Eng 1 - Module (Sy 2013-2014)

English 1
COMMUNICATION ARTS 1
STUDY & THINKING SKILLS IN ENGLISH
EMR
2013
Communication Arts 1 |7
Table of Contents
Chapter 1 – Communication
Communication
Goals of Communication
Basic Communication Process
Types of Communication
Communication Aids
Chapter 2–Vocabulary Building

Structural Analysis
Linguistic Signals
Chapter 3–Spelling
Chapter 4 - Structural Grammar

Sentence
Classifications of Sentences
Kernel Sentences and Transforms
Basic Sentence Patterns
Chapter 5 – Parts of Speech

Noun
Pronoun
Verb
Adverb
Adjective
Conjunction
Preposition
Interjection
Chapter 6 –Mechanics and Punctuations

Chapter 7 –Figures of Speech
Chapter 8 – Phrasal Verbs
Chapter 9 – Idiomatic Expressions
Communication Arts 1I 1
CHAPTER I
COMMUNICATION
Communication comes from a Latin word communis, which means common or shared by
two or more persons or things. It is also the process of transmitting or transferring ideas,
information and knowledge from one place to another.
THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS
The basic process of communication begins when a fact or idea is observed by one
person. That person (the sender) may decide to translate the observation into a message, and
then transmit the message through some communication medium to another person (the
receiver). The receiver then must interpret the message and provide feedback to the sender
indicating that the message has been understood and appropriate action taken.
message
sender
channel
effect receiver
S-M-C-R-E
(Harold Lasswell’s Theory)
Sender – is the one who is sending the message like you, if you want to say something.
Message – what are you going to say, what is the nature of your message (positive or
negative).
Channel (Medium) – for example: cellphone, internet, computer.
Receiver – one who is receiving the message.
Feedback – what are the after effects of your message. How does the receiver reacts
when he/she receives the message.
The Four Main Goals of Communication
1. To inform– you are providing information for use in decision making, but aren't
necessarily advocating a course of action
2. To request for a specific action by the receiver
3. To persuade – to reinforce or change a receiver's belief about a topic and, possibly, act
on the belief.
4. To build relationships – some messages you send may have the simple goal of
building good-will between you and the receiver.
Barriers to Effective Communication
1. Lack of common experience – the nature of language and the way it is used often lead to
misunderstandings.
2. Confusion between the symbol and the symbolized object - results when a word is
confused with what it is meant to represent.
3. Overuse of abstractions – using words that are general rather than specific.
4. Interference - is made up of factors that are outside the direct control of the instructor:
physiological, environmental, and psychological interference.
Types of Communication Based on Communication Channels
1. Verbal communication- uses words to communicate. Some of the key components of
verbal communication are sound, words, speaking, and language. It includes oral and
written communication.
Oral communication - is one way for people to communicate face-to-face or
conversation over the phone, or voice chat over the internet.
Written communication –can either be via snail mail or e-mail.
2. Non-verbal communication–includes the overall body language of the person who is
speaking.
facial expression photographs
gestures sketches
pictorial representations painting
signboards
Types of Communication Based on Style and Purpose

1. Formal communication –includes all the instances where communication has to occur
in a set of format. This can include all sorts of business communication or corporate
communication. It is very formal and official.
official conferences
meetings
seminars
written memos and corporate letters
2. Informal communication –includes instances of free unrestrained communication
between people who share a casual rapport with each other. It does not require rules and
regulations. It does not have boundaries of time, place or even subject for that matter.
friendly chat
facebook chat
THE COMMUNICATION AIDS
A. The Library – is a reservoir of knowledge. It contains thousands of books and hundreds of

magazines sand periodicals.
General Ways of Operating a Library
1. Open-shelf System – bookshelves are accessible to students wherein they can browse
around the shelves.
2. Close-shelf System–students ask for the book and see it only when it is issued to
them.
Sections of the Library

1. Reference Section–stored in this section are encyclopedias, dictionaries, almanacs,
magazines, indexes, directories, handbooks and other references for classroom or
personal inquiries.
2. Reserved Book Section–kept in this section are books that should be read only in the
library, they could not be borrowed for home use.
3. Filipiniana Section – found in this section are books and other reading materials that
deals about Philippines including award winning piece of literature written by Filipinos.
4. Periodical Section–periodicals, magazines and newspapers are found in this section.
5. General Circulation Section– fiction and non-fiction books are found in this section.
Systems of Classifying Books
1. Dewey Decimal System (Melvil Dewey) –books are classified as follows:
001-099 - General Works (Encyclopedia, Dictionaries, Atlas)
100-199 – Philosophy (Ethics, Logic)
200-299 – Religion (Bible, Saints)
300-399 - Social Sciences (Sociology, Psychology, Law)
400-499 - Language & Languages (Composition, Speech)
500-599 - Science(Physics, Biology including Mathematics)
600-699 - Applied Science (Agriculture, Aeronautics), Industries
700-799 - Fine Arts, Recreations (Music, Painting)
800-899 – Literature (Poetry, Essays)
900-999 - History,Travel, Geography, Biography
2. Library of Congress System – used by a very large Libraries. It uses letters of the
alphabet instead of numbers.
Letter Category Letter Category
A General Works N Fine Arts
B Philosophy P Language/Literature
C-F History Q Science
G Geography, R Medicine
Anthropology S Agriculture, Plant,
H Social Sciences Animal Industry
J Political Sciences T Technology
K Law U Military Science
L Education V Naval Science
M Music Z Bibliography and
Library Science
The Card Catalog – alphabetical listing of books with accompanying description or

information to the following:
1. Title/Subject 4. Publisher
2. Author 5. Copyright date
3. Place of Publication 6. Pages
Classifications of Card Catalog

1. Title Card – entries are made based on Titlesof thebook in alphabetical order.
2. Author Card – entries are made on the basis of Authors in alphabetical order.
3. Subject Card – entries are indexed based on Subject also in alphabetical order.
B. The Dictionary–a book containing all words in a language arranged alphabetically, with
their meanings.
Parts of the Dictionary
1. The Body or Main Directory – is the part most consulted. It gives the following
information about every word.
a. Spelling–the word is printed in heavy type, accented, and syllabicated.
b. Pronunciation –this comes right after the word and is enclosed in parenthesis.
It includes the diacritical marks, the accent or accents, and the syllabication.
c. Grammatical classification –this is indicated by abbreviations which should
have been studied beforehand.
d. Etymology –enclosed in brackets and gives the origin of the word.
e. Meanings – when more than one meaning is given, each is numbered, explained
and illustrated.
f. Synonyms –if given, the different shades of meaning are explained.
g. Antonyms –are not found in all editions. When they are found, they are
generally included as the last part of the entry.
2. The Parts Before the Body and the Parts After the Body
The Parts before the Body

1. Guide to Pronunciation–contains the key to the symbols used to indicate sounds
and the explanation of the diacritical marks. It also contains a detailed discussion of
English sounds and of common pronunciation practices.
2. Correct English Usage–this portion gives a discussion of good English diction.
3. Orthography–it gives the rules for spelling.
4. Explanatory Notes–this gives a brief explanation of how the material has been put
together and how information may be located in the entries.
5. Abbreviations used in the Dictionary–this needs careful study; otherwise, the use
of the other parts will not yield good results since the abbreviations that will be
found there may not be understood.
6. Addenda–the new words section and contains all words which have been
incorporated into the language since the last printing.
The Parts after the Body

1. Abbreviations– these are the abbreviations used in writing and in printing. These
are arranged in alphabetical order.
2. Arbitrary Signs–these are the signs and symbols used in printing mathematical
signs, symbols used in music, and astronomical symbols.
3. Proper Names–these include biographical, geographical and historical names
arranged alphabetically.
4. Foreign Phrases– this is an alphabetical listing of foreign phrases commonly used
in English communication, together with the meanings and usage.
CHAPTER 2
VOCABULARY BUILDING
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
Structural analysis is a process of decoding an unfamiliar word by examining its

structure like its component parts to come up with the meaning of the word.
A. ROOT WORD
- a base word to which affixes are added to form other words.
- a word from which other words are formed by adding prefix (find at the
beginning of the root word) or a suffix (found at the end of the root word.)
- the simplest structure of the word.
Root Meaning Examples

Anthro man Anthropology
Aqua water Aquatic, aquarium
Arch ruler Monarch, anarchy
Astro star Astronomy, astronaut
Bene good Beneficial, benevolent
bibl book Bibliography
bio life Biology, biography
cap, cep, ceive take Capture, accept, receive
chrom color Chromatic, monochrome
chron time Chronology, synchronize
circum around Circumference
clud, clus close Include, seclusion
corp body Corpse, corporation
cred believe Credible, credence
cycle round Unicycle, encyclopedia
demo people Democracy, demographics
dict say Dictionary, predict
dom home Domestic, domicile
duc lead Deduction, introduce
fact, fect make Manufacture, effect
der carry Transfer, inference
flect, flex bend Reflect, flexible
fort strong Fortress, effort
frac, frag break Fragment, fracture
frat brother fraternity
gen birth, race Generation, genetic
geo earth Geography, geode
gram, graph write Telegram, photography
gress move Progress, aggressive
ject throw Eject, rejection
leg law Legal, legitimate
log study, word Zoology, sociology
luc light Lucid, translucent
mal bad Malcontent, malicious
manu, mani hand Manual, manipulate
mar sea Maritime, submarine
mater, matri mother Maternal
med middle Intermediate, medium
mega great Megaphone, megabytes
min tiny, small Miniature, minute
mit, miss send Transmit, mission
mort death Mortal, mortuary
nas, nat born Nascent, natural
neuro nerve Neurology, neurosis
nom name Nominative, nomenclature
path feeling, pain Sympathy, pathologist
pater, patri father Patriarch, paternity
ped, pad foot Pedicure, tripod
phil love Philosophy, bibliophile
phon sound Telephone, phonology
photo light Photon, photograph
poli city Politics, metropolitan
port carry Transport, portable
pos place Position, posture
psych mind Psychiatrist, psychology
rect, reg rule, right Rectify, regulate
scope see Telescope, microscope
scrib, scrip write Describe, prescription
spec look Retrospect, inspection
struc build Structure, construction
tact touch Contact, tactile
tain, ten hold Maintenance, contain
tele distant Telegraph, telepathy
temp time Temporal, contemporary
tend, tens stretch Extend, tension
therm heat thermometer
trans across Transcontinental, transit
vac empty Vacuum, evacuate
ven come Convention, intervene
ver true Verify, veracity
vert, vers turn Convert, reverse
voc, vok voice, call Vocal, invoke
Activity 1
Write the roots of the following words:
1. addition 5. irrelevant 9. aspirant
2. insecure 6. untidy 10. applicable
3. impossible 7. addressee
4. excessive 8. disrespect
Activity 2
Each number has three words build on the same base word. Write the root word.
1. building, builder, rebuild 9. applicability, inapplicable, applicable
2. spelling, misspell, spelled 10. numerous, numerical, innumerable
3. reality, realistic, unreal 11. bakery, baking, baker
4. completely, completion, incomplete 12. carriage, carrying, carrier
5. unhappy, happiness, happily 13. disapprove, approval, improve
6. moved, moving, movement 14. richly, richness, enrich
7. artistic, artistically, artistry 15. density, condensation, condense
8. beautiful, beautifying, beauteous
B. PREFIX – a word segment made up of one or more syllables added before the root word.
Prefix Meaning Examples

anti- against antibiotic
bi- two bicycle
contra- against contradict
di- two diameter, dichotomy
dis- apart. away from dissatisfied, dissolution
Ex former ex-wife
ex-, e- go out from exit
extra- Beyond extraterrestrial
hyper- Extremely hyperactive
in-, im-, il-, ir- negative, not incapable, impossible,
illogical, irresponsible
inter- Between, among Interaction, intermingle
intra- Within intrapersonal
intro- Inward introduction
macro- Large macroeconomics
micro- Tiny, small microscope
mis- Wrong Misuse, misinform
mono- One Monolingual
multi- Many multinational
neo- New Neophyte, neonatal
non- Negative, not Non-binding
omni- All omnipotent
poly- Many polyglot
post- After Postwar
pre- Before Previous, prenatal
re- Again Reply, rearrange
retro- Backwards retroactive
semi- Half semiannual
sub- Under Submarine, subordinate
super- Above supersede
tri- Three Tricycle, triplets
un- Negative, not Unidentified
uni- One unilateral
Activity 1
Match each prefix in Column A with the correct meaning in Column B.
A B
1. pre- a. two
2. post- b. before
3. ante- c. one
4. inter- d. together, with
5. intra- e. between, among
6. con- f. three
7. mono- g. many
8. bi- h. later, after, behind
9. multi- i. within
10. tri- j. in advance
Activity 2
Give other examples of words having the following prefixes:
1. sub 8. mega 15. mono
2. trans 9. kilo 16. di
3. ultra 10. self 17. tri
4. un 11. semi 18. quad
5. micro 12. poly 19. super
6. tele 13. intra 20. vari
7. bio 14. deci
Activity 3
Several prefixes mean “not”. Decide which prefix (un-, im-, di-, in-, non-) to use with the
following words:
1. complete 8. existent 15. perfect
2. fortunate 9. believable 16. proper
3. possible 10. comparable 17. able
4. contented 11. visible 18. sense
5. adequate 12. secure 19. tolerable
6. agreeable 13. payment 20. honesty
7. likely 14. congruous
Activity 4
The prefixes “mal-” and mis-“ mean “bad” or “wrong”. Decide which one to use with these
words.
1. practice 8. spell 15. interpret
2. conduct 9. function 16. take
3. demeanor 10. represent 17. treat
4. deed 11. match 18. guide
5. adjusted 12. nutrition 19. lead
6. manage 13. inform 20. quote
7. adventure 14. construe
C. SUFFIX – is a word segment composed of one or more syllables added to the end of the
root word with different meanings.
Suffix Part of Speech Examples

-er, -or Noun teacher, director
-ance, -ence Noun difference, attendance
-ant, -ent Noun deviant, president
-ee Noun employee, trainee
-ess Noun stewardess, waitress
-ian Noun electrician, beautician
-ism Noun communism, theism
-ist Noun chemist,, artist
-ity Noun rarity, velocity
-ment Noun achievement, astonishment
-ness Noun happiness, fondness
-ship Noun relationship, friendship
-tion, -ation Noun action, coronation
-ate verb deviate, create
-ify verb typify, solidify
-ize verb tenderize, authorize
-able, -ible adjective reliable, capable, sensible
-al adjective comical, radical
-ful adjective wonderful, helpful
-ish adjective impish, sheepish
-ive adjective creative, sensitive
-ous, ious adjective dangerous, impervious
-ly adverb quickly, happily
Activity 1
The suffixes –or, -er, -ist, -ian, and –ant often mean one who or which does something.
Thus, and electrician has studied electricity. All these suffixes signal a noun. Complete the
blanks in the following sentences:
1. A ___________________________ has studied chemistry.

2. A ____________________________ engages in photography.
3. A ____________________________ such as smoke from cars contributes to pollution.
4. A ____________________________ has studied statistics.
5. A ____________________________ has studied volcanoes.
6. An __________________________ tries to educate the youth.
7. A ____________________________ has studied physics.
8. An ___________________________ is interested in astronomy.
9. An ___________________________ is a graduate of accountancy.
10. A ____________________________ studies the economy of the world.
11. A ____________________________ has studied the laws of the land.
12. A _____________________________ has studied pediatrics.
13. A _____________________________ has studied oncology.
14. A _____________________________ loves to make music.
15. An ___________________________ edits newspaper write-ups.
16. A _____________________________ is the one who is in debt.
17. A ______________________________ cultivates a garden.
18. A _____________________________ plays the guitar.
19. An ____________________________ is the one who employs.
20. An ____________________________ is the who is employed.
Activity 2
The following suffixes may be used to form verbs (-en, -ize, -ify, -ate). Sometimes there is a
change in spelling before you add the suffix. Write the verb form of the following words.
1. final - finalize 8. cheap - cheapen 15. mobile - mobilize
2. deep - deepen 9. real - realize 16. visual - visualize
3. simple - simplify 10. person - personify 17. terror - terrorize
4. light - lighten 11. bright - brighten 18. sharp – sharpen
5. apology - apologize 12. legal - legalize 19. like – liken
6. special - specialize 13. strength - strengthen 20. beauty - beautify
7. pure - purify 14. décor - decorate
Activity 3
Use the bank of prefixes and suffixes to complete each word. There may be more than one
answer for some words.
1. ___place___ - replacement
2. ___enforce___ - reenforcement
3. ___legal___ - illegally
4. ___health__ unhealthy
5. ___know__ - unknown
6. ___finite___ - infinity
7. ___predict___ - unpredictable
8. ___cover___ - recoverable
9. ___logic___ - illogically
10. ___equal___ - unequally
Activity 4
Adjectives may be formed by adding suffixes like –ful, -ous, -ic, -ive, -ish, and –ing. Change the
underlined words to adjectives.
1. The odor cream was thrown into the garbage.
2. The science process yielded accurate results.
3. A girl giggle emanated from the room.
4. A period check-up is scheduled.
5. Mystery knock was heard.
6. We appreciated a help hand.
7. The soldiers braved danger paths.
8. The rhythm beat of the drums awakened us.
9. There was a fear look in his eyes.
10. A metal sound broke the silence.
11. Our harmony relationship was marred by jealousy.
12. His arguments were logic.
13. Because he was fever, we brought him to the hospital.
14. Her smile face has won her many friends.
15. An economy way to travel is by bus.
Activity 4
Change the underlined words in each sentence into nouns.
1. We listened to his argue.
2. I admire his sincere towards the people.
3. Mr. Marcos’ leader was toppled down by the EDSA Revolution.
4. We acknowledge the great of Dr. Jose Rizal.
5. The percent of people going to the States has gone down.
6. The permanent of the structure has been decided by the Board of Trustees.
7. Our neighbor is quiet and peaceful.
8. The children received their inherit from their deceased parents.
9. The prepare took us several months.
10. His pass to India was paid for by his uncle.
11. We will keep all unused furniture for store.
12. The lawyers are questioning the legal of the partnership.
13. The well-traveled violin performed in the WVSU Cultural Center.
14. The magic from France shared his magic with us.
15. William Shakespeare is a great drama.
16. The machine should not be touched without its operate.
17. Our engage was announced in the papers.
18. The speech of introduce is going to be delivered by the principal of the school.
19. There was bitter in her voice when she expressed her disappointment.
20. Some voters vote for candidates because of their popular.
Activity 5
Read each sentence very well and underline the word/s that is/are in its/their proper form.
Use suffixes to correct the word/s and write your correction/s on the space provided.
_______________ 1. Louis Pasteur started the process of pasteur of milk and other milk
products.
_______________ 2. The female reproduce system consists of the ovary and the fallopian tube.
_______________ 3. The mental grow of babies is slower than the physical grow.
_______________ 4. The frequent of his visits delighted me.
_______________ 5. Her happy was indescribable.
_______________ 6. The process of food digest starts from the mouth.
_______________ 7. The intense of his love for her was unquestionable.
_______________ 8. The party was filled with excited.
_______________ 9. Our project is to beauty the town plaza.
_______________10. The radiant of the bride was noticed by the guests.
_______________11. The transform of the cocoon into a beautiful butterfly always warms the
heart.
_______________12. Can you simple this procedure?
_______________13. His patient in waiting for the plane impressed us.
_______________14. I remember my child years in the lazy town of Pototan.
_______________15. Their married lasted for twenty-five years.
_______________16. The only survive in the plane crash was a ten-year-old child.
_______________17. The pianer gave a concert in Carnegie Hall.
_______________18. We thanked the manage of the hotel for its support.
_______________19. Our friend is based on trust and respect.
_______________20. The parents reacted to the violent in the movies.
_______________21. We listened to the vivid narrate of the accident.
_______________22. After our appoint with the dentist, we went home.
_______________23. The teacher emphasis the importance of the lessons.
_______________24. How can we pure our souls?
_______________25. She is a very study student at WVSU.
_______________26. She found difficult in breathing; thus, she lose her brassiere.
_______________27. Let’s class the books in the library.
_______________28. On a chill and fog day we donned our new coat.
_______________29. I noticed her awkward as she walked down the aisle in her first high heels.
_______________30. We always listen to the announce who has a very soothing voice.
D. COMPOUND WORDS – are words made up of two or more words.

They may be written in three ways:
1. with a hypen as in mother-in-law
2. joined as one word as in teenager
3. written as separate words as in disc jockey
Activity 1
What word in Column A can go with words in Column B to form a compound word?
A B
1. black a. what
2. water b. service
3. head c. hearted
4. self d. board
5. back e. ache
6. some f. dress
7. broken g. ball
8. blind h. fall
9. tooth i. date
10. foot j. bone
Activity 2
Here are beginnings of many compound words. Write another noun that may go with the first
component. Do not repeat what has already been given in Activity 1.
1. ear _____ 8. down _____ 15. happy _____
2. eye _____ 9. break _____ 16. well _____
3. neck _____ 10. arm _____ 17. weather _____
4. side _____ 11. father _____ 18. cuff _____
5. after _____ 12. fifty _____ 19. hair _____
6. head _____ 13. clear _____ 20. waist ____
7. heart _____ 14. passer _____
Activity 3
Here are the second components of some compound words. Provide the first component to form
a new compound word.
1. _______ light 6. _______beat 11. _______ shake
2. _______ effect 7. _______ man 12. _______ phone
3. _______ town 8. _______ lady 13. _______ ful
4. _______ out 9. _______ child 14. _______ glass
5. _______ way 10. _______ bleed 15. _______ piece
E. CONTEXTUAL CLUES – arewords or group of words surrounding the new word to determine its
meaning.The environment of the new word provides the clues to meaning of that word.
Sometimes a synonym or antonym is given, sometimes the mere mention of a name or an event
ma evoke experiences or emotions that would lead us to the meaning of the word.
Examples:
1. Nancy Rose is pleasant to be with because she has a very affable personality.
The word affable means friendly and pleasant. The context clue that helped us arrive at the
meaning is pleasant to be with.
2. The owner of that 1998 Mercedes Benz comes from an affluent family.
The word affluent means wealth and rich. The context clue that helped us arrive at the meaning
of the word is owner of that 1998 Mercedes Benz.
3. We cannot tell what he meant because his statements were ambiguous.
Ambiguous means unclear. The context clue that helped us arrive at the meaning of the word is
cannot tell what he meant.
4. The new caretaker who works from morning until evening is an assiduous worker.
Assiduous means hardworking. The context clue is who works from morning ‘til evening.
5. Some people are apprehensive or anxious about flying in an airplane.
Apprehensive means anxious or afraid. The context clue is anxious.
Activity 1
Let us see how well you know the use of context clues to accurately “guess” the meaning of the italized
words.
1. Sue gave a prosaic and dry account of what must have been a very exciting vacation. (detailed,
ordinary, poetic)
2. Students nowadays prefer to read abridged editions of literary classics. (televised, recent,
shortened)
3. Her hair is disheveled from the wind. (untidy, brushed, dusty)
4. In retrospect, my eighteenth birthday seemed the happiest day of my life. (conclusion, looking
back, reality)
5. The medicine is more palatable if taken with orange juice. (agreeable to the taste, disagreeable
to the taste, nutritious)
6. I wake up early to catch the ineffablebeauty of the sunset. (intentional, inescapable,
indescribable)
7. Many people are skeptical of political campaign promises. (excited, doubtful, reluctant)
8. Mr. Santos felt remorse and apologized for his unkind remarks. (regret, pain, stupidity)
9. Because the party was impromptu, only hot dogs and buns were served. (economical, quite
delayed, without much preparation)
10. The test showed that Roy has a special aptitude for science. (prejudice, talent, dislike)
Activity 2
Try to unlock the meanings of the underlined adjectives by using context clues. Choose the correct
meaning from the box.
changeable make or invent careful unite
vivid demand dislike greatly soothe
talkative looking at the dark side ease; calm waste away
flatter to disturb lose the affection of
travel back and forth shut out from society
1. Some garrulous women cannot simply stop talking.

2. A circumspect trip around the island revealed rare and beautiful flowers and animals.
3. Although it is sunny now, we should bring our raincoats because the weather is erratic.
4. The class is pessimistic, not optimistic, about winning the speech choir contest that is not even
practicing for it.
5. Anne Frank wrote an explicit account of her eyes in hiding in The Diary of Anne Frank.
6. In order to alleviate my headache, I’ll take an aspirin and lie down to rest.
7. Be careful on what you say or do because you may alienate your good friend Aurelio.
8. With flattery, I tried to cajole Mom into permitting me to drive the car.
9. My sister and I commute by bus to school daily except on Sundays.
10. The two parties consolidated their forces to win the election.
11. The noise outside disrupted classes in Quezon Hall.
12. Tuberculosis has emaciated him; now he looks like a bag of bones.
13. Good storytellers can fabricate events and characters for their books.
14. How teacher loathe cheats, habitual absentees, and characters of their books.
15. Hester Prynne in The Scarlet Letterwas ostracizedin the community.
LINGUISTIC SIGNALS
 Homographs are words that are spelled and sound the same but have different meanings.
bear (verb) – to support or carry bark (verb) - the sound of a dog

bear (noun) – the animal
bark (noun) - the skin of a tree
sow (verb) – to plant seed
sow (noun) – female pig bow (noun) - the front of a ship
bow (noun) - a ranged weapon
 Heteronyms are homographs that have the same spelling but do not have the same meaning and
sound.
NOUN VERB PREsent preSENT
PROtest proTEST DIgest diGEST
PERmit perMIT REcord reCORD
NOUN VERB REbel reBEL
OBject obJECT EXploit exploit
SUBject subJECT SUSpect susPECT
 Homophones or homonyms are words that sound the same when you pronounce them, but have
different meanings.
ade – drink type, as in lemonade

aid – to help or assist bough - branch
aide - assistant bow – bend or curtsy
buoy - floater
affect - change boy – young man
effect – result or consequence
brake – stop pedal
air – atmosphere (the stuff we breathe) break – smash
err – to make a mistake
bread – bakery food
aisle - walkway bred – form of breed
I’ll – I will
isle - island broach - mention
brooch - pin
allowed - permitted
aloud – out loud brows - eyebrows
browse – look around
ant – picnic pest
aunt – relative, as in your mom’s sister buy - purchase
by - beside
arc - curve by - originating from,BR. bye – short for goodbye
ark – Noah’s boat
cell – compartment
ate – chewed up and swallowed sell - vend
eight – number after seven
cent – penny coin
bare - uncovered sent – did send
bear – grizzly animal
cereal – breakfast food
berry – fruit from a bush serial - sequential
bury – to put underground
Chile – country in South America
base – bottom part chili – bean stew
bass – deep or low chilly – frosty
be – to exist chord – musical tone

bee – buzzing insect cord - rope
cite - quote
beach – sandy shore site - location
beech – type of tree sight - view
beat - to pound close – opposite of open

beet – type of edible plant clothes - clothing
berth – tie up complement – enhance; go together

birth – to be born compliment - praise
bite - nibble
byte – 8 bits (computer data) council - committee
counsel - guidance
blew – past of blow
blue – color of ocean creak - squeak
creek – stream of water
boar - pig
bore – not interesting bore - to drill crews - gangs
cruise – ride on a boat
borough – area or district
burrow – dig through dear - darling
burro – small donkey deer – woodland animal
hair – head covering
dew – morning mist hare – rabbit-like animal
do - operate
due - payable hall - passageway
haul - tow
die – cease to exist
dye - color halve – cut in two parts
have - possess
doe – female dear
dough – uncooked bread hay – animal food
hey – interjection to get attention
dual - double
duel - battle heal - mend
heel – back of foot
ewe – female sheep
you - second-person personal pronoun hi - hello
high – up far
eye – sight organ
I - me hoarse - croaky
horse – riding animal
fair - equal
fare - price hole - opening
whole - entire
fairy – elflike creature with wings
ferry - boat holey – full of holes
holy - divine
faze - impact wholly - entirely
phase - stage
hour – sixty minutes
feat – achievement our – belonging to us
feet – plural of foot
knead - massage
fir – type of tree need - desire
fur – animal hair
knight – feudal horseman
flea – small biting insect night - evening
flee - run
knot – tied rope
flew – did fly not - negative
flu – illness
know – have knowledge
flour – powdery, ground up grain no – opposite of yes
flower – blooming plant
lead – metal
for – on behalf of led - was the leader
fore - front
four – one more than three lessen – make smaller
lesson - class
forth - onward
fourth – number four loan - lend
lone - solitary
knew – did know made – did make
new – not old maid - servant
gorilla – big ape mail - postage

guerrilla - warrior male – opposite of female
grease - fat marry – to wed

Greece – country in Europe merry – very happy
groan - moan meat – animal protein

grown – form of grow meet - encounter
none – not any sail – move by wind power
nun – woman who takes special vows sale – bargain price
oar – boat paddle scene - landscape

or - otherwise seen - viewed
ore - mineral
sea – ocean segment
oh – expression of surprise or awe see – observe with eyes
owe – be obligated
seam – joining edge
one - single seem - appear
won – did win
sew – connect with thread
overdo – do too much so – as a result
overdue – past due date sow - plant
pail - bucket soar - ascend

pale – not bright sore – hurt place
pain - hurt sole - single

pane – window glass soul - essence
peace - calm some – a few

piece - segment sum - amount
peak – highest point steal - swipe

peek - glance steel - alloy
plain - ordinary tail – animal’s appendage

plane – flight machine plane - flat surface tale - story
pole - post their – belonging to them

poll - survey there – at that place
they’re – they are
poor – not rich
pour – make flow to - toward
too - also
pray – implore God toe – foot appendage
prey - quarry tow – pull along
principal – most important vary - differ

principle - belief very - much
rain – water from sky wail - howl

rein - bridle whale – huge swimming mammal
rap - tap waist – area below ribs

wrap – drape around waste - squander
real - factual
reel - roll wait – kill time
weight – measurable load
right – correct; not left war - battle
write - scribble wore – did wear
ring - encircle warn - caution

wring - squeeze worn - used
role - function way - path

roll - rotate weigh – measure mass
rose - flower we - us
rows - lines wee - tiny
weak – not strong which - that
week – period of seven days witch – sorcerer
weather - climate your – belonging to you

whether - if you’re – you are
Activity 1
Spot the errors in the use of homonyms in each sentence. Underline the error/errors and above
it/them write your correction/s.
1. His weigh is 135 pounds.
2. Did you say right the write answer?
3. We maid the bread for breakfast.
4. He promised to meat us in the meet section of the market.
5. She wore a plane dress to the party.
6. The waist should go to the waist basket.
7. We new there was a whole near the garage.
8. Did you by this for the too of us?
9. The dog’s tale stood up in anger.
10. After an our, the pale was full.
Activity 2
Some words have multiple meanings. Choose the meaning of the underlined word as it is in the
sentence.
1. I forgot to dress the chicken. (to wear, to prepare, to adorn)
2. The speaker drew his conclusion from his observations. (sketched, dragged, deduced)
3. We placed cream in our salad. (milk, a kind of cosmetic, the best from the group)
4. He runs the company. (moves swiftly, manages, enters a race)
5. Successful leaders have more drive. (source of motivation, united effort towards a
purpose, stamina in driving a vehicle)
6. She is the editor of our school organ. (a musical instrument, part of the body with a
special function, a publication)
7. I’m sorry I couldn’t give you a ring because the line was busy. (a call, jewelry worn on
the finger, an enclosure)
8. One measure of a man’s intelligence is his maturity. (an instrument for measuring, an
action or procedure, a standard for measuring)
9. To start a business, one must have enough capital. (official seat of government, money
to invest in the production of more wealth, most important factor)
10. You have to pass the bar to become a lawyer. (exams for lawyers, place offering liquor
and drinks, something that divides or blocks)
CHAPTER III
SPELLING
A proper arrangement of letters in a word.
Rules in Spelling
1. The i-e Rule
In most words spelled with ie or ei pronounced iy, e follows c and i follows all
other letters. Exceptions to this rule are words in which ei is sounded like a: neighbor,
weigh.
a. i before e – such as achieve, relieve, retrieve, reprieve
b. except after c – such as receive, perceive, deceive, conceive
c. or when sounded like a as inneighbor, weigh
There are few exceptions to this again: either, leisure, neither, seize, weird.
2. The Final Consonant Rule
Words ending in a single consonant preceded by a single vowel, double that
consonant when adding a suffix beginning with a vowel: hotter, occurred, plotting,
regretting
Note carefully that the final consonant must be preceded by a single vowel. If
preceded by a double vowel, the rule does not apply.
joined stealing feeling
reeling boiled concealing
Words ending in a consonant preceded by a single vowel do not double the

consonant unless the accent falls on the syllable immediately preceding the suffix.
benefiting suffered summoning
broadening reddened developing
3. The Final –e Rule
a. Words ending with silent e drop the e before a suffix beginning with a vowel.
close - closing desire– desirable love - lovable
owe - owing note - notable recognize - recognizable
b. Words in e preceded by soft g or c retain the e before suffixes beginning with a
or o.
advantage–advantageous courage – courageous peace - peaceable
charge – chargeable enforce - enforceable trace - traceable
c. Words ending with silent e preceded by I drop the e and change I to y before the
suffix –ing. This is to avoid doubling of i.
die – dying vie - vying lie – lying tie - tying
d. Words ending with silent e preceded by u drop the e before a suffix with a vowel.
argue – arguable blue - bluing true - truism sue – suing
e. Words ending with silent e retain the e before a suffix beginning with a
consonant.
appropriate – appropriateness love - lovely
definite – definitely sincere - sincerely
4. The Final –y Rule
A word ending in y preceded by a consonant change the y to I before a suffix unless the
suffix begins with i, in which case the y is retained. This is to prevent the doubling of i.
easy – easily hurry - hurrying carry – carrying
study - studying foray – foraying defy - defying
5. The Prefix-and-Suffix Rule
b. When a prefix ends with the same letter as the word to which it is added begins,
both letters are retained.
co + operation – cooperation pre + eminent - preeminent
dis + similar– dissimilar mis + spell - misspell
dis + satisfy – dissatisfy dis + simulate – dissimulate
dis + sent – dissent
c. When a suffix begins with the same letter as the word to which it is added ends,
both letters are retained.
accidental + ly – accidentally mean + ness - meanness
exceptional + ly– exceptionally legal + ly - legally
keen + ness – keenness sudden + ness - suddenness
plain + ness – plainness natural + ly - naturally
d. Many words ending in a double consonant retain both consonants before suffix.
reckless + ness – recklessness full + ness - fullness
odd + ity – oddity success + ful - successful
purr + ing– purring stiff + ness - stiffness
small + ness – smallness shrill + ly– shrilly
6. The Final –c Rule

Many words ending with c require the addition of kwhen a syllable beginning
with e, i or yis added.
frolic – frolicking traffic – trafficking picnic - picnicking
CHAPTER IV
STRUCTURAL GRAMMAR
SENTENCE
– a word or group of words with a subject and predicate which expresses a complete thought.
It is a group of words that says something in a fixed structure of grammar and
punctuation.
1. A sentence that consists of one word only may be formed out of intransitive verbs used in
the imperative mood .
Imperative is the mood used to express commands, request or exhortations (giving
up, surrender)
Examples:
Go. Sing. Cry. Jump. Stand.
Come. Run. Dance. Sleep. Sit.
2. A sentence as a group of words that contains a subject and a predicate should express a
complete thought.
Example:
a. My sister (incomplete)
My sister washes (incomplete)
My sister washes our clothes. (complete)
b. My teacher said (incomplete)
That matter occupies space (incomplete)
My teacher said that matter occupies space. (complete)
3. The two essential parts of sentence are:
a. Subject – denotes the person, the place or the thing spoken of.
The careless girl broke her plate.
The baby boy smiles.
My sister won the first prize in the singing contest.
b. Predicate(verb) – tells something about the subject.
The careless girl broke her plate.
The baby boy smiles.
My sister won the first prize in the singing contest.
Complete subject of a sentence consists of a subject and any words associated to it.
Complete predicate of a sentence consists of a verb and any words associated to it.
Board Exercise: Underline the subject once, and the predicate, twice.
1. The teacher gives a quiz every day.
2. My sister is an accountant.
3. Tall trees grow in the forest.
4. The students are in the gymnasium.
5. The cat chases every rat it sees.
6. The snake crawls fast.
7. The events last all day.
8. All winners received prizes.
9. The man drove the dogs away.
10. Anne drives her own motorcycle.
Classification of Sentences According to Purpose/Function
1. Declarative Sentence–is one that declares something or one that states a fact.
a. The family that prays together stays together.
b. One makes his life meaningful by helping others.
c. God helps more those who help themselves.
2. Interrogative Sentence – is one that asks a question.
a. What is your name?
b. Where do you live?
c. Have you been in love?
3. Imperative Sentence –is one that expresses a command, a request or an exhortation.
a. Run.
b. Please, close the window.
c. Remember that if there’s a will, there’s a way.
4. Exclamatory Sentence –is one that expresses a strong feeling or emotion.
a. Congratulations! You really deserve the prize!
b. Bravo! The performance was great!
c. Wow! I have never seen one like her!
Classification of Sentences According to Structure
1. Simple Sentence – is a sentence which may either be one of the following forms:
1.1 A simple sentence has a simple subject and a simple predicatewhich can be
very short.
a. John laughed.
b. My friend/sings.
c. James Yap/plays basketball.
d. Everything/is beautiful.
Simple sentence which consists of simple subject and simple predicate can also
be long.
a. My best friend in the whole world is coming over to my house.
b. Three beautiful kittens looked up at me from inside a box of old clothes.
c. The tall, good-looking boy with the curly blond hair laughed uproariously at
his best friend’s suggestion.
d. I don’t remember the name of that tall man, thin actor with the sparkling
blue eyes.
1.2 A simple sentence has a compound subject and a simple predicate.
a. Razzel and Minba/work in a bank.
b. CJ and JC/are brothers.
c. Jenny and Cherry/study in the same school.
d. America’s best known novelists, journalists, and editors attended a
conference in New York last week.
e. Are the violinists and cellist ready to begin playing the nocturne yet?
1.3 A simple sentence has a simple subjectand a compound predicate.
a. Chona/works at daytime and studies in the evening.
b. Who/is coming to the party and bringing the ice cream?
c. Will you/ sing me a song, show me a few dance steps, and then tell me a
story?
d. We/bought the books and distributed them to the students.
e. The guest speaker/stood and waved his hands at the audience.
f. Wash and dry your hair/ first thing in the morning.
1.4 A simple sentence has a compound subject and a compound predicate.
a. My niece and I/walked and jogged at the park.
b. The host and his receptionists/accommodated and entertained their guest
cordially.
c. A belted kingfisher, a robin, and a red cardinal/sat on the tree branch for a
few seconds and then flew away.
d. Will Mary, George, Jean and France/come forward, face the audience, and
say a few words?
e. Sugar and flour/ mix together well and give substance to the cookie dough.
2. A compound sentence- is a sentence that contains two or more independent or

principal clauses (group of words that can stand alone) which are coordinate and
closely related in thought. Independent or principal clauses are usually joined by
coordinating conjunctions such as and, but, for, nor, or, yet, so. otherwise, etc.
1. Simple: Rhea does not like to study
Simple: She is not interested to work.
Compound: Rhea does not like to study, noris she interested to work.
2. Simple: Philippines is a developing country.
Simple: It has many poor people
Compound: Philippines is a developing country, but still it has many poor
people.
3. Simple: Take the special examination
Simple: I will fail you.
Compound: Take the special examination; otherwise, I will fail you.
4. Simple: Batman is a hero.
Simple: He is successful in catching the criminals in his city.
Compound: Batman is a hero, and he is successful in catching the criminals
in his city.
3. A complex sentence- is a sentence that contains one independent or principal clause

and one or more dependent or subordinate clauses.
 I ate the meal that you cooked. In this example, "I ate the meal" is an independent
clause, while "that you cooked" is a relative clause.
 "I ate breakfast before I went to work." This has "I ate breakfast" as an independent
clause, and "before I went to work" as a dependent clause.
 After I came home, I ate dinner. After I came home is the dependent clause and I ate
dinner is the independent clause.
 Complex sentences are often formed by putting these words at the beginning of
the dependent clause: as, as if, before, after, because, though, even though,
while, when, whenever, if, during, as soon as, as long as, since, until, unless,
where, and wherever. These words are called subordinating conjunctions.
4. Compound-complex sentence- consists of two or more independent clauses and at

least one dependent clause.
a. Some of the employees who worked during the war years have retired, but
many of them are still employed in the same office.
 The words who worked during the war years, form the dependent
clause. Some of the employees have retired and many of them are still
employed in the same office are the independent clauses and can
stand alone as two complete sentences.
b. Although I like to go camping, I haven’t had a time to go lately, and I haven’t
found anyone to go with.
c. The dog lived in the backyard, yet the cat, who knew he was superior, lived
inside the house.
Independent clauses:
 The dog lived in the backyard.

 The cat lived inside the house.
Dependent clause: who knew he was superior

KERNEL SENTENCES AND TRANSFORMS
Transformational grammars or new grammar acknowledges the existence in every

language of a set of underlying sentence-like structures called kernel sentences.Normal
sentences of everyday life are a combination of these kernel sentences or more complex
combinations which we call transforms.
Kernel Sentences – the simplest type of sentence. It is a basic sentence structure in a

language.
Transform – a combination of kernel sentences having more complex utterance (a complete
unit of speech).
Consider this transform:

1. The boy looking out of the window and smiling at someone outside is my cousin.
Kernel Sentences:
a. The boy is looking out of the window.
b. He is smiling at someone outside.
c. He is my cousin.
Consider these kernel sentences:

1. I know Juan Aguilar. 3. He is a good father.
2. He is a good son. 4. He is a good citizen.
Transform:
I know Juan Aguilar who is a good son, a good father and a good citizen.
 A kernel sentence contains two main parts: a noun phrase and a verb phrase. Putting this
statement graphically, we have the equation:
S→ NP + VP
S – sentence
NP – noun phrase
VP – verb phrase
The NP functions as the subject as the subject of S.

The VP functions as the predicate or verb.
Note: The formula S → NP + VP means not only that a sentence consists of a noun phrase but
that the noun phrase comes before the verb phrase.
→ The NP may consist of a noun, a noun substitute or a noun + the modifiers (words or
phrases or clauses that provide description in sentences/a word that modifies the meaning of
another word).
NP as noun: Birds fly.

NP as noun substitute: They fly.
NP as noun + modifiers: All birds fly.
→ The VP may be a verb, verb phrase or a verb with its modifier or modifiers.
VP as verb: Birds fly.

VP as verb phrase: The birds are flying.
VP as verb + modifier: The birds fly away.
S→ NP + VP
1. The pretty childdanced gracefully.
NP VP
2. A busy manworks hard.
NP VP
S→ NP + VP + NP
3. The pretty childcaught the ballwith one hand.
NP VP NP
KINDS OF PHRASES
1. Prepositional phrase (p-phr) – a group of words composed of a head noun introduced

by a preposition.
The Common Prepositions
about – about the matter for – for my sister/brother
across – across the river to – to right man/woman
by – by myself with – with my father/mother
after – after many years above – above the clouds
below – below him on – on our way
beside – beside the river of – of the menu
during – during the exam over – over the phone
between – between two hours off – off the table
in – in serious trouble outside – outside the room
inside – inside the building under – under the table
into –into the living room
The Common Two-Word Prepositions
out of – out of sight along with – along with me
according to – according to humor instead of – instead of her mother
away from – away from danger
The Common Three-Word Prepositions

in accordance with – in accordance with your instructions
in spite of – in spite of the rain
on account of –on account of her voice
with regard to – with regard to your suggestion
in front of – in front of the building
in back of – in back of barn
by way of – by way of virtue
EXAMPLES:
2. Infinitive Phrase (to - v) –composed of the preposition to and a verb.

 To dance is a lot of fun.
 Elsa wants to go out.
 Anna was about to speak.
3. Participial Phrase and Gerund Phrase (v –ing) – verb and ing stands for ending added
to the verb.
 Studying hard is expected of students.
 I heard Jane coming down stairs.
 Rizza like watching a ball game.
4. Verb Phrase (v-phr) – consists of helping verb/s + a main verb.

 Luis will compete in the contest.
 Mel could have done better.
BASIC SENTENCE PATTERNS
SENTENCE PATTERN 1: The Subject-Intransitive Verb (S-IV) Pattern

or Subject-Verb (S-V) Pattern
S-IV pattern may be explained by adding words or phrases to modify the subject or
predicate. Word modifiers come before the subject; phrase modifiers come after the subject.
Ex. 1. The childrenshouted.

S IV
 The childrenshoutedmerrily.
S IV M
2. The visitorsleft.
S IV
 The visitorsleftin the morning.
S IV M
3. Shesleeps.
S IV
 Shesleepssoundly.
S IV M
SENTENCE PATTERN 2: The Subject-Transitive Verb-Direct Object (S-TV-DO) Pattern

or Subject-Verb-Object (S-V-O) Pattern
In S-TV-DO pattern, the meaning of the sentence is not clear until the subject is given.
Ex. 1. Dianefounda ring.

S TV DO
2. The ladyplantedthe seed.
S TV DO
3. The peoplelikerice.
S TV DO
SENTENCE PATTERN 3: Subject-Linking Verb-Subjective Complement (S-LV-SC) Pattern
The common linking verbs are: to be (is, are, was, were, will be, shall be), seem, look,
taste, appear.
Subjective complement means the word that completes the meaning of a linking verb.
The complement of a linking verb may be a noun or an adjective.
1. Sarahis a pretty girl.

S LV SC (noun)
2. Sarahispretty.
S LV SC (adjective)
3. Motherispatient.
S LV SC (adjective)
SENTENCE PATTERN 4:Subject-Transitive Verb-Indirect Object-Direct Object (S-TV-IO-

DO)Pattern or Subject-Verb-Indirect Object-Direct Object (S-V-IO-DO) Pattern
1. Preciousgaveme a letter.
S TV IO DO
2. The managergave the man a job.
S TV IO DO
3. Kristaltaughther friends the new dance steps.
S TV IO DO
SENTENCE PATTERN 5:Subject-Transitive Verb-Direct Object-Objective Complement (S-
TV-DO-OC)
Pattern or Subject-Verb-Direct Object-Objective Complement (S-V-
DO-OC) Pattern
1. TheycalledthechildNoah.
S TV DO OC
2. The classelectedJamespresident.
S TV DO OC
3. The Kingdubbed the young manknight.
S TV DO OC
The test for these complements is that they refer back to the object of the sentence.
CHAPTER III
PARTS OF SPEECH
The traditional classes of words in English which deal with the morphological features of
terms or expressions to show their semantic functions in phrases or in sentences.
THE EIGHT (8) PARTS OF SPEECH
Three little words you often see

Are ARTICLES: a, an, and the.
A NOUN’s the name for anything,

As: school or garden, toy or swing.
A PRONOUN replaces any noun,

I, he, she, it and you are found.
ADJECTIVES tell the kind of noun,

As: great, small, pretty, white, or brown.
VERBS tell of something being done:

To read, write, count, sing, jump, or run.
How things are done the ADVERBS tell,

As: slowly, quickly, badly, well.
CONJUNCTIONS join the words together,

As: men and women, wind or weather.
The PREPOSITION stands before

A noun as: in or through a door.
The INTERJECTION shows surprise

As: Oh, how pretty! Ah! How wise!
The whole are called the PARTS OF SPEECH,

Which reading, writing, speaking teach.
I. NOUNS – names of things, creatures, persons, places or concepts and ideas which may
refer either to quality, property, condition or action.
 name of things include living organisms like plants and inanimate objects having
physical existence such as:
living – vegetables, trees, grass, vines, shrubs
inanimate – book, box, chair, table, toy, bread, pen
 name of creatures include all living organisms capable of voluntary motion and
sensation like animals, fishes, reptiles, birds and insects such as:
carabao, mudfish, crocodile, snake, lizard
eagle, maya, ant, mosquito, cockroach, fly
 terms or words used to name persons and other expressions used to identify
persons:
Jose Rizal, Juan dela Cruz
father, mother, son, daughter
hero, student, child, boy, girl
 terms used to name specific places and words

Philippines, Mindoro, Roxas
country, province, city, town, barangay, park, market, playground, barrio, region
 expressions used to identify concepts or ideas
love, nationalism, friendship, idealism, goodness
 words used to determine quality, property or conditions
excellence, strength, weakness, durability, hospitality
 terms used to denote action
reading, swimming, smoking
 Smoking is dangerous to your health.
Classifications of Nouns
1. Common Noun – word used to name any member of the class of things.
2. Proper Noun – a particular distinctive name of a thing, a person or a place.
COMMON NOUNS PROPER NOUNS

Man Juan
woman Jane
province Oriental Mindoro
country Philippines
language Filipino
post office Roxas Post Office
Special Classes of Nouns

1. Concrete Noun – word used to name anything which has actual physical existence. It
has form, shape or volume.
 chair, box, house, pencil, car
2. Abstract Noun–word used to name a concept or an idea which has no physical
existence. It has no form, shape or volume. These are nouns that you cannot hear,
touch, smell, taste or see.
 loyalty, honor, politics, democracy
 Beauty is a favorite subject of art.
 Judging sincerity in art is extremely difficult.
3. Collective Noun – a word or words used to identify a collection or group taken as one.
 class, audience, committee
 The audience enthusiastically applauded the pianist.
4. Compound Noun – made up of two or more nouns which are considered as one item or
one unit.
 logbook, editor-in-chief, working girl, air castle
 The editor-in-chief checked all articles submitted to
him.
5. Mass Noun – noun that cannot be preceded by a/an or a numeral, but which can be
preceded in the singular by certain markers such as little, some, any, much and other
expressions of quantity.
 oil, wax, rice, salt, tea, water, iron, steel
 Oil is a favorite medium of painters.
 Wax was used by the Egyptians for portraits.
Properties of Nouns
A. Number - property of a noun which shows whether the noun referred to or spoken of is
only one or more than one.
If only one – the noun is singular
 I saw a girl crying.
If denotes two or more – the noun is plural
 I saw some girls crying.
B. Gender – property of a noun that determines the sex of the noun mentioned.
1. Masculine – a noun which denotes a condition or quality of being that of the male.
 man, boy, father, Mario, uncle, king, duke, nephew
2. Feminine – a noun which denotes a condition or quality of being that of a female.
 girl, woman, mother, auntie, queen, niece, sister
3. Neuter – a noun which names an object without sex.
 book, rock, chair, table, pen
4. Common – a noun which indicate a male or female gender

 student, child, sibling
C. Case – property of a noun which shows the relation of the noun to other words in the
sentence.
Three Cases of Nouns
1. Nominative – condition or state of agreeing with or in opposition to the subject.
 My mother is a teacher.
 A noun is also nominative if it is the subject of the verb.
 Mr. Ram is an intelligent boy.
 The painter paints the portraits.
2. Objective–refers to grammatical characteristics denoting the identity of the subject

of a transitive verb.
 My mother went to Manila.
 A noun is also objective if they are the direct object of the verb.
 I met your sister.
 The vendors sell mangoes.
 The book is on the table.
 This is one of my policies.
3. Dative – the indirect object of the verb. It tells to whom or for whom or for which the
action of the verb is carried out.
 The teacher gave the students few exercises.
 The Postman brought me a letter.
 Get him a pen.
4. Vocative - if it is used to call (or to get the attention of) a person or persons.
Mr. Bill, students are waiting for you in the main hall.
Brother, a letter for you.
You there, stand up.
5. Possessive – a condition that denotes possession or ownership.

 Mica’s book was stolen.
 Those are my friend’s notebook.
D. Person – property of noun that determines the three divisions of persons: first, second
and third persons.
First Person: I, We, Our
Second Person: You, Your
Third Person: He, She, It, They, Him, Their, Them
How to Form the Plural of Nouns
1. Most nouns form the plural by adding s to the singular:

lecture – lectures table - tables
friend – friends chair - chairs
2. Nouns ending in y preceded by a consonant form the plural by changing y to i and
adding es:
family – families story-stories
lady – ladies duty - duties
3. Nouns ending in y is preceded by a vowel form their plurals by adding s only:
boy – boys key - keys
monkey – monkeys chimney - chimneys
4. Nouns ending in a hissing sound (s,x,z,ch and sh) form the plural by adding es:
box – boxes brush - brushes
church – churches bus - buses
waltz – waltzes
5. Nouns ending in o preceded by a consonant generally form the plural by adding esto
the singular:
tomato – tomatoes hero – heroes
echo – echoes potato - potatoes
Exceptions to this rule are words associated with music.

alto-altos piano-pianos canto-cantos
solo-solos soprano-sopranos banjo-banjos
6. Nouns ending in o preceded by a vowel form the plural by adding s:

trio – trios video-videos bamboo-bamboos
stereo-stereos studio-studios
The following nouns may form their plurals by either adding s or es to the singular
form:
cargo – cargo/cargoes mango-mangos/mangoes
volcano – volcano/volcanoes
memento – mementos/mementoes
7. Nouns ending in f or fe form their plurals by changing f or fe to v and adding es:

loaf – loaves life - lives
knife – knives leaf - leaves
wife – wives shelf – shelves
Exceptions:
belief – beliefs roof - roofs
chief – chiefs handkerchief – handkerchiefs
8. Few nouns have the same form in the singular and plural:
series hose Chinese
corps apparatus sheep
Swiss Japanes cattle
9. Some nouns form their plurals by changing the vowels in the singular form:
tooth – teeth foot – feet woman - women
10. Some nouns form their plural by adding en:
child – children man-men brother –brethren
woman-women
11. Compound nouns form the plural by adding s to the important word:
father-in-law – fathers-in-law
passer-by – passers-by
brother-in-law – brothers-in-law
12. Common nouns ending in ful form the plural by adding to the last syllable:
cupful-cupfuls teaspoonful-teaspoonfuls
spoonful-spoonfuls handful-handfuls
13. Letters, figures and symbols are made plural by adding ‘s:
6 – 6’s CD – CD’s
t – t’s
14. Foreign words adopted as English retain their plurals in the language from which they
are derived:
a. Words ending in –a in the singular and –ae in the plural
alumna – alumnae formula – formulae
antenna – antennae amoeba – amoebae
b. Words ending in –ex or –ix inthe singular and –ices in the plural
apex – apices – apexes cervix – cervices – cervixes
appendix – appendices – index – indices - indexes
appendixes
c. Words ending in –is in the singular and –es in the plural
thesis – theses synopsis – synopses
analysis – analyses parenthesis – parentheses
basis – bases
d. Words ending in –um in the singular and –a in the plural
memorandum - memoranda stratum – strata
datum – data agendum – agenda
e. Words ending in –on in the singular and –a in the plural
criterion – criteria
phenomenon – phenomena
Special Nouns
1. The following nouns have no plural form except under special conditions:
advice hair rain baggage
scenery work (task) ink furniture
applause treason poetry bread lace
soap grass water
chalk baggage pottery furniture
2. The following nouns are always plural and take plural verbs.
goods thanks pliers wages pants
riches scissors wages trousers refreshments
ashes headquarters pincers clothes
3. The following nouns are plural in form but take singular verbs.
news mumps civics
measles mathematics economics
politics ethics
Possessive Case of Nouns
Possessive Caseshows ownership or association.

When creating possessive form nouns there are 8 simple rules:
1. If a singular noun does not end in s, add 's.

a. The delivery boy’s truck was blocking the driveway.
b. Bob Dole’s concession speech was stoic and dignified.
c. The student’s attempts to solve the problem were rewarded.
2. If a singular common noun ends in s, add ‘s – unless the next word begins with s. If the
next word begins with s, add an apostrophe only. (This includes words with s and sh
sounds.)
a. The boss’s temper was legendary among his employees.
b. The boss’ sister was even meaner.
c. The witness’s version of the story has several inconsistencies.
d. The witness’ story did not match the events recorded on tape.
3. If a singular proper noun ends in s, add an apostrophe.
a. Chris’ exam scores were higher than any other students.
b. We found Andres’ shoes in the cabinet.
c. Don’t take Lucas’ bag.
4. If a noun is plural in form and ends in s, add an apostrophe only, even if the intended
meaning of the word is singular (such as mathematics and measles).
a. The instructor asked us to analyze ten poems’ meanings.
b. The dog catcher had to check all of the dogs’ tags.
c. It is hard to endure the Marine Corps’ style of discipline.
5. If a plural noun does not end in s, add ‘s
a. Many activities in Oregon are concerned with children’s rights.
b. Everyone was disappointed with the American media’s coverage of the Olympics in
Atlanta.
c. Don’t imitate your brethren’s style in design.
6. If there is joint possession, use the correct possessive for only the possessive closest to
the noun.
a. Clinton and Gore’s campaign was successful.
b. She was worried about her mother and father’s marriage.
c. Beavis and Butthead’s appeal is absolutely lost on me.
7. If there is a separate possession of the same noun, use the correct possessive form for
each word.
a. The owner’s and the boss’s excuses were equally false.
b. The dog’s and the cats’ owners were in school when the fire broke out.
8. In a compound construction, use the correct possessive form for the word closest to the
noun. Avoid possessives with compound plurals.
a. My father-in-law’s BMW is really fun to drive.
b. The forest ranger’s truck is painted an ugly shade of green.
c. Your neighborhood letter carrier’s job is more difficult than you imagine.
Owner What is owned Possessive What is owned

A man owns a car. man’s car
Ana owns a box of pencils. Ana’s box of pencils
The telescope has lens. the telescope’s lens
Jess has many bags. Jess’s bags
Jess has many sisters. Jess’ sisters
Combining Sentences Using Singular Possessives Nouns

Examples:
1. Peter found the notebook. The notebook belonged to Sam.
Peter found Sam’s notebook.
2. Andres returned the keys. The keys belonged to Lucas.
Andres returned Lucas’ keys.
3. The babysitter searched for the toy. The toy belonged to Charles.
Combining Sentences Using Plural Possessive Nouns

Examples:
2. The teacher returned the essays. The essays belonged to the students.
The teacher returned the students’ essays.
3. I put away the art supplies. The art supplies belonged to the students.
I put away the students’ art supplies.
4. Kian left the books. The books belonged to his sisters.
Kian left his sisters’ books.
II. PRONOUNS – are words used in place of nouns. They shorten and make a sentence
reader-friendly.
 stand for nouns or refer to a noun, an individual or individuals or thing or things
(the pronoun’s antecedent).
A. Subjective Pronoun – indicates that the pronoun is acting as a subject.

a. I can spend more time with Dad.
b. We are usually enticed by a good-paying job.
c. You can make your own happiness.
d. She wants to be a manager.
e. The bank was very big. It was very amazing.
B. Objective Pronoun – indicates that the pronoun is acting as direct object of the
verb, object of a compound verb, object of a preposition, or object of an infinitive.
a. After every long trip his wife and kids would meet him at the door with big
smiles and much excitement.
b. I would like to be a seaman so that I could see you more often.
c. Kim idolizes me.
d. I borrowed the money from him.
e. Karl wants to see you.
f. Kenny picked him up.
Classes/Kinds of Pronoun
1. Personal Pronoun – word used instead of the one who is speaking.

First Person – refers to the speaker(s) or writer(s)
I, Me, Mine, My, Us, We, Ours
I is used as the subject of a sentence.

I am happy.
Me is used as an object in various ways.
He hit me.
He gave me a book.
Do this for me.
My is used as the possessive form.
That’s my car.
Second Person – refers to the person or people being spoken or written to.
You, Yours
Third Person – refers to the person or people being spoken or written about.
He, She, It, They, His, Her, Him, Them, Hers, Theirs, Its
Singular – I, You, He, She, It, Mine,

Plural – We, You, They, Them, Theirs, Our
Cases of Personal Pronoun
a. Nominative
First Person – I, We
Second Person – You
Third Person – He, She, It, They
b. Objective
First Person – Me, Us
Second Person – You
Third Person – Her, His, It, Them
c. Possessive
First Person – Mine, Ours
 This new house is mine.
Second Person – Yours
 I am completely yours.
Third Person – His, Hers, Its, Theirs
 Look at that collage. Theirs is really good.
2. Impersonal Pronoun – a pronoun that does not stand for anything definite in the
sentence. Ex. It
o It suddenly faded.
o It could hardly be understood.
o It doesn’t matter anymore.
3. Intensive Pronoun – consists of a personal pronoun plus –self or –selves and
emphasizes a noun. It immediately follows a noun or a personal pronoun (subject form
only), or is placed at the end of the sentence.
 myself, yourself, herself, ourselves, themselves

o I myself don’t know what to do.
o I cut myself.
 It is possible for an intensive pronoun to precede the noun it refers to.
Ex. Myself, I don’t believe you.
4. Reflexive Pronoun – (which have the same forms as the intensive pronouns) indicate
that the sentence subject also receives the action of the verb. It refers back to the
subject.
o Students who cheat on this quiz are only hurting themselves.
o You paid yourself a thousand pesos?
o Sheila encouraged herself to do well in school.
 This means that whenever there is a reflexive pronoun in a sentence,
there must be a person to whom that pronoun can “reflect”.
Reflexive Intensive
Did you hurt yourself? You yourself volunteered to teach.
That is what I want for myself? I myself chose to be a teacher.
They believe in themselves. They themselves were shocked.
5. Definite Pronoun – a pronoun that specifies or demonstrates. It is otherwise called as

demonstrative pronoun.
 this, that, these, those, such
o This is a book. (if only referring o Such is my belief.
1) o These cassava cakes sitting
o These are for sale. (if referring here now on my plate are
to many or more than one) delicious.
o This has to be memorized. o Those cassava cakes that I had
o These must be done. yesterday morning were even
o That is fantastic. sweeter.
o I will never forget this.
6. Indefinite Pronoun – a pronoun that identifies its subject in a general or indeterminate

manner.
 all, each, some, few, several, none, one, most, many, every, everybody,
anybody, somebody. These pronouns do not substitute for specific nouns but
function themselves as nouns.
o Some came to the program.
o Several left before the program ended.
o All were present this afternoon.
o Most of the time, most of us have reason to be weary.
Singular Plural Both Singular and

Plural
Any Both None
Everyone Few All
Anybody No one Many Some
Anything Nobody Several
Anyone Nothing
Each (one)
Somebody
Everybody
Something
Everything
Someone
Everyone
 Indefinite pronouns ending in –one and –body refer to people.

 Someone is out there.
 I need somebody to open the door.
 Indefinite pronouns ending in –thing refer to things or activity, or to an entity

that is not clearly identifiable as human.
 Something is moving outside.
 I can’t say anything now.
 I have nothing to worry about.
 I believe that everything is possible now.
 Indefinite pronouns that begin with no means “not one person” or “not one
thing”
 Nothing is impossible if nobody gives up.
 Indefinite pronouns that begin with someare generally used in affirmative
sentences. Indefinite pronouns that begin with any- are generally used in
negative statements and questions.
 I know someone who can teach you how to speak English.
 Do you know anyone in this village who can teach Spanish?
 Indefinite pronouns can be used as subject, direct object, or object of

preposition.
 Someone is inside our house (subject)
 I see someone near the door. (direct object)
 I was afraid that’s why I gave the key to someone who can open
the door. (object of preposition)
7. Relative Pronoun – refers to another word in the sentence. It is both pronoun and
connecting word clause.
 who, which, that, whom, whose, whoever, whomever, whatever, what
 who refers to people
 which refers to things.
 that refers to things, but it can also refer to people in a general kind of way.
o The student who works fast usually gets the bacon.
o This is the girl who did the work.
o The pen that I borrowed was lost.
o This is the kitten which I found in the library.
 whoever, whomever and whatever are called indefinite relative pronouns.
o The leader will choose whomever he pleases.
o The man seemed to tell whatever came to his mind.
o Whoever touches this line first will win the game.
 what is often an indefinite relative pronoun.
o Maria will give you what you want to have.
Who vs. Whom
Who is in subjective form and whom is in objective form.
Investigator: Who is your suspect? (asking for subject)

Victim: My suspect is my roommate, who is very close to me.
Investigator: Whom did you call after knowing that your wallet was stolen?
(asking for direct object)
Victim: I phoned my mother. She was the first person whom I talked to after the
incident.
8. Reciprocal Pronoun – a pronoun that expresses a mutual relationship between or

among individuals.
 each other and one another
 Each other is used when antecedent refers to two subjects/units.
o My sister and mother give each other a hard time.
o Rance and Gail are deeply in love with each other.
o Husband and wife should respect each other.
o They shared each other’s ideas.
o Both teams played hard against each other.
o The children offered each other’s help.
 One another is used when antecedent refers to more than two subjects/units.
o The photographers often use one another’s equipment.
o Students prepare to compete with one another.
o The members of my family certainly love one another.
o The boys read one another’s story.
9. Interrogative Pronoun – a pronoun used to ask question.

Who, Whom –people
Which, What – things and animals
Interrogative Pronouns
Who How To Whom
What Whom To What
Which Whose To Which
Why When Where
Antecedents of Pronoun
Antecedent – group of words that a pronoun replaces. It is a noun or group of words acting as a
noun for which pronoun stands.
Ex: The firemen described how they did their jobs.

they pronoun
their
firemen – antecedent of they and their
1. Avoid double antecedent.

Double antecedent means that there are two possible antecedents for a pronoun. This
error could be corrected by:
a. repeating the antecedent
b. using a synonym for the antecedent
c. changing the sentence construction
Vague: If the doll does not fit the box, adjust it. (Which should be adjusted, the doll or
the box?)
Clear: Adjust the doll if it does not fit in the box.
Clear: A doll that does not fit the box must be adjusted.
Vague: Carlo told his father that he had lost his tie. ((Which of the men lost whose tie?)
Clear: Carlo told his father that he, Carlo, had lost his father’s tie.
Clear: Carlo told his father, “I lost your tie.”
Clear: Carlo told his father, “I lost my tie.”
2. Avoid missing antecedent.

Missing antecedent means that no antecedent is being referred to by the pronoun.
This could be corrected by:
a. providing each noun a specific and clearly expressed antecedent
b. replacing the pronoun with a noun
Vague: I dance every morning because it is a good exercise. (The pronoun it does not
refer to any noun in the sentence.)
Clear: I dance every morning because dancing is a good exercise.
Vague: In his school, they do not have any swimming pool.

Clear: His school does not have any swimming pool.
3. Place the pronouns who, which, and that immediately after the noun they are
referring to.
Vague: I found a candy in my bag, which I ate. (Did I eat the bag or the candy?)
Vague: I found a candy, which I ate in my bag. (still illogical)
Clear: I ate the candy, which I found in my bag.

Clear: In my bag, I found a candy, which I ate.
4. Avoid broad reference.

Broad reference means that pronouns like it, this, and that refer to the whole sentence.
Vague: The government has constructed housing units for low-salaried employees. This
is, indeed, commendable.
Clear: The government has constructed housing units for low-salaried employees. This
project is, indeed, commendable.
Vague: Tony misplaced his important papers, and that disappointed us greatly.
Clear: Tony misplaced his important papers, and that misplacement disappointed us
greatly.
Clear: We were greatly disappointed because Tony misplaced his important papers.
Vague: The board agreed to increase the salary, but it took time.
Clear: The board agreed to increase the salary, but arriving at the agreement took time.
5. Make the number of the pronoun agree with its antecedent particularly in formal
context.
Wrong: Everybody wants to submit their proposal.
Right: Everybody wants to submit his/her proposal.
Note: When used in informal context, plural pronouns, such as they, them, and
theircan be used with compound indefinite pronouns.
Everybody has his/her own talent to show.

Everyone has their own talent to show.
III. VERBS – action words
 are words that expresses action or state of being

 they describe what is happening in the sentence.
 tells what people or things do
 a word that can show action
 the main word in the predicate
FORMAL CHARACTERISTICS OF VERBS
1. The verb is defined as a word that has five forms namely:

a. The Base form - Ex. explain, listen
b. The S-form (called “third person singular in many grammars)
Ex. He listens.
c. The –ingform (also called present participle)
Ex. explaining, listening
d. The past tense - Ex. explained, listened
e. The past participle - Ex. explained, listened
2. The verb is a word that expresses action or state of being, and helps make a statement.
 I listen. (listen tells action)
 She is a pianist. (Is helps make a statement; is links subject and complement)
 He has a job. (has tells the state of the subject)
3. The verb may be signaled by one or more auxiliaries.

auxiliary verbs – are helping verbs and are used to form verb phrases.
a. The auxiliary may implies permission; can implies ability; must implies obligation;
might implies possibility or probability; would implies past habitual action.
 Karen, you may leave the room.
 She can help you.
 Students must study their lesson.
 She might go with you if you ask her.
 Everyday, I would visit him.
 Would you like to go? I’ll take you.
b. Had better, ought, should & have to implies obligation

 You have to go now.
 You had better be present.
 Children should obey their parents.
 She ought to do better work.
4. The verb occurs in the following positions.
a. verb follows noun
 The students are listening.
 The teacher is explaining.
b. Verb precedes the noun.

 He explained the problem.
 We studied the solution.
c. Verb stands alone or follows a request signal in a request or command sentence.

 (Please) listen
 (Kindly) explain
The Special Verb BE:

 The verb BE has special forms of different subjects.
 The verb BE does not show action. It tells what someone or something is or is
like.
SUBJECT PRESENT PAST
I am was
You are were
He, She, It is was
Singular noun is was
We are were
They are were
Plural noun are were
Examples:
PRESENT PAST
The dog is barking. The dog was barking.

I am reading. I was reading.
We are happy. We were happy.
You are sick. You were sick.
Main verb – is the most important word. It is also called lexical.

Helping verb – comesbefore a helping verb.
 a verb added before another verb to make a verb phrase.
ex: erase
had erased
will have erased
might have erased
should have been erased
Some common helping verbs:

am are were has had shall should
is was will have could might would
do does did can may must
Some Forms of BE Used as Helping Verbs
Helping Verb Main Verb Helping Verb Main Verb

am singing could have been eaten
has been laughing will have been dancing
was being told
Sentence Examples:
Helping Main
Verb Verb
I am writing a funny story.
She was swimming at my friend’s house yesterday.
The men are playing a game of cards.
The baby is sleeping in her carriage.
Making Subject and Verb Agree:

 A verb in the present tense must agree with the subject of the sentence.
 When the subject is singular noun or he, she or it, add sto the verb.
 When the subject is a plural noun or I, we, you, or they, do not add an sto the verb.
Examples:
Singular Subjects Plural Subjects
he hammers the leaves fall
the boy washes the stars shine
she sews we play
the horse jumps they marry
 Treat I and You the same as plural subjects, do not add an sto the verb.
You race. I cheer.
You drive. I jump.
Contractions with NOT

 Sometimes you can join a verb with the word not.
 The shortened word you make when you join the two words.
 An apostrophe (‘) is used to take the letter or letters that you leave out.
Examples:
Two-word contraction
are not aren’t

is not isn’t
do not don’t
does not doesn’t
did not didn’t
has not hasn’t
had not hadn’t
have not haven’t
cannot can’t
should not shouldn’t
will not won’t
would not wouldn’t
were not weren’t
was not wasn’t
General Classes of Verbs According to Use
A. Transitive Verb – is an action verb. It requires an object.

A verb is transitive when the action it expresses is directed toward a person or thing
named in the sentence. The action passes from the doer (the subject) to the receiver of
the action (the object).
Examples:
 Jane ate the apple. (The action of the verb ate is directed toward apple. The subject is
Jane and the object is apple).
 John threw the ball. (The action of the verb threw is directed toward ball. The subject
is John and the object is the ball)
 We planted rice. (The action of the verb planted is directed toward rice. The subject is
we and the object is the rice)
B. Intransitive Verb – is an action verb without a direct object.

A verb is intransitive when it expresses action (or helps to make a statement) without
reference to the object.
Examples:
 She sings. (no direct object)
 Maria walks gracefully. (gracefully is an adverb modifying the verb walks)
 The children behaved very well. (no direct object, very well is an adjective)
 The bus arrived on time. (no direct object)
C. Linking or Copulative Verb –helpto make a statement, not by expressing an action but
by serving as a link between two words.
- Links two parts of the sentence: the subject and predicate.
- Alsolinks the subject with either a predicate noun or predicate adjective known as
subjective complement.
Most common linking verbs:

become look taste stay
seem prove turn
appear remain act
feel smell continue
grow sound sit
Most commonly used linking verbs are forms of the verb be.
Some forms of the verb be are:
am be has been
is shall be have been
are will be had been
was should be shall have been
were would be will have been
being could be should have been
can be would have been
could have been
Examples:
My mother is a teacher. (teacher –predicate noun,SC is noun)
Mikewas a criminal. (criminal-predicate noun, SC is a noun)
Everybody seems happy. (happy-predicate adjective)
Everything appears beautiful. (beautiful-predicate adjective)
General Classes of Verbs According to Form
1. Regular Verbs – are those which form their past tense and past participle by simply
adding d, t, or ed sound to the base form.
Base Form S-form Present Past Past

Participle Participle
laugh laughs laughing laughed (have) laughed
act acts acting acted (has) acted
believe believes believing believed (has) believed
giggle giggles giggling giggled giggled
help helps helping helped helped
jump jumps jumping jumped jumped
2. Irregular Verbs –verbs that do not add –ed to show past tense.
 Because they do not follow a regular pattern, you must remember their past tense and
past with helping verbs spelling.
 One group has a vowel change in the past tense and in some case in the past participle
as well.
Base Form Past Past Past

Participle w/ helping verb
fly flew flown (has,had,have) flew
write wrote written (has,had,have) written
eat ate eaten (has,had,have) eaten
TENSES OF VERBS
(Present, Past and Future)
 a verb tells when something happens.
 the tense of a verb lets you know whether something happens in the past, present or
future.
A. PRESENT TENSE – denotes present times

Three Forms of the Present Tense
1. The Ordinary Form – use to indicate habitual action, permanent location and general
truth.
 I study my lesson.
2. The Progressive Form – indicates an action continuing in the present.

 I am studying my lesson now.
3. Emphatic Form (The “did” Form) – emphasizes the action. It is sometimes considered
as the “did” form, used in asking questions and in making negative statements.
 I do study my lessons. (emphatic form)
 Does he study his lessons? (question form)
 He does not study his lesson. (negative statement)
Spelling the Present Tense

 for most verbs, add –s
 for verbs that end with s, x, z, ch or sh add –es.
 for a verb that ends with a consonants and y, change the y to an i and add –es.
 pushes - The lady pushes the cart.

 hisses - The snake hisses.
 relaxes - The boy relaxes on his bed.
 fly-flies - The bee flies through the air.
 carry-carries - The dog carries a bone.
B. PAST TENSE – used to indicate an action that took place at some past time, yesterday,
last week, last year, etc.
Three Forms of Past Tense

1. The Ordinary Form – generally used to express something that happened at special
past time.(yesterday, last night, etc.)
 I spoke to her yesterday.
2. The Progressive Form – used to express an action that was going on in the past when
another past action occurred.
 I was eating when the telephone rang.
3. The Emphatic Form – used when the reader wants to emphasize the action.
 You said I didn’t study but I did my lesson.
(notice that the main verb has the present tense form)
 The used to form indicates a habitual action true in the past but no longer true at
present.
 I used to drink a lot of water.
Spelling the Past Tense

 for most verbs add, -ed.
 verbs ending with e, drop the e and add –ed.
Ex. opened skateed
walked danceed
pointed erveed
 verbs ending with a single vowel and a consonant, double the consonant and add –ed.
 verbs ending with a consonant and y, changed the y to i and add –ed.
Ex. hopped carry – carried
hugged hurry – hurried
The Past with Helping Verbs

 use the helping verbs has, had, have with the past form of most verbs.
 with singular subjects, use has
Ex. The kitten has played with the string.

She has baked a cake.
The boy has eaten his lunch.
 with plural subjects and I or you, use have

Ex. The cats have played with the yam.
I have worked on a computer.
 with either singular or plural subjects, use had

Ex. He had scored 26 points already.
They had lost their soccer game.
C. FUTURE TENSE – denotes future time.

 shall is generally used with the first person and will with the second and third
persons.
 future action is also denoted by the going toconstruction
Examples:
1. I will marry you.
2. I am going to travel next week.
3. I will brush my teeth tonight.
C.1.The Future Progressive Tense – used to express an act that shall be on going at the
time when another future act occurs.
Examples:
1. I will be going to school early on Monday.
2. We will be brushing our teeth tonight.
3. He will be singing the national hymn during the flag raising ceremony.
D. PERFECT TENSES
Three Principal Forms of Perfect Tenses

I.Present Perfect Tense – refers to two-related actions – a past action and a present action.
It refers to an action that has its beginning in the past but continues to the present
moment. It indicates actually more of a present action or situation than a past one.
Examples:
1. I have been reading for two hours.
2. I have been waiting since two o’clock.
3. He has come to see us.
Sentence 1 – the person is still reading
Sentence 2 – the person is still waiting
Sentence 3 – “he has come” implies that he is still here.
The present perfect tense differs significantly from the past tense.
 I slept well. (past tense)
 It implies that the action belongs definitely to the past.
 I have slept well (present perfect tense)
 It is said by a person soon after rising. It belongs definitely to the recent past.
Two Forms of Present Perfect Tense

1. Ordinary Form
a. I have walked for three hours.
b. I have received your letters.
c. We have written in our Journals for two hours.
2. Progressive Form
a. I have been walking for three hours.
b. I have been receiving your letters.
c. We have been writing in our Journal for two hours.
The present perfect tense is sometimes called the “has-have” tense because the signof the
present perfect tense is has for the third person and have for all other persons.
Examples: I have done the work.

He has done the work.
II.Past Perfect Tense – denotes an action which took place before another past action or
before a definite past time. It is used when the speaker wishes to bring out this
particular relationship between two actions.
Examples:
1. I stood up; I heard a noise.
(there are two past actions)
2. I stood up; I had heard a noise.
(the relationship between the two actions is perfectly clear. The noise was heard
before the person stood up.)
3. I stood up after I heard the noise.
(the two verbs are both in the past tense although the second action occurred before
the first action.)
However, the past perfect tense may also be used in this situation.
1. I noted all the errors he had made.
 He had finished making all the mistakes before I saw him.
2. The meeting had started when I entered.

 The meeting was going on when I entered.
 The past perfect tense is generally found in subordinate clauses:
The station master said that the train had left an hour before. It is rarely used in a
simple sentence unless the sentence is found in a paragraph.
 Notice the use of the past perfect tense in this paragraph.

I received my report card and look at it in dismay. I had failed in English. I had
been absent too many times. I had failed to study my lessons. Now, I had my
report card. I stared at it, my mind full of regret.
III.Future Perfect Tense – when you mean that the action will be completed before a specific
time in the future. The forms of the future perfect tense are the ordinary form (shall
have or will have added to the main verb) and the future perfect progressive
form(shall have been or will have been) added to the main verb.
Examples:
Ordinary Form
1. When I graduate, my father will have bought a new car.
2. We shall have gone to school at seven o’clock.
Future Perfect Progressive Form

1. Our house shall have been finished when my sister will get married in December.
2. At nine o’clock tonight, my father will have been sleeping.
The Active and Passive Voice of a Verb
Voice – indicates whether the subject is the doer or the receiver of an action.
Active Voice – when the subject performs the action expressed by the verb.
Passive Voice – when the subject is the receiver of the action indicated in the verb.
 Only transitive verbs have voice and can be changed from active to passive.
Active: The janitor cleans the room.

Passive: The room is cleaned by the janitor.
Active: The janitor has cleaned the room.

Passive: The room has been cleaned by the janitor.
Active: The janitor will clean the room.

Passive: The room will be cleaned by the janitor.
 Remember that unless there is a good reason to use the passive voice, the active voice is
preferable. The active voice is more vigorous, direct and forceful.
ACTIVITY:
A. Identify the voice of the verbs.
1. Dolly introduced the speakers.
2. Mario was appointed to the committee by the president.
3. The robber was caught by the police.
4. At dawn, the rats attacked the ricefield.
5. Anna was invited to the party.
6. The carabaos were driven home.
7. He is observing the planets.
8. Marga is writing letters.
9. The class bought many flowers.
10. The wind blows the streamers.
B. Rewrite the following sentences changing the active verb to passive verb.
a. The young players won the game.
b. The teacher moves the table.
c. My companion carried the balls.
d. We named our new puppy.
e. All my friends in the class appointed her.
f. Our organization elected Teddy.
g. They named the twins.
h. The court judged the defendant.
i. Diane dropped her doughnut.
VERBALS
 Verb is used as the simple predicate of a sentence, while the verbal is used, not as
predicate, but as modifier or a noun in the position of subject, object, predicate
complement or object of the preposition.
Three Kinds of Verbals:

1. The Infinitive (to + V) –
 To speak is necessary to improve one’s English.
 Her fondest dream is to travel.
 They had a week to spend by the seashore.
 I was glad to have come.
2. The Gerund (v + ing) –
 Speaking is necessary to improve one’s English.
 Reading good books increases one’ knowledge.
 Reading intelligently is not always easy.
 Some people dislike loud reading.
3. The Participle –
 Speaking good English, he impressed the audience.
 Speaking English always, she acquired mastery of the language.
 Speaking extemporaneously, he wooed the crowd.
MOODS OF VERBS – shows the writer’s attitude about the actuality of a happening.
1. Indicative mood – indicates that you are talking or writing about a fact – you are
speaking of something that has happened, is happening, or definitely will happen.
 He takes precaution in everything he does.
 What is the most populated country in the world?
 The most populated country in the world is China.
2. Subjunctive mood – used to express only wishes, commands and conditions that are
doubtful or contrary to fact.
Common subjunctive verbs

announce, ask, demand, determine, indicate, insist, move, order, prefer, propose,
recommend, request, suggest, wish
 The lawyer demands that he takes every reasonable precaution.

 Bob moved that the meeting be adjourned.
 If these charges be true, Jolly must resign.
 I wish Johnny were the leader.
 I wish I were tall.
3. Imperative mood – used to express a command, a directive, or a request. The

imperative mood has only one tense – the present, and only one person – the second.
 Make a report about China.
 Use an overhead projector when presenting.
 Keep your feet off the grass.
 Take the first turn to the right.
 Please help her.
Rules of Subject-Verb Agreement
1. The subject and the verb of a clause must agree in number.

 That boytalks smartly today.
 Those boysdance well.
2. Compound subjects joined by and require plural verbs.

 Jhen and Roxanneare cousins.
 My classmate and my friend are with me.
When considered as a unit or is modified by each or every, it will take a singular verb.
 Rice and fishwas served for dinner.

 Each boy and girlrequires to pay the dull dues.
3. A singular subject takes a singular verb, while a compound subject takes a plural verb.
Singular subject – The ownermakes a quick decision.
Compound subject – The manager and workerargue because of the wage.
4. If the subject consists of two nouns and each of these preceded by the article the, the verb
must be plural, but if the second noun is not preceded by the, the verb must be singular.
 The producer and the talent manager of the film are sisters.
 The producer and talent manager of the film is a sister of a scriptwriter.
 The secretary and the minutes-taker are present today.
o The secretary and minutes-taker is present today.
5. The expression a number of takes a plural verb; the expression the number of takes a
singular verb.
 A number of students are absent.
 The number of students is very small.
6. The indefinite words like each, every, everyone, someone, nobody, no one, somebody,
everybody, something, everything, anyone, when used as subject requires singular verb.
 Everythingseems to be alright.
 Everybodyis happy.
 Nobodycame to take the test.
 No onewantsto go with me.
 One of the boyslooks sad.
7. When used as subject, indefinite pronouns like all, both, several, many, few, some, take
plural verbs.
 Many studentsare excited to watch the program.
 Someare coming with us.
 Bothare expected to pass the exam.
 Somewere requested to join the field trip.
8. Many is plural; Many a is singular.

 Manyvote for the new representative of the class.
 Many a school officer votes for the new representative of the class.
9. Compound subjects joined by or, either… nor, neither are singular or plural depending
on the subject nearest the verb.
 Either the head teacher or principalis convinced to replace the chairperson.
 Neither the teacher nor the studentsagree to replace the chairperson.
 Neither he nor youare to be suspended.
 Either you or sheis involved in the anomaly.
 Either the girl or the boyis going. (singular subject)
 Either the girls or the boys are going. (plural subject)
 Neither you nor I am going. (verb agrees w/ the nearest member of the compound
subject)
 Neither I nor you are going. (verb agrees w/ the nearest member of the compound
subject)
10. Compound subjects joined by not only.., but also and both… and take a plural verb.
 Not only boys but also girls are entitled to scholarship.
 Both you and I have a chance to be promoted.
11. Two or more singular subjects joined by and but modified by each, every or not require
singular verb.
 Each teacher and studentwas given a gift.
 Every boy, girl and visitorwas given a ballpen.
 Not money and not comfortwas his prime purpose in marrying him.
12. The positive, not the negative idea in the sentence agrees in number with the verb.
 The coaches, not the manager are the best ones to know the play of the game.
 The producer, not the directors is the best ones to know the budget of the film.
13. Nouns denoting quantity, fraction, percentage, currency takes singular verbs, but if
they are followed by the phrase of the, it takes plural verbs.
 One-third of appleis rotten.
 One-third of the applesare rotten.
14. Nouns ending in s but singular in meaning are singular. (mumps, news, measles,
Mathematics, Physics, politics, Philippines, economics, etc.)
 Physicsis my favorite subject.
 The newsis stale.
 Measlesattacks the whole town.
15. Use singular verbs with uncountable nouns.

 Gold was discovered in California.
 His money is in the bank.
 The water is running.
 His advice helps Josefa.
 Knowledge brings understanding.
 That information is difficult to comprehend.
16. When used as subject, nouns in s generally require plural verbs.

 The boysare noisy.
 The bookswere distributed to students.
17. Nouns in pairs take plural verbs such as pliers, shoes, scissors, trousers, tongs and
spectacles, except the expression a pair of is used.
 The shoesare tag with low price.
 The tongsare hot.
 His trousersare still wet.
 A pair of shoesis tag with low price.
18. Collective nouns such as class, jury, team, committee, crown, faculty, audience, staff,
etc. take singular of plural verb depending on whether the group is thought of as a whole or
as individuals.
 The classhasprepared a report. (class thought of as a whole)
 The council are dividing themselves on the divorce issue. (class thought of as
individuals)
 The committeehas finished its work.
19. Words like including, with, plus, as well as, in addition to, accompanied by, do not
affect the number of the verb in the main clause.
 The house was made by her father together with her brother.
 The captain accompanied by the soldiers visits the town.
 The mother, with all her children, is here.
 The captain, as well as his soldiers, is marching.
 Justin Bieber, including his fans, was well accommodated.
20. The verb agrees with the antecedent of the relative pronoun.
 One of the students of the class now makes a big deal in engineering.
 Chariz is one of the singers who make a great performance in the Hollywood.
21. An amount of money, space of time or a unit of measurement takes a singular verb
even when the form is plural.
 Twenty pesosis not enough.
 Ten thousand milesis too far to run.
 Ten kilos of tomatoesis sold in a bag.
22. The expression there is, is followed by a singular noun, the expression there are is
followed by a plural noun.
 There is no solution to that problem.
 There are no answers to those questions.
23. Adjectives used as nouns are considered plural.

 The poorare to be helped.
 The hardworking are rewarded.
24. In case of arithmetical expressions, its number depends upon the “of phrase”.
 Five times twoare ten.
 One-fourth of twelveis three.
 One-half of the studentsare still out.
 One-half of the classis still out.
25. When the subject is a title, name of a book, a clause, a quotation or a group of words
expressing a single idea, the verb is singular.
 “To die is to rest”is statement of a doubtful value.

 “Songs Without Words”is a well-known musical piece.
 “Trees”is the title of a poem.
 Great Expectations is our favorite.
 The Seven Habits of Highly Effective People is my favorite book.
26. It is used to introduce a sentence is always followed by a singular verb whether the noun
that follows is singular or plural.
 Itis the schools which must assume the responsibility.
 Itis a fundamental law of human nature.
27. When used as the subject, a gerund or an infinitive takes a singular subject.
 To earnis my mission. (infinitive- to + verb)
 Walkingis a good form of exercise (gerund-verb + ing)
Common Errors in the Use of Verbs

1. Failure to use specific verbs for distinctive acts.
a. Break is used too generally for almost everything when another verb is more
suitable.
 break a balloon for burst a balloon
 break the cloth for tear the cloth
 break a pen for spoil a pen
 break the paper for tear the paper
 break a bottle for smash a bottle
b. Joke for tease, make fun of, fool. The student should remember that joke is
to be used when the purpose is wholesome laughter.
Say: Don’t tease the baby.
Not: Don’t joke the baby.
c. Ashamed is used for shy, timid. The student should use ashamed only in
relation to actions which are usually shameful.
Say: I am too shy to talk to her.
Not: I am ashamed to talk to her.
2. Remember that to is always followed by the present form of the verb; to beg not to
begged, to ask not to asked, to say not to told.
Say: She wanted to ask a question.
Not: She wanted to asked a question.
3. For some students, the meaning of let and make is confusing.
Make used with another verb means force to, oblige to. Let means to allow, to
permit.
Say: My mother makes me study my lessons.
Not: My mother lets me study my lessons.
4. Make, let, see and hear even in the past tense are used.
Say: She made me sing.
Not: She made me sang.
Say: She let me play ball.
Not: She let me played ball.
5. See and hear are always followed by the present form or the present participle of a
verb.
Say: She saw me walk.
Not: She saw me walked.
Say: She heard me talking.

Not: She heard me talked.
6. The past tense of can is could, can and could are always followed by the present tense.
Say: They could laugh.
Not: The could laughed.
Say: They can jump.
Not: They can jumped.
7. The verb know is not followed by the preposition to. It is followed by an object.
Say: It’s up to my mother.
Not: I do not know to my mother.
Say: It’s up to you.
Not: I do not know to you.
8. Do not interchange find and look, borrow and lend, bring and take, take and get.
You look for something and when you have it you have found it.Bring means
direction towards the speaker while take means direction away from the speaker; get
refers to things not near you.
 When I really look for something, I generally find it.
 I will borrow some books from you, you will lend them to me.
 Bring that puppy here and take this one away.
 Take this sandwich or get one over there.
MODAL AUXILIARIES (modals)

Change the meaning of and/or add meaning to main verbs. Modals can express likelihood,
advice, requests, permission, inclination, frequency, potentiality, and ability.
Properties of Modals
1. Modals do not inflect like the regular verbs.
Wrong: I cans go there.
Correct: I can go there.
2. Modals immediately precede a verb without the intervening infinitive to.
Wrong: I will to run.
Correct: I will run.
3. Modals do not take subject-verb agreement.
Wrong: She can walks outside.
Correct: She can walk outside.
Historical Relationship of Modal
Present Tense Can Will May Shall

Past Tense Could Would Might Should
Modals and Their Equivalent Phrasal Modals

Modals Phrasal Modals
Can, Would Be able to
Will, Shall Be going to, Be about to
Must Have to, Have got to
Should, Ought to Be to, Be supposed to
Would (past habit) Used to
May, Might Be allowed to, Be Permitted to
Functions of Modals (Butler &Podnecky, 2000)

Modal Function Example
Can To express ability in the I can fix this radio.
present
To ask, give, or refuse Can I use your radio?
permission Yes, you can.
No, you cannot use my radio.
To make requests Can I request for a song?
To make offers Can I help you?
Could To express ability in the past I could sing high notes two
years ago.
To ask permission Could I sing for you?
To make polite requests Could you carry the radio for
me?
To make offers Could I help you?
Have to To express necessity in the She had to give up her
past, present, and future project.
She has to finish her project.
She will have to finish her
project.
May To express possibility in the He may be in the gallery now.
present and future He may go to the gallery next
week.
To make polite offers May I help you?
To ask, give or refuse May I use your radio?
permission Yes, you may.
No, you may not use my
radio.
Might To express possibility in the He might be in the gallery.
present and future He might go to the gallery
next week.
Must To express necessity in the We must finish this project
present and future today.
We must finish this project
tomorrow.
To describe something that is You must not smoke in
not allowed public.
Should To give advice You should take care of your
health.
Will To describe future plans and I will put up a business next
predictions year.
I will win the game.
To make requests Will you give me the radio?
Would To make requests Would you sing for me?
Would like To make polite offers Would you like to dance?
To make polite requests I would like some tea.
Appropriate Usage of Modals
Can vs. Could; Will vs. Would; May vs. Might
1. When making requests, historical past forms are more polite. Since historical past
forms are conditional, they are less presumptuous.
a. Could you show me the latest styles of your necklace?
b. Would you tell me her age?
c. Might I go to the comfort room?
2. When responding to requests, historical present forms are more appropriate in order
not to make the response conditional.
a. Yes, I can show you the latest styles of our necklace.
 No, I cannot show you the latest styles of our necklace.
b. Yes, I will tell you her age.
 No, I will not tell you her age.
c. Yes, you may go to the comfort room.
 No, you may not go to the comfort room.
May vs. Can
When asking for permission, may is more appropriate for an addressee with greater
authority.
a. May I talk to you, Sir? (Superior/Boss of the speaker)
b. Can I talk to you, Jake? (colleague)
c. May I talk to you, Mr. President?
d. Can I talk to you, friend?
Can vs. No Modal

Can and cannot are preferred in a more interactional, affective, and emphatic situations
(Park, 1993).
a. I can understand your point, my friend.
b. I can feel what you are experiencing now.
No modal is used in a more factual, direct, abrupt or argumentative situation.

a. Mr. Roxas, you are always repeating the same argument. I understand your point.
b. I also understand your situation but I should execute the law.
Shall vs. Will

1. If the statement starts with let’s, use shall in its tag question.
a. Let’s sing, shall we?
b. Let’s have our lunch, shall we?
2. Use shall in statements establishing new topics.
a. Next, I shall present the annual report.
b. Finally, we shall discuss the proposal for marketing the product.
3. Use shall when signifying an invitation.
a. Shall we have our lunch?
b. Shall we go now?
4. Use shall with I and we when expressing future time; use will otherwise.
a. I shall return.
b. We shall go to Manila next week.
c. He will return.
d. They will go to Manila next week.
May be vs. Maybe

May be is a combination of the modal may and the main verb be. Maybe is used as an
adverb, which means possibly.
a. Mike may be in the living room.
b. Maybe Mike is in the living room.
IV. ADJECTIVES – modifies a noun or pronoun.
Two Main Purposes of Adjectives:
1. To describe the quality of the word it modifies.
2. To point out or limit the class to which the word modified belongs.
An adjective may be classified as to its position in the sentence as in the following formats:
1. Attribute –when placed immediately before the word that it modifies.
 The cute girl dances gracefully.
 The candidates wear dark suits.
 That handsome boy is my son.
 He is a potential leader.
 I am looking for a tall athlete.
2. Appositive –placed immediately following the word it modifies.
 Contestants, tall and lovely, are fit for international beauty contest.
 The victims, deformed and charred are beyond recognition.
 Te debate, chaotic and disorderly, speaks ill of the organizers.
3. Predicate –placed after a linking verb.
 My teacher is approachable.
 My students are active.
 I am happy.
 The suspect appears innocent.
 Sampaguita smells sweet.
4. Pronominal –personal pronouns in a possessive case. They are placed before the noun
they modify.
 My book is lost.
 Your answer is wrong.
 The gift was given by her mother.
 Only few could appreciate her style of leadership.
 Their viewpoints on good government are debatable.
5. Adjectives may also be hyphenated. These hyphenated adjectives are generally placed
before the nouns being described.
 Let the awe-inspiring nature enable you to reminisce the memories of your loved
ones.
 Rest and marvel at the sight of well-manufactured greens and lush scenery.
Two Classifications of Adjectives:

A. Descriptive Adjective – an adjective that states the quality or condition of something.
 The ugly woman has a beautiful daughter.
 The intelligent students prefer difficult questions.
Two Kinds of Descriptive Adjective

1. The old man has an intelligent son. (common)
2. The Japanese tourists like Filipino food. (proper)
B. Limiting Adjective – an adjective that indicates a quantity, number or limit in some

ways.
 Many students were not given books. (quantity)
 The first prize is ten thousand pesos. (numerical)
 The boy found a bag and an umbrella. (limit)
Rules on Using Adjectives:
1. Do not use the double comparison.
Wrong: This book is more better than that.
Correct: This book is better than that.
Wrong: I am so very happy.
Correct: I am so happy or I am very happy or I am extremely happy.
2. When the comparative degree of an adjective is used with than, the thing compared
should be excluded by the use of other.
 Manila is larger than any other city in the Philippines.
3. When an adjective and a noun form a compound adjective, the singular form of the
noun is used.
 a thirty day vacation / a five-foot fence
4. Such words as dozen, score, grass, hundred, retain their singular form when
preceded by an adjective expressing number.
 Three dozen orange; a hundred head of cattle.
5. This and that modify singular nouns; these and those modify plural nouns.
 this book – these books / that boy-those boys
6. When two or more adjectives modify different nouns; the adjective is repeated if
different things are indicated; the adjective is not repeated if only one thing is indicated.
 A red and a blue dress (two dresses)
 A red and blue dress (one dress)
7. Less indicates amount; few indicates number.
 less water  much sugar
 few books  many apples
8. Small is for size; little is for mass or amount.
 small cabinet  little salt
 small table  little sugar
9. Tall is for idea of growth; high is for stature.

 tall person  high
 tall tree  IQ high status
10. Good is for modifying noun or pronoun; well is for modifying verbs. (used as adverb
except if it means in good health, of good appearance, satisfactory)
 good girl  very well said
 good action  played well
A hyphenated adjective using well is used when it is followed by a noun; if not followed by a
noun, hyphenation is not needed since it is used as an adverb.
11. Everyday means daily followed by a noun being described; every day means each day used as
an inclusive.
 Mr. Homer wakes up early every day. This is because he has an everyday work in
Manila, in spite of his hectic schedule; he still has time for his children. In spite of his
everyday work in the office, he does not forget to give quality time to his children
every day.
12. Another is used when one person performs action; the other is used when two persons
perform the action.
 Paul ate one apple. Then he ate another apple.
 Paul ate one apple. Sara ate the other apple.
13. In comparison so,asis generally used after a negative comparison.
 She is not so tall as her mother.
 She is as tall as her mother.
14. Do not commit the mistake of using nouns for adjectives and adjectives for nouns.
Say: She is patient.
Not: She is patience.
Say: He is a patient man.
Not: He is a patience man.
The Correct Uses of “THE”, “A”, and “AN”
Use the article the:
1. With units in measurement:
a. Apples are sold by the dozen; sugar is sold by the kilo.
2. Before adjectives use as nouns.
a. The poor should be helped.
b. The good should be rewarded.
3. Before nouns used in a general sense:
a. Cats are useful animals.
But say: The cat is a useful animal.
4. Before the names of languages when they are used alone:
a. I study French.
But say: I study the French language.
Do not use the article the:

1. With names of countries that have the plural form.
a. They have left for the United States.
b. They came from the Philippines.
But say: They left for Europe.
But say: They came from Philippines.
2. With the names of rivers and mountain chains:
b. We sailed along the Pampanga River.
c. They climbed the Sierra Madre Mountains.
But say: They climb Mount Arayat.
5. With certain place-name:
a. We walked along theEscolta and later went to theLuneta.
But say: We walked along Escolta and later went to Luneta.
Use of the article a or an:

1. Before the words are few and little to mean some:
Say: We have few books.
Not: We have a few books.
2. A number means many:
 I have a number of friends.
3. Use a or an after what in exclamatory sentences.
 What a handsome boy!
 What an interesting story!
4. Do not use a or an before mass nouns
 She gave me advice (not she gave me an advice)
5. Use such a, such an, half a, half anto modify singular nouns.
 She was such an honorable man.
 I gave him half a banana.
Adjectives may also be used as predicative adjective and objective complement.

1. Predicative adjective – it is an adjective that modifies the subject but it is a place after linking
verb.
 The girl is bright.
 The teachers are happy.
 Everything appears beautiful.
2. Objective Complement – it is an adjective placed after the direct object and is used to modify the
object.
 The doctor found the patient weak.
 Excessive exercise made the boy sick.
 When he woke up, he found his friend dead.
 We call these Chocolate Hills amazing.
 I consider Mayon Volcano fascinating.
Addition of Suffixes to Form Adjectives
Word Suffixes Adjective Word Suffixes Adjective
love -able malice -ious
comfort infect
honor -ary child -ish
vision fool
fortune -ate Excel -lent
college
dedicate -d limit -less
cage use
material -istic pig -like
impression war
fit -ing man -ly
inspire month
wood -en fun -ny
gold sun
beauty -ful continue -ous
hope pore
history -ic rain -y
acid meat
Comparison of Adjectives
Comparison of adjectives is a grammatical distinction that indicates the degrees or quality
expressed.
1. One-syllable adjectives usually use –er/r and –est.
hard → harder → hardest
big → bigger → biggest
2. Two-syllable adjectives use either more and most or –er/r and –est.
distant → more distant → most distant
lucky → luckier → luckiest
3. Multi-syllabic (three or more syllables) adjectives use more and most.
imaginative → more imaginative → most imaginative
intelligent → more intelligent → most intelligent
4. Irregular adjectives
good → better → best
bad → worse → worst
many → more → most
little → less → least
V. ADVERBS – are words that modify:

 a verb (He drove slowly)
 an adjective (He drove a very fast car)
 another adverb (She moved quite slowly down the aisle)
Kinds of Adverbs
1. Adverbs of Manner - described how something happens
- are often formed by adding ‘-ly’ to an adjective.
 well, beautifully, terribly, quietly, noisily, lovingly, kookily, greedily, nicely, frankly,
naturally, neatly, oddly, hungrily, gently, slowly, quickly, loudly, together, independently,
...
2. Adverbs of Place – described where something happens
- indicate where something happens.
 here, there, everywhere, nowhere, inwardly, outwardly, nearby, far, then, away, upward,
downward, up, down, inside, indoors, outside, outdoors, home, homeward, backward,
forwards, southward, abroad, ...
3. Adverbs of Time – tell us how often something happen.
 before, after, still, yet, punctually, suddenly, recently, later, yesterday, today, tomorrow,
last year, next Saturday, next week, the day after tomorrow, last night, the other day…
4. Adverbs of Frequency – are adverbs of time that answer the question "How frequently?" or
"How often?" They tell us how often something happens.
 always, never, sometimes, often, seldom, yearly, daily, weekly, nightly, periodically,
sporadically, rarely, frequently, regularly, normally, occasionally...
5. Adverbs of Degree - described to what degree something happen.
 almost, nearly, barely, scarcely, quite, just, hardly, totally, fully, less, too, thoroughly,
weakly, half-heartedly, whole-heartedly, extremely, enough, completely, very, enough, ...
6. Adverbs of Purpose - express the reason for or a purpose of an action.
 She drives her boat slowly to avoid hitting the rocks.
 She shops in several stores to get the best buys.
7. Adverbs of Certainty - described how probable it is that something will happen.
 definitely, probably, certainly, surely, undoubtedly, likely, doubtlessly, unquestionably,
indubitably, absolutely, ...
Adverbs often tell when, where, why or under what conditions something happens or happened. The
words lovely, lonely, motherly, friendly, neighborly, for instance are adjectives.
 That lovely woman lives in a friendly neighborhood.
 I can see a lonely girl sitting at the bench.
 Adverb Clause - if a group of words containing a subject and verb acts as an adverb
 When this class is over, we're going to the movies.
 Adverbialphrase -when a group of words not containing a subject and verb acts as an adverb.
 Gilda calls her mother as often as possible.
 Prepositional phrases frequently have adverbial functions
 He went to the movies.
 She works on holidays.
 They lived in Canada during the war.
 Infinitive phrases can act as adverbs:
 She hurried to the mainland to see her brother.
 The senator ran to catch the bus.
Like adjectives, adverbs can have comparative and superlative forms to show degree.
Base Form Comparative Superlative

carefully more carefully most carefully
freely more freely most freely
quickly more quickly most quickly
 Walk faster if you want to keep up with me.

 The student who reads fastest will finish first.
We often use more and most, less and least to show degree with adverbs:
 With sneakers on, she could move more quickly among the patients.
 The flowers were the most beautifully arranged creations I've ever seen.
 She worked less confidently after her accident.
 That was the least skillfully done performance I've seen in years.
Some adverbs are compared irregularly as follows:

Base Form Comparative Superlative
well better best
badly worse worst
much more most
less least
far farther farthest
further furthest
The as — as construction can be used to create adverbs that express sameness or equality:
 He can't run as fast as his sister.
 You go to school as early as possible.
Positions of Adverbs
1. The adverb occupies various positions in the sentence as follows:
a. Adj. + Adv. Pattern. The adverb ending in –ly generally comes before an adjective.
 I read an amazinglyinteresting book.
 He is an exceptionally brilliant man.
b. LV + Adv. Pattern: The adverb comes after a linking verb as in:
 She is unusuallytall.
 This is terribly difficult.
c. Following Direct Object:
 We consider the speech needlessly long.
 I think the show unnecessarily expensive.
The following adverbs of frequency appear in various points in these sentences:
 Before the main verb: I never get up before nine o'clock.
 Between the auxiliary verb and the main verb: I have rarely written to my brother without a
good reason.
 Before the verb used to: I always used to see him at his summer home.
Order of Adverbs
There is a basic order in which adverbs will appear when there is more than one. It is similar to The
Royal Order of Adjectives, but it is even more flexible.
THE ROYAL ORDER OF ADVERBS
Verb Manner Place Frequency Time Purpose
Beth enthusiastically in the every before to keep in
swims pool morning dawn shape.
Dad walks impatiently into every before to get a
town afternoon supper newspaper.
Tashonda in her room every before
naps morning lunch.
Common Errors in the Use of Adverbs

5. Good is an adjective; well is an adverb. Do not confuse the two.
 He is well. (condition)
 He is good. (character)
2. Use from after different and differently.
 This is different from (not than) that
 She speaks differently from (not than) you.
3. Do not use the adjective mostfor the adverb almost.
 Almost(not most) all the students are present.
 Moststudents study their lessons (adjective)
4. Do not use notwithno one, none, neither, never, nothing, nobody.
 There is nobody at home. Do not say: There us not nobodyat home.
5. Such words as only, merely, just, nearly, almost,should be as close as possible to words they
modify.
6. Do not use an adjective when you should use an adverb.
 Do not stop too suddenly. Do not say: Do not stop too sudden.
7. Tooandveryshould not be interchanged.
 The problem is toohard.
 The problem is veryhard.
The first sentence means that the problem cannot be solved; the second sentence means that it
may be solved with difficulty.
8. Certain adverbs and prepositions are incorrectly used with certain verbs and adjectives.
 The flag is lowered at sunset. Do not say: The flag is lowered down at sunset.
 The man was fired. Do not say: The man was fired out.
 The child raised his hand. Do not say: The child raised up his hand.
 Please return the package. Do not say: Please return back the package.
 It is near my house. Do not say: It is nearby my house.
9. Use also only when you mean in addition to.
 My home town is also far away.
 My sister had a cold also.
 I slept also last night.
10. Even is often wrongly used for no matter in such constructions as:
X He’ll tell the truth even who gets hurt.
 He’ll tell the truth no matter who gets hurt.
X He couldn’t do the work even how he tried.
He couldn’t do the work no matter how he tried.
Similar mistakes are:
 Even what for no matter what  Even why for no matter why
 Even where for no matter  Even which for no matter
where which
11. Also is often incorrectly substituted for either in such constructions as:
X I didn’t go to school; he didn’t also.
 I didn’t go to school; he didn’t either.
12. Already is often confused with all ready. Already means by this time or beforehand; all
readymeans completely ready.
13. Beside is often confused with besides. Beside means by the side; besides means in addition to.
14. Equally as good is often wrongly used for just as good. That dress is as good as this. Do not say:
That dress is equally as good as this.
15. Hardly, scarcely, only, but convey the idea of negation and therefore should not be used in
negative statements.
 He could hardly hear. Do not say: He could not hardly hear.
16. And, etc. should not be used for etc.
17. Miss, Mrs., and Mr. must be followed by the name of the person.
18. Quite means wholly, greatly, and should not be used to indicate a small or slight amount.
19. The verb following to is always in the present tense; the verb following to be is always in the past
tense.
 The priest was to baptize the child
 The child was to be baptized.
20. Directly is often misused for as soon.
X Directly I saw her, I recognized her.
 As soon as I saw her, I recognized her.
21. Without should not be used for except, unless, or that.
X I am afraid to go into a dark room without you accompany me.
 I am afraid to go into a dark room unless you accompany me.
X I won’t do it without under certain conditions.
 I won’t do it except under certain conditions.
X I never see him without I think of his sister.
 I never see him that I do not thick of his sister.
22. Like is wrongly used for as, as if, as though.
X Do like I tell you. X He walks like he is sick.
 Do as I tell you.  He walks as if he is sick.
23. Such expressions as declare his love (propose) felt in love, in love to are wrong.
X He declared his love to my cousin.
 He proposed to my cousin.
X He felt in love with my friend.
 He fell in love with my friend.
X He was in love with to Maria.
 He was in love with Maria.
24. The expression, will you pass first, should be correctly expressed by: Will you drop in for a while?
VI. CONJUNCTION –a word that join word or group of words.
1. A conjunction can join words.
Examples:
a. Aiza and Anna are sisters.
b. Ask her to call heads or tails.
2. A conjunctioncanjoin phrases.
Examples:
a. I kept my treasure under the bed or in a box.
b. Penguins have white bellies and black wings.
3. A conjunction can join clauses.

a. Nelson’s platypus won’t bite unless the moon is full.
b. Whenever you tell me jokes, I laugh.
4. Conjunctions must be distinguished from relative pronouns, relative adverbs and

prepositions that are also connecting words.
Examples:
a. This is the house that Jack build (relative pronoun)
b. This is the place where he was murdered. (relative adverb)
c. He sat besides Kaye (preposition)
d. He stood behind me. (preposition)
e. Take this and give that. (conjunction)
5. Some conjunctions are used in pairs. These are called correlative conjunctions or
correlatives.A two-word conjunction used to joined words or phrases used in the same way.
 both/and, not only/but also, either/or, neither/nor, whether/or.
Examples:
a. Either take it or leave it.
b. It is neither useful nor ornamental.
c. We both love and honor him.
d. Jayson not only speaks Chinese, but also Japanese and Korean.
 When conjunctions are used as correlatives, each of the correlated words should be
placed immediately before the words to be connected.
Wrong way: He not only visited Puerto Galera, but also Puerto Princesa.
Correct way: He visited not only Puerto Galera, but also Puerto Princesa.
 Sometimes compound expressions are used as conjunctions. These are called compound
conjunctions.
Examples:
a. The notice was published in order that all might know the facts.
b. I will forgive you on condition that you do not repeat the offence.
c. Such an act would not be kind even if it were just.
KINDS OF CONJUNCTIONS
A. COORDINATING CONJUNCTION – joins together words or groups of words of equal rank.
 and (between two nouns), but (between two independent phrases), so (between two
independent clauses), or/nor/yet/for (between two prepositional phrases)
Examples:
a. He came to me and ask for alms.
b. Birds fly and fish swim.
c. She has to work late tonight, so she cannot make it to party.
d. Would you prefer to live in the city or in the country?
KINDS OF COORDINATING CONJUNCTION

1. Cumulative or copulative conjunction–joins two statements of facts.
Examples:
a. He is misled as well as you.
b. They were both shocked and grieved to hear the news.
2. Adversative conjunction – expresses opposition or contrast between two statements.

Examples:
a. He was not rich but contented.
b. He was all right, only he was fatigued.
3. Disjunctive or alternative conjunction – expresses a choice between two alternatives or

two things through the use of or-either, nor-neither.
Examples:
a. He must participate or he will be fined.
b. Either you should pay or work for it.
c. Neither is he hard working nor is he resourceful.
4. Illative conjunction –expresses an inference.

Examples:
a. He will be rewarded, for he is trustworthy.
b. They are liked, for they are good.
c. He was guilty, so he was punished.
B. SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTION – introduces subordinate, or dependent clause.

 after, because, if, that, though, although, till, before, unless, as, when, where, while,
how, once, since, than, until, whether, wherever.
Examples:
a. I shall help you if you need my help.
b. I read the paper because it interests me.
c. The streets were flooded because it rained so hard.
KINDS OF SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS

1. SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTION OF TIME
Examples:
a. We went after you left.
b. It was done before we wanted it.
2. SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTION OF PLACE
Examples:
a. You may go wherever you like.
b. I searched where I was asked to.
3. SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTION OF REASON
Examples:
a. I shall do it because I like it.
b. We did not go out as it is raining.
4. SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTION OF PURPOSE
Examples:
a. We eat that we may live.
b. The farmer manures the crops well so that he might get a rich crop.
5. SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTION OF RESULT OR CONSEQUENCE
Examples:
a. It was so clear that all could understand it.
b. It rained so heavily that all tanks breached.
6. SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTION OF CONDITION
Examples:
a. You should do it whether you like it or not.
b. If you agree I shall accompany you.
7. SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTION OF COMPARISON
Examples:
a. She is intelligent as we were told.
b. You are latter than I.
8. SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTION OF CONCESSION
Examples:
a. Though he is ill he has come.
b. Although it was very hot, they went running
List of Conjunctive Adverbs
accordingly for example incidentally indeed in fact

finally however meanwhile moreover namely
hence likewise on the on the other otherwise
instead of course contrary hand so far
now next nonetheless similarly thus
nevertheless still then therefore
until now anyway besides consequently
also for instance further furthermore
VII. INTERJECTION
An interjection is a word added to a sentence to convey emotion. It is not grammatically related to

any other word in the sentence. It is set apart with a comma or exclamation point, depending on the
level of emotion.
1. Mild emotion – set apart with a comma.

Examples :
a. Wow, those potato chips sure were expensive.
b. Hey, stop looking at me like that.
c. Gee, your friends are nice.
2. Strong emotion is set apart with an exclamation point.

Examples :
a.Yey! I just won the lottery!
b. Oh no! That guy just stole my winning ticket!
c. Hooray! The police caught the guy who stole my winning lottery ticket.
List of Interjections
A: aha, ahem, ahh, ahoy, alas, arrggg, aw
B: bam, bingo, blah, boo, bravo, brrr
C: cheers, congratulations
D: dang, drat, darn, duh
E: eeek, eh, encore, eureka,
F: fiddlesticks
G: gadzooks, gee, gee whiz, golly, goodbye, goodness, good grief, gosh
H: ha-ha, hallelujah, hello, hey, hmmmmmm, holy buckets, holy cow,
holy smokes, hot dog, huh?, humph, hurray
O: oh, oh dear, oh my, oh well, ooops, ouch, owww
P: phew, phooey, pooh, pow
R: rats
S: shhhhh, shoo
T: thanks, there, tut-tut
U: uh-huh, uh-oh, ugh
W: wahoo, well, whoa, whoops, wow
Y: yeah, yes,yey, yikes, yippee, yo, yuck
VIII. PREPOSITION - shows relation between two things.

1. A preposition is placed at the beginning of a prepositional phrase.
- into the bank
- beside Angie’s white bicycle
- throughout the entire day
2. A preposition can locate the object in time.

- I never eat duringclass.
- Jimmy went outside after dinner.
3. A preposition can locate the object in space.

- The moon shone brightly in the night sky.
- I left a key under the welcome mat.
4. A preposition can show a logical relationship between the object and another word in the
sentence.
- I have always wanted to dance like Jennifer Lopez.
- Are people still for the fountain of youth.
5. Sometimes the object to a preposition is an adverbial phrase.

- Each article was sold at over a rupee.
- He did not see her till a few days ago.
6. A clause can also be the object to a preposition.

- Pay careful attention to what I am going to say.
- There is no meaning in what you say.
 The object to a preposition when it is a relative pronoun is sometimes omitted.

- He is the man I was looking for. (the object whom is understood)
- These are the good rules to live by. (the object which is understood)
KINDS OF PREPOSITIONS
1. SIMPLE PREPOSITION- is a word that shows the relationship between two things without
the help of another word.
Examples:
a. The purse is in the box.
b. The current passes throughout the wire.
2. COMPOUND PREPOSITION–isa single prepositionthat is more than one word. Itis formed by
prefixing a preposition to a noun, an adjective or an adverb.
Examples:
a. The dog ran along the road.
b. Stand behind me.
c. According to my dad, the meteor shower is over.
3. PHRASE PREPOSITION - these are groups of words that have the force of a single
preposition.
Examples:
1. It was done accordingtoyour instructions.
2. The spot is away from public road or dwelling.
3. Owing to illness he was absent.
 Barring, concerning, considering, during, notwithstanding, pending, regarding, respecting,

touching etc are present participles of verbs and are used without any noun or pronoun being
attached to them. They are also considered prepositions and are sometimes distinguished as
participial prepositions.
Use of certain prepositions

1. The company was established in London.
2. We stayed at Hampi.
In, used with countries and big cities. At, used with small towns and villages.
3. We cut it with an axe.
4. The tiger was shot by the hunter.
With, for an instrument and by,for the agent.
5. There was quarrel between the father and the son.
6. There was a misunderstanding among the different political parties.
Between is used when speaking of two persons or things. Among is used when there are more
than two.
7. The child has been missing since Tuesday.
8. He will start attending from tomorrow.
9. He commenced writing from last year.
Since is used while denoting a point of time and is preceded by present perfect tense; from is
used with all tenses.
CHAPTER IV
MECHANICS AND PUNCTUATIONS
PART I – MECHANICS
A. CAPITALIZATION
 Capital letter is a special sign. It denotes importance, worth, dignity.
 Capital letter serves to emphasize official titles, sentence openings, and quotations.
 Capitals carry out their function when properly used because they set off key words visually.
Rules on Capitalization
Capitalize:
1. Proper nouns and adjectives derived from proper nouns.
a. Particular persons
b. Particular places, buildings, streets and schools
c. Geographical structures like mountains, rivers, oceans, gulfs, falls, lakes, etc. (Taal
Lake, Mount Halcon)
d. Particular organizations. (Philippine Education Company)
e. Religious denominations and orders (Catholic, Christian)
f. Nations, nationalities, races
g. Names of political organizations (Liberal Party)
h. Words used with numerals to form a proper name (Channel 2, Channel 7, English 1)
i. Days of the week
j. Particular holidays and holy days
k. Historical periods, events and eras (Christian Era, Cry of Balintawak)
l. Battles, treaties, laws, documents (Blood Compact, Tydings-Mc Duffie Law)
2. Titles
a. Preceding proper names and nouns used in place of proper names (President Aquino)
b. Names referring to the Scriptures and the Deity, parts of the Bible and sacred books
(God, the Bible)
c. Abbreviations for degrees and titles of honor (Rev. Hon. B.S.B.A., B.S.A)
d. The first and all the principal words in the title of a book, magazine, newspaper, poem,
periodical, play, stor, article or work of art (Who’s Afraid of the Dark, For Whom the
Bell Tolls)
 Words like a, an, the, or, in, of should not be capitalized except when at the beginning of a
title.
3. North, south, east and west when they refer to a geographical section; not when they indicate
direction.
 Many people from the South come to Manila for an education.
4. Personifications
 O Wind, if Winter comes
Can Spring be far behind?
5. The pronoun I.
6. Opening words
a. The first word of each sentence
b. The first word in the salutation and the first word in the complimentary close of a
letter.
Dear Sir:
Sincerely yours,
c. The first word of each line of poetry
Life is real, life is earnest
And the grave is not its goal.
- Henry Wadsworth Longfellow
d. The first word of every direct quotation.
She said, “Education is the only treasure we can leave you.”
 If the first word after the quotation marsk does not begin a sentence, it is not capitalized.
“Wait here”, he said, “while I look for your parents.”
Do not capitalize:
1. Names of seasons (fall, winter, spring, summer)
2. Titles not followed by a person’s name, except of the President of a country.
- A student approached the mayor for scholarship.
- The President appeared on television last night.
3. North, south, east and west when they indicate direction.
- Turn south
- The west side of the field is wet.
4. References to pagan gods
- The greek gods and godesses prossed human frailties.
5. The word church when it does not refer to a specific building or organization.
- The new church will be built in a suburb of Manila soon.
6. Army and navy, unless used as part of a title.
- He enlisted in the army.
But: He enlisted in the Philippine Army.
7. Words of relationship when used with a possessive noun or pronoun.
his father Ramon’s mother
8. Common nouns in general.
B. MARGINS – play an important role in the proper format of a composition.

- In outlining a composition, be sure to place all co-ordinate topics at the same distance
from the left hand margin. The part left should be indented two or three spaces to the
right of the margin of the governing topic.
- The marginal line of the subtopic should never be the same as that of the governing
topic.
Examples:
I. ……………………………………..…………
A. …………………………………………
1. ………………………………….
a. …………………………
b. …………………………
2. ………………………………….
B. ………………………………………….
II. …………………………………………………
A. ……………………………………………
1. …………………………………..
a. …………………………
b. …………………………
2. …………………………………..
B. ……………………………………………
Margins in Composition and Letters

A handwritten theme on ruled theme paper should observe a margin of one inch or one inch
and a half on the left side, and one inch for the right side. Leave a blank line or space between the
title and the composition. Be sure to center the title on the first ruled line. Begin the theme on the
third line.
For typewritten themes use typewriting paper. A margin of an inch and a half on the left, one
inch on the right and at the bottom, and a two-inch margin above the title. On succeeding pages,
observe a one and one half inch margin at the top.
When it comes to letters, the length of the letter should determine the width of the margins.
The shorter, the letter, the wider the margins should be. The right and left margins should be as
nearyl equal as possible.
C. SYLLABICATION – means dividing words into syllables to indicate either pronunciation or

word-division at the end of a line.
Pointers on Syllabication
1. Use a hypen at the end of the line to show division of syllables.
- The citizens of the Philippines should exert ef-
forts to preserve the country’s fundamental rights
and liberties.
2. Divine words only at the end of a complete syllable. Do not divide words of one syllable.
gradua-tion oppor-tunity
disap-ppointment happ-iness
3. Do not leave one letter standing alone. Thus, you cannot hyphenate able (a-ble), alone (a-lone).
4. Divide compound words between their main parts.
text-book rail-road
flash-light black-board
5. A word that ends in a consonant and doubles this consonant when adding a suffix can
usualy be hyphenated between the double letter.
drop-ping let-ting begin-ning
6. Words of two syllables should not be divided unless these words contain seix letters or more.
con-fess re-gard fur-nish
D. ABBREVIATIONS – shortcuts to be used to make communication swifter and more effective.

Abbreviations are these shortcuts.
- Do not use abbreviations in formal writing.
- Slang abbreviations such as b.f. (boyfriend) and n.g (no good) should not be used.
Common Abbreviations
1. acct. 14. circ. 27. in. 40. Rev.
2. A.D. 15. cm. 28. ital. 41. R.I.P.
3. a.m. 16. conj. 29. kt. 42. R.N.
4. anon. 17. ff. 30. Lb. 43. r.p.m.
5. ant. 18. gal. 31. Lieut., Lt. 44. R.S.V.P.
6. B.A. 19. Gen. 32. mgr. 45. Rt. Rev.
7. bal. 20. Hon. 33. pl. 46. Sat.
8. B.C. 21. hq. 34. p.m. 47. c/o
9. bibliog. 22. hr. 35. P.O. 48. C.O.D.
10. blvd. 23. ht. 36. pp. 49. con.
11. B.S. 24. ibid. 37. P.S. 50. Ph. D.
12. cap. 25. id. 38. pseud.
13. cf. 26. i.e. 39. qt.
Abbreviate:
1. Months of the year of more than five letters when the day of the month is given.
Nov. 27 last week of September March 31
2. “Saint” and “mount” only when preceding names.
St. Lorenzo Ruiz Mt. Apo “Sermon on the Mount”
E. ITALICS – written in fine print which corresponds to underlining in hadwritten or

typewritten material.
1. Italics are used for title of books, magazines, newspapers, works of art (drawings or
paintings, symphonies, sculptures), long plays and poems,a nd ships.
Ex. a. We saw Juan Luna’s Spolarium at the Department of Foreign
Affairs Building.
b. Did you read Euegene O’ Neill’s Long Day’s Journey into Night?
2. Foreign words are italized, unless they have become incorporated into the English
language.
c’est la vie bon voyage a la carte
 So if t disappears from where you just slogged your way to get it, well, c’est la vie.
 As the beautiful, young American drove away, Liane bids bon voyage to her friends.
 The menu isà la carte.
Foreign words incorporated into the English language

protégé’ fiancée soirée
 The Emperor's protégé was Darth Vader.
 I prefer the old word sweetheart to that of fiancée.
 There is a wonderfully festive gala soiree for all students and teachers on the
Saturday.
PART II. PUNCTUATION

 Helps clear the ground for you. Without puntuation marks, a written work is like a
jumbled mass of words without any divisions to mark pauses and breaks in thought.
 Is just like a piece of land needs territorial boundaries to define its limits, so doesa piece
of writing need proper signals to separate one thought from another.
 Signals of punctuation may take the form of commas, periods, colons, semicolons,
quotation marks, apostrophes, dashes, brackets, exclamation marks, hypens,
parentheses, or triple dots.
Punctuation can make a difference in meaning.

Open fire; at noon our own troops will be out of range.
Open fire at noon; our own troops will be out of range.
FUNCTIONS OF PUNCTUATIONS
1. To link the sentences and part of words
2. To separate sentences and parts of sentences
3. To enclose parts of sentences
4. To indicate omissions
Distribution of Marks of Punctuations

A. For linking, use: B. For separating, use:
; the semicolon . the period
: the colon ? the question mark
the linking dash ! the exlamation point
- the , the separating comma
C. For enclosing, use: D. For indicating omissions, use:

,…, paired commas ‘ the apostrophe
--…-- paired dashes . the omission period (or dot)
(…) paired parentheses - the omission dash
[…] paired brackets … triple periods (or dots)
“…” paired quotation marks . . . quadruple periods (or dots)
The COMMA (,)

Separates a relatively small break in thought. It is a valuable, useful punctuation device
because it separates the structural elements of sentences into manageable segments; i.e., it
makes a sentence easier to understand!
Functions of Commas
1. It separates a relatively independent clauses joined by conjunctions (co-coordinating
conjunctions and, but, or, nor, for).
Examples:
a. The students came early, and soon all the seats were occupied.
b. The students were impatient, for they had waited a long time.
c. The game was over, but the crowd refused to leave.
 Comma should not be used to separate two independent clauses not joined by a
conjunction, instead, a semicolon is used.
Example: Cherry Gutierrez, who is the muse of the class, has many admirers; but she
is a very serious student, for she never lets social activities interfere with her studies.
1. Use commas after introductory a) clauses, b) phrases, or c) words that come before the
main clause.
a. Common starter words for introductory clauses that should be followed by a
comma include after, although, as, because, if, since, when, while.
Example: While I was eating, the cat scratched at the door.
b. Common introductory phrases that should be followed by a comma include
participial and infinitive phrases, absolute phrases, nonessential appositive
phrases, and long prepositional phrases (over four words).
Example: Having finished the test, he left the room.
c. Common introductory words that should be followed by a comma include: yes,
however, well.
Example: However, you may not be satisfied with the results.
2. The comma separates elements in a series. These elements may be words, phrases, or
clauses of equal rank.
Examples:
a. We bought books, notebooks, pencilsm and paper at NOVO.
b. She spoke lengthily, enthusiastically, and intelligently on the topic.
c. The boy eats a lot, sleeps ten hours a night, studies three hours daily, and
exercises every morning.
d. The girls enjoy swimming, chatting, and writing letters to each other.
e. This is a government of the people, for the people, and by the people.
f. Every individual wants to make good in his work, make a name for himself, and
live in comfort.
g. I don’t remember how she got award, where or when she got it, or who gave it to
her.
h. The night was stormy, the lights went off, and the streets were flooded when the
big robbery occurred.
3. The comma is used after introductory subordinate elements like phrases and
conjunctive advers like nevertheless, consequently, however and transnational phrases
like on the other hand, as a matter of fact. Usually a comma is placed after an
introductory subordinate adverb clause to separate it from the main clause that follows.
Examples:
a. After she had finished answering the examination, the bell rang.
b. Walking briskly, Joey reached the classroom in five minutes.
c. After a short pause, the witness resumed his narration.
d. To prevent errors in corrections, we checked and double checked the answers.
4. A comma is used to separate parenthical expressions or elements. The most common
parenthical elements are the following:
a. Appositives. An oppositive is set off when it merely adds information about the
noun that it follows.
- Chris, my brother, is an Accountant.
- We visited Calamba, Laguna, the birthplace of our national hero.
b. Absolute phrases. An absolute phrase is a group of words that modifies
independent clause as a whole.
- The lecture being over, the students went home.
- All things being equal, Roy has a better chance of landing th job than Edz.
- The case having been settle, the parties went home satisfied.
c. Transitional words or interrupters. Transitional words allow one to work
smooth changes into one's writing; thus, simple sentences turn into compound
sentences, complex sentences and long paragraphs. (last, first, second, next,
but, on the other hand, moreover, in addition, furthermore, however, to begin
with, otherwise, conclusively, lastly, secondly, thirdly, most importantly, in
conclusion, to end with, first of all, last of all, to sum it up, last but not least,
lastly, finally, for example, on top of all, incidentally)
- My classmates, on the other hand, rejected the suggestion.
- Rea and Kate, incidentally, are cousins.
d. Contrasting elements in expressions introduce by not.
- He was merely ignorant, not stupid.
- The girl, not the boy, is the winner.
e. Main discourse and a quotation.
- John said without emotion, "I'll see you tomorrow."
- He said, “We must know the two sides of the story.”
- “Let us”, she suggested, “study the problem well before we seek for its
solution.”
f. Items in dates and addresses.
- He left on Friday, August 5, 2011.
- Miss Lea lives in Batasan Hills, Quezon City.
g. Single adverbs and mild interjections like yes, no, well.
- Yes, he is coming.
- No, my mother is out.
- Well, that’s a matter of opinion.
h. Substantive used in direct address.
- Jake, will you help me?
- I wish, Rona, that you would be more specific.
- Open the door, children.
i. Repeated Questions.
- He’s right, isn’t he?
- They were late, weren’t they?
- My friends are here, aren’t they?
j. A title following a name.
- Jocel C. Caranzo, M. D.
- Julio S. Cantos, Ph. D.
k. Use commas wherever necessary to prevent possible confusion or
misreading.
- To Mina, Jolina had been a sort of idol.
l. To set off the identification of a person unless the identifications is
preceded by “of”.
- Kristie Orencia, 95 Escopa Street
- Kristie Orencia of 95 Escopa Street
The SEMICOLON (;)
- The semicolon is a simple piece of punctuation, much easier to work with than the comma
because it follows fairly clear rules.
- It is used to connect two independent clauses together into one sentence, and as a
supercomma.
1. To Connect Two Independent Clauses:

- Independent clauses are series of words that could stand alone as complete
sentences. When you have two otherwise complete sentences that you want to
connect to form one long sentence, use a semicolon between them.
Example: This could is complete sentence; this is another one.
 Putting a comma where that semicolon is, you will have committed a "comma splice,"
which is a very nasty grammar error indeed. Sometimes, the second clause doesn't
really look like a complete sentence, so you must watch closely.
Example: Twelve workers started the project; only five remain.
 The semicolon is placed before conjunctive adverbs or sentence connectors joining two
main clauses. These conjunctive adverbs are: indeed, furthermore, moreover,
accordingly, besides, still, however, nevertheless, then, otherwise, therefore,
thus, consequently, hence. A comma is generally used after a conjunctive adverb.
Examples:
a. The game ended late; hence, the spectators were delayed in returning home.
b. You were not present during the lecture yesterday; consequently, you missed the
explanation of the new method in modern math.
c. The sky darkened considerably; then, a clap of thunder was heard.
2. To Serve as a Super-comma:
- When you have a series of three or more items that normally would be separated by
commas except that each individual item already has a comma in it, you use the
semicolon between items.
Examples:
d. We visited Pago Pago, Western Samoa; Curitiba, Brazil; and St. George, Utah.
e. The trio's birthdays are November 10, 1946; December 7, 1947; and October 31,
1950.
f. Her favorite players are Leila Barros, an outside hitter; Walewska Oliveira, a
spiker; and Sheilla Castro, a blocker.
The PERIOD (.)

Uses of Period:
1. It marks the end of a sentence which is not a question or an exclamation.
- He came this morning.
- She told the truth.
2. It is used after an accepted abbreviation.

- M.A. - St. - Mr.
- Ph.D. - Ave. - Col.
3. Omi periods in abbreviations of well-known government and other agencies:
- FBI - ROTC - UN
- NBI - US
-
The QUESTION MARK (?)

- ends a direct question.
Examples:
- Where did you come from?
- He asked me, “Where did you come from?”
The EXLAMATION MARK (!)

- used after a sentence that expresses strong feeling or emotion.
Examples:
a. Don’t just stand there! Do something!
b. Oh, what a mess!
The APOSTROPHE (‘)

Uses of Apostrophe
4. It indicates the possessive case of nouns and indefinite pronouns
 Do not use apostrophe after the possessive form of personal pronouns such as his,
hers, its, ours, yours, theirs
Thus:
a. The pen is his.
b. These books are hers.
c. Some of the answers are yours.
 It’s is different from its. It’s is contracted form of it is or it has; its is the possessive of it.
a. It’s a sunny day today.
b. The dog is chasing its tail.
5. The apostrophe and s are used to form the plural of letters of the alphabet and figures.
A’s B’s 9’s 2’s
The COLON (:)

- Shows that something is to follow. It does not end of a statement as in the case of the
period or the semicolon.
1. The colon is used after a formal introductory statement. It enlarges upon this statement
and explains it. The use of colon is the same as that of a dash.
a. James and Allan had the same thing in mind: the commencement exercises.
b. There are many tasks to be done at home: washing, cleaning, cooking, and ironing.
c. The slogan goes like this: look sharp! Be sharp!
2. The colon comes between two independent clauses when the second clause comments
upon or explains the first.
a. I shall speak to you about existentialism: this has to do with the role of the self in
present-day society.
b. The right to speak is an essential right: it is the license to voice one’s opinion on any
subject.
3. The colon may introduce a long quotation.
a. The visiting Chief of State said; “The ties that bind two countries are unalterable ties
that influence the social, economic, and political relations that govern those
countries.”
4. The colon is used after the formal salutation of a letter.
a. Dear Sir:
b. Gentlemen:
5. The colon may be used to separate the hour from the minute, biblical chapter and
verse, or title and subtitle of the book.
a. 10:30 p.m.
b. Contemporary American Literature: from 1870 to the present.
The DASH
1. Primarily, the dash indicates a sudden break or shift in thought. Too much use of the
dash may weaken your writing though.
a. We felt embarrassed – but what’s the use of talking about?
b. Cry and shout – is that all you can do?
2. The dash may be used after a formal introductory statement. In this case, it has the
same function as the colon.
a. The usual definition of justice was given – nobody could think of anything better.
b. I can still imagine the scene – the dim lights, the hushed voices, and the play of
colors in the background.
3. Dash may be used instead of the comma or parenthesis to set off parenthetical
elements or to enclose appositives containing commas.
a. A crowd assembled in front of the building, but the mayor – the man they
clamored to see – was nowhere to be found.
b. The five student winners – three seniors, two sophomores, and one freshman –
will receive a free trip to Hongkong.
4. The dash is also used to join an uninterrupted series of numbers in which only the first
and the last are given.
The PARENTHESIS ( )
1. Used to set off supplementary or interrupting material. Used to enclose figures or letters
of the alphabet than enumerate items in a list.
a. Many believe that the Investments Bill (a very progressive bill, incidentally) will
favor Filipino businessmen.
b. There are aspects of psychological testing (see Chapter X of the text) that must
be administered with great care.
2. Parentheses are used to insert a word within a title.
a. The Makati (Chinese) Fire Department helped put out the fire.
3. Use parentheses in a direct quotation to insert words that are not the speaker’s.
a. “They (the strike breakers) shall not pass,” announced the workers.
TRIPLE DOTS (…)

An ellipsis (composed of three periods or dots) marks the omission of words in a quotation.
Three periods are used if the omitted words occur in the middle of the quoted sentence; four
periods are used if the omitted words occur at the end of the sentence.
Examples:
a. “Democracy constitutes a basic formula … and is resorted to by people who have the
interest of the country uppermost in their minds.”
b. “The principle of fear operates where people have been cowed by oppressive and
tyrannical rulers….”
BRACKETS([ ])
a. Used to enclose words inserted or interposed by the writer in a quoted passage.
a. So many useful suggestions were brought out in a meeting of June 19, 2011 [the
first meeting of its kind] that those present agreed to meet again in July.
b. Our teacher [Mr. Ramos] has given us important pointers on how to study; it is up
to us to follow those pointers.
b. The Latin word sic (meaning thus) used in brackets after an error in a quoted passage
shows that the error occurs in the original.
a. “Whatever discrepancies [sic] there are in the report must be overlooked.”
QUOTATION MARKS (“)

- Enclose direct quotations.
1. Direct Quotations
a. Alexander Pope said, “The proper study of mankind is man.”
b. “To be a good student,” the teacher said, “you must study everyday and follow
the lessons conscientiously.”
c. “It is true,” the mentor agreed, “that ‘To be or not to be’ is more effective as a
phrase than ‘To avenge or not to avenge’”.
2. Quotation Marks in Dialogues

b. When writing a dialogue, every change of speaker must be marked by a new
paragraph.
a. “Mother”, Aida asked, “Is Daddy going to Manila tomorrow?”
b. “No Dear,: Mother replied. “He has decided to leave next week.”
c. “I’m so glad. I must ask him to do something for me this week.”
d. “What is it?”
e. “I want him to help me with my new project. Since it has to do with his field, I’m
sure Daddy will be able to give useful pointers on it.”
3. Quotations of More than One Paragraph
c. If several paragraphs are quoted, the quotation marks should be placed before
the beginning of the first paragraph and after the last word of the final
paragraph.
4. Quotation Marks with Titles
Italics indicate titles of books and periodicals; quotation marks, on the other hand, are
used with the title of chapters, articles, short stories, essays, songs, etc.
a. His article entitled “The Philippines: New Perspectives” appeared in the last issue
of the Faculty Journal.
b. The first chapter of the books bears the title “British Literature during the Anglo-
Saxon Period”.
c. We read “Tragic Victory”, a poem by Ricaredo D. Demetillo.
The HYPHEN (-)

- Hyphen holds together the parts of certain compound words and indicates the division
of words into syllables.
1. The hyphen in compound words.
Classes of compounds make use of hyphens:
a. Compound modifiers composed of two or more words temporarily joined to
form a single adjective used before a noun.
1. an eight-to-one-chance
2. a grief-stricken mother
3. a well-written speech
4. the twentieth-century novel
5. a matter-of-fact attitude
6. a down-to-earth approach
7. a watch-your-car boy
8. a see-the-Philippines poster
9. a rent-a-car business
10. a room-to-room drive
b. Compounds with the prefix self- and compounds in which such prefixes as
anti-, ex-, post-, pre-, and vice- are joined with proper adjectives and with
certain other words.
1. self-study
2. self-pity
3. self-realization
4. anti-allergic
5. anti-social
6. pre-school
7. pre-natal
8. Vice-Mayor
9. pre-martial law
10. post-operative
c. Numbers form twenty-one (twenty-first) to ninety-nine (ninety-ninth)
d. Fractional numbers, spelled out, unless numerator or denominator already
contain a hyphen.
seven-eights two-thirds
e. Compounds in which it is necessary to separate a double vowel.
re-examine extra-curricular
co-exist co-education
f. Compounds referring to family relationships.
uncle-in-law son-in-law
Syllabication- it is enough to know that you use hyphens whenever you break up words into
syllables.
CHAPTER V
PHRASAL VERBS
Phrasal verbsare generally considered as parts of idiomatic expressions. The prepositions

used after the verbs often change the meanings of the words. Hence, reputable phrasal verbs
develop good usage.
Usage is also observed in the proper choice and use of prepositions preceded by verbs as in
the case of the following:
1. Abide by (to adhere to a rule or decision)

 The Dean appealed to the students to abide by the decision of the CHED in
approving the ten percent increase of the tuition fee.
Abide in (to remain in a place)
 The Lord abides in the hearts of the faithful.
Abide with (to follow)
 The good are expected to abide with God.
2. Accompanied by (escorted by)
 The guest was accompanied by the Principal.
Accompanied with (supplemented by)
 The CHED Order on the new curriculum accompanied with implementing rules
shall take effect this coming school year.
3. Agree to (accede to a proposal or suggestion)
 I agree to the suggestion of Jose.
Agree with (to come in harmony with a person)
 I agree with Jose. His suggestion is logical.
Agree among (a group of people)
 They agreed among themselves on what to do in case it rains during the program.
Agree on (a condition)
 We have to agree on what to do in case it rains during the program.
4. Apologize to (ask an excuse from a person)
 You ought to apologize to the teacher for your impoliteness.
Apologize for (in favor of an idea or point)
 You to apologize forthat mistake.
5. Argue with (to present reasons to a person)
 Just explain, don’t argue with your parents.
Argue for (in favor of an idea or point)
 I am ready to argue for absolute divorce in the Philippines.
Argue against (to contradict an idea or point.
 I am ready to argue against absolute divorce in the Philippines.
6. Attend on (to take care of a person)
 Ask the receptionist to attend on you.
Attend to (to take care of something)
 I am in a hurry; I’ll attend to the needs of my family.
Attend with (applied)
 Robbery is commonly attended with force upon things or persons.
7. Bear out (support)
 I’m telling the truth. My teacher can bear me out in what I said.
Bear down (depress)
 Sadness bears me down in solitude.
8. Break away (to depart)
 The prisoner broke away from his guards.
Break down (to collapse)
 During an earthquake a school building broke down into mere debris.
Break in (to rain)
 MangAdor is breaking in his horse for his new caretela.
Break into (enter by force)
 If there were no guards, the strikers would certainly break into the office of the
employer.
Break off (to get away or to stop)
 I am trying to break off from smoking
Break out (to happen)
 I was 10 years old when the Second World War broke out.
Break through (enter)
 The Filipino guerillas broke through the Japanese defense along Villa Verde trail.
Break with (to end the relation)
 If the need arises, I have to break with him.
9. Bring about (to cause the happening of an incident or event)
 The unreasonable increase of gasoline price brought about the prohibitive prices of
goods.
Bring down (to subdue; to reduce)
 Bring him down and teach him his lessons.
 Rolling back the price of fuel will eventually bring down prices to a reasonable level.
Bring in (to fetch from outside)
 Bring him in right away for investigation.
Bring out (point out)
 Don’t be ashamed to bring out your ideas on the subject under discussion.
Bring up (educate)
 My children are properly brought up.
10. Brush aside (set aside)
 There are times when we have to brush aside our problems.
Brush up (to review)
 We’ll have a test tomorrow. I have to brush up well tonight.
11. Build up (to develop)
 We have to build up unity in our club.
Build upon (bank on)
 In business, one should build upon public trust.
12. Call by (a name)
 I heard some calling me by my nickname.
Call for (necessitate)
 Today is your birthday. It calls for a celebration.
Call forth (summon)
 Call forth a lawyer who will bring this case before the court.
Call on (to visit)
 We will call on you on Sunday.
Call up (to recall)
 The mere sight of the massive lahar from Mt. Pinatubo calls up in us the grim future
of the many residents thereat.
Call up (to communicate through the telephone)
 If you are in need of my help, just call me up.
13. Carried away (charmed)
 When she shed tears of joy, I was equally carried away.
Carried off (killed)
 If exposed to radiation from nuclear bombs, victims are forthwith carried off.
Carried out (done)
 Your instructions were carried out to the letters.
Carry on (continue)
 My successor promised to carry on the project I started.
14. Change into (turn into)
 The beauty of her character changed my anger into love.
Change with (to swap)
 I will not change my life with that kind of a king.
15. Clear away (keep)
 The dishes on the table should be cleared away in the same manner.
Clear from (free from)
 I have to go to court to clear my name from the false accusation.
Clear of (condone)
 For being honest, Maria was totally cleared of her debt.
Clear up (become better)
 The weather will clear up in two hours.
16. Come about (to happen)
 I don’t know the news on how her elopement had all come about.
Come for (to get or see)
 You are the lady I have come for.
Come into (contract)
 I came into contract with the PBA Commissioner for an out-of-town game.
Come on (do it)
 Let’s transfer the books to that cabinet. Come on.
Come over (get nearer)
 Come over here. I can not hear you.
17. Compare to (show similarly)
 His drawings could be compared to that of a child.
Compared with (to show difference)
 Compare this set of gadgets with that in the other room.
18. Concur in (an opinion)
 That’s right, I concur in what he said.
Concur with (a person)
 The judge did not concur with the fiscal.
19. Conform with (one’s views)
 The opinion of the judge conforms with that of my lawyer.
Conform to (a rule)
 You have to conform to the directive of the manager, if you wish to stay longer in
this office.
20. Consist in (show)
 The brand of his leadership consists in what he learned under President Marcos.
Consists of (constitute)
 President Aquino’s speech consists of sentiments indicative of her unwillingness to
seek for reelection.
21. Cry out (say loudly or demand)
 Upon her arrival, we should all cry out for justice.
22. Cut down (to reduce)
 The government should not cut down the appropriation for education.
Cut in (to interrupt)
 The lecturer said that anyone could cut in for clarification on some points
discussed.
Cut off (to stop communication)
 To isolate Baghdad from the rest of Iraq’s lines of defense, the United Nation forces
cut off first all military hotlines.
Cut out (to remove)
 Let your wife fell that this time there is a need to cut out the family budget for
luxury items.
23. Die away (fade away)
 The flickering candle light eventually died away in the stillness of the night.
Die down (to stop)
 The typhoon surprised us at dawn. At noon on the following day, the wind gradually
died down.
Die for (a cause)
 Dr. Jose Rizal willingly died for his country.
Died from (an accident)
 He died from a vehicular accident.
Die of (an illness)
 She died of cancer.
Die off (disappear)
 When the magician whistled, the spotlight died off at once.
24. Differ from (unlike in form)
 Man differs from the lower form of animals.
Differ with (disagree)
 He differs with his father in some aspects of running the business.
25. Do away (to get rid of)
 We must do away with dishonest government officials.
Do for (care for)
 I am doing it for my wife.
26. Draw away (retreat)
 I did not expect to draw away when I arrived.
Draw out (to secure)
 The investigator tried his best to draw out vital information from the witnesses.
Draw up (to compose in proper form)
 As a lawyer, he has to learn to draw up all forms of legal documents.
27. Drive at (bring out)
 I could not understand what he is driving at.
Drive away (force to go away)
 Pedro was asked to drive the goats away.
Drive off (go away)
 Immediately after his speech, the guest speaker drove off.
28. Drop in (to make a casual visit)
 We shall drop in at the office of the Mayor.
Drop behind (to fall behind for a purpose)
 During the “AlakayLakad”, please drop behind and see those who might fall out.
Drop off (disappear)
 Many of the CAT Cadets dropped off during the parade.
Drop out (to withdraw)
 If he does not receive his allowance this month, he intends to drop out from school.
29. Embark in (engage in)
 He plans to embark in a logging business next year.
Embark on (to go abroad a vessel)
 If plans do not miscarry, he intends to embark on a ship for Davao next month.
30. Engage in (to undertake a business)
 My son plans to engage inpalay trading.
Engage on (to secure a contract for services)
 Cleanliness could be better maintained in school, if the administration would just
engage on the services of a janitorial agency.
Engage with (to occupy oneself with something)
 Edistedela Cruz is now engaged with the intricacies of the garment trade.
31. Enter (to come or to go to a particular place)
 At this instance, enter is not followed by a preposition.
 We entered the room at 4:00 p.m.
Enter into (to come into agreement with someone)
 I entered into contract with John Paul College being a Part-time College Instructor.
Enter upon (to start)
 He is happy to enter upon the privilege of an adult.
32. Fall away (to decrease)
 Some donors fall away because of something you do.
Fall from (to depart)
 I fervently hope that my brothers in the K of C will not fall from the fraternity.
Fall in(love with) (be in love with)
 I fell in love with Mr. Ylaz.
Fall in (behind) (to support/follow)
 I pledge to fall in behind your programs.
Fall into (to come or happen by chance)
 Be careful. You might fall into the scheme of impostors.
Fall off (to become less: dwindles)
 The attendance in the monthly meeting is falling out.
Fall back on (to resort to another course)
 If the first plan does not succeed, we must be ready with an alternative for us to fall
back on.
Fall short (of) (to fail to meet a standard)
 I’m trying my best not to fall short of your expectation.
33. Fight against (to go against)
 We must appeal to the rebel soldiers not to fight against their comrades in the AFP.
Fight for (to work for)
 I am ready to fight for freedom.
Fight out (to discuss until a final decision is reached)
 Go and fight it out before the bar of justice.
Fight on (work with)
 He prefers to fight on the side of the rebels. He must have been disappointed with
the present administration.
34. Find in (to come upon or learn)
 We found new friendship in our guest speaker and his wife.
Find out (to discover)
 Find out your mistakes.
35. Get along with (to adopt)
 A knight should learn to get along well with the members of the clergy.
Get away (to avoid)
 A good boy should get away from gambling.
Get into (involve)
 Don’t get into trouble with the elders of the club.
Get off (to dismount)
 After getting off the jeep, Mario took a taxi.
Get out (of) (to escape from)
 Two convicts got out of Muntinlupa.
Get up (to rise)
 When he got up, he directly went home.
36. Give away (offer)
 We usually give away alms to the beggars.
Give in (to yield to)
 Once in a while, a husband should give in to the opinion of his wife.
Give off (emit)
 An oil lamp gives off faint sticky soot.
Give way (to) (give preference)
 A gentleman should give way to ladies in boarding buses.
Give up (discontinue)
 Give me enough rest or I’ll give up this work.
37. Go after (to run after)
 The law enforcing agents should seriously go after the traffic violators.
Go for (to favor)
 It is logical that in the forthcoming election, I’ll go for the best candidate.
Go on (to continue)
 We ought to go on working hard for the sake of our children.
Go over (to scrutinize or examine)
 Go over the list again and insert those which were inadvertently omitted.
38. Hang about (to loiter)
 During our high school days, we never hang about elsewhere.
Hang around (to loiter idly about)

 The “barkadas” of my son used to hand around in town; consequently, they failed to
graduate.
Hang over (to exhibit)
 The fear of retaliation hangs over the heads of the offenders.
39. Hold off (to keep at a distance)
 Hold off from the car you are following.
Hold on (to stick to)
 I’ll hold on to my decision to quit from my position, if there would be no salary
increase this year.
Hold out (to endure or resist)
 Gov. Aguinaldo and his men managed to hold out for a month.
Hold to (to adhere to)
 Every man must learn to hold on to his principles.
40. Keep from (to guard)
 You have to keep this secret from my enemies.
Keep off (to be away)
 Keep off the quicksand.
Keep up (to maintain)
 Winners in a beauty contest should keep up their performances.
Keep out (hold back)
 My immediate superior kept me out of combat assignment.
41. Look after (to take care of)
 Please look after my son. He is enrolled in your school.
Look into (to investigate)
 We have to look into the case of that boy who cheated in your class.
Look for (to find)
 Go and look for the carabao in the farm.
Look out (be careful)
 If it’s dark along your way tonight, better look out.
Look over (examine)
 Look over the uniform we ordered and see if they are complete.
Look to (to respect)
 Everyone looks to her as a benefactor.
Look forward to (to expect)
 We look forward to your kindness in helping the earthquake victims.
42. Make for (leads to)
 It’s patience, not necessarily a know-how that makes for success.
Make up (to reconcile or recover)
 It’s necessary for us to make up after a misunderstanding.
 If you want to pass, make up for your deficiencies.
43. Pass away (disappear or die)
 Dr. Jose Rizal passed away at the height of his noble deeds.
Pass of (stop or cease)
 After the explosion, everything passed off like smoke.
Pass on (to continue)
 Pass on the work until completed.
44. Pull down (to degrade)
 Senator Saguisag’s stands against the position of death penalty pulled down his bid
for reelection.
Pull off (to remove)
 Kindly help me pull off my boots.
Pull up (to enhance)
 His frequent visits to the remote areas apparently have been pulling up his chance
for the forthcoming gubernatorial race.
45. Put off (to postpone)
 Never put off for tomorrow what you can do today.
Put on (to wear)
 Before you go out tonight, put on your jacket.
Put up (to raise)
 You have to put up enough funds for that business.
46. Run after (to pursue)
 Filipino custom dictates that it is unethical for a woman to run after a man.
Run away (to escape)
 Having noticed the arrival of the teacher, the students who were late ran away.
Run awaywith (to escape with something)
 The robbers ran away with their loot.
Run into (to meet)
 When I was on my way to SM, I ran into my English professor, my mentor.
Run off with (to flee with someone)
 The suspect is about to run off with his wife to Mindanao.
Run out (of) (to exhaust)
 Because of his extravagance, Jose runs out of funds for his business.
47. Send for (to fetch or summon)
 If you need my services, send for me.
Send off (to dispatch)
 The news about the lahar from Mt. Pinatubo sent off our visitors with fear.
Send out (bring out)
 I’ll send out all of those who are not in uniform.
48. Set apart (to separate)
 Set the dog and the cat apart when feeding.
Set down (lay to basis)
 My lawyer wants to set down the evidence.
Set in (to begin)
 His illicit relation with her secretary set in the family trouble.
Set up (to establish)
 We are serious in setting up a high standard of instruction for education students.
49. Show off (to display ostentatiously)
 Last night, her attire in the party showed off her status that she belongs to an
affluent family.
Show up (come up)
 If you are the real McCoy, show up your talents.
50. Speak against (to talk against)
 His enemies spoke against him.
Speak from (to infer from something)
 The President spoke from wide experience.
Speak of (to tell about)
 Your absence speaks of your not being interested in my class.
Speak out (to tell all)
 During the confrontation, I shall speak out once and for all.
Speak up (to explain clearly)
 The witness is being urged to speak up.
51. Stand against (fight or defend)
 The President could no longer stand against the will of the people.
Stand off(to disregard)
 It is better to stand off from disputes.
Stand up (to rise or to support)
 We have tostand up for dignity of labor.
52. Step in (to enter)
 He opened the door and stepped in.
Step into (to get in)
 When the driver opened the car, Miss Esparez willingly stepped into it.
Step out (to get out)
 After heavy rain, we stepped out of the car.
Stick to (to follow)
 To solve the problem, stick to the formula.
Stick up (to maintain a standard)
 I always go for the poor, I wills stick up for them.
53. Subscribe for (to place an order for)
 I subscribe for the weekly issue of Asiaweek.
Subscribe to (to profess principles or ideas)
 I subscribe to the principle that men are created equal.
54. Take away (to remove)
 To take away emotional stress, turn to a recreation once in a while.
Take for (to presume)
 For sporting a man’s apparel, Jocelyn was taken for a boy.
Take into (to consider)
 Please take into account the suggestion.
Take care of (to attend to)
 I have a responsibility to take care of my family.
Take off (to remove)
 The murderers took off the shoes of their victims.
Take over(to assume responsibility for)
 In the absence of the President, Vice-President should take over.
Take up (to discuss)
 Tomorrow, we shall take up the terms of the Visiting Forces Agreement.
55. Throw away (to hurl out or part with)
 To put all things in their order in the office, throw away the unnecessary bundles of
paper.
Throw off (to spurn or reject)
 Upon its inception, the Aquino administration throws off all the Marcos men from
the government.
56. Turn away (to reject)
 All the applications were turned away.
Turn into (to transform)
 The eruption of Mt. Pinatubo turned rice fields into mere reservoirs of lahar.
Turn off (put off)
 If the electric voltage is low, turn off your electric appliances.
Turn over (to give)
 The outgoing treasurer turned over all of the papers to the incoming one.
Turning up (to happen)
 Executive Secretary Oscar Orbos resigned in the hope that something might turn up
to prevent chaos in the government.
57. Vote down (to defeat)
 We should vote down candidates for senators who are against the re-imposition of
the death penalty for heinous crimes.
Vote for (to elect)
 Let’s vote for candidates who were not involved in any form of graft and corruption.
58. Wipe away (to remove)
 The Lord shall wipe away thy sadness.
Wipe off (to remove)
 Wipe off the dust on my table.
Wipe out (to remove)
 The grafters in the government must be wiped out.
59. Write down (to copy or jot down)
 Review well tonight. Write down the pointers.
Write off (to cancel)
 Bad debts may be written off from the financial statements.
Write up (to update)
 We have to write up news for our publication.
CHAPTER VI
IDIOMATIC EXPRESSIONS
Idioms or idiomatic expressions are words or phrase whose meanings are different from
what their grammatical constructions literally offer. They have become parts of the language on
account of usage apparently peculiar to syntactic structure.
When one says, “he burns the midnight oil”…he actually and idiomatically means that
he studies or works far into the night. It is not necessary that he kindles an oil lamp up to
midnight.
add fuel to the fire (to provoke further trouble)

 When the boss is angry, don’t answer back. If you do, you’ll only add fuel to the fire.
add insult to injury (to give additional pain to the injury already incurred)
 The striking teachers were not given their salaries for three months. To add insult to
injury, the Deped suspended them for another three months.
alive and kicking (very energetic)
 My grandfather is ninety years old but he is still alive and kicking.
all-out (complete)
 In time of crisis, the government officials should give an all-out effort to adopt
austerity/programs.
anybody’s game (a contest where no contestant is sure of winning)
 The way the contest is going on, it appears that it is still anybody’s game.
armed to the teeth (completely armed with deadly weapons)
 The rebels were armed to the teeth.
as is (in its present condition without any change)
 The foreclosed property shall be sold as is through public auction.
at a loss for words (kept mum on account of strong emotion as in joy, grief of surprise)
 When I learned that I won the first prize, I was at a loss of words.
at first blush (at first glance)
 At first blush, the examination seemed hard, but, actually, every item was easy.
at sea (in a confusing situation)
 During my first day in Manila, I was completely at sea.
bad taste (offensive to decency)
 To criticize one’s parents in public is in bad taste.
bare your soul (to confide your thoughts and feelings)
 I wish I could have a bosom friend with whom I could bare my soul.
bear the cross (suffer the burden)
 He has a nagging wife; he has to bear his cross.
beat around the bush (go aimlessly around the main topic)
 A good speaker should avoid beating around the bush too much. He should go right
away to the point.
behind the scenes (away from the public)
 Most of the legislative work is done behind the scenes.
between you, me, and the bedpost (to be treated as confidential)
 I’ll tell you something about the business, but this should only be between you, me,
and the bedpost.
big shot (important person)
 He started as salesman. He worked very hard. Now, he is a big shot in the business
circle.
black sheep one who disgraces his family or group)
 We don’t like him to be your husband; he is the black sheep of the Santoses.
bird’s-eye-view (an over-all view)
 This book gives us a bird’s-eye-view of the profitable businesses in the country
today.
blanket authority (absolute authority)
 The President must be given blanket authority over the implementation of an
economic contingency program in time of crisis.
blow your horn or blow your trumpet (to brag or to praise yourself)
 To blow one’s horn is offensive to courtesy.
born with a silver spoon in your mouth (born into wealth and fortune)
 Peter is lucky because he was born with a silver spoon in his mouth).
break (an opportunity)
 If given a break, I believe I will succeed.
break the ice (to break silence and begin in a friendly manner)
 I like her to be my friend but I don’t know how to break the ice.
bring the bacon home (to provide for the family or to bring home the prize)
 My father brings home the bacon regularly.
broke (without money)
 I intend to give you a gift but I’m sorry, I’m broke today.
bundle of joy (a new-born baby)
 Yesterday, we were blesses with a bundle of joy. This is my 4th child.
burn the candle at both ends (to work for long hours without rest)
 To provide security for your family, you have to burn the candle at both ends.
burn the midnight oil (to study or work hard into the night)
 If you want to graduate with honors, you have to burn the midnight oil.
burn your bridges behind you (to forget the past or to disregard the importance of the past)
 For two years, Juan was one of the rebels. One time he intimated his desire to burn
the bridges behind him and start a new life.
bury the hatchet (to stop hostilities)
 After 5 years of hating each other, James and Paul decided to bury the hatchet.
by hook or by crook (by any means, good or bad)
 I’ll marry him by hook or by crook.
by leaps and bounds (with great rapidity)
 During his incumbency, the manager, Jose delos Santos, got much break. The
family business grew by leaps and bounds.
carry a torch for (suffer conspicuously for)
 Ever since her husband was involved in a love triangle, Maria has been carrying a
torch for him.
chicken-hearted (coward, timid)
 Ladies hate chicken-hearted men.
city dads (members of the city council)
 The city dads are not in harmony. They are usually at odds on account of
anomalous transactions.
clinging vine (a very dependent person)
 He is handsome but he is a clinging vine.
cock and bull story (an improbable story usually used as an alibi)
 Whenever he commits something wrong, he is ready with his cock and bull story.
come down to earth (to be practical and realistic)
 You can’t live always in the heights of idealism; you have to come down to earth.
come hell or high water (regardless of the consequences)
 I am determined to marry Kris, come hell or high water.
crocodile tears (insincere sympathy)
 At the funeral of her enemy, Mary Ann shed crocodile tears.
cry over spilled milk (to worry about what has already been damaged that could not be
repaired)
 Don’t worry about what had already been destroyed. There is no use crying over the
spilled milk.
cutting paper dolls (acting aimlessly and irresponsibly)
 To be true to the austerity of the program, the President should abolish all offices in
the government where most of the employees are just cutting paper dolls.
dark hose (a contestant or candidate who is acceptable but who is not much expected to win)
 To unite the opposition parties in this town, the opposition leaders agreed to put up
a dark horse.
do or die (do the best or fail)
 It is very important for us to win the game tonight. We have to do or die.
don’t cross your bridges till you come to them (don’t worry about the problem until the
need arises)
 Your problem is valid, but I believe, it’s still early for you to get so concerned. Don’t
cross your bridge till you come to it.
dress to kill (to dress elegantly, purposely to attract the attention of the opposite sex)
 She is dressed to kill today.
drop in the bucket (a small portion of a big thing)
 He spent P40,000.00 for the repair of his bedroom. He is a millionaire anyway.
That’s only a drop in the bucket.
Dutch treat (each pays his own expenses)
 Let’s go to the movie ondutch treat.
every inch a gentleman (thorough)
 He is every inch a gentleman.
fail or foul (by any means, honestly or dishonestly)
 Get those jewels from her, fair or foul.
fall guy (a person who is punished for the mistake or offense of another)
 CatalinoMacaraeg was made the fall guy in the oil crisis.
fall in love with (feel affection for)
 I fell in love with her.
fall on deaf ears (unheeded)
 All my suggestions to the Principal fell on deaf ears.
for better of for worse (regardless of the consequences)
 “Do you take this man to be your husband, for better or for worse?
frame-up (to deliberately have an innocent one be accused or convicted)
 I did not know anything about crime. Everything was a frame-up. I reiterate, I was
framed-up.
from hand to mouth existence (without knowing where to get the next meal)
 When I was out of job, we had to endure a hand to mouth existence.
gate-crasher (one who joins a party without an invitation or permission)
 I have never been a gate-crasher.
ghost writer (a writer who writes for someone else)
 TeodoroLocsin was once a ghost writer of the President.
good humor (good mood)
 The best time to approach the boss is any time when he is in good humor.
head and shoulder above (outstanding among)
 As a student, he was head and shoulder above his classmates.
head over heels in love (completely and madly in love to the prejudice of other interests)
 Jun is beginning to neglect his studies because he is head over heels in love with
Ana.
helping hand (some help)
 I can not carry the box alone. Kindly lend me a helping hand.
henpecked husband (a husband under the mercy of a domineering wife)
 His reaction confirms that he is a henpecked husband.
hit the jackpot (to win or meet a sudden success)
 He hit the jackpot yesterday. He won an automobile.
hit below the belt (to take unfair advantage)
 My rival is making tall tales about me. That’s hitting below the belt.
hitch hike (to solicit free ride)
 I want to hitch-hike to Baguio.
hocus-pocus (magic, trick or deception)
 “The Congressman’s bonuses of P100,000.00 each is a political hocus-pocus of
Speaker Mitra,” his enemies said.
hold your tongue (be silent)
 Martial law has been declared. Better hold your tongue.
in black and white (written in plain, clear and unequivocal terms0
 Our agreement should be made in black and white.
in cold blood (deliberately and brutally without showing emotion)
 He murdered the hostages in cold blood.
in good faith (sincerely or with honest intention)
 I did not know that it was stolen item. I bought it in good faith.
in heat (sexual excitement usually in animals)
 When a bitch (female dog) is in heat, the male dogs could detect the condition
through their sense of smell.
in hot water (in trouble)
 My friend used to intercede for his relatives with the Bureau of Customs. Now he is
in hot water.
in the same boat (in the same situation)
 Last time she got angry with me for my having many children in spite of poverty.
Now, we are in the same boat.
iron hand (strict or autocratic way)
 There are some instances where a teacher should also use an iron hand in
disciplining the naughty.
it’s Greek to me (I don’t understand)
 I read the selection twice but it’s Greek to me.
jump for joy (to express extreme joy)
 When we received your letter, we jumped over joy.
keep an eye for (be alert to find)
 A reporter must always keep an eye for news.
keep the body and soul together (to keep oneself from starving)
 To keep body and soul together, we have to work.
keep up the Joneses (to imitate others in extravagance)
 They could not save much because his wife continued keeping up with the Joneses.
keep your nose out of my business (don’t meddle with my affairs)
 I told my principal to keep his nose out of my business. My problem is personal.
kill two birds with one stone (accomplish two things with one action)
 If you walk to and from your school, you’ll kill two birds with one stone. You save
and at the same time you can have the best exercise.
know-how (the required ability)
 The country could hardly move an inch to progress due to our so-called lack of
economic know-how.
laughing stock (an object of ridicule)
 If you tuck in your barong tagalog, you’ll be the laughing stock of the occasion.
lay you cards on the table (present openly all your plans)
 Before you start working on your business, please lay your cards of the table.
left-handed compliment (an insincere compliment)
 When I won, I knew, he only gave me a left-handed compliment for he hated me for
breaking our engagement.
let bygones be bygones (to forgive past grievances)
 Let’s be friends again. Let bygones be bygones.
level best (very best)
 I did my level best, but I still was not able to finish the test.
lion’s share (bigger share)
 These are my gifts for my family. Of course, you’ll have a lion’s share.
live by the sweat of your blow (to make a living out of actual work)
 Amidst these calamities, we have learn to live by the sweat of our brow.
loose talk (gossip)
 A good girl should avoid indulging in loose talk.
make a mountain out of a hill (to exaggerate or aggravate a situation)
 Learn the message of tolerance. Forget trifles. Don’t make mountains out of hills.
make-believe (to pretend)
 When I was still a child, I used to make believe that u was a general in the army.
make both ends meet (to make the income just enough for normal family needs without
borrowing)
 We have only enough to make both ends meet.
make mention of (to say)
 I lie to make mention of my experiences abroad.
mama’s boy (a man who could not make decision without the aid of parents)
 I don’t want you to marry a mama’s boy.
many ways to skin a cat (many ways of doing things for a purpose)
 Do you want her to learn her lessons? There are many ways of skinning a cat
meet him halfway (to compromise)
 If you want to come to terms you have to meet him halfway.
much ado about nothing (much trouble over an insignificant incident)
 She was late for making much ado about nothing.
new blood (new person with new ideas)
 To make an innovation in the system, you need a new blood.
nip it in the bud (to destroy it before it attains importance)
 In time of crisis, all forms of business cartels must be nipped in the bud.
once in a blue moon (seldom)
 He comes to class only once in a blue moon.
off the record (unofficial, it should not be made on record)
 An off-the-record statement should not be published by reporters.
open and above board (frank and honest)
 I trust him. He has always been open and above board with me.
open-handed (generous)
 That rich old man is open-handed for community and civil services.
paddle your own canoe (to work alone)
 During examination, you have to paddle your own canoe.
pass the buck (put the blame on someone else)
 When the President asked who approved the anomalous transaction, the Press
Secretary passed the buck to me.
pass the hat (to solicit voluntary contribution)
 We have to pass the hat around for the earthquake victims.
place in the sun (fame)
 Everybody wants a place in the sun.
polish the apple (seek recognition or promotion through flattery and favors)
 She gets promotions so easily because she knows how to polish the apple.
put it across (to present it effectively)
 A good teacher must know how to put his subject across to his students.
put one over on you (to deceive you)
 Be careful. He might try to put one over you.
put your foot down (to prohibit or refuse)
 My father put his foot down on my desire to take up law.
put your heads together (to have a pool of ideas)
 We can have a better action program if we put our heads together.
raise your eyebrows (to show astonishment with disbelief)
 We could not help but raised our eyebrows when we saw the President in a disco
house.
read between the lines (to make inferences from what are written or spoken)
 You have to read between the lines. I guess, you are being asked to resign.
red tape (excessively detailed routine)
 One of the problems of the government today is too much red tape.
red-light district (a place where there is prostitution)
 As long as there are policeman who remain customers in red-light districts, we
cannot stop prostitution.
run roughshod over (to oppress)
 We need an honest dictator who will not run roughshod over our freedoms.
run an errand (to work on a mission for which one is sent)
 I was absent because I was asked to run an errand for my mother.
saddled with debts (heavily in debt)
 Our country has never been so saddled with debts as today.
sell you down the river (to betray you)
 Don’t trust him. He will surely sell you down the river.
seventh heaven (a place of perfect happiness)
 When I married. I must confide, I found my seventh heaven.
show-off (to brag conspicuously)
 He was dressed to kill to show-off to those who attended the part.
skeleton in the closet (a disgraceful incident concealed in the past)
 Don Manuel has a skeleton in his closet. He allegedly amassed his wealth
clandestinely.
skin deep (superficial)
 I feel his love for you is only skin deep.
slip of the tongue (unintentional error in speaking)
 When he spoke, he committed a mistake. But, I know that was just a slip of the
tongue.
soak the rich (to slap heavier taxes on the wealthy)
 In raising the price of gasoline, the government leaders thought they could soak the
rich. It was a mistake.
sour grapes (a defense mechanism as an excuse for a failure)
 Our neighbor said it was good he did not win as a councilor otherwise he might
have already been dead. I know he was only giving sour grapes.
spill the beans (reveal confidential information)
 One of the suspects spilled the beans to the investigator.
squeeze blood from turnips (to ask the impossible)
 Our boss is closed-fisted. We have been asking for bonuses but it seems we are
squeezing blood from turnips.
stand on your own feet (be independent)
 Don’t get married unless you can stand on your own feet.
stick to the finish (to finish it despite difficulties)
 Don’t stop courting her. Stick to the finish.
take a back seat (to occupy a position lower in rank)
 When the new administration came in, my boss was replaced but he was not
dismissed. He was only allowed to take a back seat.
take it from me (believe me)
 She is the only lady with the finest character I have ever known. Take it from me.
take it or leave it (regardless of whether you accept or not)
 My last price is P10,000.00. Take it or leave it.
take my hat off to you (to express respect and admiration)
 For that inspiring speech, I take my hat off to you.
take the law in your hands (to enforce the laws without legal authority)
 Don’t take the law into your hands. Be judicious.
take his own medicine (accept his punishment)
 Don’t intercede for him with the Station Commander. Let him take his own
medicine.
talk behind your back (to disparage you in your absence)
 Be careful. Many are talking behind your back.
talk of the town (popular subject of conversation)
 On account of her illicit relation with Mr. Santos, she is now talk of the town.
tall tale (improbable story)
 I don’t believe in what he said. Those are all tall tales.
thousand things to do (very busy)
 I can’t join you. I have a thousand things to do today.
through thick and thin (through good or bad times)
 A good friend remains loyal through thick and thin.
throw your hat into the ring (to enter the contest or to become a political candidate)
 If you want to throw your hat into the ring, announce it as early as now.
to date (up to his date)
 To date, we have not yet received your report.
tricks of the trade (indicate method of the profession)
 In practice, you’ll learn the tricks of the trade.
turn over a new leaf (to make a change in yourself for improvement)
 As part of my resolution this year, I will turn over a new leaf.
under lock and key (kept safely)
 Keep the jewels under lock and key.
V.I.P. (Very Important Person)
 We are preparing for the coming of the V.I.P.’s from the DECS.
wash your dirty linen in public (to air your personal quarrels and private affairs in public)
 To quarrel over personal things is normal but you should not wash your dirty linen
in public.
way to a man’s heart (to gain a man’s affection)
 Care and thoughtfulness are the ways to a man’s heart.
welcome with open arms (to welcome wholeheartedly)
 If you call on us, we’ll welcome you with open arms.
wet blanket (a person who has a discouraging way or reaction)
 I don’t want her to get re-elected. I believe she is wet blanket for the country.
white lie (an insignificant lie used for convenience)
 Once in a while a white lie may be of help but if it becomes a part of your habit, it
may be dangerous.
wild-goose chase (an improbable way of running after someone)
 To look for the rebels in the Sierra Madre is a wild-goose chase.
without rime or reason (without reason and purpose)
 He cut the coconut tree without rime or reason.
young blood (younger people with new ideas)
 What we need in the government are young blood.
your eyes are bigger than your stomach (your desire is greater that what you can get)
 You took much but you were not able to eat all. Your eyes are bigger than your
stomach.

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English 1

STUDY & THINKING SKILLS IN ENGLISH

Chapter 2–Vocabulary Building

Chapter 4 - Structural Grammar

Chapter 5 – Parts of Speech

Chapter 6 –Mechanics and Punctuations

THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS

Types of Communication Based on Style and Purpose

THE COMMUNICATION AIDS

A. The Library – is a reservoir of knowledge. It contains thousands of books and hundreds of

Sections of the Library

The Card Catalog – alphabetical listing of books with accompanying description or

Classifications of Card Catalog

The Parts before the Body

The Parts after the Body

Structural analysis is a process of decoding an unfamiliar word by examining its

Root Meaning Examples

Prefix Meaning Examples

Suffix Part of Speech Examples

1. A ___________________________ has studied chemistry.

D. COMPOUND WORDS – are words made up of two or more words.

1. Some garrulous women cannot simply stop talking.

bear (verb) – to support or carry bark (verb) - the sound of a dog

ade – drink type, as in lemonade

be – to exist chord – musical tone

beat - to pound close – opposite of open

berth – tie up complement – enhance; go together

gorilla – big ape mail - postage

grease - fat marry – to wed

groan - moan meat – animal protein

oar – boat paddle scene - landscape

pail - bucket soar - ascend

pain - hurt sole - single

peace - calm some – a few

peak – highest point steal - swipe

plain - ordinary tail – animal’s appendage

pole - post their – belonging to them

principal – most important vary - differ

rain – water from sky wail - howl

rap - tap waist – area below ribs

ring - encircle warn - caution

role - function way - path

weather - climate your – belonging to you

Words ending in a consonant preceded by a single vowel do not double the

6. The Final –c Rule

2. A compound sentence- is a sentence that contains two or more independent or

3. A complex sentence- is a sentence that contains one independent or principal clause

4. Compound-complex sentence- consists of two or more independent clauses and at

 The dog lived in the backyard.

Dependent clause: who knew he was superior

Transformational grammars or new grammar acknowledges the existence in every

Kernel Sentences – the simplest type of sentence. It is a basic sentence structure in a

Consider this transform:

Consider these kernel sentences:

The NP functions as the subject as the subject of S.

NP as noun: Birds fly.

VP as verb: Birds fly.

1. Prepositional phrase (p-phr) – a group of words composed of a head noun introduced

The Common Three-Word Prepositions

2. Infinitive Phrase (to - v) –composed of the preposition to and a verb.

4. Verb Phrase (v-phr) – consists of helping verb/s + a main verb.

SENTENCE PATTERN 1: The Subject-Intransitive Verb (S-IV) Pattern

Ex. 1. The childrenshouted.