Design and construction of a solar powered metro vehicle.

A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements

for award of the degree of Bachelor of Science in Mechatronics
Engineering

Malik Mohammad Nafiur Noor

Pias Saha
Shourav Chandra Saha
Kawsar Ahmmed

World University of Bangladesh

January, 2019
 Design and construction of a solar powered metro vehicle.

A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements

for award of the degree of Bachelor of Science in Mechatronics
Engineering

SUBMITTED BY
Malik Mohammad Nafiur Noor
Registration no. WUB-11/15/36/1342
PiasSaha
Registration no. WUB-11/15/36/1346
Shourav Chandra Saha
Registration no. WUB-11/15/36/1350
Kawsar Ahmmed
Registration no. WUB-11/15/36/1337
SUPERVISED BY
Dr. S M FazlulKarim
Advisor
Department of Mechatronics Engineering
World University of Bangladesh
January, 2019
 ABSTRACT

Now-a-days, dealers of natural resources like fuel, coal etc. are facing a hard time to keep pace with the
increasing demand. Therefore, to carry out this demand it is quite necessary to make a new exploration of
natural resource of energy and power. Therefore sunlight is now-a-days considered to be a source of energy
which is implemented in various day to day applications. Solar energy is being used to produce electricity
through sunlight. With the help of this technology we aim to make solar energy powered car in our project. The
main component to build a solar car is the solar panel. The solar cells collect a portion of the sun’s energy and
store it into the batteries of the solar car. Before that happens, power trackers converts the energy collected
from the solar array to the proper system voltage, so that the batteries and the motor can use it. After the
energy is stored in the batteries, it is available for use by the motor & motor controller to drive the car. Solar
energy is fast becoming a very important means of renewable energy resource. With solar tracking, it will
become possible to generate more energy since the solar panel can maintain a perpendicular profile to the rays
of the sun. Even though the initial cost of setting up the tracking system is considerably high, there are cheaper
options that have been proposed over time. This project discuses the design and construction of a prototype for
solar tracking system that has a single axis of freedom. Light Dependent Resistors (LDRs) are used for sunlight
detection. It was programmed to detect sunlight via the LDRs before actuating the servo to position the solar
panel. The solar panel is positioned where it is able to receive maximum light.

One of the ways to increase the efficiency of solar panels while reducing costs is to use tracking. Through
tracking, there will be increased exposure of the panel to the sun, making it have increased power output. The
trackers can either be dual or single axis trackers.

Dual trackers are more efficient because they track sunlight from both axes.A single tracking system was used.
It is cheaper, less complex and still achieves the required efficiency. In terms of costs and whether or not the
system is supposed to be implemented by those that use solar panels, the system is viable. The increase in power
is considerable and therefore worth the small increase in cost. Maintenance costs are not likely to be high.
 CERTIFICATE

I certify that I have supervised this thesis entitled as ‘Design and construction of a solar powered metro vehicle’.
In my opinion, it conforms to acceptable standards of scholarly presentation and is fully adequate, in scope and
quality, as a thesis for the degree of Bachelor of Science in Mechatronics Engineering.

.............………………………
Dr. S M Fazlul Karim
Supervisor
 APPROVAL

The thesis entitled as ‘Design and construction of a solar powered metro vehicle’. prepared and submitted by
Malik Mohammad Nafiur Noor, PiasSaha, Shourav Chandra Saha, Kawsar AhmmedPartial Fulfilment of the
requirements for the award of the Degree of Bachelor of Science in Mechatronics Engineering is

Approved and Accepted

By the Department of Mechatronics Engineering, World University of Bangladesh

--------------------------------- ------------------------
Prof.Dr.M. Shafiqul Islam Farhan Mahbub
Advisor Head of the Department

------------------------------------ ------------------------------
Dr.S.M. Fazlul Karim Dr.S.M. Fazlul Karim
Professor Thesis Coordinator
 DECLARATION

We hereby declare that this thesis is the result of our own investigations except where otherwise stated. We also
declare that it has not been previously or concurrently submitted as a whole for any other degrees at World
University of Bangladesh or any other institutions.

Malik Mohammad Nafiur Noor

Signature…………………………… Date……………………………

Pias Saha

Signature…………………………… Date……………………………

Shourav Chandra Saha

Signature…………………………… Date……………………………

Kawsar Ahmmed

Signature…………………………… Date……………………………
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

At the outset, we gratefully acknowledge our honorable supervisor Dr.S.M. Fazlul Karim. For his guidance,
incessant encouragement and unwavering support. Without his guidance, we would not finish this final work in our
thesis. We owe a great deal of appreciation and gratitude to our advisor Prof. Dr. M. Shafiqul Islam for his
constructive comments. Our sincere thanks are due to our Head of the Department Md. Farhan Mahbub and all
our lecturers in Mechatronics Engineering Department. Furthermore, we would like to express our gratitude to the
staffs associated with audio Visual Lab.

This acknowledgment would not be complete without mentioning the invaluable support offered by our friends
that helped us overcoming some difficulties encountered during thesis work. All of your kindness and support
means a lot to us. Words are not enough to express our sincere gratitude towards our parents for their
unconditional love, devoted support and continuous encouragement throughout the journey.

Last but not the least, we express our indebtedness to this glorious institution, World University of Bangladesh.

Thank You

The Authors
To our respected and beloved parents
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Abstract............................................................................................................................... i
Certificate........................................................................................................................... ii
Approval............................................................................................................................. iii
Declaration.......................................................................................................................... iv
Acknowledgements............................................................................................................ v
Table of Contents............................................................................................................... vi
Table of tables..................................................................................................................... vii
List of figures...................................................................................................................... viii
List of abbreviations........................................................................................................... ix
List of symbols................................................................................................................... x
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION................................................................................... 1
1.1 Background..................................................................................................... 2
1.2 Overview......................................................................................................... 4
1.3 Objective......................................................................................................... 4
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW................................................................ 6
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY...................................................................... 11
3.1 Electrical Design................................................................................................ 12
3.2 Types of solar trackers and tracking technologies ......................................... 16
3.3 The concept of using two LDRs........................................................................ 17
3.4 Hardware Specifications.................................................................................... 18
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULT ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION................................... 24
4.1 Result....................................................................................................................... 25
4.2 Analysis................................................................................................................... 30
32
4.3 Discussion............................................................................................................

CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION.............................. 34

5.1 Conclusion...................................................................................................... 35
5.2 Recommendations........................................................................................... 35
REFERENCES................................................................................................................. 37
APPENDIX A : Programming C.................................................................................... 38
 LIST OF TABLES

Table No. Page No.

3.2 Electrical Component 37

4.1 39
Resultsfor cloudy Morning and Sunny Afternoon for 6th and 7th
January2019

4.2 41
LDR outputs for bright sunny day on 2nd January 2019

Results for LDR outputs for a cloudy day on 12th January 2019
4.3 45
 LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page No.
No.
3.1 Electrical Design 10

3.2 The schematic picture of a solar power system 12

3.3 Block Diagram of Automatic solar powered car System 13

16
3.4 The basic structure of solar car controlling devices

3.5 Layout diagram of program controlling devices

3.6 Resister

3.7 Breadboard

3.8 Connecting Wires

3.9 IR Sensor

3.10 Transformer

3.11 Capacitor

3.12 Diode

3.13 Adapter
 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

DC Direct Current

LED Light Emitting Diode

LDR Light Dependent Resistor

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
The renewable energy is vital for today’s world as in near future the nonrenewable sources that we are using
are going to get exhausted. The solar vehicle is a step in saving these nonrenewable sources of energy. The
basic principle of solar car is to use energy that is stored in a battery during and after charging it from a solar
panel. The charged batteries are used to drive the motor which serves here as an engine and moves the
vehicle in reverse or forward direction. The electrical tapping rheostat is provided so as to control the motor
speed. This avoids excess flow of current when the vehicle is supposed to be stopped suddenly as it is in
normal cars with regards to fuel. This idea, in future, may help protect our fuels from getting extinguished.

1.1Background
Energy is one of the most vital needs for human survival on earth. We are dependent on one form of energy
or the other for fulfilling our needs. One such form of energy is the energy from fossil fuels. We use energy
from these sources for generating electricity, running automobiles etc. But the main disadvantages of these
fossil fuels are that they are not environmental friendly and they are exhaustible. To deal with these problems
of fossil fuels, we need to look at the non-conventional courses of energy. With regard to this idea we have
designed an Electrical vehicle that runs on solar energy. The vehicle designed is a three wheel drive and can
be used for shuttle and short distances. As these vehicles form the future of the automotive industry, we need
to concentrate on improving their design and making them cost effective. This vehicle is an initiative in this
direction.

Today, while solar cars test the ultimate boundaries of energy efficiency, they also provide incredible
insights into the capabilities of everyday vehicle technology. These innovations are at the heart of all electric
cars, whether that power comes from hydrogen fuel cells, hybrid engines or even fully-electric commuter
cars that draw power from solar cells on the garage roof – they all use the technology that is continually
honed to perfection in the World Solar Challenge.

Utilizing no more than six square meters of solar panels, some of the world’s brightest young minds are on
track to develop the most efficient electric vehicles possible. And every two years, teams from leading
international universities and technical institutes, together with private entrepreneurs, come together Down
Under to test and promote the ultimate synergy of nature, motion and innovation.

Solar energy is the most effective energy supply for electric vehicle in comparing with other renewable
energy source. Other source of renewable energy cannot be used in electric vehicle. The body frame of the
vehicle can be used as solar plate from where the vehicle can get the total power. Bangladesh is situated
between 20.30 - 26.38 degrees north and 88.04 - 92.44 degrees east which is an ideal location for solar
energy utilization. Here solar radiation varies between 4 to 6.5 kWh per square meter and maximum amount
of radiation is available in summer. So for Bangladesh electric vehicle using solar power is most effective.

A solar vehicle is an electric vehicle powered by solar electricity. This is obtained from solar panels on the
surface (generally, the top or window) of the vehicle or using a solar jacket in electric bicycles. Photovoltaic
(PV) cells convert the sun’s energy directly into electrical energy. Solar vehicles are not sold as practical
day-to-day transportation devices at present, but are primarily demonstration vehicles and engineering
exercises, often sponsored by government agencies. However indirectly solar-charged vehicles are
widespread and solar boats are available commercially. Solar cars combine technology typically used in the
aerospace, bicycle, alternative energy and automotive industries. The design of a solar vehicle is severely
limited by the amount of energy input into the car. Most solar cars have been built for the purpose of solar car
races. Exceptions include solar-powered cars and utility vehicles. Solar cars are often fitted with gauges as
seen in conventional cars. In order to keep the car running smoothly, the driver must keep an eye on these
gauges to spot possible problems. Cars without gauges almost always feature wireless telemetry, which
allows the driver's team to monitor the car's energy consumption, solar energy capture and other parameters
and free the driver to concentrate on driving.

Solar cars depend on PV cells to convert sunlight into electricity. In fact, 51% of sunlight actually enters the
Earth's atmosphere. Unlike solar thermal energy which converts solar energy to heat for either household
purposes, industrial purposes or to be converted to electricity, PV cells directly convert sunlight into
electricity. When sunlight (photons) strikes PV cells, they excite electrons and allow them to flow, creating
an electrical current. PV cells are made of semiconductor materials such as silicon and alloys of indium,
gallium and nitrogen. Silicon is the most common material used and has an efficiency rate of 15-20%. Of
late, several consulting companies, such as Phoenix Snider Power, have started offering technical and
financial services to institutes and teams developing solar cars worldwide.
A solar car is a solar vehicle used for land transport also is an electric vehicle powered completely or
significantly by direct energy. Solar cars usually run on only power from the sun, although some models will
supplement that power using a battery, or use solar panels to recharge batteries or run auxiliary systems for a
car that mainly uses battery power. The design of a solar vehicle is severely limited by the amount of energy
input into the car. Solar cars depend on a solar array that uses photovoltaic cells (PV cells) to convert
sunlight into electricity. Unlike solar thermal energy which converts solar energy to heat, PV cells directly
convert sunlight into electricity. When sunlight (photons) strike PV cells, they excite electrons and allow
them to flow, creating an electric current. PV cells are made of semiconductor materials such as silicon and
alloys of indium, gallium and nitrogen. Crystalline silicon is the most common material used and has an
efficiency rate of 15-20%.Usually, photovoltaic (PV) cells contained in solar panels convert the sun's energy
directly into electric energy. The term "solar vehicle" usually implies that solar energy is used to power all or
part of a vehicle's propulsion. Solar power may be also used to provide power for communications or
controls or other auxiliary functions.

The quests for a constant, safe, clean, environmental-friendly fuel is never-ending. Carbon-based fuels, such
as fossil fuels are unsustainable and hazardous to our environment. Some of the alternatives are renewable
energy sources which include all fuel types and energy carriers, different from the fossil ones, such as the
sun, wind, tides, hydropower and biomass. Amongst these elements, solar energy is preferred since it could
provide the cleanest sustainable energy for the longest duration of time – the next few billion years.
Photovoltaic production becomes double every two years, increasing by an average of 48 percent each year
since 2002. Due to its innumerable benefits in environmental, economic and social aspects PV systems have
becomes the world’s fastest growing energy technology. It can arguably be said that the only limitation to
solar power as an energy source is our understanding of developing efficient and cost effective technology
which can implement it. Nothing on earth is free of cost, but what if we could find a way to implement free
rides? Indeed it would be wonderful if our cars could continue to run without us having to spend billions on
fossil fuels every year and to deal with natural hazards that their combustion leave behind. If we could drive
a solar-powered car, that auto dream would come true. Solar cars would harness energy from the sun via
solar panels. A solar panel is a packaged, connected assembly of solar cells, also called photovoltaic cells
which are solid state devices that can convert solar energy directly into electrical energy through quantum
mechanical transitions. They are noiseless and pollution-free with no rotating parts and need minimum
maintenance. The electricity thus generated would then fuel the battery that would run the car's motors.
Therefore we would obtain an electrically driven vehicle that would travel on “free” energy with no harmful
emissions, that can utilize its full power at all speeds, and would have very little maintenance cost.

A solar tracker is a device used for orienting a photovoltaic array solar panel or for concentrating solar
reflector or lens toward the sun. The position of the sun in the sky is varied both with seasons and time of day
as the sun moves across the sky. Solar powered equipment work best when they are pointed at the sun.
Therefore, a solar tracker increases how efficient such equipment are over any fixed position at the cost of
additional complexity to the system. There are different types of trackers. Extraction of usable electricity
from the sun became possible with the discovery of the photoelectric mechanism and subsequent
development of the solar cell. The solar cell is a semiconductor material which converts visible light into
direct current. Through the use of solar arrays, a series of solar cells electrically connected, there is
generation of a DC voltage that can be used on a load. There is an increased use of solar arrays as their
efficiencies become higher. They are especially popular in remote areas where there is no connection to the
grid.

1.2 Overview
This report will explain the design and construction of the solar car system to generate solar electricity and
Single axis sun tracking in 5 different chapters.
Chapter 1 will introduce the background of the solar car system, the aims and the objectives of the project.
Chapter 2 will describe the basics of solar car system, solar energy system, tracking system and other
literature reviews related to the project.
Chapter 3 will explain the procedure of designing the solar car system. Here we will explain how we
connected each and every components part to make the project.
Chapter 4 will show the outcome of the project and discuss the results.
Chapter 5 will find out the weak points of the project and the ways to improve.

1.3 Objectives
i) To design & develop a solar car system to use the sun power of solar as a raw material to generate
electricity.
ii) To use the renewable solar energy in building model cars.
iii) To build a model solar car that has the energy efficiency of solar energy resources in optimal condition.

iv) Saving Non-renewable resources i.e. Petrol and Diesel.

v) Design a system that tracks the solar UV light for solar panels.
CHAPTER 2
 LITERATURE REVIEW

CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW

Solar Power is the fastest growing renewable energy source due to its improving technologies and economic
competitiveness. This power also has its unique impacts when connected to a power system due to its power
electronic interface and the nature of wind. Solar energy use sun energyto convert into electrical energy. In
recent years energy generation by solar energy are becoming an increasingly important source of intermittent
renewable energy and are used by many countries as part of a strategy to reduce their reliance on fossil fuels.

Solar energy is a free, renewable resource, so no matter how much is used today, there will still be the same
supply in the future. Solar energy is also a source of clean, non-polluting, electricity. Unlike conventional
power plants, wind plants emit no air pollutants or greenhouse gases.

The first solar car invented was a tiny 15-inch vehicle created by William G. Cobb of General Motors.
Called the Sunmobile, Cobb showcased the first solar car at the Chicago Powerama convention on August
31, 1955. The solar car was made up 12 selenium photovoltaic cells and a small Pooley electric motor
turning a pulley which in turn rotated the rear wheel shaft. The first solar car in history was obviously too
small to drive.
Figure 2.1:The first solar car

Now, let's jump to 1962 when the first solar car that a person could drive was demonstrated to the public. The
International Rectifier Company converted a vintage model 1912 Baker electric car (pictured above) to run
on photovoltaic energy in 1958, but they didn't show it until 4 years later. Around 10,640 individual solar
cells were mounted to the rooftop of the Baker to help propel it.

In 1977, Alabama University professor Ed Passereni built the Bluebird solar car, which was a

Prototype full scale vehicle. The Bluebird was supposed to move from power created by the photovoltaic
cells only without the use of a battery. The Bluebird was exhibited in the Knoxville, TN 1982 World's Fair.

Between 1977 and 1980 (the exact dates are not known for sure), at Tokyo Denki University, Professor
Masaharu Fujita first created a solar bicycle, then a 4-wheel solar car. The car was actually two solar
bicycles put together.

At the engineering department at Tel Aviv University in Israel, Arye Braunstein and his colleagues created
a solar car in 1980 (pictured below). The solar car had a solar panel on the hood and on the roof of the Citi car
comprised of 432 cells creating 400 watts of peak power. The solar car used 8 batteries of 6 volts each to
store the photovoltaic energy.
Figure 2.2:In 1979 Englishman Alain Freeman invented a solar car

The 1,320 pound solar Citi car is said by the engineering department to have been able to reach up to 40 mph
with a maximum range of 50 miles.

In 1981 Hans Tholstrup and Larry Perkins built a solar powered racecar. In 1982, the pair became the first
to cross a continent in a solar car, from Perth to Sydney, Australia. Tholstrup is the creator of the World Solar
Challenge in Australia.

In 1984, Greg Johanson and Joel Davidson invented the Sun runner solar race car. The Sun runner set the
official Guinness world record in Bellflower, California of 24.7 mph. In the Mojave Desert of California and
final top speed of 41 mph was officially recorded for a "Solely Solar Powered Vehicle" (did not use a
battery). The 1986 Guinness Book of World Records publicized these official records.

The GM Sunraycer in 1987 completed a 1,866 mile trip with an average speed of 42 mph. Since this time
there have been many solar cars invented at universities for competitions such as the Shell Eco Marathon.
There is also a commercially available solar car called the Venturi Astrolab. Time will only tell how far the
solar car makes it with today's and tomorrow's technology.

Bangladesh solar car history:

The vehicle is in the field testing stage and there are plans to launch it by the end of 2017, replacing
hand-pulled rickshaw vans used to take emergency patients from many rural areas to the hospital.

Figure 2.3:In 2017 BRAC University made solar ambulance 3 wheeler car

The three-wheeled van, as well-equipped as ambulances used in Bangladesh’s cities, runs entirely on solar
power – including solar battery power at night – and can be used in rural areas with no grid electricity,
according to the developers.

The vehicle is in the field testing stage and there are plans to launch it by the end of 2017.

A.K.M. Abdul Malek Azad, the project’s team leader and a professor at BRAC University in Dhaka, said
that most rural community health clinics cannot afford conventional ambulance services, but that the new
ambulance would be cheap to buy and to run.

“I thought a low-cost ambulance service would be a good idea for these rural clinics. And by using solar
power we can reduce operational costs and save the environment,” he said.

Another one is from Daffodil International University (DIU) :

The young and talented students (22 of them team name: Yes You Can) from the department of the
Computer Science and Engineering at Daffodil International University has come up with an exceptional and
outstanding project concept called "Solar Car" (7' long X 4' wide) for this green technology time of the earth.
This is a complete and actual sized two seated solar car powered by the green technologies.

Figure 2.4: DIU student made two-three person’s weight solar car

This Car weight 150KG that could carry two-three person’s weight. It has 5 Solar panels with each 12Volts
in total 48 Volts with (50Watt x 4) + 80Watt = 280 Watt (in total); 4 pieces 12Watt Batteries in total 48Volts;
one Solar Charge Controller; one high capacity Motor which 500rpm, 500Watt, 48Volts; one Motor
Controller; along with associated parts and materials.
In full charge state, this car is capable to run with two persons for 6 (six) hours at a time. The speed level of
this car is 45km/hour. This car is fully solar car, charged from solar panel and need not any other supporting
fuels. The future of this solar car is very prospective; it could reduce electricity consumptions where in most
of districts in Bangladesh, lots of electricity motor vehicles are running on roads that used to charges from
direct electricity connections. It also reduces the pressure of fuels and Gas used by different vehicles e.g. Oil,
Mobil, Octane, Diesel, Petrol.

CHAPTER 3

METHODOLOGY
 CHAPTER 3
METHODOLOGY

Experimental method will be explored that are used in the development of the automatic solar powered
system to generate electric power. For the construction of the project develop a solar powered car system.
Finally assemble all different systems in one place to develop the complete project. This project has used
experimental approach to carry out our work.

3.1 Electrical Design :

Figure 3.1: Electrical Design of Automatic solar powered car System

The heart of the solar energy automobile is a solar panel and a battery as well as the
operating system. The operating system is composed by power supplying and electric controlling. Solar
panel is the most important part in key technology, which is semiconductor device that
can transform light energy into electrical energy.

Figure 3.2: The schematic picture of a solar power system

Solar panel is photovoltaic elements, which can converse energy. Silicon is the basic material of the
semiconductor, for it cannot conduct (deliver) the electricity. It can be made the semiconductor as P-type
and N-type if incorporation various impurities in the semiconductor. Because the current is
produced by the potential difference of electric hole of P-type semiconductor and one
freedom electric of N-type semiconductor. Therefore when the sun light is irradiated, sun light
energy cans excitation the electron out of silicon atom. The convection of electrons and holes are
generated. These electrons and holes are influenced by build-in potential and attracted by N-type and
P-type semiconductor respectively, gathered at both ends. At this time, there will be a loop when
electrodes are used to connect the two sides. This is the principle of solar power generation.
 START

SOLAR PANAL

CHARGE
CONTROLLER

BATTERY-2

BATTERY-1

ARDIANO

SERVO
MOTOR
LDR

MOTOR DRIVER

WHEELS

Figure 3.3: Block Diagram of Automatic solar powered car System

The solar energy automobile is consisted of a solar panel and energy storage device as well as a motor
system.
 Figure 3.4: The basic structure of solar car controlling devices

Light irradiation on the electric board can produce current. The light delivered to the storage battery or
delivered to the motor directly it is through battery charge controller and peak power tracker. When
solar energy automobile is moving, the light intensity is not enough and solar energy cannot keep the
car moving.

Figure 3.5: Layout diagram of program controlling devices

The solar energy auto-mobile will use the energy stored in the battery and solar energy to drive the
motor. When the car is not moving, energy will be stored in energy storage device.

In order to improve the utilization of solar energy, it is necessary to install some electrics which
are responsible for monitoring and controlling power in the system, so they are
very important and useful components in solar energy automobiles, Including solar maximum
power tracking device (MPPT) and motor controller as well as data acquisition system. The power
tracking device is controlling the power, which is the solar array to maximize the resulting power
and deliver it to the energy storage device or deliver power to the motor controller that generates
propulsion. When solar array is working to charge the battery, the peak power tracker will help to
protect the battery against the over- load damage. It is worth to know that to keep a high working
efficiency, different kinds of motors needs to match with the only motor controller.

3.2 Types of solar trackers and tracking technologies

Active tracker: Active trackers make use of motors and gear trains for direction of the tracker as
commanded by the controller responding to the solar direction. The position of the sun is monitored
throughout the day. When the tracker is subjected to darkness, it either sleeps or stops depending on the
design. This is done using sensors that are sensitive to light such as LDRs. Their voltage output is put into a
microcontroller that then drives actuators to adjust the position of the solar panel .

Passive solar tracking: Passive trackers use a low boiling point compressed gas fluid driven to one side or
the other to cause the tracker to move in response to an imbalance. Because it is a non precision orientation
it is not suitable for some types of concentrating photovoltaic collectors but works just fine for common PV
panel types. These have viscous dampers that prevent excessive motion in response to gusts of wind .

Chronological solar tracking: A chronological tracker counteracts the rotation of the earth by turning at the
same speed as the earth relative to the sun around an axis that is parallel to the earth’s. To achieve this, a
simple rotation mechanism is devised which enables the system to rotate throughout the day in a predefined
manner without considering whether the sun is there or not. The system turns at a constant speed of one
revolution per day or 15 degrees per hour. Chronological trackers are very simple but potentially very
accurate.

Single axis trackers: Single axis trackers have one degree of freedom that act as the axis of rotation. The
axis of rotation of single axis trackers is aligned along the meridian of t he true North. With advanced
tracking algorithms, it is possible to align them in any cardinal direction. Common implementations of
single axis trackers include horizontal single axis trackers (HSAT), horizontal single axis tracker with tilted
modules (HTSAT), vertical single axis trackers (VSAT), tilted single axis trackers (TSAT) and polar aligned
single axis trackers (PSAT) [8].

Dual axis trackers : Dual axis trackers have two degrees of freedom that act as axes of rotation. These axes
are typically normal to each other. The primary axis is the one that is fixed with respect to the ground. The
secondary axis is the one referenced to the primary axis. There are various common implementations of dual
trackers. Their classification is based on orientation of their primary axes with respect to the ground.

3.3 The concept of using two LDRs

Figure 3.6: Use of two LDRs

Concept of using two LDRs for sensing is explained in the figure above. The stable position is when the two
LDRs having the same light intensity. When the light source moves, i.e. the sun moves from west to east, the
level of intensity falling on both the LDRs changes and this change is calibrated into voltage using voltage
dividers. The changes in voltage are compared using built-in comparator of microcontroller and motor is used
to rotate the solar panel in a way so as to track the light source.
3.4 Hardware Specifications :

(a) Solar Panal (b) Servo motor

(c) Battery (d) Ardiano

(e) Motor Driver (f) LDR

(g) 1.5v dc Motor (h) SLA battery charge controller 6V-60V

(a) Solar Panal : A solar panel works by allowing photons, or particles of light, to knock electrons free from
atoms, generating a flow of electricity. Solar panels actually comprise many, smaller units called
photovoltaic cells. (Photovoltaic simply means they convert sunlight into electricity).When photons hit a
solar cell, they knock electrons loose from their atoms. If conductors are attached to the positive and negative
sides of a cell, it forms an electrical circuit. When electrons flow through such a circuit, they generate
electricity. Multiple cells make up a solar panel, and multiple panels (modules) can be wired together to form
a solar array.

Figure 3.1.1: Solar Panal Figure 3.1.2: Parts of solar panal

(b) Servo motor: We have used a servo motor to routed solar panel direction. It is a kind of rotary or linear actuator
that used for precise control of angular or linear position, velocity and acceleration. A servo motor is used in this
project to control the rotation of solar panel direction towards sun direction according to sun direction sensor.The
motor is placed under the solar panel to make control accurate. Figure 3.13 & 3.14 shows The Servo Motor and Real
Life Picture of Servo Motor.

Figure 3.1.3: Servo Motor Figure 3.1.4: Real Life Picture of Servo Motor
(c) Battery: 6Volt Sealed Lead Acid Batteries. BatteryMart.com offers a lot of different 6 volt sealed lead
acid batteries. Our batteries range in capacity from 500 mAh to 200 Ah, fitting thousands of applications. 6
volt SLA batteries are extremely popular in backup power supplies, like UPS backup units, and home alarm
systems. Most nine-volt alkaline batteries are constructed of six individual 1.5 V LR61 cells enclosed in a
wrapper. These cells are slightly smaller than LR8D425 AAAA cells and can be used in their place for some
devices, even though they are 3.5 mm shorter.

Figure 3.1.5: Battery

(d) Arduino: The Arduino UNO controller is basically for the solar vehicle system control. Arduino Uno is
a microcontroller board based on the ATmega328P microcontroller. It is an open-source electronics platform
based on easy-to-use hardware and software. It has 14 digital input/output pins where 6 can be used as PWM
outputs, 6 analog inputs, a 16 MHz quartz crystal, a USB connection, a power jack, an ICSP header and a
reset button. In this wind turbine system we use an Arduino UNO to control the whole system. All of the part
of this system is interconnected by this control board. The Arduino UNO takes all the input command &
provides accurate feedback command. Figure 3.8 shows the Arduino UNO.

Figure 3.1.6: Arduino UNO

(e) Motor Driver: We have used a motor driver to routed vehicle direction. A motor controller is a device or
group of devices that serves to govern in some predetermined manner the performance of an electric motor.
A motor controller might include a manual or automatic means for starting and stopping the motor, selecting
forward or reverse rotation, selecting and regulating the speed, regulating or limiting the torque, and
protecting against overloads and faults. Figure 3.10& 3.14 shows motor drive.

Figure 3.1.7: Motor Driver

(f) LDR: A Light Dependent Resistor (LDR) is also called a photoresistor or a cadmium sulfide (CdS) cell.
It is basically a photocell that works on the principle of photoconductivity. The passive component is
basically a resistor whose resistance value decreases when the intensity of light decreases.A photoresistor is
a light-controlled variable resistor. The resistance of a photoresistor decreases with increasing incident light
intensity; in other words, it exhibits photoconductivity. A photoresistor can be applied in light-sensitive
detector circuits, and light-activated and dark-activated switching circuits.

Figure 3.1.8: LDR

(g) Dc Motor: DC motor is a motor that converts DC energy into mechanical energy. It is widely used in
electric drive because of its good speed regulation performance. DC motor can be divided into three types
according to excitation mode: permanent magnet, external excitation and self-excitation, in which
self-excitation is divided into three types: shunt excitation, serial-excitation and compound excitation.

DC motor is divided into two parts: stator and rotor.

 Figure 3.1.9: Dc Motor

(h) SLA battery charge controller 6V-60V : This product is suitable for 6-60V battery charging control, can be
set free to start charging voltage and stop charging voltage! In the IN input charger 660V voltage, in the OUT terminal
battery, for example, set 12V start 15V stop when the voltage is below 12V when the relay is closed to the charger
charging voltage to the battery, when the charge voltage is greater than 15V Relay off to stop charging, can be used in
household chargers, solar, wind turbines.
Using Method:
1.Set Starting Voltage: in normal display voltage state, press the button will display start charging voltage; long press
for 3s the digital tube will flash; you can start or stop button to set starting up charge voltage value
2.Set Stop Voltage: in normal display voltage state, press the button will display stoping charge voltage; long press the
button for 3s the digital tube will flash; you can start or stop button to set stoping charge voltage value
3.Factory Reset: in power on state press the start/stop button at the same time, digital tube will display 888; that
represents factory reset settings.

Figure 3.1.10 : SLA battery charge controller 6V-60V

The electrical section of this project is designed with following components which are shown in table 3.2

Table 3.2: Electrical Components

Components Quantity Description

Arduino UNO 1 Used to total control

Motor Driver 1 Used to routed vehicle direction
LDR 2 Used to exhibits photoconductivity.
DC Motor
4 Used to run car by wheels.

Servo Motor 1 Used to rotate the solar panal.

 CHAPTER 4
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
 CHAPTER 4
RESULT AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Result :
The results were obtained for different days. Getting results from different days was helpful in
that it made it possible to compare the various values gotten from different weather conditions.
The values obtained were recorded and used to draw graphs to show the relations.

Table 4.1: Results for cloudy Morning and Sunny Afternoon for 6th and 7th January2019
LDR readings for Fixed Panel LDR readings for a Tracking
Panel
Time LDR1 LDR2 LDR12 LDR22
06:30 0.196 0.176 1.477 1.487
07:30 0.249 0.210 1.804 1.839
08:30 0.225 0.196 2.757 2.933
09:30 0.723 0.567 3.631 3.783
10:30 0.733 0.816 3.900 3.798
11:30 3.211 2.297 3.910 3.969
12:30 4.888 4.941 4.990 4.990
1:30 3.803 3.910 4.985 4.990
2:30 3.456 4.057 4.976 4.985
3:30 3.930 3.846 4.941 4.892
4:30 1.999 1.544 4.824 4.594
5:30 1.090 1.144 3.128 2.981
6:30 0.718 0.787 0.982 0.968
 6

4 LDR1
LDR2
LDR12
Volts (V) 3

2 LDR22
0630Hrs

0730Hrs

0830Hrs

0930Hrs

1030Hrs

1130Hrs

1230Hrs

1330Hrs

1430Hrs

1530Hrs

1630Hrs

1730Hrs

1830Hrs
1
Time (hourly)

0
Figure 4.1: Graph of results obtained on 6th and 7th January

Table 4.2: LDR outputs for bright sunny day on 2nd January 2019

LDR readings for Fixed Panel LDR readings for a Tracking

Panel
Time LDR1 LDR2 LDR12 LDR22
6.30 0.679 0.489 1.477 1.487
7.30 0.792 1.061 2.804 2.839
8.30 1.779 1.672 3.203 3.990
9.30 3.167 1.199 3.990 3.990
10.30 3.421 3.226 4.130 4.149
11.30 4.604 3.208 4.500 4.590
12.30 4.990 4.980 4.990 4.990
1.30 4.980 4.990 4.888 4.990
2.30 4.888 4.941 4.976 4.985
3.30 4.413 3.878 4.941 4.892
4.30 3.935 3.824 4.873 4.790
5.30 2.639 2.639 3.964 3.940
6.30 1.569 1.031 2.708 2.815
 6

4 LDR1
LDR2
LDR12
Volts (V) 3

2 LDR22

1530Hrs

1630Hrs

1730Hrs

1830Hrs
10.30

11.30

12.30
6.30

7.30

8.30

9.30

1.30

2.30
1
Time (hourly)

0
Figure 4.2: Graph for bright sunny day of 2nd January 2019

Table 4.3: Results for LDR outputs for a cloudy day on 12th January 2019
LDR Readings for Fixed Panel LDR Readings for aTracking
Panel
Time LDR1 LDR2 LDR12 LDR22
06:30 0.147 0.117 0.274 0.244
07:30 0.161 0.156 0.547 0.601
08:30 0.274 0.205 1.090 1.075
09:30 0.435 0.279 1.227 1.276
10:30 0.572 0.547 1.271 1.305
11:30 1.041 0.816 1.618 1.569
12:30 2.175 1.965 2.165 2.151
13:30 1.975 1.794 1.848 1.794
14:30 1.119 1.623 1.090 1.075
15:30 1.022 1.510 0.982 0.943
16:30 0.543 1.017 0.762 0.728
17:30 0.264 0.367 0.547 0.538
18:30 0.064 0.103 0.327 0.220
 6

LDR1
4 LDR2
LDR12

Volts (V) 3 LDR22

1530Hrs

1630Hrs

1730Hrs

1830Hrs
2
10.30

11.30

12.30
6.30

7.30

8.30

9.30

1.30

2.30
Time (hourly)
1

0
Figure 4.3: Graph of LDR outputs for a cloudy day on 12th January
2019 Key points to note:
LDR1 is the photo resistor 1 reading for a solar panel that is fixed.
LDR2 indicates the 2nd photo resistor for a fixed solar panel.
LDR 12 indicates the 1st photo resistor reading in the tracking solar
panel. LDR 22 indicates the 2nd photo resistor for a tracking solar
panel.
4.2 Analysis :
From the curves, it can be seen that the maximum sunlight occurs at around midday, with maximum values
obtained between 1200 hours and 1400 hours. In the morning and late evening, intensity of sunlight
diminishes and the values obtained are less that those obtained during the day. After sunset, the tracking
system is switched off to save energy. It is switched back on in the morning.
For the panel fitted with the tracking system, the values of the LDRs are expected to be close. This is
because whenever they are in different positions there is an error generated that enables its movement.
The motion of the panel is stopped when the values are the same, meaning the LDRs receive the same
intensity of sunlight. For the fixed panel, the values vary because the panel is at a fixed position.
Therefore, at most times the LDRs are not facing the sun at the same inclination. This is apart from
midday when they are both almost perpendicular to the sun.

Days with the least cloud cover are the ones that have the most light intensity and therefore the outputs of
the LDRs will be highest. For cloudy days, the values obtained for the tracking system and the fixed
system do not differ too much because the intensity of light is more or less constant. Any differences are
minimal. The tracking system is most efficient when it is sunny. It will be able to harness most of the solar
power which will be converted into energy.

In terms of the power output of the solar panels for tracking and fixed systems, it is evident that the
tracking system will have increased power output. This is because the power generated by solar panels is
dependent on the intensity of light. The more the light intensity the more the power that will be generated
by the solar panel.

The increase in efficiency can be calculated. However, it is important to note that there will be moments
when the increase in power output for the tracking system in comparison with the fixed system is
minimal, notably on cloudy days. This is expected because there will not be much difference in the
intensity of sunlight for the two systems. Similarly, on a very hot day at midday, both systems have
almost the same output because the sun is perpendicularly above. As such, both systems receive almost
the same amount of irradiation.

A few values can be used to illustrate the difference in efficiency between the two systems:

For a bright sunny day, we can take the averages for LDR22 and LDRS 2 for the entire day. We then use 5 as the
base because it is the maximum value of the LDR output. It is calculated as a percentage and the two values
compared. While this may not give the clearest indication of the exact increase in efficiency, it shows that the
tracking system has better efficiency.
average value of LDR 22 or LDR2
∗ 100
4 volts
 For LDR 22:

(4.027/5)*100=80.54%
For LDR 2:
(2.856/5)*100=57.14%

The difference between the two values is 23.4%. this means the LDR for the tracking system has an increased
efficiency of 23.4%.

4.3 Discussion
The total power of the sun can be estimated by the law of Stefan and Boltzmann.

 P=4π𝑟 2 σϵ𝑇 4 W

T is the temperature that is about 5800K, r is the radius of the sun which is 695800 km and σ is the
Boltzmann constant which is 1.3806488 × 10-23m2kg s-2K-1. The emissivity of the surface is denoted by ϵ.
Because of Einstein’s famous law E=mc2about millions of tons of matter are converted to energy each
second. The solar energy that is irradiated to the earth is 5.1024 Joules per year. This is 10000 times the
present worldwide energy consumption per year.

One lux is equivalent to one lumen per square metre;

1 lx = 1lm∙𝑚−2= 1 cd ∙ sr ∙ 𝑚−2

i.e. a flux of 10 lumen, concentrated over an area of 1 square metre, lights up that area with illuninance of 10
lux.

Sunlight ranges between 400 lux and approximately 130000 lux, as summarized in the table below.

Table 2.1: Range of the brightness of sunlight (lux)[Approximate]

Time of day Luminous flux (lux)

Sunrise or sunset on a clear day 400
Overcast day 1000
Full day (not direct sun) 10000 – 25000
Direct sunlight 32000 – 130000

The solar tracker makes use of a Cds photocell for detecting light. There was use of a
complementary resistor with a value of 10k. With the resulting configuration, the output voltage
will increase with increase in light intensity. The value of the complementary resistor is chosen
such that the widest output range is achieved. The photocell resistance is measured under
bright light, average light and dark light conditions. The results are listed in the table
below.

Table 3.1 Photocell Resistance Testing Data

Measured Resistance Comment
50 KΩ Dark light conditions (black vinyl tape placed
over cell)

4.35 KΩ Average light conditions (normal room lighting

level)

200 Ω Bright light conditions (flashlight directly in front

of cell)
 CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMANDATIONS

 CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMANDATIONS

5.1 Conclusion

In order to cope with the increasing demands for fuel and the disastrous environment pollution due
to driving carbon-based vehicles, it is quite necessary to switch to a new source of energy, i.e. the
solar power which would be a cheap, efficient, limitless and of course an eco-friendly alternative.
Solar-powered electric vehicles are safe with no volatile fuel or hot exhaust systems. They are zero
emission vehicles, odorless, smokeless and noiseless. They require minimal maintenance, are
more reliable with little or no moving parts and can be efficiently charged nearly anywhere.
Needless to say it is very much cost efficient Electric Vehicles are what everyone is going to turn
to in the near future as mode of transportation due to its low cost and polluting effect. The Solar
Electric Vehicle that we have developed cannot be practically charged only by the solar power and
has to take a fraction of its charge from the grid. As the electricity in our country is not produced
from renewable sources, we cannot claim that the Solar Electric Vehicle is completely green. If,
however, we can establish several Solar Power Stations and charge the vehicles from those
stations, it can be completely emission less. Developing such system would drastically improve air
quality, which is especially important here as the air pollution level of Dhaka city has reached an
alarming level and one of the major contributors to this is the transport sector. Time is now ripe to
make this issue our top priority. The solar panel that tracks the sun was designed and implemented.
The required program was written that specified the various actions required for the project to
work. As a result, tracking was achieved. The system designed was a single axis tracker. While
dual axis trackers are more efficient in tracking the sun, the additional circuitry and complexity
was not required in this case. Dual trackers are most suitable in regions where there is a change in
the position of the sun. Our work on development and analysis of the Solar Electric Vehicle will,
hopefully, be a giant leap towards achieving that goal.

5.2 Recommendations
The project can be further improved by following ways-
1. The system designed was a single axis tracker. While dual axis trackers are more efficient in
tracking the sun, the additional circuitry and complexity was not required in this case.
2. Shading has adverse effects on the operation of solar panels. Shading of a single cell will have
an effect on the entire panel because the cells are usually connected in series. With shading
therefore, the tracking system will not be able to improve efficiency as is required.
 REFERENCES
1. http://www.microcontrollerboard.com/pic_interrupt.html

2. http://www.edaboard.com/thread123648.html

3. http://www.solar-electric.com/deep-cycle-battery-faq.html#Battery%20Voltages

4. http://www.batterystuff.com/blog/3-stages-of-smart-chargers.html

5. http://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/167306.pdf

6. http://www.energymatters.com.au/renewable-energy/batteries/battery-voltage-discharge.php

7..http://dspace.bracu.ac.bd/bitstream/handle/10361/3228/09221020.pdf?sequence=1

8. http://www.thesis123.com/remote-controlled-solar-vehicle/

9. http://www.google.com/patents/US20070139015

10. http://www.thesis123.com/remote-controlled-solar-vehicle/

11.http://solarcellcentral.com/solar_page.html

12. https://learn.sparkfun.com/tutorials/what-is-an-arduino

13.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_car

14. .https://www.orientalmotor.com/servo-motors/index.html

15. https://lumensports.com/

16. “Build your own Electric Vehicle”, Seth Lehman and Bob Brant, 2nd Edition.

17. Solar and Wind Energy Resource Assessment, (SWERA) – Bangladesh, Project, February
2007, Prof. (retd) MuhtashamHussain

18. A.K. Saxena and V. Dutta, “A versatile microprocessor based controller for solar tracking,” in
Proc. IEEE, 1990, pp. 1105 – 1109.

19. S. J. Hamilton, “Sun-tracking solar cell array system,” University of Queensland Department
of Computer Science and Electrical Engineering, Bachelors Thesis, 1999.

20. M. F. Khan and R. L. Ali, “Automatic sun tracking system,” presented at the All Pakistan
Engineering Conference, Islamabad, Pakistan, 2005.

21. David Cooke, "Single vs. Dual Axis Solar Tracking", Alternate Energy eMagazine, April 2011
 APPENDIX A: Programming C
#include <Servo.h> //including the library of servo motor

Servo mg90; //initializing a variable for servo named sg90

intinitial_position = 90; //Declaring the initial position at 90

int LDR1 = A1; //Pin at which LDR is connected

int LDR2 = A2;//Pin at which LDR is connected

int error = 20; //initializing variable for error

intservopin=10;

int motor1Pin1 = 3; // pin 2 on L298D IC

int motor1Pin2 = 5; // pin 7 on L298D IC

int motor2Pin1 = 6; // pin 10 on L298D IC

int motor2Pin2 = 9; // pin 15 on L298D IC

char state;

void setup()

mg90.attach(servopin); // attaches the servo on pin 9

pinMode(LDR1, INPUT); //Making the LDR pin as input

pinMode(LDR2, INPUT);

mg90.write(initial_position); //Move servo at 90 degree

delay(2000); // giving a delay of 2 seconds

// sets the pins as outputs:

pinMode(motor1Pin1, OUTPUT);

pinMode(motor1Pin2, OUTPUT);
pinMode(motor2Pin1, OUTPUT);

pinMode(motor2Pin2, OUTPUT);

// sets enable1Pin and enable2Pin high so that motor can turn on:

// initialize serial communication at 9600 bits per second:

Serial.begin(38400);

void loop()

int R1 = analogRead(LDR1); // reading value from LDR 1

int R2 = analogRead(LDR2); // reading value from LDR 2

int diff1= abs(R1 - R2); // Calculating the difference between the LDR's

int diff2= abs(R2 - R1);

if((diff1 <= error) || (diff2 <= error)) {

//if the difference is under the error then do nothing

} else {

if(R1 > R2)

initial_position = --initial_position; //Move the servo towards 0 degree

if(R1 < R2)

initial_position = ++initial_position; //Move the servo towards 180 degree

 }

mg90.write(initial_position); // write the position to servo

delay(100);

//if some date is sent, reads it and saves in state

if(Serial.available() > 0){

state = Serial.read();

// if the state is '1' the DC motor will go forward

if (state == 'F') {

digitalWrite(motor1Pin1, HIGH);

digitalWrite(motor1Pin2, LOW);

digitalWrite(motor2Pin1, LOW);

digitalWrite(motor2Pin2, HIGH);

// if the state is '2' the motor will turn left

else if (state == 'L') {

digitalWrite(motor1Pin1, HIGH);

digitalWrite(motor1Pin2, LOW);

digitalWrite(motor2Pin1, LOW);

digitalWrite(motor2Pin2, LOW);
 }

// if the state is '3' the motor will Stop

else if (state == 'S' ) {

digitalWrite(motor1Pin1, LOW);

digitalWrite(motor1Pin2, LOW);

digitalWrite(motor2Pin1, LOW);

digitalWrite(motor2Pin2, LOW);

// if the state is '4' the motor will turn right

else if (state == 'R') {

digitalWrite(motor1Pin1, LOW);

digitalWrite(motor1Pin2, LOW);

digitalWrite(motor2Pin1, LOW);

digitalWrite(motor2Pin2, HIGH);

// if the state is '5' the motor will Reverse

else if (state == 'B') {

digitalWrite(motor1Pin1, LOW);

digitalWrite(motor1Pin2, HIGH);

digitalWrite(motor2Pin1, HIGH);

digitalWrite(motor2Pin2, LOW);