PHILOSOPHY REVIEWER

© angelica garcia

HUMAN FREEDOM AND SELF-DETERMINATION

 Self-determination is the ability of the self to decide and choose for itself. However this is based
on the condition that one does not allow others to decide for him or her or choose or think for
him or her. Self-determination entails being able to decide for one’s self and being able to be
what one really wants to be.
 For Wojtyla, self-determination is the ABILITY to MOVE from the “I can” and “I need not” to “I
WANT” or “I WILL.”
 The latter phrase is an expression or decision coming from the acting person.
 People are sui juris or the master of themselves because of self-determination, self-possession,
and self-governance. (St. Pope John Paul II)

Two Aspects of Self-Determination

1. Self-Possession
 It means a calm and self-assured command of one’s feelings, faculties, and behavior.
2. Self-governance
 It is a personal conduct which refers to a larger scale of activity.
 It also means self-rule.

Theories on Determinism and Libertarianism

1. Determinism
 Determinism maintains that every event in the universe, including every action of a human
being, is the predictable consequence or result of an antecedent or prior causes. A
person’s actions are products or previous events.
 For instance, waking up every morning and sleeping at night may appear to be one’s free
choice. In reality, it is determined by rising and setting of the sun. Another, a person’s
choice of a career has already been determined by the resources he or she has in order to
go to school.
 Determinism denies a person of his or her sense of freedom. Since things naturally follow
their ends, one’s actions and behavior have already been determined by past actions and
are constantly influenced by external factors. His or Her personality is within the normal
course of nature and because of this, free will cannot exist.
 Also called “casual determinism”
 This means that events within a given structure or model are bounded by a certain
causality or by prior state or system.
 2 Kinds of Determinism
a. Soft Determinism (Compatibilism) – non-metaphysical concept
b. Hard Determinism (Incompatibilism) – metaphysical concept
 DETERMINISM is philosophical and metaphysical theory which claims that everything that
happens happen for a reason or some (pre-) condition/s.
 These (pre-) conditions relative to the given situation which are considered
determinative of an event.
 The opposite of Determinism is Indeterminism.
 Determinism is often contrasted with Free Will.
 2. Libertarianism
 Maintains that people have freedom. It believes that people can look forward to the future
and there are many possible things that could happen. Whatever course of action one
takes or decision one makes one will not be inconsistent with what happened in the past.
 When people think of the future, they can imagine many different possibilities and none of
them are logically inconsistent with what happened before. The possibility or chance is a
real factor in things.
 It is a philosophical (and legal) term which means the exercise of freedom.
 It rejects any form of determinism and deterministic position.
 It includes the primacy of individual liberty, political freedom, and voluntary association.
 It advocates minimal supervision or no supervision at all.

Freedom
 Our nature as human persons is not fixed like objects. We have the capacity to choose and
determine our actions and our self. We can choose within the limit of our finitude how we will
act and live.
 We are totally free; we are not determined by our past. Our own personality is our own future
project or creation and therefore we are totally responsible for what we do to ourselves.
 Absolute freedom means nothing is simply “given” and since nothing is “given,” decides
whatever we make of ourselves. But his does not mean that we are free to do anything we like
it; it means that we are free to do whatever we believe we can and actually do.
 In simple terms, freedom is an ontological capacity to make our own choices unconstrained
by some factors in any given situation.
 Constraint includes the following but not limited to physical, social, metaphysical, or
mental limitations

Challenges
 When can we say that we are fully free to choose?
 Existential Problem: Conflict between freedom and determinism
 Existential Question: Are the two theories compatible or irreconcilable?

Freedom as Self-Determination
Freedom as self-determination is based on two things:
1. First, people are the efficacious agents or doers of the act. People are the agents who perform
the act and therefore, have the capacity to determine their own action. Nobody therefore
can will, choose, or decide for them.
2. Secondly, people are free because they are not compelled by external objects. They can
detach themselves from the influence of the external object.

Existentialist Notion of Freedom

 Existential freedom means WE are the source, originator, efficient cause, and in control of our
destiny.
 ABSOLUTE FREEDOM means NOTHING is simply “given”, since there is NO “given” situation.
 REALITY is created (invented) whatever decisions we make for ourselves.
 We are NOT determined by our past lives since we are TOTALLY free to shape or determine our
(present) actions.
  To be FREE means to be FULLY RESPONSIBLE for our actions.
 It rejects any form of deterministic, genetic, metaphysical, and mechanical position and
structure of reality.
 AUTHENTIC existence means ACTING responsibly.
 AUTHENTICITY means embracing FULL responsibility in all our decisions.
 AUTHENTIC freedom means ABSOLUTE responsibility.
 It also means rejecting or avoiding to live or to be led by the rule of the “masses” or by the
“they.
 The attempt to label other people only serves to deny other people of their freedom.
 In existentialism, BAD FAITH is a phenomenon whereby human beings UNDER PRESSURE from
social forces ADOPT false values and DISOWN their innate freedom. Thus, one lives
inauthentically.
 It also means self-deception and resentment.
 In bad faith, people see themselves as products of their circumstances, or the attempt
to identify themselves with their past choices while closing off future possibilities.

HUMAN INTERSUBJECTIVITY
 Human existence is coexistence. (Marcel)
 Intersubjectivity, in a general sense, refers to the basic feature or element of one’s human
existence and of being a human person interrelated with other human persons.
 One’s existence is characterized by the fact that there are other human individuals aside from
him/her; that he/she is not alone in the world; and that he/she is related with other people.
 Relationships should be personal.

Instances of Intersubjectivity
1. Fulfilling promises: promises are not 4. Remaining steadfast in relationship no
made to be broken. matter the circumstances
2. Truly committed 5. Constant communication
3. Not egotistic 6. Being faithful, persevering, dutiful

Intersubjectivity and Dialogue

 “Man is by nature a social animal; an individual who is unsocial naturally and accidentally is
better beneath our notice more than human. Society is something that precedes the
individual. Anyone who either cannot lead the common life or is so self-sufficient as not to
need to, and therefore does not take part of the society, is either a beast or a god.” (Aristotle)
 People exist and live in a society and that they related and depend on one another for their
needs.
 One’s existence as being with others is much deeper than any object being side by side with
other objects.

Basic Tenets
1. Human Person is not a solitary subject but lives with other humans.
- There is an “other,” a “thou,” or a fellow human being.
- There are other people around with whom one relates.
2. The World is not a private world but a social world and a human shares this world with his/her
fellow humans.
 - This social character of the world and the social or relational character of human existence
cannot be separated from one’s essence as a human person. The human person is also a
being-with-others.

Intersubjectivity and its Dimension

 The basis of one’s intersubjectivity is the fact that as a human person, he/she is not a solitary
subject who exists by himself/herself in the world.
 The world is experienced by the self as being inhabited by other selves, as a world for and of
others. (Schultz 1664, 20)
 Intersubjectivity can be understood either as a personal relationship between 2 subjects, I and
Thou, where the thou could be a fellow man or a Supreme Being; or as an impersonal
relationship between the individual subject and an anonymous crowd or social group.
 Two Dimensions:
1. Interpersonal (I and Thou) – a person-to-person relation bound by personal or subjective
interests. The relation is more intimate, it goes beyond simply sharing of resources or
material things, or of common social interests. (Ex: Friendship, Parent and Child
Relationship, Marital Relationship between husband and wife)
2. Social – involves the person and many relations bound by common activities, objectives, or
social interests. It could be very casual.
 There could be a shifting in the dimension of relationship. (Ex: From social to
interpersonal – from simply classmates to becoming close friends)
 Personal relations are much more intimate and profound because they go beyond mere
social interaction or relation. Because of such nature, Jewish existentialist philosopher Martin
Buber referred to personal relations as a “dialogue.” (Ex: Relation in School, Church, and
Neighborhood)

Notion of Dialogue
 Signifies the life of the relation. (Buber)
 Not limited to a human and a fellow human. It is also between a human and a
Supreme Being, or between a human and nature.
 Real relationship with other human persons is possible only in terms of a real relationship
with the Supreme Being. This means that the human relation is grounded on a relation
with the Supreme Being.
 Three kinds of Dialogue:
1. Technical Dialogue – focused on objective understanding. Always relies on spoken or
written language and requires one to be attentive to what the other is saying. The
common goal is to understand the subject matter. (ex: conference, meeting, lecture or
class discussion)
2. Monologue – speaker is not focused on the other person whom he/she speaks to or
communicates with. The person speaking is only focused on himself/herself and what
he/she is saying. From time to time, the person speaking may ask the other person whether
he/she understands what is being said. The flow of communication is one-sided.
3. Genuine Dialogue – two parties involved are focused and pay attention to each other.

Solipsism
 From the Latin adjective “solus” meaning alone and the Latin pronoun “ipse” meaning self
  The ideology that only one’s own mind is sure to exist.
 Solipsists contend that knowledge of anything outside one’s own mind is unsure, hence there is
no such thing as objective truth, and nothing about the external world and its workings can
actually be known.

Descartes: The Problem of Solipsism

 The problem with Descartes is that he can always be assured that he himself exists, but the
problem is he cannot be certain that other human beings also exist or in reality they are just
fabrications of one’s own mind.

Buber’s I-Thou: The Dialogic Principle

 Our meaning comes from our connectedness. The extent to which we are disconnected is the
extent to which we feel meaningless.

Types of Human Relations

1. I-It
- Person to thing or subject to object
- Involves some form of utilization, manipulation, control and domination.
- Persons are considered as objects, things, tools, and instruments. They are taken
advantage of.

2. I-Thou
- Person to person or subject to subject
- A relation where there is acceptance, sincerity, concern, dialogue, and care.
- It is characterized by mutuality, kindness, directness, presence, and intensity.

Interhuman Elements (Being, Personal making Present, Unfolding)

 Based on I-Thou relation
1. Being
- “To yield seeming is man’s essential cowardice; to resist it is his essential courage.” (Buber)
- According to Buber, an essential problem of dialogue is the duality of being and seeming.”
Being Seeming
 Honest  Pretenders (conceal their real selves)
 Totoong Tao  Plastik
 “proceeds from what really one is”  “proceeds from what one wishes to seem”
 Do not wear false appearances or masks,  Too concerned about the appearance
deal with others in spontaneous way, and and impression that they make upon
live in the light of truth.” others.
 Establishes authentic and honest personal  Is a threat to genuine dialogue
relation and communication

2. Personal Making Present

- Another essential element for the development of genuine dialogue is the affirmation of
the other as a person and as a unique personality.
- Confirmation means the acceptance of the other person as a bearer of his/her own
personal beliefs, ideas, and convictions.
 - The I enters into a personal relation with the other: the other becomes “personally present”
to the I.
- The I confirms the other as an existing unique being even while the I opposes him/her.
- Making the other present means “imagining the real” (i.e. to imagine what the other
person is wishing, feeling, thinking, and perceiving – imagine if you are in his or her situation)

3. Unfolding
- The other person has his/her own potentials and capabilities. All he/she needs is to
recognize, develop, and actualize these potentials.
- The development and actualization of these potentials happen through a relation where
one person become the “helper of the actualizing forces” who believes in his/her
capacities and who does not need to impose himself/herself on him/her.
- Example (Politician and Educator)
 Some politicians act like propagandists during elections. They try to impose their will and
interests on others. They employ all sorts of methods and schemes to influence others
 A true educator is confident that the other i.e. his or her students, will grow and
develop. He/she believes in the basic potential of every human person.
Unfolding Imposition
 The other is helped in realizing his/her  The other person is being forced to take
ideas and thoughts. opinions, ideas, points of views, whereby
 Helps others realize that they can do this the other feels that the result of his/her
or that. acts or decision came out due to
influences outside of him or her.
 Dictates others to do this or that.

Fidelity and Availability

 Gabriel Marcel is one of the so-called intersubjective Existentialist philosophers because one of
his main ideas is about intersubjectivity. For him, human existence is coexistence.
 Intersubjective or interpersonal relation is characterized by fidelity, presence, hope, and
availability, among many other notions.

Fidelity, Constancy, and Presence

 To relate with a fellow human person is not only to recognize him/her as a person and respect
him/her as a unique subject.
 Genuine relation is anchored on commitment, constancy, faithfulness, and availability.
(Gabriel Marcel)
 In ordinary language, fidelity is usually associated with faithfulness, and faithfulness is related to
commitment.
 Constancy may be understood as perseverance in attaining a certain goal or purpose. It may
also be understood as immutability or being unchangeable.
 Fidelity requires more than just constancy over time; it implies another element, which Marcel
refers to as presence.
 Presence is when someone doesn’t fail you and stands by you no matter what the
circumstance or situation may be. Constancy can be applied to others and to one’s self but
presence applies to a thou.
  Fidelity can be understood as constancy; one is faithful is he/she can show his/her constancy
or fidelity through his/her presence. But fidelity as constancy should not be based on
obligation or duty but on spontaneity; it is not coercive but freely directed to the other person.

Creative Fidelity
 Is committing to somebody over time even if it is possible that things and personal dispositions
may change in the future. It means that despite this, one does not question one’s
commitment or fidelity.
 A commitment or promise implies that he/she will not question one’s future state of mind or
disposition. To be creative is to engage in acts of love, admiration, and friendship.
 To exist is to love, to admire, and to relate with others.
 Also related to availability.
 To be available is to believe in the other, to place one’s self at the disposal of the other
person.
 Creative fidelity means being open to the other and to the influx of the presence of the
other.
 Availability that relates to fidelity is spiritual. One need to relate with his/her fellow
human beings with openness and humility, and one should not be detached,
egocentric, or obsessed with his/her daily affairs.

Unavailability
 An inner inertness that consists of the inability to respond to an appeal.
 An available person, on the other hand, is prepared to be receptive of such appeal.

Notes:
 Intersubjectivity arises when one recognizes the other as a somebody, not as a something. It
blossoms when one discovers the deep and individual quality of another person.
 Intersubjective relations draw the human person to an experience of the self as a being-
among-things.
 A genuine intersubjectivity is established when both the I and the thou are open to each other
as persons. It reaches the spiritual, personal, through creative fidelity and disponibilite.
 Disponibilite – availability
 Remember: “To relate with a fellow human person entails more than awareness and respect.
Genuine relation is anchored on commitment, faithfulness, constancy, and availability.”

Participation and Community (Keypoints from the Book)

 Participation is more or less the same as having a share or part in something.
 For Wojtyla, participation is not only a form of interaction; it is related to one’s
experience of acting together with other persons.
 Intersubjectivity is experienced through acting together for a common purpose.
 Participation is not just interaction; it is related to one's experience of acting together with
other persons. This acting together with others is a basis of intersubjective relation. Thus,
intersubjectivity is experienced through participation.
 When people act together with others, they consider a common purpose as a good that is
common to all—the common good. Without the recognition of the value of the common
 good, the members of the group will not work or act together. This dynamic unity of the
members because for the common good is what defines the community.
 There are certain authentic attitudes of participation such as solidarity and genuine opposition
and non-authentic attitudes like conformism and non-involvement.
 The community is the foundation of society. The basis of the community is the participation of
the personal subjects or individual members, and if this participation disappears, the
community disappears with it.
 There are two dimensions of human community. These are the social dimension and the
interpersonal or interhuman dimension. In the social dimension, the participation in the life of a
social community is signified by the relationship we. In the interpersonal or interhuman
dimension, the participation in the humanness or humanity of the other person is signified by
the relationship I-thou.
 In the I-thou relation, there is reflexivity. When one relates with another person, he/she is not
only aware of the other person; he/she also becomes aware of himself/herself. So through
one's relation with the thou, the other person, one gains a fuller experience of himself/herself.
In the I-thou relation, the subjectivity of the I is confirmed; the I affirms his/her own personal
subjectivity.
 The I-thou relation becomes a full experience when it is reciprocal. Reciprocity means that the
/ must become a thou for the other I and vice versa. As one regards the other as his/her thou,
the other must also regard the other person as his/her own thou. In the reciprocal I-thou, there
is a reciprocal revelation of one's own subjectivity or self. This reciprocal revelation entails
mutual acceptance and confirmation of each other.
 The we relationship indicates the social dimension of the community. The we refers directly to
the multiplicity or plurality of persons. This is a communitas (social community). The existence
and action of the different persons in the we relation are directed toward the fundamental
value of the common good.
 The interpersonal and social dimension of intersubjectivity is related to one's understanding of
the meaning of "neighbor" in relation to "fellow member”: Being "neighbors" means
recognizing the humanity or the human personhood of the other as more than being a
member of a social community. Every human person is a neighbor as long as one recognizes
his/her humanity or personhood. Every human has an inherent value independent of his/her
being a fellow member, and this is his/her value as a person, as a neighbor.

HUMAN PERSON AND THE SOCIETY

 Society is an essential element in understanding the human person. (A social being)
 Basic agent in the formation of a social character.
 Focuses on nature of human society, the origin of society, types of society and relationship
between the human person in society.

Notion of Society
 A social system of interrelated mutually dependent parts that cooperate to preserve one’s
community and to satisfy some purposes or goals.
 A higher order collectivity with cultural, political, economic family systems.
 Composed of human individuals who organize themselves and share some things in common
whose goal is to order self-sufficiency, harmony, and progress.
Classifications of Society (Gerhard Lenski)
1. Hunting and Gathering – earliest form of society that relies on hunting wild animals and
gathering uncultivated plants for subsistence.
2. Horticultural or Pastoral – society that relies on cultivating plants through the use of simple tools
like wooden implements and on raising animals for subsistence.
3. Agrarian or Agricultural – a more advanced society that relies on cultivating plants through
the use of more advanced metal tools and weapons for subsistence.
4. Industrial – modern society that relies on the use of machine technology and inanimate
sources of energy for subsistence.
5. Post-Industrial and Virtual – most advanced form of society that relies not only on machine
technology but also on digital technology.

Origins of Society
 According to Plato and Aristotle, society is a natural institution given that man is a social and
political animal.
 For Aristotle, reproduction and self-preservation are the two basic reasons why people form
societies. And stages in the formation of the state or society are as follows: family, village, and
state.
1. Family – first stage in the formation of the state or the society. (Aristotle)
2. Village – when several families unite and come together to form a bigger group in order to
meet the bigger needs of the families.
3. State – a natural society that has attained self-sufficiency, full independence, self-
government, and exists for the betterment of human life.

Socialization and Social Agents

 Although society is a natural institution, our social behavior is not inborn.
 We behave as human beings by associating with fellow human beings.
 By associating, we mean relating, accepting, and developing ourselves based on social norms
and values of our group.
 The social agents that contribute to the social progress, namely: family, peer group, school,
culture.

Development of the Human Person and Harmonious Society

 There is a constant interplay between the individual person and the society. (Erich Fromm)
 A society’s customs, beliefs, norms, and values play a significant value in social development
particularly in two ways: assimilation and socialization. These two ways are not instinctive; they
are our response to the peculiar circumstances of life.
 Assimilation – we acquire and assimilate new things
 Socialization – we react to people.
 One great example is the ancient Chinese civilization through the lenses of Confucianism seen
in Lun Yu (The Great Learning) with its 8 steps:
1. The investigation of things 5. The cultivation of the personal life
2. The extension of knowledge 6. The regulation of the family
3. The sincerity of the will 7. Natural order
4. The rectification of the mind 8. World peace
 Goal: To form a harmonious world where man and society are well developed and adjusted.
  According to Kong Zi, the harmony of individuals rests on several basic human virtues
1. Jen (humaneness)
2. Yi (righteousness)
3. Li
4. Zhi
5. Xin
 Doctrine of Mean – moderation as a guide to human action. (Confucius) Rectification of the
names – every person has a rank, name, or title and everyone must be true or faithful to it by
doing the responsibilities attached.
 Centrality – state of equilibrium of our mind before our feelings are awakened.
 Harmony – state after our emotions have been awakened.
 In society, centrality and harmony being together means complete concord in human
relations.
 Confucius proposed that society should be governed by men of virtue.

Human Virtues and the Ideal Society

 Each person aspires for excellence. Hence, we slowly form virtues
 There exists a direct relation of human virtues and the society

Virtues as Human Excellence

 Habits (mannerisms, vices, virtues) – “habits are good virtues, the proper or right way of doing
something.” (Aristotle)
 Mannerisms – habitual or characteristic way or manner of doing something, usually
bodily movements.
 Vices and Virtues – certain actions that have the quality of being morally bad and
good.
 Human virtues = Human excellences
1. Intellectual Virtues – excellences of one’s rational faculty and may be further divided into
philosophic and practical wisdom. It results in the contemplation and understanding of
theoretical or speculative truths and the discovery of the rational principles that ought to
control our everyday actions.
2. Philosophic Wisdom – purely theoretical and achieved by understanding the unchanging
structure of reality.
3. Practical Wisdom – rational understanding of how to conduct one’s daily life.
4. Moral Virtues – concern the habitual choice of actions in accordance with rational
principles. It is the right disposition to make the right decisions and take prudent action.

Virtue as a State of Character and the Mean

 3 elements of human personality: passion, faculty, and character.
 Virtue, as a state of character, is being a ”morally good person” = right actions + right habits +
reason = mean
 “Virtue is a state of character concerned with choice lying in a mean, that is the mean relative
to us, this being determined by a rational principle and by that principle by which the man of
practical wisdom would determine it.” (Nichomachean Ethics)
 When is right, right? “It is determined by a rational principle that is determined by the man of
practical wisdom.” (Aristotle)
  Life should be in conformity with reason.
 Human happiness can only be attained through the cultivation of virtues that make human life
complete.

Ideal Society or State

 Virtues are not only personal excellences but also that of society.
 In the Republic, Plato illustrates what an ideal society is: “unity and consistency in all different
parts” (e.g. guardians, soldiers, artisans)
 An ideal state is not only a collection of individuals but an organic whole composed of people
who have their own duties.
 The state is necessary and useful because it aims to create order and provide protection in
human affairs. The philosopher-king should rule so that reason may prevail.

CHINESE PHILOSOPHIES
 Chinese Approach: more social

TAOISM
 Taoism revolves on the idea that the whole universe follows universal and unchanging laws
(Law of Nature).
 Taoist philosophy recognizes that the universe already works harmoniously according to its
own ways.
 Emerged as opposition to Confucianism
 Ideas later blended with Confucian Ideas
 As a person exerts his or her will against or upon the world, he or she disrupts the harmony that
already exists.
 Taoism holds out a vision of the other transcendental world of the spirit.
 There is the “Tao” that helps us understand nature.
 “The Tao that can be talked about is not the true Tao. The name that can be named is not the
eternal Name.”
 Tao means the truth, absolute, nature, the encompassing, the principle, the pervading reality,
the universal law, the universal pattern, the way, the right path, the way of nature, etc.
 The way of Nature and the way of Dao (Absolute) is one. The way is always still, at rest and yet
everything is done.
 The enlightened human associates the Tao with spontaneity and creativity; he/she frees
himself/herself from selfishness and desire and appreciates simplicity.

Core Beliefs
1. Respect for Nature: Live in harmony with nature rather than try to control it.
2. Governments are unnatural and the cause of many problems.
3. Reject conflict and strife
4. The Yin Yang (symbol of Taoism): represents a balance between opposing forces in nature.

The Way of Tao as Guide in Society

 Tao means “way” or “path”
 More social approach
 A social Tao (“way”) guides us. Tao is the way, a guiding behavior from a social point of view.
  Dao De (“ethics”) means ways and virtues. Dao is public, objective guidance; De is referred to
as “virtue” and consists of the character traits, skills, and dispositions induced by exposure to a
Dao.
 De is the physical realization of Dao in some part of the human system – family, state,
individual.
 Virtue is gotten by internalizing a way or it may be inborn.
 Moral conduct, motives, behavior, judgment

Tao-Te Ching
 Doctrines of Taoism are contained in the book of Daode-Jing (Tao-Te Ching), a small classic of
about 2,500 Chinese characters distributed into 81 poems, and which is attributed to Laozi or
Lao Tzu.

Anti-Distinction View
 Lao Tzu says that the universe in a holistic view is perfect harmony, order, calmness, and
power. But when one separates things just to understand the part without knowing the whole,
pain, error, suffering, and chaos come in.
 Lao Tzu’s vision of reality is holistic and it encompasses the totality of the cosmos.
 He presents a sense of the ultimate and underlying great principle, rule, or cause of the “way
of all things.”
 He observes that the governing laws are not themselves changeable although things are ever
changeable and changing. The laws are called invariables or ch’ang.

The Activity of the Tao

 Among the laws that govern the change in nature or things, the most fundamental is that
which states: “when a thing reaches one extreme, it reverts from it.”
 Reversion of the action is Tao.
 “Functioning everywhere means far-reaching, far-reaching means returning to the original
point.”

Wu-Wei
 Action without action
 From the general theory which states that “reversing” is the movement of the Tao comes the
Wu-Wei Theory.
 “The way never acts, yet nothing is left undone.” (Dao De Jing)
 According to this theory, everything comes from the ultimate Wu or nothing which is the
unnamed or the invisible. The Tao consequently acts by non-acting.
 Wu may be translated as not have or without or nothing.
 Wei may be translated as do, act, serve as, govern or effort.
 Taken together, Wei-Wu-Wei would roughly be translated to mean, “to be by not being,” “to
do by not doing,” “to act by not acting,” or “action without action.”
 The paradox Wei-Wu-Wei could also mean “creative non-action,” “creative quietude,” “art of
letting-be” “the state of doing without doing,” or “the act is selfless or performing a selfless
act.”
 Can be understood as allowing things to grow and pass without any sign of effort and that
one must be such that the Tao may act through him or her without hindrance.
  Goal: Perfect equilibrium
 When someone exerts his/her will against the world, he/she disrupts that harmony.
 Man’s will is not the root of the problem. Man must place his/her will in harmony with
the natural universe.
 To follow the art of the Wu-Wei is to let nature take its course.
 If one has too much, they become harmful rather than good. If there is overdoing or if there
would be excessive activity, the result then may be worse than not having the thing done at
all.

Twin Forces of Yin and Yang

 The Tao gives birth to the One (Ch’i), The One gives birth to the Two. The Two gives birth to the
Three. The Three gives birth to everything. All things are held in yin and carry yang.
 The whole of nature consists of the continual interaction of these two opposing forces:
 Yin as the passive element while Yang as the active element.
 Yin is weak, negative, dark and destructive while Yang is strong, positive, light, and
constructive.
 The interplay of Yin and Yang represents the balance of opposites in the universe. When they
are equally present, all is calm. When one is outweighed by the other, there is confusion and
disarray.
 Tao is the unmanifest potentiality from which all manifestations proceed.
 The way of the Tao is universal and since a person is a part of this universe, he or she therefore
must follow the way of the Tao.
 Human as part of the universe must understand the invariable law of nature.
 The man who comprehends the “invariable” and relies upon it for his action does not follow
his own partial opinion and therefore without prejudice.
 “Mastering others is strength; mastering yourself is true power.” (Lao Tzu)
 The understanding and practice of invariable law is called practicing enlightenment.
 The enlightened man associates the Tao with spontaneity and creativity; he frees himself from
selfishness and desire, and appreciates simplicity.

Sage
 He does not show himself, yet he is luminous. He does not justify himself, yet he becomes
prominent. He does not boast himself, yet he gains merit. He does not brag, yet he can endure
long.
 Humanity is the best attitude of a sage.
 He does not interfere, he just let things be. He follows the Wu-Wei and to follow the Wu-Wei is
not to be passive but to conform to the Law of Nature which is the Law of the Tao working
through its powers.

Tse Ran
 Literally means “naturally,” “of itself,” or “spontaneous”
 Letting things work on their own with minimal to no intervention.

Po
 Literally means “a kind of tree”
  It signifies a virgin block or a tabula rasa, an uncarved block that is full of potentiality and it is in
itself infinitely possible.

Wu Ming
 Means “namelessness,” without a distinguishing feature, which name can be frequently used
to describe the absolute Tao.
 The Tao that can be named is not the eternal Tao. The Name that can be named is not the
eternal Name. Namelessness is the origin of all things.

CONFUCIANISM
 Centered on the proper conduct of a person in society.
 Cultivation of human virtues.
 Roles rather than rules
 Confucius bases his exploit normative system on roles. He does not assign a normative
value to persons apart from their social relationships. All our duties are duties of our
station towards other socially described persons or things.
 Confucius strongly opposes the rule of law. He objects to the tendency of punishment. He’d
rather have social education – modelling of name use and role performance.
 The basis for normative relations among people is social role relations, not some bare rational
agency.
 Confucius was a founder of the Ju School – a school of literati. As Ju-literati, he is a scholar
well-versed in the arts like charioting, archery, history, numbers, music, and rituals. He authored
The Analects, a compilation of philosophical and political beliefs.
 Confucius wants his disciples to be more than a literati. He wanted them to be well-rounded
men.
 The fundamental concern of the Confucian tradition is learning to be human.
 Confucius used most of his life to teach and help students solve problems.
 “to educate despite all their social status”
 “to teach according to the student’s characteristics”
 Confucius also created effective teaching methods and proper studying techniques
 “Studying without thinking leads to confusion; thinking without studying leads to
laziness.”

Virtues
 Jen (Ren) – benevolence  LI – propriety
 Yi – righteousness  Zhi (Chih) – wisdom

Jen/Ren
 Fundamental virtue of the Jun Tzu.
 Generally means human-heartedness
 Ultimate Foundation of Confucianism: “The essence of all virtues and the ground of human
dignity.”
 Ren expresses the ideal of cultivating human relations, developing human faculties, cultivating
one’s personality, and upholding human rights.
 First and foremost of the virtues in Confucian ethical system
 Perfect virtue and is the cardinal principle of humanism
  The man of Jen is a man of virtue; for the Jun Tzu, is the supreme virtue.

Yi
 Or righteousness
 “Let a ruler be a ruler; a minister, minister; a father, father; and a son, son.”
 Zheng Ming – rectification of names
 “Oughtness of a situation”
 Concept of Yi is one that upholds conduct
 Is the highest principle embodied in the activities of mankind
 Everyone in the society has certain things which he or she needs to do, but this one has to be
done without ulterior motives.
 A righteous act is done without any selfish motive or intention; it implies an obligation or an
imperative which is absolute and without conditions.

Li
 Propriety
 Translated as code or ritual
 Includes all forms of rituals especially in connection with the proper conduct of a gentleman.
 Pertains to proper social behavior or conduct like filial piety, loyalty, etc.
 Sets the form of “moral life” and the “proper ritual of a civilized life”
 Aided by Ren for one to show concern for others.
 “Li does not go down to the common people; punishment does not reach up to the Great
Prefects”.
 Da Ren (superior man) vs. Xiaoren (inferior man)
 Propriety vs. the rule of law
 If one has Yi, then it will be easy for him/her to practice Li. Hence, a “perfect man” exemplifies
these virtues.

Zhi
 Wisdom must be transmitted through action, specifically through moral action.
 What use is knowledge if it is not put into practice?

Reciprocity
 The Golden Rule/Reciprocity – “Do unto others what you wish others to do unto you.”
 But for Confucius: “Do not do unto others what you do not want others to do unto you,”
or “What you do not desire, do not effect on others.”

Sageliness within and Kingliness without

 Sageliness within accomplishes spiritual cultivation.
 Kingliness without functions in the society.
 The ideal should know what is right and correct, and apply these in society.

Jun Tzu or Confucian Gentleman

 The sage is the most ideal type of person, but not everyone can become a sage like
Confucius. Aware of this fact, Confucius encouraged his followers to become a Jun Tzu.
 A Jun Tzu is second only to the sage.
  A Jun Tzu lives in simple life and can live in poverty. He is loyal, obedient, and knowledgeable.
He is also disciplined, hardworking, and does not engage in empty talk.
 “A gentleman is kind, but not wasteful; he burdens, but he does not embitter; he is covetous,
but not greedy; high-minded, but not proud; stern, but not fierce.” (Confucius)

Jun Tzu vs Xiaoren

Jun Tzu Xiaoren
 Literally means “gentleman” or “perfect  Literally “small person”
man”  Means petty in mind and heart, narrowly
 Combines the qualities of a saint, scholar, self-interested, greedy, superficial, and
and gentleman materialistic
 Moral guides to society

Remember: The community is necessary for this self-transformation to occur. It broadens and
deepens the self, expressing the fundamental integration of all segments of our world.