeo.led, .Ince il made C<.>nSlanlinoplt
spirilually equal 10 Rome. Ne~tnhelC55. John and
hi< sucusson; rontinue<l 10 use lhe lill•. which was
aJoo "sed by bier popes. John was ClInonized by Ihe
Onhodox Orurch (least day: 1 SepI",mber).
A lexl on pcnilenc:e auribul<d 10 John in !he
Greek Inldition musI hc cOflside~ lhe work of
anothe-r wri16, for il ~ 10 ha,.., been redacted
in the "",,"Ifth cent..ry. A oecond ..-ort. bearing his
name. howe-.-er. mighl bo: ""nui"". This is. homily.
Innslated from the oripnal Greek lnlo Coptic. On
pcnilenCe and absriocnc-. (ctavls paI",m GnIe<:o<-.
um 3. 7555; PG 18. 1937-71). II is a rather Ionl
lell. mainly monaMlc in chancier and con'l"O'5"d
primarily of CKnplS by SainI JOH!( CHa.YSOSTOJoI
(!hi5 i5 f$pl:CiaIly ..... of the cenl....1 section. d. De
Aldama. 1965. no. 269). The CoplK: uanolalion has
sun'ived in lis enlirely in a papyrus codc:r. of lhe
seYenlh century (BriIWl Museum, London, Or.
60(1) and also in some fra,mtnlS from a ....p)TUS
codex daling from Ihe eleventh c.ntury (Nalional
Lib....ry, V;"nna. K 7602-7(13). In the London co--
du. one pan of Ihe te~1 has been changed in reo
Specl 10 bolh a Gr~k lexl in lhe Palmlogia Gracca
and lhe Vienna codex. bUI ,.... milht aSSume Ihal
lhis occurred simply because of a displacement of
pages in some preceding manuscript. Otllerwise lbe
Coptic sums to malch closely willi the Greek.
 1340 JOHN V
In both codices. the author of this homily is
named simply "John. archbishop of Constamino-
pie." For the Copts. this allribution was probably
meant to idemify lhe author with John Chrysostom
(even the Greek tradition names the author as John
Chrysostom now and again). However, at the time
when he made his translation, the Coptic translator
must surely ha"e known that he ""as dealing with a
different and later "John of Constantinople." A
modem aitical edition of tltis homily should also
tale into account tlte Syriac translation (Baum.
stark, 1922, p. 81).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Aldama, J. A. de. RepcrlOri"m psrudo-<:hry-
soslOm;cum, Paris. 1965.
Baumstark, A. G..chichrr du s)'rischrn Litemtur.
Bonn. 1922.
Budge. E. A. W. Coptic Hom;;i.. in the Dia;eCI of
Upper Egypt. London, 1910.
Orlandi, T. Papin copti di Conl."uto leologi<:o. Mit·
teilungen aus der Papyruss.ammlung der "sterr·
eichisehen Nationalbibliothek: Niet:lsche--Studien
9. Vienna, 1974.
TlTO ORlJlNDI
JOHN V, seventy·second patriarch of the See of
Saim Mark (1147-11~7). John was a monk in the
Monastery of Saint John (Dayr Abu YO~anni.). Tra·
dition claims that his name was included among
the three candidates from whom the name of his
predecessor MICHAEL V was chosen. This time he
was chosen outright because of his chastity and his
deeply religious chataeter. He was only a deacon in
his monastery. and therefore he was made a presby-
ter, then elevated to the rank of HEGUMENOS in al-
MU'allaqah church. Yilnus ibn Kadriin, who previ-
ously sought the patriarchale for himself. was prob·
ably present at that cerem~rY' Later the pope of·
fered Ibn Kadmn the blShOjl\-ic of Samannod, but
he declined and re1tlmed to his monastery, un·
named by sourcts, where ~e remained unlil his
death. John's selection was sanctioned not only by
Ihe Coptic arcltons of both Cairo and Alexandria
but also by the leading Muslim authoritie', includ·
ing the vicerOJ' and the chief judge who met in
council during the caliphate of al·t;!afiz (1130-
1149). He was consecrated first in Alexandria and
then in Cairo in the church of Saint Mercurius in
Old Cairo. He was a cQntemporary of the last Fati·
mid caliphs, including a].l:fafi~, al·~fir, al·Fa·iz. and
aJ.'A"id. This was the period of the decline of Fati-
mid rule and the final emergence of the Ay)ubid
dynasty, although the change of dynasties occurred
after John's death.
Curiously, the HISTORY OF THE ~ATRIARC"S (Vol. 3.
pt. I. pp. 42 [text); p. 68-9 [trans.)) dwells largely
on the local Islamic history of that period. dtpict-
ing its confusion rather eloquently. N""ertheiess,
cunory refuencts are made to other subjects con·
nected mainly with the history of the Crusade. and
partly on the status of the Copts in that period. The
conquesl of the city of 'Asqalan, the last of the
Muslim·held Syrian towns. by the Latins is recorded
during the vizierate of al-Aflbl. The Hislory ollh~
Patriarchs records (Vol. 3. pt. I. p. 44 [text): p, 72
[trans,)) that Copts ",ere ordered to wear distin-
guishing girdle (,u~~M) and dark turbans. but this
order was enforced only for Ihret days, after which
lhey were again released from such restrictions.
The only dastardly act against the Copts was the
destruction of the church of Saint George in
Matariyyah and the construction of a Muslim
mosque in its place.
John V's reign took plact during the Second Cru.
sade, which btgan in 1146, This was a time when
the Muslim rulers of the Near £ast became used to
the Frankish presence and. according to the Arabic
chronicles af the period, such as those of UsAm"h
ibn Munquidh (1095-1188), instances of growing
rapprochement between the Christian seulers and
the native Arabs began to appear as an accepted
occurrence, The Fatimid dynasty in Egypt was in
the last phase of it' decline. and its rulers contem-
plated a treaty with the crusader kingdom that
would defend their Shi'ite territory against their
Sunni neighbors. ,.,lto were determined to annihi·
late them. In !act. the Fatimids had to choose bt-
tween two hostile neighbors, the Sunni kingdom of
Nur "I·Din and the Frankish kingdom of Jerusalem.
Apparently they chose the latter and in II ~7 con-
cluded a treaty that vinually placed Esypt under
the protection of King Amairic, Or Amaul)' (Atiya,
1962, p, 271) a. he appears in a conupted Arabic
spelling. The posilion of Shawolr. the minister of
Caliph al·'A"id. was endangered by the rise of a
rival named t;)irghlm, while the Sunni general.
Asad al·Din Shirhih, wa, marauding in Egypt on
behalf of Nur al·Din. the Syrian. Amalric's treaty
offered Sholwolr the opportunity of defending him-
self against both Muslim contestants. Amalric was
at the time besieging Alexandria. and he raced back
to Cairo to relievt Sholw~r. To save Ihemselws from
engaging in a baule of doubtful oukame, Shirklih
and Amalric agreed to leave the country to ShawAr,

But Amalrk left behind him a Latin resident with a
small garrison. However. on Ihe way back 10 his
Syrian headquarters. Amalric changed his mind and
de"ided to break his agreement with Shirk"h and
return 10 Egypt, this lime as a conqueror. At Bilbeis
in Ihe Eastern Delta, he massacred Ihe population,
and his progress toward Cairo bewildered Ihe impo-
tent Shawflr. who decided to burn the capilal 10
save il from falling into the hands of the Franks.
BlBLIOGIlAPHY
Aliya. A. S. Cr~sade Commerce a~d C~llUre_ Bloom·
ington. Ind.. 1962.
Lane·Poole, S. m,tory of Egypt in the Middle tlges.
London. 1901-
___. The Mohammadtln Dy"asties. Paris. 1925.
Polter, G. R. The Auwbiography of Ousdma. Lon·
don. 1929.
Rundman, S. History 01 (he Crusades, 3 ,'ols. Cam-
bridge. 1953-1954.
SVBHt Y. Lo.BIII
JOHN VI, saint and .seventy·fourth patriarch of the
See of Saint Mark (1189-1216). John VI proved to
be one of Ihe most signilicanl pe"",nalilies 10 o<:cu-
P}' Ihe throne of Saint Mark ,ince Ihe ARAB CONQUEST
of EGYPT. He was a layman by Ihe name of Abu
al-lIobjd ibn Abl GhAlib ibn &\wlrus. and his original
vo<:ation was commeTce. where he acquired tre-
mendous weallh thai he gave generously to "harity
and used for the development of his chur<:h. He
was a man of greal stall1re and virtuous character.
He w"" an oulSpoken bachelor and was well ac-
quainted with Biblical knowledge and wilh his
chur<:h', dO<:lrines and traditions.
He was probably the only Copt to o<:cupy an emi·
nent posilion in the membership of the KArimi
Guild of merchants, which remained predominantly
Islamic in characte.. The ICl\[iml Guild traded in all
Ihe valuables of India an,nhe Far East. and Abu
al-Majd is said to have undertaken vo)'ages in the
Red Sea for the acquisition of trade items from
Yemen and elsewbere. He Was a member of one of
the moot important K!rimite ~ompanies, known as
Awlad (sons of) al·JabbAb. He was highly regarded
by the company because he onCe saved their for-
Illne by rescuing ships lhat were foundering in the
Red Sea,
After the death of MARK HI, Ihe ar<:hons of the
Copti~ ~ommunity in Mi~r nominaled Abu al-Majd
for the patriar~hate despite the fa~1 thai he was not
affiliated with any monastic institution nOr did he
JOHN VI 1341
have any past experien~e in the e<:clesiastical hier·
archy. He was. of course, better known to the Cop-
li~ people througb the generous distribution of his
wealth. At first he was reluctant to accept the nomi·
nation. but curiously enough il was his Muslim
partners who pre>'ailed upon him to ac~ept the
nomination. It is said that the same Muslim party
spared no effort or expense to see him elected,
allhough, according to Ihe Muslim historian ai-
MAQRIZI. Abu al-Majd was trying 10 promole a monk
from the mon..,;tery 01 al.""fln at the village of al-
'Adawi)'}'ah soulh of al·Fus;!! (Cairo). 1n the end, he
gave way to Ihe unanimous voice of the Coplic
ARCHOlolS. and contrary to established custom, he
was directly consecrated as patriarch on II Amshir
""101. 90S/A.D. 1188. one month and five days after the
death of Mark Ill,
Although the date of his birth is unknown, it must
be assumed thai he was a middle·aged man when
he acceded to the throne of Saint Mark. during the
latter days of the sultanate of ~lil) ~lal) al·Dln
(Saladin) (1171-1193). He was a contemporary of
the earl}' A))'Llbid sultans. Consequently he wit-
nessed one of Ihe most critical periods in the histo·
t). of the count,)' including the tremendous contest
between East and West in the Crusade movement.
hen before his enthronement. he must have watch·
ed Saladin's progress toward the de~isive battle of
l:Iittln (1187) and the fall 01 Jerusalem soon after-
ward. It is doubtful that he was aware of the details
of suhsequent crusades and Muslim counter-eru-
sades; what manered most to him was the opening
of Jerusalem 10 Coptic pilgrims under Muslim rule.
This was after years 01 Frankish domination when
the Roman Catholic lords of the holy place. for_
bade Copts, eonsidered heretics. from approaching
Jerusalem.
Failing to defend Jerusalem. the cmsaders began
ha...ssing Egypt by attacking its cities situated on
Ihe Mediterranean lino...l, including Damiena and
Rosetta. and sometimes penetrating the Delta to-
ward Cairo, They pillaged industrial centers where
the best te'ltile. WeTe manufactured. This happened
repeatedly during Ihe sultanates of al·'Adil down to
Ihat of al·!U;mil. The situation in Egypt itself was an
unhappy one. The fall of lbe Nile and the failure in
agricultural products led 10 famine; and crusader
inroads took their toll. Yel il should be remem-
bered Ihat all this was of a temporary na.ure and
bound to disappear. Howe>-cr, the ",-ave of persecu-
tion of Ihe Copts inaugurated by ~Iil) ¥IAl) aI-Din
and intensilied during Ihe pauiar<:hate of MaTk 111
gradually began 10 subside in John VI's time, and
1342 JOHN VII
Ih", CopIS _,.., ..,1ic:U<! l'mm r-' prnw~ and
humilia,i". lreatmenl. ""'y ~ 10 rtCo>'",r and
punu", I,...,ir ac.i~i.i"'5 undislurbtd.
On", f&clor .ha, mUSf loa"", htlptd !he rclum l(I
nonnaky _ Ihe suca:ai~.., mt<sioftS of (h", Eahio-
pian em"",ror. who sen' substanlial pfts 10 1M sui·
tanS of £opt. Thes.e .....,... acCGmpanitd by episIleI
requtslinl lho: sultans U> lnlerctde willl tIM: patri·
arch for lht e_mk>n of. Coptioc archbishop 10
his eO\l.nl"., ....bile pkading willl !hem foe fair.nd
jusllTUlmenl of their Coptic subFU. The ElMopl·
an Phs mUSl ha.-e impreosed the ...I,.ns ~n­
dously. Once lho: Elhiopian monarch senl lIle patri·
arch • ;ewtled ,old crown Ihal he in 110m cedoed 10
lhe ....llan. On anolhtr occask>n the ..."..1 Iif! eOn·
sisted of an eltphant•• lion, • prall.,. and • utlra.
n.e appe.rance of sueh silallge items must ha.-e
caused gu'l commotion at <he coun. And bolh
• 1·'Adil and al·JCamH could nol bul lislen 10 lhe
.p"",.I. of I"'" Ethiopian "".'ereign,
John VI .ppt.>;nted as archbishop a lay bachelor
like him~If, • man who was knowledgeable in mal·
lers of religion and Coptic ch..rch traditions, His
name was Kil ibn al·M ..labbis and he Came from
the chy of T~kh in the Gharbiyyah PrO\'lnce. Kll
was wel1-'t<:ei~ed in lhe Abyssinian capilal and no
"",ined the,.., for four years, after which he found il
nectIP". 10 m ..m 10 Egypt. John V, "",nl • priesl
by lhoe name of MUsA, lose.her with one of his
asslstanls, .0 make an 'nq.. iry 'nlO II,., situalion •
• nd lhey found QUI lhat Kil was invol-'n! in Ihe
m'.....Ie. of an Abyssinian priesc of hi'" $landin,.
ConseqoHndy. lhe p.llriarch hastntnl to appoint a
subsoill.lle 10 101. <his time a monk by the l'Iarne of
Isaac from !he monastery of Saini Anlony (DAn. ..... 1lA
A..~ITOS). ",ho ....,. d;.palched amid.. cdebration
...ich his bn>thn' who was also a prieal.
E>idendy lhesoe celebrations. in ,,·hidt Muslims
and Chris.tiam pan~ ...;!houl distinC1ion.
a..,.,lion.led the JI'CK;lion d 1M Copu and the p.lt';'
an;h wilh the Muslim ruJc;l Ntwrthel.,.ss, Joho's
rri.gn "1U marked by a nurnbt'r of local difficollies.
In on.,. InslJOnct. a monl naraed Yu!).al'lnA, from
$.ailll Macaorius, oon"ened to lslam, • rJlO!il unusual
occ..rrence. He was "",=ded for- his apostaSy by
al'Adil, who appointn! Y..1:Ianna '" Ia:< collcc!or in
the oily of Mll-Ghamr, a position lhal h.,. h.,.ld for
th~~ years. Then he changed his mind and later
approached Sollan al_JCarnil with a .hroud il'l his
hand and asked permission to relum to his Chris·
lian faith or olherwise sulkr lhe usual £xecutlon for
lhose who rccan",d. The benign suhan permillcd
his reluro and ga~e him a prolccliw decree ag.inlt
abuse by Muslim bnalu A similar case arose of an
Isl.mile<! Upper Egyptian who "",ol.,.d 10 recanl
and who approached the .... ltan linr lhe same lreat-
.....01 as YuJ:-annl. This plea .....,. rd'oaftl and the
sui..,. ..,nl an 3llenl 10 DAVl ~aA U,l(),I;I< 10 offer
Yul)anlQ ulamizalion or d£C<llpilalKon. Y~n.a
,
chos.o: Isiamizalioo and ...... _umt'd to his pre........
pn5IIion al Mil-<;;ftarnr.
A ste<>Dd crisis in John's mll'l ..... precipitated
by the same Vuljannl, ...tlo ~ed to lho: ...han
thaI a I,..,.,.,,.., lrove of &Old and sil...,r ..I.,....ils " ...
dilCo""red in a pll al Dayr Aobl Maqir. The solWl
hastened 10 lay bis hand on the II"e3.$l1n. bUI foond
only the usuaI $:l(:r.unenlal inslromeolll lho.t "..,...
identified for bim by anOlher Islami:ted CopL Th.,.
man who dug the pil eKposed the fraud..lenl repon
of YuJ:1anna. The Sol",n look no fu"her mea",,,,,,
of confiscation, and 1M ease ..... c1OS"d.
11 is interestin, to note Ihal the Muslim hisMrian
.1·Maqrizl quoted Cuptic SoOUrces on Ihe monns
made by John VI, including supprCSl'ion of the si-
moniacal practice known as CHEI~OTON'A, He ..,.
cord.,.d Ihal John wa. impervious '0 "ectpting gifts
from his bishop••nd Ihal he never laid hand. on
provi.ions from lhe members of hil congregalion.
On Ihe conlrary, he p~e away all lhe fortu"" he
accum..laled from com"",ree, atnOUnting 10 17,000
din,", 10 charitable instilullons Ihl'Ol.lghouI h" 1'6.
trian;halt'.
1'I11'1UOCll,\PHY
ALi)". A.. S. Crusau Com_ru. lind C..I,..,.,.. Bloom-
ington, Ind.. 1962.
u.ne-Poole. S. Hislor1 of EIYf'I 'N tile Middle Ages.
London, 1901.
_ :nr" .4joJ,,,,,,,,,,,d,," o,NIISriU. PariI, 1915.
Runciman, S. Historl of th~ C...udQ, ) ....... Cam-
bridee, 1951-19!i4.
SuBHI Y. Lo.!lIB
JOHN VII, se>-enl)"SeYtdth palriarclt of lhe S« of
Saint Marl< (1262-1268, 1271-129)), John had a
n"a! in GA8lUEL Ill. who replaced him by order of
the sultan for a penod, after "'hich he r«aplured
Ihe palriarchal seal for a second lim.,. II nal"'" of
Old Cairo, hi. full name was V~'annis ibn IIbl Sa'id
al·Sukkar1.
Ouring the first period of his len ....,. John Vll
was a contempornl)' of .he Mamlul s.. han al·~hjr
Bayba,.. al·BunduqdArf (1260-1277), During al·
~hir Ba)'bars' reign, the number of Copts reached

the lowest level. owing to wholesale Islami2.luion by
pressure tactics and brutal persecution, Many Copts
feigned conv"rsion to save th"ir liv ... The Islamic
sources indicate thaI Copts, who had been 40 per-
cent of the population of Egypt, sank to a mere 10
percent under the Mamluks. The HISToRY OF THE
PATRIARCHS contains Iinl" infonnation on this sub·
j<:<:t and r"lates only that th" Copts witnesse<! severe
pel"Se<:utions that were hard to describe. The Mus-
lim historian of the Copts. al'MAQRlzl, has enumerat·
ed these persecutions. He says thai the sultan once
ord"r<:d Ih" digging of a wide pit in th" neighbor-
hood of Ihe citadei. filling it with wood and dump-
ing Copts into il to bum Ihem_ This in""ne idea was
deferred through the interc"ssion of som" memb<:rs
of th" ro)'al coun. and the sultan imposal a penalty
of 50,000 dinars on Ihe Coptic community instead.
This period was marked by Ihe emergen"e of
BULlJS 'L-~ABls (Paul the Solitary). whose bewilder·
ing career is one of the problematic features of the
time. A Coptic monk and a solilary, he is said to
have dis<:overed an imm"nse treasure, presumably
that of Caliph al-H~kim (996-1021). which he used
to pay the said penalty and for the relief of many
captives. He prof~d the principle of peaceful co-
existence between Copts and Muslims. and he dis·
tribute<! immense charities to Copts and Muslims
withoUl distinction.
There is lillie infonnation about the works of
John VII. if any. in the Coptic SOurces. Presumably
Ihat age of great pressures and hea'.,.- perse<:ulion.
left the patriarch no time to Ihink of any reforms or
to restore religious foundations. in his book ,11-
Khi(a!, al-MAQR!ZI speaks of ",hal he calls Ihc "baule
of the Christians" in the year 12113. the year during
which the persecution and Ihe humiliation of the
Copts was most scv"r". ~alii) ~alai) al-Din's decrees
lhat imposed cenain dress requirements on Ihe
Copts and restricted them to donkey riding were
resumed with !:>rutal vehe~nce. Copts were dis-
missed. not only from Ihe ·S1ate offices, but also
from the service of private: princes. The Islamic
sources. hm';ever. quote rare instances where an
arrogant Copt invited such troubl"". The example of
a c"nain Copt nam<:d -Ayn al-Ghazll.l. who was in
the ",,,,ice of a Kb;ll;ikl Mamluk and who abus"d a
Muslim broker, is cited as a reason for stirring mob
action against the Copts and the burning of church-
es. It was decreed Ihat a Copt who refused to apes-
lati,e to Islam would be d"""pitat"d. " is unclear
",helher this brutal legislation was carrie<! into ef-
f""l, but it is clear thaI Ihose who conv"l1"d to
Islam ",,,re honored and reinstated in public office
JOHN VIII 1343
as a reward_ Il is no wonder that many Copt~
feigned conversion to Islam and were later accused
of persecuting otber Muslims in r"tum.
Historically speaking, Ihe most epoch-making
eWnl during John'S reign ",as the total extennina-
lion of the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem ",ith the
fall of 'AkU in 1291 to Sultan al-Ashrnf Khalil
0290-1293). John died shonly after tbal momen-
tous ",'"nt. Afler his death. the thronc of Saint Mark
fell vacant for a little more Ihan a yeu_
BIBUOGRAPHY
Lane-Poole, S. Hislory of ED'pl i~ the Middle Age>
London, 1901,
____ The Moh(lmmadan Dynasties. Paris, 1925,
SUBlII Y. lABIB
JOHN VIII, eighlieth palriarch of the Se" of Saint
Mark (1300-1320). Jobn is beller known in the HIS-
TORV OF THE PATRIARCHS as the Son of a Saint, pre-
sumably penaining 10 a saintly spiritual father,
wbose pal1iculars are nol identified, Even his mO-
nastic whereabouts are not clear from Ih" few lines
devoled to his reign in thaI history. How"ver, his
sc1<:ction and con "",ration as patriarch during Ihe
second reign of al-N~ir Mui)ammad (i299-1309)
w"re quietly perfonned without opposition, He was
also a cOn!emporal)' of Baybar:s-Jashankir (1309-
BIO), who was followed by al·Na..;ir in his Ihird
reign (1310-1341).
The Cop", suffered in that period from a ",tback
in their freedom imposed by a Moghribl vizi"r. who
passed through Cairo on hi. way to Mecca for a
Muslim pilgrimage. While riding in Cairo. he no·
ticed a well-dr<:ssed person on horseback, with
pooret folks surrounding him and asking for favors.
When he asked about the dignila!)', he was told Ihat
he ""'" a Coptic Christian. which infuriated him. He
went 10 the citadel and consulte<! with al·Na..;ir and
his vic"roy Sal~r on the position of these infidel
Christian•. The result was th" "nforamen! of old
humiliating dttrces on the Copts. who wcr" or-
dered 10 wear blue lurbans and girdlcs, and to ride
donkeys instead of horses: Jews were required to
wear ydJow turbans. The patriarch and the gnmd
rabbi we,." summoned to the coun and bolh were
comntanded to apply these rules to their congrega·
tions, The Maghrib; visitor tried to convince the
authorities to destoo)' churches. but his attempts
failed because the chief Muslim justice issued a
special juridical wrdict (J~lwd) staling that the COVE-
 1344 JOHN IX
NANT Of 'UMAR specified Ihat only newly built
churches could be eliminated, while the older faun·
dation. must be prolecled, The chief justice was
Taq! ai-DIn MuJ:oammad ibn Daq!q al-'Abd. a Mu.lim
who.... ance.tor!; were I.lami.ed Copts. However,
Ihis did nOl stop Ihe Muslim mob from the abuse of
Chri'lian. and their frequent a!lacks on Ihe churches,
An alleviating factor in Ihi. abuse came 10 pass
when the kings of Aragon sent a mission in 1303 to
the Mamluk coun wilh a subslantial gift, accompa-
nied by a wrinen plea 10 Ihe suhan to permit lhe
opening of churches, Consequently Ihe ancient Jac-
obile church of I;l~Rrr Zl.fWAYLO.H WllS reopened, as
was anolher church in Cairo.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Lane-Poole, S, Hisrory of Egypr in the Middle Ages,
Lond()n, 19Q1.
___ The Mohammadon Dynasti... Paris, 1925
SUBHI Y, lMllll
JOHN IX, dghty·first palriarch of the See of Saini
Mark (1320-1321). John IX succeeded his prede-
C~r and namesake at one of Ihe mOSI critical
mOmentS in Coplic hislory. Linle is known about
his life before he lOOk the monastic \'OW, nor do we
know much aboul his life as a monk. The HISTORy OF
THE PATRtARCHS d""" nol indicate the monastery
where he enrolled, and onl)' stales thai he was a
nalive of Ihe village of Nahy;!. in Ihe Minufiyyah
Province. He was unanimously selecled by the
council of bishops, clergy, and ARCHONS shonly af·
ler Ihe decease of JOHN VlIt. 11 is not known whelh-
er he wa.. consecrated in Cairo or Alexandria, hUI
he is known 10 have resided al the Church of Our
Lady at I;l~Rrr WWAYUH, in Ihe midsl of a Coplic
quanel wbere he could ~ safe from Ihe intennit·
lent inroads of Muslim nt~ in the capital, Jobn IX
was a contemporary of Su~tan al-N~ir MuJ:oammad
ibn Qalawiin (1310-1341), and his reign was
marked by a series of tragi,c e,'ents' lhal leff him no
lime for anending to reform. He was hindered from
Ihe work of restoring any churches by continuous
anacks on the COplS, and he was unahle 10 p"'pare
the CHRISM,
The History of Ihe Patrion'hs Telates John'~ biog-
raphy in a maller of a rew lines, in which is record-
ed a general statement that the COPI~ undeTWent
bilter hardships in his reign and that many of them
wene killed or burned or even crucified, They we",
led in humiliating processions on camel's backs,
and they were required to wear dark robes with
blue turban, and a girdle to distinguish them from
Ihe Muslim majoriTy, The Islamic sources ",Iale
many details of lhe repression of Ihe Coptic popula·
lion, On 8 May 1321, many Coptic churches
Ihroughout the country were destroyed. This aclion
was premeditated and highly organized by fanatic
groups.
In the face of these events, Ihe Copts, whether
Jacobit". or Me1chites, did nol stand motionles.s,
Numbers of them sleallhily found IheiT ways to
Muslim mosques and set them ablaze as a measure
of relalialion, a fuct Ihat promptN Muslim counter·
aClions, It is said IIIat a group of Me1chite monks
from Turah contemplated the burning of Cairo.
The History of the Patriarchs conc1ude~ its biogra-
phy by saying thai peace was restoTed by Ihe lime
John died.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Lane·Poole, S, llisrory of Egypt in the Middle Ages.
London, 19Q!.
___. The Mohammadan Dynastie5. Pari., 1925.
SUBIU Y. LAStS
JOHN X, eighty-fifth patriarch of the See of Saint
Mark (13~3-13t>9). The biography of John X occu-
pies only three lines in the HISTORl Of THe PATRI·
ARCHS. He is descri~d as Father YuJ:oanna al-Mu'ta-
man al-ShAmT, which seems 10 denole his Syrian
origin. He was a 'man of learning and great vinue.
We know nothing of his monastic iife or his affilia-
tion wilh one of Ihe recognired Coptic monasteries.
He is known to have acceded 10 the Ihrone of Saint
Mark during Ihe rdgn of tbe Ba~li Mamluk suhan,
ai-Ashraf Sha'blI.n (1363-1377), and we must as-
sume Ihat his patriarchate was a peaceful one with
no outstanding events connected with hi, life.
SUBHI Y. LABt8
JOHN Xl, eighly·ninth patriarch of Ihe See of
Saint Mark (1427-1452). John's life before his se-
lection is unknown. Hi, biography in the HISTORV OF
THE fATlUARCHS is restricted 10 lhe dales of his in-
veSlilUre and decease. In fact, the biographer!; of
that period of Ihe founeenlh cenlury have refrained
from dealing wilh the evellls of most palriarchal
reigns, and we have 10 look for Ihis male rial in Ihe
contemporary Islamic sources,
We do nOt know with which monastery John was
,

affiliated at the lUrn: of his elec1ion, whic:h look
pbce duri"llhe sultanale of the Mamluk a1-.wrn.c
~y (1422-143&). He .....,.,. a eonlemporary <X
Jamil al-Din Ya:wf (1438) and died ill !he Ialler
yea" 01.1.... ",il" of Jaqrn.aq (1438-1453).
Perhaps the major event lhal oecurn:'d in lhe ear·
ly ~a" of John', paniarchale concerned. the que.·
lion of Ihe inherilance. of dec.ased COpts and
Jews, According 10 al'MAQRIZI, In his 8",ed for col.
let:tinC funds, ai-Ashraf 8arsbay appolmcd a penon
of "low chanocre," 10 Mlend 10 Ihis fullction. His
name does nor ~ar ill any source, for all SOUICC£
wen: dis£usrcd ..'i!h his policy <X illegal appn:>J>ria-
lion 01 propeny .... the dca!ll of the owner. Heirs
-... rtqUCSlcd to pro~ o8icial documents pr0v-
ing \heir ov.'n<lI'Ship, oo.c...-isc they ...." ffe dispos-
- . d of eMir land, which wenl to the state. The
propeny of a dece.ed penon wilho." ~rs was
immedtncly conliseat.d. This rule broll"'t the SIJIle
in conRict wilh the pottriarch who was accused of
acquiring such property. The pIltriarch defen<lcd his
position by a",ening th;>1 the church took the lands
only if they w.re expressly bequClthed 10 the
church by lhe dcccucd owners.
AnOl:hcr order that interfered. with the sanctity of
indiridual rnidencel ....... the inSf'C'('clon of Cupric
homes for conlUcarion of all win. n:'Ccpw:1cs,
....nich w"", ....n spllied and clcstroy.ed.
Coptic ",Iipol" i,milUtiom fued .. badJy III C"9-
tic homes.. In .ut. tAOfAD_ 1436. a Mamluk emir
ridi.. through Shub", al·Khiyt.m (,he modem
snub", aJ.Kha,man), a suburb of Cairo, dalfO)-ed a
Coptic church. H. Ih.n allowed the mob to pillage
Its stores while the sacred ",lics contain.d in It.
sanctuary were burned. In th. following y.ar, Ih.
ancient foundalion of DAYR AI,.-MA(;1f'I1S by th. Lake
8u".i1us, a highly ",vered Coplic plllrimag. c.mer,
was abo desc~d. In 1439, ponion. of the OIt""CH
OF AUoIlTAtuOA'l in Old Cairo WCn:' desrroyed by
go..·.mmenl ,ep~ntMives~'J' the "",,",,I WI thty
_n:' modem ~ions outside Ih. terms of the
CO't'U<A.'ff or 'tIl&.U.
Tbc ~ of .onfuslon of !be /damluk .dminiru'a.
tion spued neilher Copt! ioor MuJlims I'r'om en·
.roacttrn..nts on their ~ , nor -.-.. they
protected from continuo.... searches of thrir hom....
Tbc siluation of th. people was wonened by an
oulbreak of the plague. [n Upper Ea;ypt, the mao
rauding Hawwlirah A",bs descended on th. unpro-
tet:l.d vall.y and looced both caule and agricultural
products, whill a plagu. of rats extlrminated whal
....'IS left.
In 144ll Dami.. ~, On lite Medit.rnnean IInonl,
JOHN XI 1345
_ '.'0«$
the x ..... of oeC1,;, of a different DllUre.
A F~kish lIcfl anackcd threoc l$lamk: shipa in the
_Iers oi thac city, and its NuslirrI sailan were
either killed or drowned. A Christian native of Dam-
iet~, whose national idelllity is unclear, C.lcbnolcd
the sad news and inFurialed the bereav.d Mu.lim
Inhabltalll', who seized him and wanted to kill him,
His name was Jirjis, and the viceroy N~ir ai-DIn
ibn Mu1)ammad ibn A~mad ibn SaHAm clme to his
resCUe and offered Ih. appllcallon oi justice 10 his
cue. Jiljis feillncd AJ>OSlasy to Islam, thinkinl dul
lhal would ....., his skin. Bul even this .oWd not
relieve him, and in lhe end M was con<lcmned 10
dra.... and his body was burned. Tbc mob then
pillapd. bul did DO! destroy, the Christian churches..
In Cairo, in 1441, a Copt by the na.mc of al·"AfIf
....as ~ for a crime, ......,. beaten, and ...........
leased only a1ier he ha.d espou.sed Islam, bul his
children w"", allowed 10 ",tain lheir Chrisllanily.
Ibn Taghrf Bard! n:"pOrU, in his work AI.Nujum
"I,Z~hir"h (Vol. IS. p. 384), thaI Ihe sultan iloS......d "-
deere. forbidding th. Coptic physiclans to Ir.a\
lick Muslim•. Ibn !:ta]ar al.'Asq.linl, In his work
In""" "/.fJh,,mr bi Abo'" "I-'Umr (1961- 1916), «iYe'
rumples of Copts con •..,ning 10 hl.m .nd being
punished when lhey chanced thrir minds.
Allhough the Coptic: _ ..."s ha\.., rcfntIned from
m.,uioninll IlIIJYIC$ oi Copts ....'1>0 "P"'"ized 10 "-
lam In the later Middle Agel, the Wamic annal. of
those times have li!ted a colUiderabl. nrunber oi
cbem, especially those .... ho occupied ,hoe highest:
posilion& in the admillist",lion, lTom secretarial 10
mlnist......1 dignitaries as well as thoac in financ""
and III the hi'" Islam!c judicial .ysc.m.
On th. im.matlOIl.l SC~lle, Egypllall n:'l.tions
with foreign countril. in the fifteenth c.ntury ....·ere
marred by the monopolistic policy of cOmm.rce
Imposed by the Mamluk ... Irans I.ading lhe Europe·
an IrW. republics .... d Spalo 10 ~l. n.", route 10
lhe IaDd of <'J>rcsr.r John" and eM Far Easl. The
...... policy also aflectcd lhoe ",wions with Elhio-
pia. w!l.ich ...... COnrtet:le.l wi'" Ec>1lI through its
reliPous ~ c e Oil lite patriarchate of John
XI. nr... in u.e end, lIS Abyssinian SOYft'ei&ns de·
dded to mend relations ..ilh the Mamluk "",ltans by
disptltching a special emt-&y who urriccl • p ....
ciQlJs lift 01. gold and the rare m«l"inal produ.....
of th. country_ Th••mbassy also ..,bm;u.d a ro)'li
bri.f asking the aUlhorllie. in Egypl to rcfl"llin from
Ml'1ls.slng Ihe Copt.s and 10 let Ihem live in peac"
.nd ••curity wilh Ih.ir churches Intact (.i·Maqrlzi<
1956, Vol. 4, pl. 2, p. 102"). Neither the Coplic nOr
the Ishlmlc sources provide .n)' t;peellic infonn.·
 1346 JOHN XII
tion about the situation of the Coplic church in
Nubia nor do the~ treat the relationship with the
sister Monoph}'site church of Antioch.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Ibn !:Iajar al·'Asqalanl. AI-Durar al-K~minah, 6 ,'ols.
H~derabad. 1972-1976.
LIne-Poole, S. Hi$lory of EgypJ in ,he Middle Age•.
London, 1901.
_ _~, The Mohammadan Dynasties. Paris, 1925.
SUDHI Y. UtBtD
JOHN XII, ninety-third patriarch of the See of
Saint Mark (1479-1482). John acceded to the
throne of Saint Mark afle. an interregnum of about
fwo years. during which the bi.hops, the dergy, and
lhe archons could not settle on a .uitable candidate
for this high ecclesiastical office,
John was a native of the city of Naqadah in Upper
Egypl and was a monk of the Monastery of Our
Lady, known as n~n ~L·MUl;I~RMO, when his candi·
dacy was approved. We do not know when he
joined the monastery, nor do ,~ know anything
aboul his .ecular life before he fook the monastic
vOw.
He was a contemporary of the Bulji Mamluk sui.
tan al·Ashraf Sayf al·Din Qa.'itMy (1468-1495), un·
der whooe rule the Copts li"ed in relative peace and
security,
Perhaps the most signifieanf event of John's reign
was the receipt of an epistle hom the pope of
Rome, Si.lUs IV (1471-1484). almost a quaner ofa
amu'1' after the fall of Constantinople to the Otto-
mans. The HISTORY OF TIlE P~TRI~RCHS (Vol. 3, pt. 3,
Arabic lext p, 159; lrans., p. 274) makes a special
mention of thi, papal o"enure without detailing its
contents, but ,tate, that the Coptic patriarchal reo
sponse was a lengrhy one iqWhret' brochures. John
XII summarizes their purport in IWO major points:
(Il the elimination of contPdictory behavior in
matters of doctrine; and (2)' the e!ltablishmenl of
peace and conciliatiQn among all Christian ",cts. In
this way, the patriarch preserved the Qld Coptic
tradition of independent thinking,
On Ihe internationai scene, the amicable n.'la-
tions with the Ethiopian empire were renewed
when an Abyssinian embassy arrived with precious
gifts for the Sultan, who met their delegations with
all lhe hQnors accorded to friendly nations, Egypt
needed 10 secure its lrade roules in Ihc Red Sea.
The n.'quest by the Abyssinians for tile appointment
of a Coplic arehbishQp was gran led, and the patri·
arch consecrated his ecclesiastical repre.;entati\'e of
Egypt at the Abyssinian court,
BIBLIOGRAPHY
LIne-Poole, S. His/ory 01 Egypl in Ihe Middle Ages,
London, 1901.
___ The Mohammadan D)'nasiles, Paris, 1925.
Mul)ammad ibn Al)mad Ibn lyas. Bada';' al·Zuhu, Ii
Waqa'f' al-Duhur, 5 vok Cairo, 1960,
SuBHI y, UtBIB
JOHN XIII, ninely·fourth palriarch of the See of
Saint Mark (1484~1524). John's life before joining
the Monastery of Our lady. known as nAU AL-MUl;I·
ARIlAO. is unknown.
After tile death of JOIn< ~11, the bishops, the der-
gy, and the archQn, remained undecided about Ihe
selection of a candidate for patriarch for approxi·
mately two years, Finally lhey chose another monk
of Dayr al-MuJ:larraq whom Ihey consecrated as
John XIII. Perhaps the mo,t memorable fact of his
patriarchate was its lengrh of fon~i yea"" eleven
months. and twenty·si~ days, He acce<led to the
throne of Saint Mark during the reign of the Bulji
Mamluk sultan Oa'itMy (1468-1495), and he was a
contemporary of Ihe lasf five Mamluk sultans_ After
the conque,t of Egypt by the Oftomans, he li,'ed
through the sultanate of Selim I (1512-1520) and
Sulayman I the Magnificent (1520-1566), during
whQse reign he died,
In 1517, afte. the battle of MaTj D~biq, the Olto-
man dynasty ruled Egypt. Copts suffered during the
latter da}'s of Mamluk rule. The sultans, whose rule
was endangered by the imminent encroachment. of
lhe Ottoman hosts, de...,ended upon the counlry
with excessive and extraordinary financial imposts,
which bordered on outright pillage, under the pre·
te~t of the defense of their nonhern frontier. The
Christians and the Jews, known as lhe people of Ihe
Co,·enant (AHL AL-DHI"MJlH), sulfered Ihe most. The
situation was won;ened by the ri,e of famine and
the oUlbTeak of one plague after another. And for
the first time a new, incurable plague appeared that
the sources called the Frankish beans (ai-haM al·
afra"jtj, which may b. identified ...., smallpox. 11 is
said that a considerable peTcent of the population
and especially the labor corps in Egypt succumbed
during these plagues,
At lhe advent of the Onoman in"aders and the
change of regimes the misery of Ibe population,

both Coptic and Muslim, wa< so complete that the
change in dynasties could have cause<! lillIe reac-
tion. The Islamic SOUrCes estimate that Ihe sixteen
campaigns conducted by Qa'itbay alone cost Ihe
country the enormous sum of 7,065,000 dinars, at a
time when the resou""es of Ihe country were de-
pleted by Ihe successi"e plague. that mowed duwn
Ihe working class evel)'Where. This situation re·
curroo during the successive sultanales until the
end of Mamluk rule.
John died in relative peace under Ottoman ",Ie,
which was con dueled from the "'ther remote seat
of power in Constantinople, unlike the Mamluks,
who had preyed upon the P"ople from neighboring
Cairo.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Hanotaux, G., ed, HislOire de I" ~"Iio~ egypliem,e, 7
vols. Paris, 1931-1940.
Illlllcik, Halil. The Qltom"" Empire_The Classical
Age 1300-1600, 1lans, N. ltzl:owilz and C. Imber.
New York and Washington, 1973.
Lane·Poole, S. Hi,lOry 0/ Egypi i" lire Middle Age'
London, 1901.
___. The Mohammada" Dy"asties. Paris, 1925.
Mulpmmad ibn A~mad Ibn Iylls. Badii';' al·Zuh'" Ii
Waq~'i' al-D"h"" 5 ,'ols. Cairo, 1960.
SUBIII Y. LABtB
JOHN XIV, ninely·,i,th patriarch of Ihe Set' of
Saint Mark (1570-1585). John was a native of the
elty of ManfaliJ.! in UpP"r Egypl. He was selected
for IMs high ecclesiastical office from the Monas-
tery of Our Lady kn""n as DAVR AL-IIARAMOS after an
interregnum of appro'imately tw() years, during
which Ihe bishop' and Ihe clergy as well as the
Coplic archons could nOI ar;rive at a decision for a
suitable candidate, The HIST4fY OF THE PATRIARCHS
provides no deJails of his sec"llar life Or his Jife as a
monk in the wilderness of Shih,U. But we musl
assume that his sanctity and \lis knowledge of Cop-
tic chu""h traditions were the dcci'ive fact"rs in his
selection.
The Hisl<>ry "I tlte Pmri"rch, records Ihat a new
embassy from Rome arrived with an epistle from
Ihc pope "f Rome hearing lhc same proposals as
lhose received by iOHH XII half a century earlier.
The Roman pontiff was seeking the submission of
lhe Coplic Church (Fowler, 1901, p. 114). John
XIV, like John XII, replied 10 it in the same es-
sence, which indicates the independent place of the
JOHN XVI 1347
Coptic church. It is noteworthy> however, to point
out thai Ihe secular Muslim regime of the counlry
never interfered with these ecclesiastical missives
between Rome and Alexandria.
John XIV was a contemporary of two Ouoman
sultans, Sellm II ([566-1574) and MurAd III (1574_
[595). There is little 10 repon on the relation' be-
tween the coun al Constantinople and Ihe patriar·
chale in Cairo, which was 100 remote from the
centcr of power 10 attraci any special allention by
the Turki,h sultans, who acled through local for-
eign vicero)'s dispatched to Cairo from Istanbul.
Beyond Ihe payment of the annual ta, 10 the vice-
roy's office, Ihere is hardly any record of nOlable
OCCurrenceS affecling the Copt>.
After a relath'ely quiet reign of fifteen years, John
XIV diod and was interred in an unknown Coptic
chu""h, probably in Cairo.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Fowler, M. Chrislian Egyp'. London, 1901.
Hanotau", G., ed. Hi,IOi,. de I" ""tion egyptie"ne, 7
vols. Paris, 1931- 1940.
Meinardus, 0, Chrisli"" Egypl: A"cieM ""d Modern.
Cairo, 1977.
SUaHt Y. LlBIB
JOHN XV, ninely·ninth palriarch of Ihe See of
Saint Mark (1619-1634). John was a nalive of the
cily of Mallawl in Upper Egypl.
He wa< probably sel«te<! from the ancient Mon·
aslery of Saint Antony (DAYR ANBA M<T(lNIV!JS) in the
Easlern Desert by Ihe Red Sea, He was a contempo-
rary of Ihree Ottoman sultans, 'Ulhman II (1618-
1620), Mu~!<,fa I (1620- 1623), and Murad IV (1623-
1640). Because he lived in onc of Ihe darkest ages
in Egyplian history, ;1 i, difficult to un""ver spccif,c
informalion about his activilies beyond the conduct
of the religi"us life of the communilY.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Hanotaux, G" ed. HisJoire de 1" "atio" egypl,e""e, 7
vols. Paris, 1931-1940.
Meinardw;, 0_ Christi"n EO'pl: A"ci,nl ""d Modern.
Cairo, 1977.
SUB"l Y. LlBtB
JOHN XVI, 103rd palriarch of the Set' of Saint
Mark (1676-1718). He succeeded MATTIIEw tV
(I c>6O- 1675), originally a monk of uAYR AL-BARAMOs.
1348 JOHN XVII
As a nall~ of lhe old tiry of Tokh l>""l~ri or
Tolkh Oalabh his sKular name before \lIlklns the
monaMk "0\01 al DAYR ",,"&I """'!"ONI1'OS _ Ibrthlm
a1·Ttlkhl. He "'"as a man of ,...1 lheolosinJ knowl·
flIse and he "'. ~ to the ....,,·ke of his
ehurch durin, adver5e intemal events and elllema1
plouilllNt peni5ted througboul his ...,iJ1l of Sony-
two yean..
He reslored <he use of unction wilh hoi,. oil
(CHkIS.ll) 101 Iht office of baplism. which had been
i!lttn'Upltd for No hundred years. He imis1eCl that
'!l£anl Np'lism sbouId be carried OUI on tilt t'glllh
day from Iht child's binh. Ihough he permlued
male haplls," up 10 lOoy da". 10 emoble a molher to
presenl herself al lhe allar. He opposed bIOplism In
homes. "" did Ihe U1iJl5.
In his days, the palriarchal rt$idence was built in
~ft.l'I' AtrRO/II. Ihlt$ .-.,placinl the older ant at IjAft.l'I'
ZU"'AVIAH. He succeeded in lifting Ihe lax Impost
Imposed on lhe church through th. medilallon of
Mu'allim Lu!falllh, a notable Cop! who approached
tht sultan with subslantial gifts until h. ,teured his
wish.
Al the tnd of lhe (Cvtnteenth century. Ihe church
wimessed ,,"vece hacwhips when an antl·Chrisllan
...,,"011 brokt Oul at Bai",m on. Friday, when M.....
lim rebels auxktd Copcic homes and propo::nies.
T1tou$ands died at a result of bmir>e and the spread
of plague. During tht:so! ""en\$. the pope siood by
his people. infusing Ihem \lith faith and fonhude.
In 1110. ""aT bloke Out belween Turl<., and Russia,
neccsslutln, !he rlCCruitment of EgypdaM for !he
TurtisJI anny. Al the same time. dI. civil ..... r lIul
lbrcd up in EtmM resulted in Christian perJK\l'
tions abated only 1»' me rise of the Manll..k amir
Ismt,l 8t:)'....·he esubli$hed peact aad order in the
counlry.
£alemally. the coon:h suffered from lbe lide of
foveicn mi5Uonaria. CatlIoIic missionaries ;nndtd
Upper ~1'1 and allempled"f proselytite the nali","
CopIs, Pope John workd hud 10 ~O\'tr con''trtS
who had been ....nl 10 Rome and tried 10 use Ihem
fot- the glory oi lhe 0rth0d0JI. faith.
The f~nch commis<ioner 1'04_ de M<lillel joined
hands wilh C/Oll>ollc missionaries by ~rullln& chil·
dren of lood Coptic families for Calholic schools
and rOf' educational ml..ions 10 France. The C'lho'
lie patriarch, Cyril Maq.lir. al$O took an active part
in these mO\'t;ments. which threat.ned Ihe Coptic
community wllh depletion of its Imelligentsla, BUI
thanks 10 John's "nAlnchlng delerminatlon and
hard wolit among the community, the efforts of the
Catholicl "'ere foiled.
On the Abj."5&inian from. Jesuit pries/$ _re active
in the introduction or mlsuntlentandi". l>el.ween
the Ethiopian church and ils m01her Coptic chun:h.
in lhe hope or con>ff'lin, the Ab~inian!l to Calhol-
icism and Roman obedience. Perttaps lbe bsl seri-
ous anemJII to usc the Jesulu In Ihis pursuit ... me
to pus duri,,& John's palrian:hate. In 1106 Lou.is
XIV Stnt a physician named au Rouk 10 head an
Abyssinian misaion 10 £lhiopia ,ia the Sudan,
...·here it was inlercepted at Senna. by the Muslim
ruler. Members of the mission _rt ..,.i.... d and
killed. Th..... par;uIosicaUy. Eihiopian orthodoxy
was saved by .. Muslim.
BIBLIOCRAPHY
Bl.llcner. E. L TIle SlOry of 1M Chllr'C/, <>f EOPI. 2
yois. London. 1897.
Buder. A Mab COflq.. UI of EOpl, Oxfonl. 1902.
Fowler, 1'04, Chrislian EVPI. Londoo. 1901.
Troootn, J.-P. Lu Rt/alionl du patriarche caple han
XV, avec Rom. (1676-/1/8), Luxemboucl, 1948_
RUSHOI AL_TUltHI
JOHN XVII. 10Sth palriarch of lbe See of SainI
Marl< (1126-1145). Ht was a nati"," of Mallaw} in
Upper EcJII- As a younl man by Ihe name of 'Abd-
al-sayyid. be retired 10 Ihe man_lOry of Saini P3u1
(DAn MilIA BOlA) in the Easlem Doesoert lor- some
)'tars. He :slane<! by takin, the InOOUlic wow :and
was ullimatcly made prlC$byter by his predecessor 1'&
tU VI....-ho died in 1726. <:onKquenlly. he was
acontd to Cairo in 1727 and CorlStCraled as palri-
areh in lhe church of SaInI Mercurius (.uJO SAT-
UYHj.
Duling his reip. the Capek community sufered
,rnlly from the imposition of uttaanfinary tau·
rion from which the hierarchy could nt)I escapr. In
17B, a pm"", (Turkish decree) issued by the
Ounman sull4n in Comtantinople -hereby lbe
khhir ~~moT) of each dislricl was ordered 10
liM '"'"ell' Chri51ian and Jew. These fines we.., di-
"idtd inlO Ih..,e categories to cope wilh the finan-
cial ability of each individual. including Ihe c[.,rn'-
The fiM catep)' ....as _ d 101 .20 fH"as (dT)'
measur=) a head. the ","cond at 210, and the Ihird
al 100. Coupled with a general Sl4te of famine and
Ihe failu.., In Ihe crops Ihal caused lhe p""e of an
aT/lOp (dry measure) of wheal to soar (0 six gold
dinars, many poor Cop.. r.iled 10 meel the n.",
impost and .....re ""ved from punlshmenl only by
lbe InlerceSllion of certain archons in Ihe Copti<:

socie!)' The HISTORY OF THE PATR,ARCHS mentions
the names of Mu'allim Nayrii., Mu'allim Rizq al-
Bada"'I, Mu'allim Baniib al·Ziftiwl, and others who
came to the rescue of their poorer coreligionists
and saved them from incarceration by paying their
dues.
The hardships to which people were subje<:ted
were multiplied by the gene",1 atmosphere of inse·
curity, the tyrannical mle of the Mamluks, and the
continuous strife and murder of Ihe amio them-
selves, In the year A.H. 1155 (1742), an episode of
Ihis kind occurred when all amir by the name of
'U,hmin Bey was nominated sarliaq (mler) against
Ihe wiII of the armed forces. The soldiers conse-
quently took arms to .top the appointmenl and al-
tacked and pillaged 'Uthmin's residence, from
whence he ned to Upper Egypt and finally made hi.
e.cape '0 Turkey.
The patriarch coped with Ihe internal imposition,
famine, and pestiience, but he also struggled wilh
the Roman Catholic missionary lide, which attemp'-
ed 10 proselytize the Copts. In fact, this mo.'ement
,oward proselytization, which had begun earlier,
persisted during this and subsequent patriarchates.
Through education and the dispatch of Coptic chil-
dren to Rome, the Jesuit and F",nciscan missionar-
ies hoped to sow the seed. of Catholicism in Egypt.
Roman delegates worke<l hard in fruitless negotia·
tion. with ,he patriarch. to bring them to Roman
obedience.
In thc end, Pope Benedict XIV gave up ,he idea
of ,rying '0 unite the Coptic church with ,he Ro-
man church. In t741 he consecra,ed a R<lman
Catholic metrop<llitan in Egypt, a positi<ln parallel
t<l the nalive patri.rch, Hi. nominee, Ath.nasius,
""" a Copt who resided in Jerusalem, Athanasiu.
appoin'ed a nali,'e prie.. by the name of JU.IU.
Maraylik as hi, vicar·general in Egypt. In 1745, Jus-
tus appeared to recei"e a long letter of instructions
dinetly from Pope Benedict. 1,was at thi' time that
~OF~'ll AqO>CKl was appointe~ Catholic bishop of
Arsinoe, He was a native of Jirj;\, educaled in
Rome, and a com'en with a ,'great knowledge of
Coptic But he did not take residence for any length
of time in his bishopric and in..ead returned to
Rome, where he confentrated on the publication of
a number of scholarly works penaining 10 the Cop'
'ic chu<ch and Coptic language and literature, Fa,>
ing the.e e~ternal difficulties, the Coptic patriarch
had to woli< hard to keep his community in'act.
After the death of abuna KreSlodolu III (see
ETHtOPtAN PREUTES) in 1743, the Ab)'ssinian sover·
eign oent an embassy to the patriarch to ask for a
JOHN XVII 1349
new ab'm for the church of Elhiopia. The embas.~y
consi.ted of three delegates, one Egyptian by 'he
name of George and two Ethiopian. named Lik.
anloS and Theodorus. The three were intercepted
by the Muslim rulers al the pon of Mu,?wwa', and
onl)' Theodorus was able to make his escape afte.
payment of a heavy ransom. He ultimately ruched
Cairo in 1745 when a new "bUrl was soon nominat·
ed and dispalched with Theodoru. to Abyssinia.
The spread of Roman Catholic activity in Egypt
seem, to have alarmed the sultan in Conslantino·
pie, who fcared the increase of European influence
within his realm. Sullan Mahmiid I (1730-1754)
consequently issued an order '0 thc Greek patriarch
to forbid his flock from allending foreign .e.....·ices
on pain of • fine consisting of 1,000 purses. An
Egyptian amir seized the occasion to arrest four
Latin missionaries, who were freed only after pay-
ment of a heavy ransom
An interesting episode occurred at this time, asso-
ciate<! with a Coptic visionary who circulated a
prophecy that the end of tbe world was coming in
two days' lime, on a Friday, Strangel)', the prophecy
was accepted by the Muslims, who said ,hat the
Copts were ,·e.-sed in astrology. With the approach
of .un.et on Friday, the fear..tricken people, appre-
hens!>'e of the end of the world, were S/>ved from
perdition by one of the '"Iern'" (Muslim mentors)
and a Muslim ,h"ykh who solemnl)' announced that
through the intercession or Sidil A\>mad al-Badawr,
Sidl Ibrlohhn al-Disiiql, and Sldl aJ-SMfi'l-three
leading Muslim sain~-the Almighly AllAh granted
their prayer and deferred the end of the world to a
future date,
During John', patri.rchate Richard POCOCKE
made his famous journey to Egypt. Although he
depended main!}' on Muslim interpreters as well as
the Roman Catholic missionaries, his accoun~ of
the Copts and the Coptic churches are records of
Ihe highest interest. Foreign visitors were not mi.·
treated by the natives, who found no purpose in
abusing them, Thus, Pococke was able to travel
around ,he country unharmed. He vi.ited the rily
of al-Mal,>aIlah al-Kubrlo in the Delta, where he was
told that 500 Copts constituted a fair number <If its
inhabitants. Afterward he ascended the Nile valley
to the citi.. "f Akhmim and Suhaj, where he S/>w
,lie White and Red monasteries of ~NBA BISIlOI and
ANIlA SHINODAK. Be,ideo ,he.. impressive Cop,ic eo-
tablishrnents, he went t<l Armant and there saw
with admiration and astonishment its magnificent
church, one of the oldest in Egypt, The country was
relalively quiel during Pococke'. visit. Another trav·
 1350 JOHN XVIII
..In. a CiIIoJlU'in in the Dulch na,'Y nam.-d Fr«krick
Nord..n. also visiled EIO'J'I in ..... _ p.-riod ard
wt"OI.. voluminous accounts of hi5 ..ull, but th..,-
h.o~ .. liltl.. ","arin& on lh.. Copa..
From 1736 l(> 110, ..... mOSl J>OW'"'I'fuI tttaII in
f.mll was 'UthnWt (Bey) Zulliqir, who di5pl~
only .,.,.. virtue by not ac",q>rin& bribes. but .....
tynnnical in his trnlmn\1 of his 5Ub;ecu, OIn.cian
and M11SIim alit.... Unlike the Marnluk amin. how-
......... he ..".,Ip.-d -...ination and ...- his ~. 10
Conslantinople, although his hoo.as.- .... pllbc.-d
and saek.-d by local . . . Is and unruly sold......
T_-.rd lhe end of John', pattian"h.ol.., in 1745,
lhe ... Ilan Mal)mCld I Mso.-d .. """rel ord.-r 10 lhe
..-h.o of Egypl, M~onad lUghib. to ul..rmina...
til.- tl"OlJbletom.- bul 'l<'ry JIOW"rful Kaltimi~ and
DimYA!1 families. The pasha ""itt<i th.- opportunil)'
H. II)' 10 man""re all the Mamluk b.-ys in a gen..ral
meeting at lhe dl.....n. E~id.-ntly all came pr.-pared
for tru<:hery and wue heav;ly anned for defens...
Th"s only lhree of Iheir number were klllw and
the rest ned to Upper Eg)pt, where th..y mUSIc red
force, for a ci~il war in which the Chrillians, as
wual, wffered more Ihan lhe Muslina,
BIBUl)GRAPKY
Ekoteher, E. L n .. Sl<>ry of Ih.. Church 01 En'pr. 2
wob. London, 1897.
fowler. M. Christi"" Egypt. london. 1901,
AZlZ S. ArNA
JOHN XVIII, l(l7th patriarch of the SH of Saint
Muk (1769-17%). A monk of th.- Monas... ry of
SainI Antony (DAn ASB.I. ~'I'iJ$) in the East..",
Oes.-n, 1M! .......Ioctd by th.- community of lhe
clerc and til.- CopIic arrbono to oucc...-d ."..UlIr; "II
at his death in 1769. Hi> pourian:hate pn:»'Cd 10 be
00.. of Ihe mosl misenIbI~~rioIk in Coptic hiSlory.
On 5e¥enl occ",ions the ~h had 10 l\ee from
the inj.rstio<.. and ""lOnio"", imJ>05"'d 00 the Ch......
tians.
The lyranny of the Marriluk ami........ ~Iemless
as Ibrihlm Bey and Murtrl 8ey d.-cid.-d 10 OWeI'
throw lhe yol<c of lh.. Sup~me Pone in Conslantin·
ople and declare independence ror £cyp1. They im·
po5ed 1&"810 ""''''' on lhe Chrislians. The lultan,
'Abd BI·I.lamld (1774-1784). senl an ..nny under the
command of a new viceroy named J:lasan Pasha 10
quell the civil war; he inflicted a heavy dcfeat on
lhe rebel1iol1$ Mamluk•. BUI lhis did not alleviate
the sufferlnl and peBecution of the nalive popula·
lion in Ineral and thc COpl$ in particular. On the
contrary, the n..... tn. . . . pro>-..d to be e~ more
rapacio~ than the preceding Mamluk am;"'" He
pye .. fr..,..- hand 10 his conquerin. !lOldien to
abu5e lhe ChrisIians, and by his order they pillaged
their houses and sokI their prop.-ny in public auc-
tions. Tke Htm)II;Y or Tttf 'AlIUIoJ.OI$ reportS that
ool<beTs ""iled the ire of. notable Cope named Is.
tWIlM ALUWlWll h.ad attained a hir;b position
under thc rule oi the M:unluks, U>d fon:ed h.cr 10
divulge the se<:ret hiding places ...'here h.cr OOsband
concealed his wealth. Conwqumdy, all his propeny
and I11OOt)' w.-n!' confiscated.
Th", sin>alion of the Chm.ians .... worvnw by
th.. OUlbreak of peSlilen« In 1773, and the .,.... of
daily death!; in Cairo alone ra.ched 1.000 souh. Tho:
ra,'ages of this plague ""tended 10 Ihe highcsl: au·
lhorilieo, and th.. ";"""'Y lsma'll Bey succumb<'d 10
it Hi> succe->n ruled }olndy during this nalional
di$aster. In these clreurnSlances, Ihe fugi!i~e Mam·
luk beY5, Ibrahim and Murid. relurned 10 Cairo and
resumed their I<I",,&es amon8~t the Copt. on the
e~e of Napoleon'. French Expedition to Eg,)'P1 in
1798. According to the contemporary hislorian al·
Jabartl. during the year of the retum of Mamluk
rule, the Nile inundation fell below il~ annual le~el.
so that famine ...... added to the tyranny and injus-
lice oIlhe ml.n of the land.
Undcr John XVIII. lhe Copts who rose to any
heighu in the adminiSlration of Murid and Ibdbim
Bey became easy prey for their successors. and Ihe
sum of 75,000 sold pieces _ v.tond from lhem.
The poll tal< of a «old dinar per penon was doublcd
for Copts and J..- alike. ""'cordine to al·Jaham, all
bt.t!.iness cam.- 10 a I4r>dstUI. The ..-is were de-
stmy«I, there ....... no toecUrity an)"""""re, and ...iw
remained attn the ra,-aces of.he ami.... ktl prey to
the bcdouillO who marauded lhe t:OUnt'}'5ide. At the
close of the eip.....nth century, Ec'J'C was perhaps
ill a worse condition than it had ......r been "'IKe
Roman ",Ie with in<hmries pu:alyztd. oCOmmerc..
",incd. and the coonll)" ~bpsed ;nto wmibat-·
barUm and dire P"''<"ny. A ......... chapin had to be
opcnd, and Ihis ....... lhe _k of Bonapa.n", and the
F........h. 1hi5 is how Ihe palriardtale of John XVIII
reachd its ..nhappy condu~on in 17%.
BIBLlOCIUPHV
Description de I"Egypl", o~ R~cueil des Observation.
e, d~s Rec"~rch"J qUI' om tit fail~' ." Egyple
pendaMI l'ExpUilio" de l'Armte Fro,,~aise, 9 vol•.
Paris. 1809-1812.
KAmll .$~Iih Nakhlah and Fal1d KimiL KhuI4fai
T4rl1<h al_Um,.,,," al-Qib(/)'y"h. Cairo. 1922.
AllZ S. ATIYA

JOHN XIX, pope of Alexandria and 1 I3th patri·
arch of the See of Saint Mark (1928~1942). He was
born at D~YR USA in the pTovince of Asy\il in i855.
11 was theTe that he received his education. He
entered DAYll. AIEBARAM()s monastery in the Western
DeseI1 and was chosen by Pope CYRtL v to be his
personal aosi'tant. Yet he preferred 10 go back to
his own monastery of which he !aler became the
abbot, a position he occupied fur ten years.
At one time he was nominated for the post of
metropolitan of Ethiopia, bul he declined to accept
it. E,'entually he became metropolitan of the provo
incl" of Belleirah and Minufiyyah, a po,ition he
held for fony )'ears. In 1892 he was exiled to the
DAYl< A'<lM BOLA due to the conAict that developed
between the COMMUNtIT COUNCtL. on one side, and
Cyril V and John on Ihe otheT.
After Cyril V died in 1927. John was patriarchal
deputy from 7 August i927 to 7 December 1928.
During this period he was instrumental in establish·
ing a CGmmill...., of two metropolitans and four
members of the Community Council, to be held
under the chainnanship of the patriarch or his dep·
utI', in order to .upervise the accounts of bequests,
as a means toward putting an end 10 the dissent
between Ihe two sides.
Refonnists seized the oppol1unit)' to call for the
choice of a person mosl .uited to the dignily of
patriarch, even if he werc a layman. To put an end
.j
JOHN XIX 1351
to Illis di.pute, the Holy Synod decided on 28 July
1928 to apply the existing procedure of choosing a
metropolitan or bishop as the candidate for the
vacant seat of palriarch, In the meantime, a royal
dec ........ designated an electoral college con.isting of
eighty·£ve members from the clergy, the Communi·
ty Council, and noted Coptic personalit~s to handle
the whole question of patriarchal election. In thc
sec,,"t ballol John oblaine<! .evcnty \,OICS, and hc
was consequently cnthroned on 16 De<:cmber 1928.
John XIX established a theological college for
monks at J:Iilv.-fm, south of Cairo, as pan of Ilis
drive toward raising the standard of religious edu-
cation of monks. He consecraled a melropolilan
and four bishops for Elhiopia, and wh"n he latcr
visitcd that country, he ordained many priest. and
deacons for ErilTea.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Ati}'a, A. S, History of EM/ern Christianity. London,
1968.
BurmeisteT, O. H. E. Tho Egyptian or Coptic
Church. Cairo, 1967.
Masri,!. H. el. The Swry 01 the Copts. Cairo, 1978,
Meinardus, O. F. A. Christian Egypl: Faith and Ule.
Cair<>, 1970.
___ . Chris/ian Egypt: Andent and Modern, Cairo,
1977.
MOUNIR SHOUCRI