Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
This manuscript has been reproduced from the microfilm master. UMI films
the text directly from the original or copy submitted. Thus, som e thesis and
dissertation copies are in typewriter face, while others may be from any type of
com puter printer.
In the unlikely event that the author did not send UMI a complete m anuscript
and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if unauthorized
copyright material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion.
UMI
A NEW DESIGN APPROACH AND FEA MODELING FOR IMPERFECT
DISSERTATION
By
Vasin Kisiogiu, M.Sc. M E.
* * * * *
Approved by
Dissertation Committee;
Gary L. Kinzel
Mechanical Engineering
UMI Number; 9994889
Copyright 2 0 0 0 by
Kisiogiu, Yasin
All rights re se rv e d .
UMI
UMI M icroform 9994889
C opyright 2001 by Bell & Howell Information a n d L earning C om pany.
All rights reserved. This m icroform edition is p ro te c te d ag ain st
u n authorized copying u n d e r Title 17, United S ta te s C ode.
Yasin Kisiogiu
2000
ABSTRACT
(DOT) usually contain hazardous materials in storage and transport as well as in service,
and they are manufactured in compliance with the requirements o f the DOT regulations.
The DOT rules prescribe the manufacturing and testing specifications along with size,
type, service pressure (SP). test pressure (TP), name, and definitions o f the materials for
the cylinders used for the transportation o f hazardous materials in commerce. The DOT
commercially filled and used in industrial, commercial, consumer markets, and medical
To date, very little research regarding the physical and mechanical design aspects
o f DOT specification cylinders has been conducted. The goal o f this research was the
Specifically, the objective o f this study was to develop a new design approach to
improve the first design success rate o f the imperfect end-closure for the DOT
engineering) approaches. This will lead to improved design methods for the imperfect
11
end-closure component o f these cylinders. Problems with the imperfect end-closures
The first objective o f the research was to identify the material properties including
weld zone properties and shell thickness variations including weld zone thickness. Also,
the burst pressures (BP) and burst failure locations (BFL) o f the non-refillable cylinders
element analysis (FEA) simulations using the measured physical and mechanical
properties of the materials. The BP and BFL obtained in this research have complied with
The second goal of this research was to predict and eliminate the physical
phenomena, such as ballooning and buckling (flip-flop), which occur at the bottom end-
closiu-e and cause the cylinder to lose the stable bottom platform o f the DOT specification
cylinders. In order to predict the ballooning and buckling phenomena, both experimental
and FEA modeling approaches are employed within material non-linearity and
geometrical non-imiformity conditions. A new design o f the end-closures for the DOT
specification cylinders have been developed to eliminate these problems, and the
computer code.
Ill
Dedicated to;
My parents, my parents in-law, my wife Ayse Serap and my children, Betul and Merve
for all their love and support
IV
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Thanks Allah IGod) Almighty. 1 express my deep gratitude and sincere thanks to my
advisors Prof. Jerald R. Brevick and Prof. Gary L. Kinzel for their support, guidance, and
encouragement throughout this research and for their enthusiasm for improvement and
their thrust and patience in working with me. I also wish to thanks my committee
members Prof. Jose M. Castro and former committee member Prof. Mohammad
Pamianpour their valuable assistance, helpful suggestions and corrections.
I wish to thank my sponsors. Turkish Government and Kocaeli University for their
financial supports. I also would like to thank to the cylinder manufacturing company, and
especially engineering director, who have provided valuable information necessary to
complete this work.
I would like to thank to my parents, Ayse and Saban, parent-in-law, Birsel and Ilhan, my
wife Ayse Serap, my children. Betul and Merve, and all my brothers and sisters for their
love, encouragement and continues support. God bless them, I love them.
I also would like to thank all people who, in my life, taught me something and helped my
personal and academic growth.
VITA
PUBLICATIONS
VI
2. Yasin Kisiogiu, F. Mendi, and J. R. Brevick, “Deformation Analysis o f Boring Bars
using both Analytical and FEA Approaches,” ANSYS 2000 Conference, Pittsburgh,
August 2000.
4. F. Mendi, A. Taskesen, and Yasin Kisiogiu, “Computer Aided Shaft Design and
Selection of Rolling-Contact Bearings Using an Expert System,” The Society for
Computer Simulation, accepted in September 2000.
FIELDS OF STUDY
VII
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
ABSTRACT.......................................................................................................................... i
DEDICATION..................................................................................................................... iv
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS............................................................................................... v
VITA....................................................................................................................................... vi
LIST OF TABLES............................................................................................................... xii
LIST OF FIGURES............................................................................................................... xiii
NOMENCLATURE............................................................................................................. xvii
CHAPTERS:
1. INTRODUCTION................................................................................................... l
1.1 Introduction.................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Motivation for the Research.......................................................................... 4
1.3 Scope and Objectives o f Research................................................................ 8
1.4 Outline of the Dissertation............................................................................. 11
viii
2.4 Design Rules for Perfect End-closures......................................................... 26
2.5 Design of the DOT Specification Cylinders................................................ 28
2.5.1 The DOT-39 Non-refillable Refrigerant Cylinders..................... 30
2.5.2 Design of DOT-4B A Propane Cylinders...................................... 37
2.6 Design for Pressure......................................................................................... 40
2.7 Technical Background o f Thin-walled Pressure Cylinders...................... 40
2.7.1 Specifications o f the Thin-walled Cylindrical Shells................... 44
2.7.2 Stresses in Thin-walled Cylinders................................................. 45
2.7.2.1 Longitudinal Stress......................................................... 49
2.7.2.2 Circumferential (Hoop) Stress........................................ 49
1.1.23 Principal Stresses.............................................................. 50
2.7.2.4 The Maximum Shearing Stresses.................................... 50
2.7.3 Elastic-Plastic Stress Analysis o f Cylindrical Sells....................... 53
2.7.3.1 Elastic Stress-Strain Analysis............................................. 54
1.1.1.1 Plastic Stress-Strain Analysis............................................. 55
1.1.3.3 Elastic-Plastic Failure Analysis........................................ 58
2.7.3.4 Failure Modes for Pressure Cylinders............................. 59
2.7.3.5 Instability o f Thin-walled Pressure Cylinders............... 62
2.7.3.6 Instability o f Pressure Cylinders in Recent Studies 66
2.7.4 Membrane Stress Analysis for Cylindrical Shells......................... 68
2.7.4.1 The Relationships o f the Stresses, Strains, and
Displacements..................................................................... 69
2.7.4.2 The Equilibrium Equations for Thin Walled
Cylindrical Shells.............................................................. 72
2.7.4.3. Axi-symmetric Loaded Cylindrical Shells....................... 74
2.7.5 Discontinuity Stresses...................................................................... 76
2.8 Dilation of Pressure Cylinders....................................................................... 81
2.9 Design of the End-closures............................................................................. 81
2.9.1 Stress Analysis for the End-closures................................................ 83
2.9.1.1 Ellipsoidal Heads............................................................... 83
2.9.1.2 Torispherical Heads........................................................ 87
2.9.2 Instability Pressures for the End-closures........................................ 89
2.9.2.1 Toripsherical End-closures................................................. 99
2.9.2.2 Ellipsoidal End-closure.................................................... 100
2.9.3 Design Equations for Elimination o f Instabilities........................... 101
IX
3.5 Effects of Carbon Content on the Mechanical Properties............................ 110
3.6 Design for Manufacturing................................................................................. 116
3.7 Manufacturing Processes o f the DOT Specification Cylinders.................. 120
3.7.1 The Blanking Process.................................................................... 120
3.7.2 The Deep Drawing Processes........................................................ 121
3.7.3 The Welding Process...................................................................... 125
3.8 Investigation o f Material Properties.............................................................. 127
3.8.1 Cylindrical Drawn Shell Properties.............................................. 127
4.8.2 Weld Zone Properties..................................................................... 129
3.8.3 Actual Drawn Shell thickness Variation....................................... 138
4. INVESTIGATIONS OF THE BP AND BFL.......................................................... 140
4.1 Modeling o f Bursting Test for the DOT-39 Refrigerant Cylinders 140
4.2 Experimental Modeling of the Bursting Test................................................ 141
4.3 Computer-Aided Modeling o f the Bursting Test.......................................... 140
4.4 Material Nonlinearity..................................................................................... 147
4.5 Selection o f Axisymmetric Finite Shell Element..................................... 148
4.6 Axisymmetric Boundary Conditions.......................................................... 149
4.7 Development o f Non-linear FEA M odeling.............................................. 152
4.7.1 Development o f Uniform Axisymmetric FEA Modeling 153
4.7.1.1 Nonlinear Homogenous Axisymmetric FEA M odeling... 154
4.7.1.2 Nonlinear Non-homogenous Axisymmetric
FEA Modeling......................................................................... 156
4.7.2 Development of Nonlinear Non-uniform
Axisymmetric FEA Modeling....................................................... 156
4.7.2.1 The Step Function.............................................................. 157
4.7.2.2 Wedge Function..................................................................... 162
4.8 Selection of Loading Conditions.................................................................. 162
4.8 Determinations of BP o f the DOT-39 Non-refillable Cylinders................ 170
4.10 Determination o f the BFL o f the DOT-39 Refngerant Cylinders 179
4.11 The BP Guidelines of the DOT-39 Non-refillable Refrigerant Cylinder... 185
REFERENCES.......................................................................................................................265
APPENDICES
XI
LIST OF TABLES
Table
Xll
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page
XVI
NOMENCLATURE
xvii
Mean flo w stress in the flange
cyj Mean flo w stress over the die radius
Longitudinal and tangential stresses
0'1.2.3 Principal stresses
(^r.âx Normal stresses
^rx.rO .x0 Transverse stresses
CTyp Tensile yield strength
^uts.u Ultimate tensile strength
True principal stresses
<X Flow/significant stress
S Shear strength o f the material
t Cylinder wall thickness
to Initial wall thickness
X Shear stresses
^oct Octahedral shear stress
'/act Octahedral shear strain
V Poisson's ratio
U, V, VV Translational deflections
X V lIl
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction
Pressure cylinders (vessels) are primarily leakproof containers o f fluids and gases.
Generally, they can be produced in any shape ranging from common milk bottles,
shaving cream cans, pop cans, automobile tires, or gas storage tanks, to the specialized
design o f pressure cylinders is to use existing design codes that have been developed by a
combination o f analytical methods and experience. These methods are usually based on
the material properties. The design criterion implicit in these codes is the prevention o f
the cylinder failure (e.g. bursting, buckling) under pressure loading conditions. The word
‘design’ includes not only the calculation of the detailed dimensions o f a cylinder, but
also the mode of failure, the method o f stress analysis and resulting stress levels, and the
selection o f material type and its environmental behavior. As a result in today’s cylinder
has to be well defined and considered concurrently with production methods and costs.
To minimize tooling costs, the trial-and- error stage o f the production process must be
1
eliminated or minimized. In addition to this, the operational components including safe-
hazardous materials, have been designed and manufactured based on the requirements o f
the Hazardous Material Regulations (HMR) to meet the specifications of the Department
gasses, and other liquid, non-liquid or vapor gas applications. They are manufactured to
The DOT-39 cylinders, approved by the DOT, are low-pressure cylinders (service
pressure < 500-psi (3.45-Mpa)), which can be commercially filled and used in industrial,
commercial, consumer markets, and medical applications. These cylinders shown in Fig.
1.1 are non-refillable and used for refrigerant applications by refrigerant producers and
packagers around the world and usually contain refngerant gases such as R12, R22,
R134A, R404A, R500 and R502. The refngerant cylinders, known as NRV (non-
refillable and non-reusable cylinders having capacities ranging from 15-lbs (6.8 kg.) to
50-lbs (22.7 kg.). The cylinders are also equipped with a non-refillable valve, one-way
The 4-series of the DOT specification cylinders addressed in this document are
4BA, and 4BW, which are also low-pressure cylinders. These cylinders shown in Fig.
1.2, mostly refillable and re-usable, are manufactured with seams either longitudinally or
circumferentially based on their type and capacity. The cylinder body and heads (ends)
are formed by a drawing or pressing process and each cylinder must be uniformly and
properly heat-treated (stress-relief) prior to tests. The heat treatment is performed after
the completion of all forming and welding operations. The cylinders are in either
service pressures of at least 225-psi (1.6-Mpa) and not over 500-psi (3.45-Mpa). Also,
welding procedures and operations have been employed and qualified in accordance with
pressures are conducted and used to control cylinder quality: 1) service (working), 2) test,
and 3) burst pressures. The service pressure (SP) also called as working (operating)
pressure is the pressure at which the cylinders are filled and used in industrial
applications. By the definition of DOT Code concerning the designing rules, the SP is
260 psi (1.8 MPa) for the NRV cylinder with inner diameter {ID) o f 9.5-in (241.3-mm)
and the shell thickness (/) o f 0.032-in (0.8-mm). The test pressure (TP), however, is the
pressure at which all cylinders have to be tested before being put in service. According to
the Code, the minimum TP should be 3/2 times the SP for these cylinders. The cylinders
have to be tested for any gas leak and any undesired permanent volume expansion due to
plastic deformation under TP. However, the burst pressure (BP) or failure pressure (FP),
is associated with the DOT-39 refrigerant cylinders only. Practically, the BP (or FP)
reflects the strength, and capacity o f the cylinders, is the maximum pressure a cylinder
can hold without bursting. In comparison, the BP is at least 2 times greater than the TP, a
fact that is supported by the experiment and computer aided modeling. In Chapter 4, we
will shed some light upon this point. On the other hand, after all forming and welding
operations done, the D 0T-4BA propane cylinder needs to be performed in bending test
instead o f burst tests before being put in services. Since the D 0T-4BA cylinders are
experienced to the heat treatment (stress relief annealing) in such a way ± a t the cylinder
material properties have been become homogenous. When the cylinder material including
weld zones being tested for bending test after the heat treatment process, the elongation
Currently, the surveyed literature does not contain any study covering the
problems that are specifically related with the DOT codified refillable/non-refillable
cylinders explained above. A majority of the studies in the pressure cylinder and vessel
analyses focus on failure and prediction of fracture by using analytical and experimental
methods. Most o f these studies consider uniform wall geometry and homogeneous
material properties for the cylinders subjected to either internal or external pressure with
mostly temperature effected. These studies are not usually related to predict the physical
closures were presented in the literature. Some o f studies were aimed to model elastic-
plastic analyses o f flat and/or torispherical heads by using FEM modeling. In this
literature review, due to some o f different cases, the studies mostly about thick walled
pressure vessels under external pressure and open vessels tmder internal pressure (such as
gas pipes) are not considered.
subjected to internal or external pressure with along temperature effects and tensile
and/or torsional loading conditions. Good accounts o f these can be found in recent
publications o f Jiang (1992-93), Jiang & Wu (1993), Tabiei & Jiang (1997), Boote et al
(1997), and Boyle et al (1997). In the case o f instability o f cylindrical shells, analytical
formulations are available for ideal shells with perfect geometry and specific boundary
conditions in [Bickell & Ruiz, (1967)], [Bednar, (1986)], and [Spence & Tooth, (1994)].
It is also important to predict the bursting pressure o f the vessels. Recently a few studies
has been done experimentally or theoretically by Tadmor & Durban (1995), Hill et al
(1995), Kieselbach (1996), Updike & Kalnins (1998), and Sun et al (1999).
In the modeling and analysis of the end closure o f the internally pressurized
cylinder case, the end closure have been analyzed in many studies for the failure by
elastic and/or elastic-plastic buckling, with wrinkles occurring around the circumference.
A number o f studies for the design and failure o f the torispherical and ellipsoidal end
closure subjected to internal or external pressure loading conditions have been recently
done experimentally and/or theoretically. Most o f these studies on the torispherical and
ellipsoidal end closures having elastic material properties and uniform thickness and
Valve-and-Tubing
System
Cylindrical Shell
i Weld Zone
Footring End-closure
Discussions with the manufacturer o f the DOT specification cylinders during the
research initiation phase indicated that, in spite o f the advances made in modeling and
understanding o f better design of the cylinders, the manufacturer primarily still needs to
improve and comply with their design specifications concerning the SP, TP, and BP in
qualifications of their products, such as the BP for each type o f cylinder series, and a new
design o f end closures to eliminate the undesired deformation o f the cylinders. Especially
from the expressions o f the manufacturer, when the cylinders are subjected to their TP’s,
undesired physical phenomena are primarily taken place permanently at the end closure
not an appropriate way to develop or acquire a practical system, obtained some o f the
(BP) and burst failure locations (BFL) and elimination o f the permanent physical
phenomena of the DOT specification cylinders. Their possibilities would not help them to
achieve substantial time, energy, and cost savings in cylinder design and determine
the company needs to support their product design by using the computer-aided modeling
and analysis for optimum design. To our knowledge, the company was not able to
and BFL for each type o f cylinder series to prepare a BP diagram. Also, the design o f the
8
phenomenon to fulfill the requirements of the cylinder during the services. Hence, the
brief objectives o f this study are generally to focus o f the following contents:
> Determination o f the BP and BFL for each types o f the DOT-39 non-refillable
refrigerant cylinders (see Fig. 1.1) using both experimental and computer aided finite
♦ Setup an experimental utility for the bursting test in the manufacturer’s facilities
and pressurize the cylinders hydrostatically until burst by filling with water,
> Prediction o f ballooning phenomena at the bottom and permanent volume expansion
o f the cylinder using both experimental and 3-D axisysmmetric nonlinear FEA
modeling approaches;
❖ Generate the dimple geometry and its location in the modeling process.
> Elimination o f the ballooning phenomenon at the bottom o f the DOT-39 refrigerant
♦ Use the 3-D axisysmmetric non-linear FEA model having nonlinear, non-
> Prediction o f the flip-flop (buckling) event at the bottom o f the D 0T-4B A refillable
propane cylinders (see Fig. 1.1) using both experimental and nonlinear FEA
modeling.
♦ Investigation o f the blank steel (SAE-1018) sheet material properties o f the end-
♦ Assuming there are no material change and thickness variation during the drawing
> Elimination o f buckling phenomenon at the bottom and nonlinear design analysis for
10
♦ Use the 2-D axisysmmetric non-linear FEA modeling to eliminate the buckling
(flip-flop) event,
pressure cylinder technology and analysis together with the results o f some experimental
current study on developing a computer-aided Finite Element Analysis (FEA) for the
design of pressure cylinder applications. A brief outlining o f the cylinders technology and
aspects o f the manufacturers' environment, objectives and scope of the current research
o f the design codes with a related literature reviews is given in Chapter 2. An extensive
properties and thickness variations including the weld zone properties o f the pressure
cylinders is also described in detail in chapter 3 as well. Also, the investigation o f BP and
the BFL for each type o f the DOT-39 non-refillable refrigerant cylinders using both
experimental and the computer-aided FEA approaches is given chapter 4. The plastic
11
instability and/or aspects o f bursting failure, nonlinear structural, stress-strain, large
deflection analyses, and elastic-plastic loading conditions are also explained in Chapter 4.
5. Chapter 6 provides a summary, the concluding remarks and contributions, and presents
12
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
persons. In this case, the design appears from the beginning o f the recognition and
identification o f a problem to the creation of an end result by taking definite action or the
creation o f something having physical reality [Bednar, (1986)]. The visualization o f the
needs to visually interpret drawings in order to recognize and interpret the drawing for
manufacturability [Waldron & Waldron, (1996)]. Also, The meaning o f the design does
not include only the calculation o f the detail-dimension of the cylinder, but also the mode
o f failure, the method of stress analysis and significance o f results, and the selection o f
material type and its environmental behavior. The design process can be explained and
interpreted in a different ways. For example, Bickell and Ruiz (1967) are pressure vessel
designers that use sequential approach and Shigley and Mischke (1989) use a parallel
approach are designers of mechanical components as shown in Fig’s. 2.1 and 2.2,
respectively.
13
The first step of the design procedure is to select all relevant information,
establishing a body o f design requirements for the pressure cylinders as seen in Fig. 2.1.
The necessary information includes in the first instance the functional and operational
requirements and limitations. Also, the requirements o f the Design Codes as listed in
Table A.l in Appendix A, can be considered because they usually cover the design o f the
various cylinder components. When the design requirements are established, the available
material selection should be considered. The specified Design Code, gives allowable
design stress for the materials selected, is used to dimension the main pressure shells
size and shape, locations of components, etc. Some o f these parameters may have to be
designed in collaboration with the design team but for the majority o f them, the pressure
cylinder designer is entirely free to act on the basis o f his/her own experience. On the
other hand, the operational requirements and limitations, imposed on the design o f the
pressure cylinders, are primarily divided into two groups. First group is the results from
the operation at the maintained loading conditions. The second group includes the
transient conditions that exist during a change in loading conditions, such as starting up
and shutting down. [Bednar (1986)], [Bickell & Ruiz (1967)], [Shigley & Mischke,
(1889)], and [Waldron &Waldron (1996)]. As a results, pressure cylinders generally can
field such as an example of three different pressure vessels used in different appliances
14
Functional
Requirements
Selection of Materials
Design
Codes Determination ofttie
Preliminary Layout
Fulfilment of
Design Requirements
Final D esign
Figure 2.1 : Step by step design procedure [Bickell & Ruiz, (1967)].
Recognition o fN eed
Definition o f Problem
JL
Synthesis
~ ~ T ~
Evaluation
Itcnmon
JL
Presentation
Figure 2.2: The engineering design phase [Shigley & Mischke, (1989)].
15
é
Figure 2.3: Three different engineering cylinders; spherical vessel for low-temperature
liquid gas storage (top), a 4000°F air heater vessel for space flight research (middle), and
16
2.2 Design Codes for Pressure Cylinder Technology
The scope and philosophy o f Design Codes (Rules) has developed to a more
advanced state over the years. Higher design stresses are being used and the latest
research literature is widely employed in design methods. In the engineering design o f the
pressure cylinder technology, there are many kinds o f codes/rules to regulate the
cylinders during the manufacturing and service processes. The multiplicity o f Codes for
USA, UK and Europe. The legal standing o f various national and international codes is
listed in Table A.l in Appendix-A. For example, in the USA, ASME Section V lll Boiler
and Pressure Vessel Code (ASME B&PVC); in the UK, the British Standard Institution
BS 1515 (or for End-closure BS 5500) Fusion Welded Pressure Vessels; and in Europe,
German Unfired Pressure Vessel Code. In most countries, the National Codes have the
force o f law and strict adherence to their rules is required. [Nishols, (1971)], [Bickell &
control, testing as well as design. It is worth bearing in mind that the design rules are
intended to guard against various modes of possible failure. In pressure vessel codes and
standards some o f these failure modes are more adequately covered than others [Spence
17
Bursting of cylinder/vessel wall.
Tearing at a discontinuity.
Corrosion fatigue.
Buckling,
The ASME B&PVC, Section VIII Division 1 & 2, gives rules that pertain to the
design, materials selections, fabrication, inspection, and testing o f pressure vessels and
their components. The Division 1 includes allowable stress, factor o f safety, factors o f
joint efficiency, brittle fracture, and fatigue. With few exceptions, the rules that cover the
alternative rules for the pressure vessels, and gives a choice to clients, manufacturers, etc.
[Farr & Jawad, (1998)]. The ASME B&PVC has been accepted for many years as the
standard for the construction o f safe boilers and pressure vessels, and is in progressive
18
and viable and important changes and additions are made when required [Chuse &
Carson, (1993)].
(1993) and Farr & Jawad, (1998) illustrate the various parts graphically or components of
a pressure vessel and the Code paragraphs those apply to each component as shown in
Fig's. A.l and A.2 in Appendix-A. Also, Table A.2 in Appendix-A lists the various
classes o f materials to be used in the design o f pressure vessels from the ASME Section
VIII Division 1, and additional helpful hints. The factors o f allowable stress and joint
efficiency, £y, (weld efficiency, stress risers) to be used in calculations for all sections and
head thicknesses are set forth in Code Par. UW-12 and Code Table UW-12 as shown in
Table A.3 in Appendix A [Chuse & Carson, (1993)]. The required joint efficiencies for
The criteria for establishing allowable stress in ASME Section V lll Part 1 are
detailed in Appendix P of ASME Section VIII Part 1 and Appendix 1 o f ASME Section
11 Part D. The allowable stress at design temperature, rd, for most materials is 1/3 less
than minimum effective tensile strength or 2/3 the minimum yield stress o f the material
for temperatures below the creep and rupture values. A summary o f the bases used for the
design stress, is shown in Table 2.1, but as the various criteria tend to be complex
some application has been done. In the table, the creep range is defined based on the
design temperature, Td, which is 300°C < 7]/ < 500°C is taken as below the creep range,
19
Basis o f Design Stress £7^
CODE
Below Creep Range In Creep R ange
ASME v m Division 1
1.6 1.67
To be
ASME v m Division 2 Specified
1.5
Table 2.1: Comparison of the design stresses (<%) among the well-known design codes
[Nichols, (1971)].
Pressure cylinders that are designed and constructed to ASME Section VIII Part 1
rules are required to pass either a hydrostatic test (defined in Par. UG-99) usually
preferred test method or a pneumatic test (defined in Par. UG-100). In accordance witli
the requirements o f all design Codes; the cylinders have to undergo a pressure test prior
to their acceptance. The hydrostatic TP at every point in the cylinder o f the ASME
Section V lll Part 1 shall be at least 1.5 times the maximiun allowable working pressure
{Pall) multiplied by the ratio o f the allowable tensile stress (%//) values at test temperature
20
(r,) divided by the maximum allowable tensile stress value at the design temperature {Td).
The TP varies from 1.1 to 1.5 times o f the equivalent design pressure (ED?) defined by
[Bickell & Ruiz, (1967)], as: EDP = P^, In this case, the maximum
allowable working pressure of each element is determined and multiplied by 1.5 and then
adjusted for the hydrostatic test. The lowest value is used for the test pressure, which is
adjusted by the test temperature to design temperature ratio [Farr & Jawad, (1998)].
The regulations for cylindrical shells in the ASME Section VIII Part I and Part 2
take into consideration internal pressure, external pressure and axial loads. The rules
assume a circular cross section with uniform thickness in the circumferential and
longitudinal directions. Design requirements are not available for cylinders with variable
thickness and variable material properties. According to the ASME Section VIII Part I
Par. UG-27; the required cylindrical shell thickness (/) under internal pressure (p) loading
shown in Fig. 2.4 can be defined as in Eq. (2.1) in the circumferential (hoop) direction
and in Eq. (2.2) in the longitudinal direction. Similarly, according to the ASM E Section
VIII Part 2 Par. AD-201 ; the required cylindrical shell thickness (t) can be identified as in
Eq. (2.3) in the circumferential (hoop) direction under internal pressure (p) and in Eq.
21
]T T T
P erpendicular
A rea on which
F_ a c ti
SECTION A-A
Figure 2.4: Internal loading and resultant forces o f the DOT specification cylinders.
p - ID
when ( p < 0 .3 8 5 -cx^„ ■Ej ) (2.1)
(2 • E ^ —1.2 • p)
p-ID
tt — (2.2)
■Ej -0 .8 ■p)
0 .5 -p ■ID + 2F
t, = when ( F < 0.25■p - ID) (2.4)
2 -W —0.5 • p )
22
2.2.2 The European Codes
The British Standard Institution (ESI) is currently the most advanced British Code
for conventional pressure vessels. Design procedures are given for all vessel components
including tube sheets, and "area for area’" is used as the nozzle reinforcement basis. The
scope of the BSl probably falls between those for the two divisions o f ASME Code
section Vlll, it requires more stress analysis then Division 1 but does not go to the extent
o f the analysis experiments of Division 2. Part 1 deals with carbon and ferritic alloys and
uses design stresses based on 1;2.35 o f the tensile strength or 2/3 of the 0.2% proof stress.
Part 2 deals with the austenitic stainless vessels and has essentially the same scope as part
1. On the other hand, the German Code consists of a series o f specifications; each one is
dealing with a specific design aspect. Design stresses are mainly based on a factor o f 1.5
applied to both proof stress and rupture stress and design procedure are given for typical
vessel components, although the scope is probably not so comprehensive as the Codes
mentioned above.
The scope o f the DOT Rules for the cylinders used for storage and transporting o f
the hazardous materials is defined by the Research and Special Programs Administration
23
qualification o f packagings used to transport hazardous materials in commerce, or
packagings certified under Federal Hazmat Law. The HMR, 49 CFR Parts 171-180,
containers subject to Federal hazmat law, including defining materials and methods of
construction, the frequency and manner o f inspection and testing, standards for cylinder
rejection and condemnation, cylinder marking and record keeping, authorizations for
This study deals with some o f the DOT Codified steel cylinders designated as 3 ,4
and 8 series, and 39 as defined in Part 178 Subpart C of the HMR. Specifically, the 3-
series and 39 cylinders are produced as seamless; the 4 and 8 series o f the cylinders are
produced with seams. These cylinders are marked to conform to applicable requirements.
For example, the markings have been applied in industrial applications for series 3: DOT-
3AA, D0T-3AAX, and D0T-3BN, etc.; for series 4: D0T-4B, D0T-4BA, and DOT-
4BW, etc.; for series 8: DOT-8 and D0T-8AL; and for 39 seamless: DOT-39 [49 CFR,
In considering the issue o f cylinder filling limits, RSPA also reviewed technical
authorize either a TP o f 3/2 times o f SP or 10% overfill for materials specified in 49 CFR
173.302(c). The hazardous materials information system database for incidents involving
marked cylinders, and the work currently is being done by the ISO and the United
compressed gas association's (CGA) proposal would increase the filling limit for most of
24
the new seamless DOT specification cylinders to that currently authorized for cylinders
CGA petitioned RSPA to change the TP from 5/3 times o f SP for currently
authorized DOT specification seamless cylinders to 3/2 times o f SP for newly constructed
DOT specification seamless cylinders. The most significant change is the marking o f
these specification cylinders with the TP instead o f the WP, since the DO 1 specification
cylinders have always been designed to the TP rather than the WP. Specifically, the stress
formulas used to determine the minimum wall thickness o f DOT specification cylinders
are calculated at the minimum the TP. In addition, the 3/2 o f the TP would result in a
calculated minimum wall o f barely 0.001-in (0.0254-mm) less for a current cylinder with
a 0.250-in (6.35-mm) wall minimum. The ASME and Europe (18 countries) use a 3/2 o f
design-by-rule. The basic idea of design by rule is that one the leading scantlings are
fixed in this way the designer simply obeys the rules laid down in the procedures for
specified components such as nozzles, heads, flanges, etc. Essentially it involves the use
o f formulae and rules to calculate basic shell thickness to keep nominal stress below o f
allowable design stress. Thereafter, component details are dealt with by strict adherence
to specific rules delineated in the standard. The design-by-rule approach has the great
benefit o f simplicity and consistency but has obvious limitations, which are immediately
25
apparent when loadings or geometries are encountered which are not covered in the
some extent in several national standards, is a more general approach based on specific
criteria associated with a full stress analysis. Essentially, design by analysis is based on
the idea that if a proper stress analysis can be conducted then a better, less conservative,
assessment o f design can be made then would otherwise be the case by the usual
The end closures on pressurized cylinders are usually dished ends o f torispherical
and spherical shape although sometimes hemispherical or ellipsoidal heads are employed.
Head selection is made on an economic and/or functional basis, such as boiler drums,
heat exchangers, oil or gas storage tanks, food processing industry, the chemical industry,
the nuclear industry, etc. The end closures can be manufactured by various manufacturing
segment technique.
According to the definitions o f the design rules for the end closures o f the
pressurized cylinders, the end closures are usually involved within constant or uniform
properties. For these reasons, these end-closures having similar constant design
reality, it is not possible to manufacture the heads in perfect conditions, which are
26
characterized in the design rules. The parameters used to define a particular torispherical
or ellipsoidal end-closure shapes are defined in BS 5500 Sec. 3.5.2.2 and in ASME
Section VIII Part 1 Paragraph UG-32 (d) and (e) [Farr & Jawad, (1998)] and by Galletly
& Moffat [in Ref. Spence & Tooth, (1994)]. In addition to this, the governing equations
for design o f the end closures in terms of pressure loading conditions are given in Article
1-4 o f Appendix 1 o f ASME Section Vlll Part I. Ihe Design parameters reproduced
from the codes for the ellipsoidal and torispherical ends-closures are shown in Fig. 2.5.
The thickness, /, internal crown radius, /?c, internal knuckle radius, J?*, and internal head
height, h are usually non-dimensionalized with respect to the outer diameter {OD) or
inner diameter {ID). The related limitations for these geometrical parameters o f the main
Figure 2.5: Geometry of perfect torispherical and ellipsoidal end-closures by Galletly &
Moffat [in Ref. Spence & Tooth, (1994)], and [Chuse & Carson, (1993)].
27
Eiid-Closures .^SME-Vin-i UG-32 BS 5500 S.3.5.2.2
1
/, 1 = 0 .1 7 -1 0 0.002 < — <0.08
OD
Ellipsoidal ^ = 0.25
ID , = 0.9-ID — >0.18
1 OD
Table 2.2: The limitations o f the end-closures based on the design rules.
geometries are referred to as shells, which are designed like tank containers with an end-
closure used to contain fluids (gasses and liquids). Generally, the DOT codified cylinders
are mostly designed and produced as cylindrical shell along with two-end closures to
complete and fulfill the requirements o f liquid containers. M ost common group o f the
28
DOT specification cylinders is shown in Fig. 2.6. As mentioned before, two types o f
these DOT codified cylinders, DOT-39 non-refillable refrigerant and D0T-4BA refillable
propane, have mainly been analyzed and designed in this study. Both of these cylinders
have usually been designed with the torispherical and/or ellipsoidal end-closure.
29
2.5.1 The DOT-39 Non-refillable Refrigerant Cylinders
The NRV cylinders have usually been designed thin-walled and manufactured in
different types depending on their inner diameters {ID) and associated wall thicknesses
(r). These cylinders may be made in three groups by their ID, such as 7.5-in (190.5-mm),
9.5-in (24l.3-mm), and 12-in t304.8-mm), which are shown in Fig. 2.7, are called by
their ID are ID: 7.5, ID: 9.5, and ID: 12. Each group o f these cylinders has different “f”
ranging from 0.02-in (0.508-mm) to 0.1-in (2.54-mm). According to the design variables
explained above. Table 2.4 is listing the nominal dimensions o f the each group o f the
NRV cylinders. Indeed, the "t'\ is the initial thickness {to) o f the purchased blank steel
sheet. On the other hand, the DOT specification cylinders have always been designed to
TP rather than SP. Especially, the stress formulas used to determine the minimum ’7” of
the NRC are calculated at the minimum TP. Consequently, the pressure specifications of
the most commonly manufactured cylinders used in industrial applications are given as
The components of the NRC (or NRV) mainly consist o f two semi-ellipsoidal
bottomed cylindrical shells, hermetic leak-stop valve and tube system. The NRV
bottomed cups, top and bottom shell components, as shown in Fig. 2.8, and the hermetic
one-way valve system as a component o f the NRV cylinder is illustrated in Fig. 2.9.
These two shell components are welded together at the middle circumferentially about
their axis o f rotation to form a NRV cylinder as shown in Fig. 2.10. Also, these cylinders
have a tubing-valve system, and a handle is welded at the top of the cylinders. In
30
addition, the cylinders have a pressure relief device placed on the top shell component as
The bottom shell component is designed with four small dimples located
symmetrically and circumferentially about the axis o f rotation shown in Fig. 2.10. These
dimples produced with a certain location and geometry on the imperfect ellipsoidal end-
closure. The location circumferentially and radius o f dimples are shown with Ri and Rd,
2.10. In the figure, some design variables are shown and designated as inner diameter
{ID), outer diameter (OD). minimum diametrical wall thickness (/), knuckle radius (/?*),
crown radius {RD. and length of the cylindrical shell (Z,). Based on the definitions o f the
ISO code, these cylinders are thin walled, t/ID < 1/40, and defined as shallow cylinders,
L/2 < ID [Bednar, (1986)]. Based on the DOT specifications, the minimum wall thickness
must be such that the wall stress (cr,,,) at TP does not exceed the yield strength o f the
finished cylinder-wall material. The stress calculation, for the cylindrical shell sections
T P - ilJ - O D - + 0 .4 -ID-)
O D ^ -ID '----------
31
ïrtiV .!.
JL
b ID 9 S 10 1Z0 I D
lOO 5 mm 241 3 mm 3 0 4 .8 m m
Figure 2.7: The three groups o f the DOT-39 non-refillable refrigerant cylinders.
32
t/ID t / Rc t / Rk t/L
C ylinder G roup I : /D = 7.5-in
0.0027 0.00332 0.0178 0.00179
0.004 0.00498 0.0267 0.00268
0.0063 0.0067 0.0356 0.00358
0.0067 0.0083 0.0445 0.0045
0.008 0.00995 0.0534 0.0054
0.0093 0.0116 0.0623 0.0063
0.01067 0.0133 0.0712 0.0072
0.012 0.015 0.08 0.0081
0.013 0.0167 0.089 0.00894
C ylinder G roup I : /D = 9.5-in
0.00211 0.00261 0.0136 0.0015
0.00316 0.00391 0.0204 0.00228
0.00421 0.00621 0.0273 0.00304
0.00625 0.00651 0.0341 0.0038
0.00632 0.00781 0.0409 0.004563
0.00737 0.00911 0.0477 0.0053
0.00842 0.01042 0.0545 0.0061
0.00947 0.01172 0.0613 0.0068
0.01053 0.01302 0.0681 0.00761
C ylinder G roup I ; /£> = 12-in
0.00167 0.00206 0.011 0.0014
0.0025 0.0031 0.0162 0.0021
0.0033 0.0041 0.022 0.0028
0.004167 0.005154 0.02697 0.0035
0.005 0.00618 0.0324 0.0042
0.00583 0.0072 0.03776 0.00489
0.00667 0.00825 0.0432 0.0056
0.0075 0.0093 0.0486 0.0063
0.0083 0.01031 0.053 0.007
33
Bottom Top
Shell Shell
SECTION A-A
SECTION A-A
Figure 2.8: Bottom and top shell components o f the DOT-39 refrigerant cylinders.
34
H e rm e tic d e s ig n
s e a ls c o m p le te ly
w ith m in im u m to rq u e
35
H andle
V alve & T u b e
System
T orispherical
H ead
P ressure R elief
D evice
T op S hell ^
C om ponent
W eld Z one
B ottom Shell
C o m p o n en t "
36
2.5.2 Design of D 0T -4B A Propane Cylinders
The D0T-4BA refillable cylinder used for storage and transporting o f propane
gasses basically consists o f one cylindrical shell, one end-closure, and valve and tube
system. The cylindrical shell is a torispherical bottomed drawn cylindncal cup using deep
drawing process as shown in Fig. 11(a). The end closure is also pressed a very shallow
end used to close the bottom of the cylinder as shown in Fig. 2.11(b). These drawn
components, bottomed cup and end-closure, are welded together circumferentially at near
bottom o f the cylinder to form a D0T4BA refillable cylinder as shown in the figure.
Also, these cylinders have a tubing-valve system, and a handle that is welded to the top of
the cylinders.
The physical design characterizations of the end closure of the propane cylinders
are shown in Fig. 2.11. From the figure, some design variables are shown and designated
as the ID, minimum end thickness (/), knuckle radius (/?*), crown radius {Re), and height
of the dished-end-closure {h). The relationships o f these design parameters o f the end-
h t
— = 0.24
ID Id
R-y K = 0.802
- ^ = 0.14
ID Id
37
W hen these relationships are compared with the limitations o f the design
parameters for the perfect heads listed in Table 2.2, they are not matching exactly.
However, the design specifications o f the D 0T-4BA ’s end-closure are very close to the
ellipsoidal end closure prescribed in the rules o f ASME V III-1. Based on these
comparisons, the end-shape definition o f the D0T-4BA propane cylinders can be defined
as "convex-end closure” as far as the pressure is concerned. For the convex-end closure,
the pressure is in contact with the outer surface o f the curved end o f the end/head as
shown in Fig. 2.11(b). Besides having non-standard design parameters, the end-cInsures
o f the D 0T-4BA refillable cylinders have non-uniform wall thickness and non-
closures o f the DOT-39 non-refillable refrigerant cylinders (shown in Fig. 2.8) have also
homogenous material properties as well. For these reasons, both types o f these end-
closures used to form o f DOT-39 and D0T-4BA specification cylinders are defined as
''Imperfect End-closures”. Based on the definition o f the DOT rules in Appendix-B, the
cylindrical shells must have wall stress, <t ,v , in terms o f the TP and outer diameter (OD)
r P - ( l .3 - 0 D '+ 0 .4 - / D ')
OD^ - I D' - ----------
38
A I
{
\
S E C T IO N A -A SECTIO N A -A
(a) (b)
Figure 2.11: (a): The D 0T-4BA refillable cylinder, and (b): The convex-end closure.
39
2.6 Design for Pressure
Design pressure {pu) is the pressure used to determine the minimum required
thickness o f each type of cylindrical shell component, and denotes the difference between
includes a suitable margin above the operating pressure (or SP), which is 10% o f the SP.
According to the Code definition, minimum p j i s 15 psi less than SP. The maximum
allowable SP is the maximum gauge pressure permissible at the top o f the completed
cylinder in its operating position at the designated temperature, room temperature for
DOT-39 cylinders. By the DOT Code definition, the required thickness as computed by
the Code formulas, which are given in Eq’s. (2.5) and (2.6). on the other hand, according
to the ASME rules, the minimum required shell thickness equations are specified in Eq’s.
from (2.1) to (2.4). The design thickness is the minimum required thickness o f the non
drawn circular steel sheet. The cylindrical shell must be designated to withstand the most
decisions and calculations to the design o f a vessels such that it will withstand the various
loadings applied to it and adequately perform the service required. The designer has to
40
consider how the desired shapes o f the vessels are to be designed and how these shapes
will perform under service loading. For this reason, the role o f engineering mechanics in
this part of design process is to provide descriptions o f the pressure cylinder parts and
pressure vessel details are listed in Table 2.5, organized in a fashion so as to highlight the
different aspects and considerations that may need to be into account. Table 2.6
summarizes the analysis side of design by highlighting the purpose o f the analysis. The
table is offered as a suggestion for a useful overall approach to pressure vessels design
which identifies the type of information that can be deduced from various levels for
analysis [Spence, in Ref. Spence & Tooth. (1994)]. Therefore, as mentioned before, the
pressure cylinders design and manufacturing viewpoint are usually designed within two
main shell components, cylindrical shells and end-closures. In the literature, the
cylindrical shells and the end-closures are usually designed and analyzed separately when
the end-closure and the cylindrical shell are not manufactured as a unique part as shown
in Fig. 2.8. In the application of D0T-4BA refillable propane cylinders, the components
o f the cylindrical shell and end-closure are manufactured separately as shown in Fig.
2. I I . In the case o f discontinuity stresses at the junctions o f cylindrical shells and end-
closure, these two shell components are sometimes analyzed together. Both cylindrical
unique part as seen in Fig. 2.8. were analyzed together. However, in the case o f DOT-
4B A propane cylinder illustrated in Fig. 2.11, the convex-end-closure was only analyzed
regardless considering the cylindrical shells because o f problem related with the
41
Component Details Considerations
42
Areas of study C oncepts Characterising param eter(s)/
criteria
Elastic stress Stress concentration Maximum stress (intensity), â(S)
analysis factors (SCF) Nominal o r m em brane stress, <r„
SCF = ô j o „
Plasticity First yield Yield pressure, Py
Shakedow n Shakedow n pressure (factor).
Limit load
Limit pressure, P\,
Cracked bodies LEFM (Linear elastic Stress intensity factor, K
fracture mechanics) Toughness, /(,c
GYFM (G ross Crack tip opening displacem ent
yielding fracture (CTOD), 6
mechanics) Critical CTOD, 6g
Fatigue Number of cycles (n) Number of cycles to initiation, /Vj
Crack initiation Number of cycles for
Propagation propagation, Afp
Cumulative dam age Cumulative dam age, ^ { n / N )
Time dependent Elastic analogy Steady-state stress, cr„
Reference stress Reference stress/displacem ent/
time,
Damage Damage parameters, %,w
Com binations Ratcheting Bree type diagrams. D am age
C reep/fatigue sum m ations, etc.
Fracture, etc.
Table 2.6: Pressure vessels design [Spence, in Ref. Spence & Tooth, (1994)].
43
2.7.1 Specifîcations of the Thin-walled Cylindrical Shells
The cylindrical shells are the most frequently used geometrical shape with two
as shown in Fig. 2.12. Based on the definition o f the shell theory, rotation o f a straight
line parallel with the axis of rotation develops the cylindrical shell as shown in Fig. 2.13
[Bickell and Ruiz (1967)]. For the case o f DOT specification cylinders, the meridional
(longitudinal) radius o f curvature o f the cylindrical shell, R l = ao, and the radius o f
curvature o f the cylindrical shell is the radius of the formed cylinder (tangential radius),
R, = R = 0.5-ID, as shown in Fig. 2.8. On the other hand, the end-closures o f the DOT
specification cylinders usually designed in two shapes, ellipsoidal and torispherical, have
two radii o f curvatures, R l and R,. For these reasons, these two components having
different design parameters including different thickness along with different material
For mechanical analysis, the geometry of thin walled cylindrical shells has to be
specified using the form of the mid-wall surface having a principal radius o f curvature
about axis o f rotation as shown in Fig. 2.14, and initially the same wall thickness at every
point. According to the principles o f the engineering strength o f materials, these cylinders
may be treated as thin-walled, because the wall thickness is quite small in comparison
with other dimension. That is; based on the definition o f ASME Code and the current
literature, the ratio o f the radius o f curvature, R = 0.5 */D, to the wall thickness T’ is R/t >
10. This also means that the tensile, compressive or shear stresses produced by internal
pressure in the cylindrical shells can be assumed to be equally distributed over the
44
wall thickness. In the case o f DOT specification cylinders, the ratio o f the radius o f
curvature, R (or 0.5 */D), to the wall thickness is varying in the range o f 37 < / / < 600,
their walls, which tend to failure or tear the wall of the cylinder. The stresses are
produced by the forces, which must be developed to maintain all parts o f the cylinder in
the wall o f the cylinder in order to ensure safety. The internal pressure o f the liquid or gas
contained in the cylinder acts perpendicular to the walls, uniformly overall the interior
across the wall is very uniform, and it can be assumed that all the material o f the wall
shares equally to resist the applied forces [Baker et al, (1972)], [Bull, (1988)], [Bickell &
Two separate stress analyses are shown here without considering the bending
stresses, which occur at jim ction o f cylindrical shells and the end-closure. In the first step,
the tendency for the internal pressure creates the force of F/., to pull the cylinder apart in
a direction parallel to its axis o f rotation is found. This is called longitudinal stress oz.
The second, a ring around the cylinder is analyzed to determine the stress due to F,,
tending to pull the ring apart. This is called hoop (tangential) stress, a,. These Forces F l
45
r
u
Figure 2.12: General shell vvith surface o f revolution [Faupel & Fisher, (1981)].
46
Axis of Rotation
M id
Point
SECTION A-A
Figure 2.13: Coordinate system and stresses for cylindrical shells under internal pressure
47
lo p P o in r Crown region
Knuckle Region
Mid-surface o f the
DOT-39 \
Cylinder
Middle o f th e
Cylindrical Shell
Middle
Point
48
2.7.2.1 Longitudinal Stress
axis of rotation to create a free body as shown in Fig. 2.4. In the figure, assuming that the
end-closure o f the cylinder is closed with a flat head, the pressure acting on the circular
area o f the end would produce a resultant force, F r, which is acting on a projected area,
Ap = K • r J , where (or 0.5-Dm) is the mean radius o f the shell as shown in Fig. 2.13.
This force must be resisted by the force, F l, acting on thickness area, in the cylinder wall,
which, in turn, creates a tensile stress in the wall. The wall thickness area o f the cylinder
is .-I,, = 7t-I - R„,-t. The areas o f .4,^ and Ap are shown in Fig. 2.15. Considering these
diametrical cross-sectional areas, /l^ and Ap, the force equilibrium equation, Fl = F r,
which can be written as: a, - R„, t = p - K - R j ' [Spence & Tooth, (1994)]. From
(2.7)
The presence o f tangential stress can be visualized by isolating a ring from the
cylinder is shown in Fig. 2.15. The uniform internal pressme pushes outward evenly all
aroimd the ring. The ring must be developed a tensile stress in the tangential direction to
49
the circumference of the ring to resist the tendency o f the pressure to tear the ring. The
magnitude o f the stress can be determined by using half o f the ring as a free body shown
in the figure. Therefore, the resultant o f the forces due to the internal pressure must be
determined in the horizontal direction and balanced with the forces in the wall o f the ring.
tensile stress in the wall of the cylinder is equal to the product o f the resisting force, F,, at
the cross-sectional area of the wall. In this case, the equilibrium equation for these forces,
Tooth, (1994)]. From which the circumferential (hoop. Tangential) stress can be written
as follows;
0 -, = (2 . 8 )
The principal stresses, o/ and o), for the thin-walled cylindrical shells subjected
to uniform intemal pressure are the same exactly defined as the normal stresses, a, and
revolution, the principal directions are in the same directions with the main axes o f the
50
cylindrical shells. The tensile stresses are acting on the cross-sections; that is, the cti is
shown in Fig. 2.16. Therefore, the principal stresses for the thin-walled cylindrical shells
are defined as; the 0 / is the circumferential (hoop, tangential) stress equal to the 0, and
The principal stresses are acting on the intemal face of the differential element o f
the cylinder wall as shown in Fig. 2.17. Since is very small then unity o f p (or 05)
is very small compared with 0 /, and 0 j, and then the effects o f the p ( 0 )) may be
neglected. The stress state in the cylinder wall approximates to a simple two-dimensional
system with the at and 0 j. Based on the different projection plane in 3-D cases, the
general, occurs on a plane at 45" to the tangent and parallel to the longitudinal axis o f the
cylinder can be obtained in the plane o f 0 / and p, which is given [Bickell & Ruiz, (1967]
(2.9)
51
Wall Area
on which
s 'm
Projected
area on
which
Fo acts
Figure 2.15: Cylindrical Shell-ring internally pressurized and hoop forces [Mott, (1978)].
Figure 2.16: Principal stresses and their directions for the cylindrical shell [Mott, (1978)].
52
Ptaneof\Ux.
Shearing Stress
Figure 2.17; Stresses acting on an element o f the wall o f a circular cylindrical shell with
component, strain is also very important. Strain, a second-order tensor quantity, is the
term used to define the intensity and direction o f the deformation at a given point with
respect to a specified plane within the solid body. Relationship between stress strain, both
in the elastic and plastic ranges o f behavior o f engineering materials, are important and
useful tools o f the engineering designer. Such relationships also form the basis for many
of the theories o f failure [Collins, (1993)]. The distinction between engineering stress and
strain compared with true stress and strain is important to recognize, especially when
machine components operate in the plastic range. Usually, when nominal material
53
properties are evaluated or specified, the concept o f engineering stress-strain are
employed. To provide a more accurate measure o f stress strain, the quantities true stress
and true strain have been defined and employed. True stress is the actual stress based on
the accrual area a corresponding at every instant to current value o f load. True strain is
associated with an instantaneous value o f gage length, which changes with increase in the
The linear relationship between stress and strain in the elastic range for
experimentally, which was first presented by Hooke and is known as Hooke’s law. The
Hook’s law is related to the normal or elongational strains to the applied normal stresses
through two constants. Young's modulus, E. and Poisson ratio, v [Case & Chilver
(1971)]. However, this relationship for 3D case can be deduced directly in terms o f
= - ^ k , - v ' - k : + o ’3 )] (2.10a)
g] = -^ k z ki (2.10b)
E
= -^ k i k (2.10c)
E
54
2.13.2 Plastic Stress-Strain Analysis
Since machine parts and structure are sometimes operated beyond the yield point,
it is important to investigate the stress-strain relationships in the plastic range where the
linear elastic relationships no longer are applicable. The stress-strain relationships in the
plastic region are not generally independent of time. Any exact theory o f plastic
deformation from the time the plastic flow was initiated. Such relationships would be
complex, involving the stress and the time rate o f strain, which is at any given time would
Two simplified theories, the proportional deformation and the incremental strain,
have been proposed for use in the plastic range. The proportional deformation theory is
actually a simplified case of the strain increment theory in which the ratio o f the principle
shearing strains to corresponding shearing stresses are assumed equal at any time during
the deformation. As long as, the temperatures are below the creep range and strain rates
are reasonable low, the proportional deformation theory yields relatively accurate results.
deformation theory, the following assumptions have been summarized and reproduced
• true strains remains parallel to the true stresses throughout the deformation,
55
shearing stresses are equal at any stage o f plastic deformation,
components of strain,
• the plastic flow assumptions and equations apply only for the case of
Using these assumptions, the equations to define the relationships o f the true
shearing strains (// ) with the true stresses ( 05) in the plastic range are given by Collins
poisson ratio. v= l/2. in Eq. 2.11. Similarly, the nonlinear stress-strain relationships in the
shear deformable finite-shell element are defined by Tabiei & Jiang (1998) in the matrix
2C.
ri=- (2 . 1 1 b)
2C,
/3 = 0-3 + 0 ":) (2 . 1 1 c)
2_
Eu
56
\7n ÛT, Gij
(2.12b)
1/23. 1 23 .
ûr-, - G-,
uniaxial tensile behavior (cr = k-0') requires the postulation o f a combined stress theory.
The best combined stress theory for ductile behavior is the distortion energy, or
octahedral shear stress theory. Accepting for now that the octahedral shear stress theory is
the most applicable to the region o f plastic deformation, the expressions for octahedral
shear stress, %, and octahedral shear strain, yo, heave been derived, respectively, by Nadai
With these definitions o f equations prescribed above, the plastic behavior can be
follows;
57
ô-, = • [ « ■ + p- + \ - a-P- a-pf ' "' ' ' ' " ■ . - ^ - 1 (2.15b)
9 9
vvnere:
a =^ and P =^
CT, cr,
aspect o f engineering design. The failure analysis deals with the determination o f the
causes of the failure of the components. In the broad and correct sense, the examination
of a failed component can be defined as the inability o f a part to function properly. The
purpose of the failure analysis is to define the mechanism and causes o f the failure and
usually to recommend a solution to the problems. One o f the most important causes o f
failures is the design errors, which are specified by the design processes, including size
and shape o f the part, material, and environmental properties. It is interesting that to
examine some information about the causes of failure o f the functional parts such as
improper material selection, faulty design considerations, fatigue failure, and inadequate
stress analysis. [Brooks & Choudhury, (1993)], [Ugural & Fenster, (1995)], [Bednar,
58
2.T.3.4 Failure Modes for Pressure Cylinders
tension test. When the structural shapes are subjected to simple tension tests, allowable
stress o f the material is related with tensile yield strength and ultimate tensile strength.
However, in order to determine the allowable design stresses for multi-axial stress
conditions, which occur in practice, several theories have been developed. Their purpose
is to predict when failure will occur under the action o f combined stresses on the basis o f
data obtained from simple tension test. Failure refers to either yielding or actual rupture
of the material, whichever occurs first. The state of stress in steady-state stress analysis,
which can exist in a cylinder body, can be determined by three principal stresses cti, o j,
and CT3 acting on it as shown in Fig. 2.16. All stresses are acting in tension so they are
positive. The relation between the principal stress values is cti> G2 > 03 [Ugural &
Fenster, (1995)], [Bednar. (1986)], [Harvey, (1963)]. In the case o f ductile material,
yielding occurs first and this is the basis o f failure theories for these materials. Therefore,
in the structural failure analysis, to interpret the determination o f material properties from
tensile test, the following most common failure theories with a brief definition have been
non-uniformity, depends on the service conditions, as well as the stress distribution and
the material properties. Failure by fracture, separation o f a material under stress into two
or more parts due to brittle material properties, leads to either elastic or inelastic
59
According to the octahedral shearing stress theory, failure occurs by yielding when the
octahedral shearing stress (toct) at a point achieves a particular value o f material yield
point, r„^., = 0.47 • . [Ugural & Fenster (1995)]. However, a material fails by
fracturing based on the Maximum Principal Stress Theory (MPST) when the largest
principal stress exceeds the ultimate tensile strength (Guts), |cr,|,or,|o-;| = [Collins,
(1993)].
criteria o f failure, which occurs in a stressed body when one o f the principal stresses
reaches the yield point value. = ±<7,,, [Harvey, (1963)]. [Ugural & Fenster,
(1995)], and [Collins. (1993)]. Maximum Shear Stress Theory (MSST), represented with
yielding in a cylinder occurs when the Maximum Shear Stress (MSS) becomes equal to
the MSS at yield point in a simple tension test, r = (cr, - cr, )/ 2. Likewise, the tmax in a
tension test is Tma.\ = (typ / 2. Considering the maximum Distortion Energy Theory (DET),
shown in Fig. 2.18 with ellipse shape, failure occurs at any point in the body, when the
distortion energy per unit volume in a state o f combined stress becomes equal to the
elastic yielding condition: (cr, - c r j ’ +(cr, - c r ^ f +(cr^ - cr,)' = 2cr^^. In addition, for
principal stresses may be used to determine yielding o f the material, the total strain
60
energy U = 0.5-a ■s . by using U = — (cr,‘ + cr,’ + )--^(cr,cr, + cr,cr] + cTjCTj ).
2E E
These are the most popular predictions o f failure modes in material’s and commonly used
in pressure cylinder design [Bednar, (1986)], [Harvey, (1963)], and [Bickel & Ruiz
(1967)].
/ y - M
--0.fi
- . 0.2
- 1.0
oa 0.4 0.6 0 4 /2 "
III
- 1.0
M N ST
M SST
DET
61
2.7.3.S In stab ility o f T h in -w alled P ressu re C ylinders
The preceding analysis has been made under the assumption that the material is
isotropic. Because pressure cylinders are internally pressurized, the onset o f plastic flow
is predicted in accordance with one o f two-criteria, the MSST and the MDET as
previously explained. According to both o f these criteria, the yielding begins when the
c r ,y , = • a/ [ ( ^ i - ^ 2 )■ + k , - )■ + k z - 0 - 3 )■ J (2 .1 6 )
In the case o f strain hardening material the uniaxial true stress and true strain
curves are represented by two expressions in the elastic and plastic fields, as shown in
Fig. 2.19. As it can be seen from this figure, these fields are defined as the large plastic
The stress analysis of thin shells o f revolution loaded in the elastic range is
straightforward. The states of stress and strain can be related to the actual load
[Timoshenko and Krieger (1959)]. At increased values o f load, there is a more or less
well defined point where the assumption o f elastic conditions is no longer valid and the
material will flow plastically. As the load further increase, the plastic region spreads over
the rest o f the shell until the elastic region either disappears or is insufficient to prevent
the plastic deformation o f the cylinder. The value o f the load (pressure) is called
62
bursting pressure. At present, the incipience of plastic flow is predicted in accordance
In case o f a strain hardening material as shown in Fig. 2.19, the uniaxial stress-
strain curves may be represented by two expressions: one valid in the elastic field, Eq.
(2.17a), and the other valid in the plastic field, Eq. (2.17b) so that the total strain is given
in Eq.. (2.17c). When large plastic deformations exist such as in the bursting o f the
cylinders, the elastic strain. Seiasttc, may be neglected. It is apparent, trom Fig. 2.19 that
plastic flow can proceed only under increasing values of stress. A simple geometrical
interpretation o f this behavior is to assume that the yield surface expands, without
altering its shape, when the strain increases. According to the von M ises yield criterion,
the effective stress and plastic strain can be defined in terms o f principal stresses and
strains in Eq's (2.18) and (2.19). Additionally, the plastic strain is defined as the
integration o f the plastic strain increments that are developed during the loading history
= (2-17a)
^ (2.17b)
63
ANSYS 5 , 3
True Stress-Strain Curve AUG 4 1997
o f SAE-1008 Sted 1 5 :0 5 :1 1
T a b le D ata
Plastic
44
1600 ' n = a /b
800*
2
True Strain (%'
Figure 2.19: Strain hardening, true stress-strain curve o f the SEA-1008 (AKDQ).
material under internal pressure can be defined as a function of effective stress and strain.
Because, the hoop, radial, and longitudinal directions are principal, the membrane
stresses in Eq’s (2.7) and (2.8) can be transformed to effective stresses. The hoop stress,
higher than the longitudinal stress, can be defined, for instance, as effective stress such
64
as; cr = 1.032 • ^ • e~ where the / and ID are used as constant or initial values. For
2 •t
instability to occur increased deformation must be possible without any increase in load;
that is d p / s = 0 . Then the instability condition for a thin-walled cylinder can be defined
thin-walled cylindrical shell under internal pressure is defined by Bickell and Ruiz (1967
in terms o f effective stress and strain as shown in Eq. (2.20), below. The effective stress
and strain as an input for this equation can be obtained from either PEA simulation or
analytical calculations. On the other hand, the BP for the torispherical end-closure is
found to be about 2 times that for a cylindrical shell [Bickell and Ruiz (1967)].
ttvilahihn ( 2 .20 )
The point o f the instability o f the cylindrical shells is reached when the true hoop
strain. Si, reaches a value of one-half the strain-hardening exponent o f the material. The
collapse pressure, pmax. required to produce instability was defined by Collins, (1993) in
terms o f initial thickness (/«) and initial diameter (Do) o f the shells including coefficient
o f strain hardening {k) and strain hardening exponent (n) [Collins, (1993)], as follows;
2k-t.
Pmax (2.21)
65
2.7.3.6 In sta b ility o f Pressu re C ylin d ers in R ecen t Studies
vessel and its relationship to burst test results has been analyzed. They proposed that the
bursts. A strength reduction factor is used to predict the BP. [Updike & Kalnins, (1998)].
By testing some cylindrical shells under pressure, they obtained the ratio o f the burst
pressure o f the test to the calculated pressure at a tensile plastic instability, expressed in
percent, ranging from 71% to 96%. From the comparison o f the test and calculated
pressures, the highest and lowest ratios o f the pressures occur for a pressurized shell with
Jiang has discussed and investigated the elastic-plastic response o f the thin-walled
tubes subjected to combine axial and torsional loads [Jiang, (1992)]. He used the
kinematic hardening model and obtained solutions o f exact closed-form for linear loading
path. The reaction of the material under non-proportional loading was proved to be path-
dependent and hardening behavior is shown to be different from the under proportional
loading conditions. In his other work, the yield condition for a material having residual
stress and strain is derived in the elastic-plastic case o f tubes subjected to variable loading
complex loading cases to achieve the solutions for the closed-form o f tubes.
combined internal pressure and axial load based on the kinematical hardening theory
66
were studied by [Jiang & Wu, (1993)]. They obtained the linear loading path for a closed-
form solution, and also illustrated how kinematic hardening rules describes the material
behavior under non-proportional cyclic loading based on the reaction of the elastic-plastic
behavior of the thin-walled tubes. On the other hand, Tabiei & Jiang (1998) developed
and analytical methodology for post-buckling o f laminated cylindrical shells under axial
and lateral pressure considering the nonlinear stress-strain relations for transverse and
shear modulus of elasticity. In their study, a user defined material subroutine program
(UM AT) was used in the commercial finite element software package, ,ABAQUS, which
To investigate the relationship between the collapse mechanism and the various
experimental tests on scale models has been carried out for thin-walled cylinders
subjected to external pressure by [Boot et al, (1997)]. In order to keep the instability
phenomenon in the elastic range, they selected the dimensional parameters o f the
specimens. At the same time, the numerical calculations simulating the experimental tests
have been performed using the FEM. They found a good agreement in comparison
Cheng & Firmie, (1985), obtained the stress intensity solutions for axisymmetric
cracks in thin-walled cylinders prescribed axial stress distribution from plane strain
internal circumferential cracks in several axial stress fields with numerical solutions for
axisymmetric cracks. Cheng & Finnie (1986), in their other study, described an approach
for cracked elements using the plane strain assumption to obtain the stress intensity factor
67
for a long axial crack In thin-walled cylinder based on the use of rotation and
displacement solutions. In this study, they found that the hoop stress distribution in the
prior cracked cylinder is arbitrary. With this approach, they also obtained the results are
in good agreement with numerical solutions for several hoop stress distributions.
In the case of elastic-plastic analysis o f thin walled cylindrical shells, the radial
to be small with respect to the wall thickness {Sr < t/2) and the maximum stresses remain
below the proportional limit when the cylinder material is elastic. The external load on
the cylinder surface due to internal pressure is acting perpendicular (radial) on the
cylindrical shell element on the body as shown in Fig. 2.13. Elastic shell elements resist
loads by means o f the internal stress resultants and stress couples, which are acting at the
cross sections of the differential element, as shown separately for clarity in Fig. 2.20.
Taking a differential element from the cylinder shown in Fig. 2.13, and applying
the boimdary conditions for the analysis, we can get the results o f the force applications
as shown in Fig. 2.20. Considering the external load components, radial P r , longitudinal.
P i, and tangential, P,, are acting on a differential element which is an axially symmetrical
shell. For uniform internal pressure P, P l = P , = 0 and P r = P as shown in the figure. From
the figure, the plane membrane stress resultants and Ng, are in tension and Nx» and
N qx are in shear planes. Neglecting the trapezoidal shape o f the element, Nxo = Nek, from
68
shells, the stress resultants of membrane stresses are N^e = N qc = 0 [Bickell & Ruiz,
(1967)].
Therefore, inmost practical cases the loads on a cylinder act in such a way that the
reacting stress resultants. Fig. 2.20, will be predominant and the small bending moment
terms and transverse shear forces so small that they can be neglected. Here there are only
two unknowns, N^, No, in case o f axisymmetric boundary conditions, which can be
determined from the equations for static equilibrium. Therefore, the main conditions for a
membrane stress analysis for cylindrical shells in axisymmetric conditions are explained
well in [Bickell & Ruiz, (1967)], [Harvey, (1963)], and [Bednar, (1986)].
The cylinder problem can be solved by approximating the state o f stress within
the cylinder wall to be two-dimensional. There are two types o f forces, which are
experienced by a volume of material within the cylinder wall. The first type acts on the
volume o f the material and is called a body force such as gravity and reversed mass
accelerations, but our case of cylinder problem does not have these body forces. The
second type of force, e.g. internal pressure, acts on the surface o f the volume and is
applied by the surrounding material [Bickell & Ruiz, (1967)], [Harvey, (1963)].
From Fig. 2.21, writing the Fx, Fy, and Fz as the components o f the body force,
F„, the equilibrium equation for the volume in Cartesian coordinate system, the
equilibrium equations for elastic stress analysis o f a general shell o f revolution (shown in
69
Fig. 2.12) can be re-written from [Bickell & Ruiz, (1967)] as follows;
(2.22a)
a. a, a„
(2.22b)
a. a. a.
(2 .2 2 c)
a, a, 6 ;
'XX
XX
Figure 2.20: Stress resultants on a cylindrical shell element [Bickell & Ruiz, (1967)].
70
Figure 2.21: Stress at a point. P. o f the cylindrical shell in Cartesian coordinates [Bickell
The position o f a general point of P within a cylinder (in Fig. 2.13) with internal
and external radii, n, (R = r) and the cylinder length. L, is determined by the values of
coordinates, cxpg (p, q = r. x. 9) and the deflections are vv, v, u parallel to the coordinate
axes as shown in Fig. 2.13. The equilibrium equation o f Eq. (2.22) can be re-written in
(2.23 a)
or ox ou
^ (r +% +^ k . J + r-F , =0 (2.23b)
dr ox ou
71
(2.23c)
ôr ox ou
The relationships between stresses and deflections for general cylinders without
/, s ÔW ÔV V ÔU
cr„ = (1 — y ) ' — 4- V * — 4---- - w + - (2.24a)
ôr dx r dU)
dw dv V du
= V ------ 4* (1 —I/) 4- — • w + - (2.24b)
(l + t / ) ( l - 2 i / ) dr ÔX r 'ôë)
dyv dv (1 - v) dll
V . ------ 4* V *---- 4*------------ VV+ - (2.24c)
(1 + y ) ( l - 2 w) dr dx r \ ~S0
du 1 dv
(2.24d)
—
dx r dO
dv dv
cr.. = (2.24 e)
2 (1 + k) dr dx
dll 1 dw
— II (2.24f)
2(1 + 1-) dr r Id
The solution o f Eq. (2.23) is long and complex so that it can be proceed for simple
conditions. The equation governing the shell behavior are obtained by writing the
equilibrium conditions between resultant o f the stresses acting on the shell element and
72
by establishing the relationships between these resultants and the deflections o f the mid
surface as shown in Fig 2.14. There are three forces but only two moment equilibrium
equations, because condition of torsional equilibrium about axis normal to the mid
The equilibrium conditions for thin walled cylindrical shell can be obtained by
drawing a diagram o f the shell element with the forces and moments acting on it as
shown in Fig. 2.20. On the other hand, the same equilibrium equations can be derived
from Eq. (2.23), adapting r = r + z where -t/2 < z < t/2, so that the force equilibrium
this, the moment equilibrium equations are obtained by multiplying the last two rows o f
Eq. (2.23) by z and integrating as before. Therefore, the equilibrium equation for thin
walled cylindrical shells can be wTitten as in Eq. (2.25) and the relationships o f the stress
(2.25a)
ox o&
— (2.25c)
ox ou
ox oO
r— + — Mgg - r - N ^ - 0 (2.25e)
ox ot)
73
E t dv
iV„ = r \-v w+ (2.26a)
\-v' r dx \ dd)
E t dv ( dii^
=
V r 1- \v + (2.26b)
l-v r âr
t du { dv^
r h — (2.26c)
r dx \d9 j
E-E 1 d'w
= — r- — — r (2.26d)
dx- dd-
(2.27a)
Ngy 12 r
(2.27b)
(2.27c)
As can be seen from Eq. (2.25), there are many unknown terms o f the stress
resultants, moments, and deflections when general loading is applied to the cylindrical
74
shells. To find these unknown terms, some considerable simplifications specifically valid
for our modeling conditions, can be used when the loading condition is symmetrical
based on the rotation axis o f the cylindrical shells. In this case, when the applied loads are
symmetrical about the axis of the cylinder, none o f the functions are dependent upon 6
and tangential displacement u is zero. In addition to this. There are two forces but only
one moment equilibrium equations, because the condition o f torsional equilibrium about
loading case. Under these circumstances the force equilibrium conditions o f equation can
follows;
(2.28c)
dx
bending couples in terms o f the mid-surface displacements for axisymmetric loading case
are as follows;
75
dv
= • r — + K-w (2.29a)
l- v r dx
dv
V r — + \r (2.29b)
\- v r dx
2 d'w
= (2.29c)
~d^
d-w
(2.29d)
1 2 -(l-v/-) dx-
When these equations. Eq’s (2.28) and (2.29), used for the stresses are given in
terms o f the stress resultants without temperature effect and if terms o f [/r are neglected
in the thin shell theory, the corresponding stress is derived by Bickell & Ruiz, (1967) for
p-r
(2.30)
different materials. If the individual shell components are allowed to expand freely as
separate sections under internal pressure, each such shell element would have an edge
radial displacement and edge rotation o f the meridian tangent that would differ from the
76
edge radial displacement and the edge rotation o f the adjacent shell component. Since the
shell elements form a continuous structure and must deflect and rotate together, at
junctions o f these differences in radial displacements and rotations result in local shell
deformations and stresses required preserving the physical continuity o f the shell
[Bednar, (1986)]. One such location would be at juncture o f the cylinders is not the same
as that o f the head when the cylinder is pressurized; hence, at the jimcture o f these parts
local bending takes place to preserve the continuity o f the cylinder wall [Harvey, (1963)].
Stresses induced by such interaction of two shell components at their jimction (an abrupt
discontinuity stresses. The discontinuity stresses themselves at the junction o f the shells
or shell elements due to changes in thickness or shape are not serious imder static loading
of ductile materials; however, they are serious under conditions o f cyclic or fatigue
mm 6, = R-. - I , /2
77
M eridional and circumferential membrane stresses (positive when tensile) at the
junctions o f two cylindrical shells having variable thicknesses are specified as follows;
IV
C T,= ^ (2.31)
h
+ v a. (2.32)
R,
outside) for the two cylindrical shells different thickness as shown in Fig. 2.22 can be
written as follows;
c r ; = - ^ (2.33)
where:
shells and is not creating load, (Pq) acting axially on the cylinder as shown in Fig.
2.20. Based on these definitions o f this case, the bending moments, M \ 2 , the shear
forces, N \ 2 , the radial deflections, ARa, loading terms, LTa,b, and some constant
78
iV, =0
AR_, 4 a, fC. wi • •
= •“ A
M, = p - r ^ - K , „
'-'.u '^H tt AB
K LT,-C,,-LT,-C,,
' .« fl« '- AB
C.t, =
2-D,-/i; 1-R,-D,-X\
r - ~ ^ i '^1 • ^ 1 "A
2-D,-/1-’ 2 -/ Î , -A-A;
a, - zr,
A- / I , 2 J(,.A 4
A T - 4 - ^ 1 ^ 2 - ^ 2 - ^ 1 I ^ | ( 4 ' - ^ 2 ) f « 2 - 4 4 r , '
cii —b.
LT,=E,ib;--b;)-\
4 • /?2 ■A • A y
A: '^.2
A.: =
1 2 - ( i - 1^,4)
^ 1.2 -
Case 2: The axial load. Pa, created by the uniform internal pressure is acting
79
axially on the cylindrical shells. However, there is no axial load on the left
cylinder, which has // thickness. A small axial load on the right cylinder, whose
thickness is r?, balances any axial pressure on the joint. For an enclosed pressure
case, the bending moments, .V/1.2, the shear forces, iVi.2, the radial deflections,
AR a , loading terms. LTa.b, and some constant numbers for the loading conditions
iV, =
1 - K- R,
AR^ =
;r- R:
R-, —R,
On the other hand, considering the combined loaded o f the thin walled cylindrical
shells, which is under both uniform internal pressure and axial loading conditions, the
shear force and bending moment terms for the continuity stresses at the juncture o f the
80
{2-y)p (c
-V, =
2 /?, ( c - + i y + 2 c '''( c + l)_
[2-v)p
iV /, =
4#' (c- + l ) ' + 2 c ' - ( c + l)
â E Z I
c c!
hoop strain in the cylinder wall from an axis through the center o f rotation and parallel to
a radius [Harvey, (1974)]. The radial deflection o f the cylindrical shell is shown in is
shown in Fig. 2.23. Therefore, the radial growth o f the cylindrical shell can be found by
(2.35)
Axisymmetric end element shapes of which are chosen on the basis o f fabrication
and strength requirements and usually used to close the pressure cylinders. From the
81
analyses suggest a higher contour for the head so as to result in a smooth membrane
stress transition from the end-closure to the cylinder. Also, bending effects should be
minimized at the juncture between head and cylindrical shells [Bednar, (1986)], [Soric &
Zahlten, (1995)], [Soric, (1990). (1995)], [Tafreshi, (1997)], [Tafreshi & Thorpe (1996)],
and [Stanley and Campbell. (1981)]. For these reasons, the joint efficiency between the
end-closure and the cylindrical shells, standardized by ASME Code, plays an important
role under these circumstances. According to the ASME Code, the required joint
efficiencies for various components o f the cylinder heads are indicated in flow-chart in
Fig. A.4 in Appendix A. As well as clearly outlining where the designer may find the
applicable joint efficiencies for various weld categories in ASME Code Section VIII,
Division 1.
82
The ASME Section VIII Part I and Part 2 contain rules for the design o f spherical
and toriconical shapes. The design rules for most o f these shapes differ significantly in
Part 1 and Part 2. This difference is due to the design approach used in developing the
equations for Part 1 and Part 2. The design rules for the perfect end-closures are
torispherical, is usually covered by the Design Rules by using the general equation in
terms o f the design parameters of the end closures [Bickell & Ruiz, (1967)], namely;
(2.36)
4-0-./
flange diameter; is the design stress; and m is the shape factor. The shape factor
depends on the ratio o f the outside height o f the head, ho, to its diameter, D.
The ellipsoidal head of the pressure cylinder, treated as separate components with
no restrains at edges under uniform intemal pressure, will be analyzed. The ellipsoidal
heads are developed by rotation of ellipsoid as shown in Fig. 2.24 [Bednar, (1986)].
83
According to the ASME B&PVC, the ellipsoidal head under intemal pressure the
following equations must be used when the ratio o f the major axis diameter, D=2R, to the
minor axis, A, is 2:1 (ASME S-VIII. Par. UG-32). For some reasons, the shape in
application can be approximated by a crown radius, Rc, o f 0.9 *ID and a knuckle radius,
Rk o f 0.17-/D as shown in the figure. The required thickness o f 2:1 heads due to pressure
on the concave side is given in Par. UG-32 (d) o f ASME Section VIII Part 1 as shown in
Eq. (2.37). Ellipsoidal heads with a radius-to-depth ratio other than 2:1 may also be
designed to the requirements as described in Appendix 1-4 o f ASME Section VIII Part 1,
shown in Eq. (2.38). The £) is a Joint efficiency factor [Bednar, (1986)] & [Chuse &
Carson (1993)].
P -ID
t= (2.37)
{2-a-E^ - 0 .2 .
P ■ID K
t= (2.38)
( I - ct- E , - 0 . 2 - p )
where:
/ ID
f 1
K =-- 2 +
6 V 2-h = 1 . 0 - 3 . 0
The main radii o f curvatures are defined in Fig. 2.24, such as the longitudinal
1/2
R'-h- ... \r*
= — 4- L 4 ' ■X- . On the other hand, from
Jl- ><-)
84
the figure, the tangential and longitudinal radii o f curvatures at point 1 can be defined as
R~ h~
R, = R, = — and at point 2 can also be defined as R, = — , and, R, = R. Since the
h R
longitudinal, R l (or Rc) and tangential, R, (or Rk), radius o f curvatures at point “a” on the
ellipse shape are variable gradually, so that the longitudinal and tangential stresses <
j l and
<7„ respectively, are also variable gradually. The stresses are the principal stresses, with
no shearing stress on the sides of the differential element. Therefore, the and cr,,
stresses at point 1 can be described as in Eq’s. (2.39) and (2.40) from the equilibrium
equation written for the section A-A in the vertical (axial) direction. Similarly, the at and
(Tl, stresses at point 2 can be determined as in Eq’s (2.41) and (2.42) from equilibrium
equation. Namely,
p-R-
0 -/. = (2.39)
2t - h
p - R, pR'
(2.40)
~ It ~ 2t - h ~
p •R
O’/. = (2.41)
~ ir
p ■R
O’, = 1 - (2.42)
2h-
R
As a result, if the ratio o f j- < 1 then the stress a, remains tensile; if the ratio of
2 • h ~
R-
- > 1 then the stress ex, becomes (negative) in compressive. However, the
2 A"
85
radial displacement. A/?, at a point 2 is positive when {RI h)~ + v < 1 , and negative
when ( / 2 / / z ) ' + V> 2 [Bednar, (1986)]. Based on these conditions, the radial
(2.43)
axis of
ro tatio n
knuckle ring
— i t = Q.5*ID — -
86
2.9.1.2 T o risp h erical H eads
section with radius Rk, and a spherical segment with crown radius Rc, as shown in Fig
2.25. The torispherical heads known as shallow heads which are commonly referred to as
Flanged and Dished heads, (F&D heads), can also be built to the rules o f ASM E Section
VIII Part 1, in accordance with Far. UG-32 (e). The most commonly used F&D heads can
be approximated by a crown (spherical) radius, Rc, o f 1.0*ID and knuckle radius, Rk, o f
0.06*ID as shown in Fig. 2.15. The torispherical heads with various crown and knuckle
radii may also be designed to the requirements o f ASME Section VIII Part I , so that the
governing equation for the required minimum thickness (t) is given in Appendix 1-4 of
P • Rf ■M
t= (2.44)
(^2 • O’ • EI —0.2 • p]
where:
1/2 ■
R ^
M =— 3+ (Rc] - ^ = 1.0 -1 6 .6 7
4 V.Rk / <Rk /
adequate head thickness t to code introduces an empirical correction factor M into the
formula for membrane stress in the crown region, to compensate for the discontinuity
87
stresses at the shell-head junction. Based on the Code formula for the required minimum
t= (2.45)
-Ej-0.2-p
where.
I':"
I
3 + r &i
3 ^& ,
p-R,
= 1 - (2.46)
'R. ^
(2.47)
4/ V y
88
•xii of ro ution
knuckle region
90"-
R=-O.STD
It • depth of dish
t “ corroded thickness Membrane pressure in the
sin ^ = (^ - r)/(L - r) knuckle o f a torispherical head
Common shapes that are used in practice include the 2:1 ellipsoidal and the
torispherical heads with a radii Rc = 2Rk. Such heads are used on large pressure vessels
for which the diameter/thickness ratio is relatively large (D/t > 700 in) difficulties are
can be explained on the basis of a simple stress analysis. For this typical use o f heads, the
circumferential compressive stresses o f the thin walled for both ellipsoidal and
89
compressive stresses, which obviously become dangerous in the case o f thin walled
structures, are responsible for such local buckling. Some o f the local buckling events
were predicted in many studies such as experimentally by Kirk & Gill, (1975) and Patel
& Gill, (1975) and numerically by Brown, (1976), Bushnell, (1977), Galletly, and
Kanodia et al, (1977), Tafreshi and on instability o f the ends studies by Soric, Galletly,
Bushnell using different material properties including aluminum, mild steel and cooper.
Figure 2.26 shows local buckling modes obtained by Bushnell & Galletly (1977) using
mild steel and aluminum specimens. The buckling modes were predicted and hoop stress
Similarly, the bifurcation buckling was investigated by Bushnell (1977) with use
nonlinearity. It was demonstrated that how nonlinear geometric and material behavior
pressure o f the end-closures under intemal pressure [Bushnell, (1977)]. His results for the
symmetric and nonsymmetric buckling events o f the end closures are shown in Fig. 2.27.
Szyszkowski & Glockner, (1987), found the membrane stress resultants in the
apex region are equal to maximum circumferential membrane stress resultants in the
cylinders. The membrane force distribution for both ellipsoidal and torispherical ends
was plotted as a function o f arc length as shown in Fig. 2.28. By correcting the end
profiles, the membrane force distribution for the buckle-free model was plotted as a
90
S K C IM C N w n
T— I r
i •0 2 s .
bu c x u n o
(U S « 3 1 .
i u
g& o
i-a u c x u N O
• 0 .4 - I (4 C J
-B U C X U N Q (4 A )
-0 6
I O '* /E
M U IO IO N M . p l a s t i c STRAW , (f t%)
T M tO R T
— FLOW
B U O a.lW (US * 3 ) TK O R T *T
I ' M S
B U C K L IN O (4 C
K -0 .4
d e f o r m a t io n
THEORY AT
, ' S .4 I
D E F O R M A T IO N T H E O R Y
AT , . 10 6
B U C K L IN O (4 A ) T O R O ID A L K N U C K L E - ----------- N * C Y l
d is t a n c e a lon g sh e l l r e f e r e n c e SURFACE
Figure 2.26: Predicted buckling modes for four Galletly's specimens, and meridional
hoop stress strain, b) Predicted buckling mode and hoop stress resultants distributions as
91
uo'
PVC SMELLS
E • (MSi 10* p»i
V«0.37
( a) DISCRETIZED MODEL
10 (^ /E • 24.5
"cr* *°
lO* p^/E ■ 1.60
(a) (b)
Figure 2.27: a) Buckling mode o f torispherical head; b) buckling mode o f ellipsoidal head
[Bushnell, (1977)].
92
Torus
E lllp ta d
I ,/R .
Re'O.SD
N."
Circumftrsflliel M iwOroo < Foret
M sridicool MsmDrons F o r e ^ / ,(B snO ing sMscIs
Are Lsngtfi, t -
E llip s o id Cylindsr
(b) M*mbran* fore* dlalifbutfon for 2:1 *ltlp*oldal *nd
ii.
ÏÎ-I
Méridional Msir Prons F o re s. N*
r N f l b s n d n * s lts c ts W dudsdl
Are Lsnpdi, s —
^ Cylindsr
y Tbrus ( ^ - ')
(c) M *m bran* fore* dlttrlbufloii for lorf*ph*rfc*l *nd
profiles with “c”, correction values and membrane stress resultants in buckle-free design
93
Tafreshi, (1997), developed an FEM modeling to analyze the stress evaluation
IDEAS and ABAQUS computer program. These software packages were used in his
study for FEM modeling and analyses to perform the stress evaluation and buckling
elements, designated in ABAQUS, were used for modeling torispherical ends subjected
torispherical end together with exaggerated deformed profile as shown in Fig. 2.29
[Tafreshi, (1997)]. This figure shows the perfect geometry o f the torispherical end and
the end closure as seen in Fig. 2.30. In some situations, the length o f the cylindrical
flange and boundary conditions at the base can influence both magnitude of buckling
94
La
Figure 2.29: Geometry of the torispherical end and axisymmetric buckling mode
[Tafreshi, (1997)].
Pnrli
[a «HI
IbU
Figure 2.30: Deformed shapes prior to buckling for different boimdary conditions
[Blachut, (1998)].
95
An analysis o f axisymmetric prebuckling o f thin torispherical shells subjected to
intemal pressure and an investigation o f the effect o f post-yield strain hardening on the
size of the plastic region, and thus on the distribution o f intemal forces was studied by
[Soric and Zahlten, (1995)]. While the pressure and yield stress was kept constant, the
elastic-plastic tangent modulus was varied. Also the linear strain hardening was assumed
constant. They also studied the influence o f the size o f the plastic region on differences in
the distribution o f the hoop stress resultant and the meridional bending moment. All
computations were performed using the FEM with doubly curved multilayered element
with 48 degrees o f freedom. In their study, the FEM computer program, FEMAS, was
D/h =1000, R/D=0.l. R/D=\ characteristics, were performed for different tangent
moduli E, assuming constant yield stress 207 MPa. The material o f the shell was mild
steel. The load was partly taken over by bending moments outside the plastic region,
where their values for elastic, perfectly plastic material exceed those associated with
strain hardening as shown in Fig. 2.31(a). The plastic regions o f the deformed
torispherical shell at /?=0.15 MPa for elastic, perfectly plastic and strain hardening
Li & et al, (1998), obtained the buckling prediction utilizing the FEM analysis for
buckling o f the pressure vessels with ellipsoidal head subjected to uniform pressure. They
subjected to axisymmetric loads. Then the formula o f bifurcation buckling analysis for
such structure was presented using the complex constraint method. By using this method,
the axisymmetrically deformed head under uniform intemal pressure is shown in Fig.
96
2.32(a). The computed elastic buckling loads was 0.054 MPa and the first buckling mode
of the whole structure is as shown in Fig. 2.32(b) [Li & et al, (1998)].
SPHERE TORUS
6.9
-Ï.3
-6.9
-9.2
09 1.0
Mvndional d itta n c * Iro n a p « . s/RV
(a) (b)
Figure 2.31: a) Meridional moment distribution and b) plastic region at pressure p=0.15
97
1.25
1. 0 0 -
0.25-
0.00
0.00 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.25
(b)
Figure 2.32: a) Axisymmetrically deformed head, and b) Buckling mode under intemal
98
2.9.2.1 T o rip sh erical E nd-closures
Cylindrical shells subjected to intemal pressure are often closed at their ends by
shells o f revolution, which are ellipsoidal or torispherical in shape. Such dished-end shell
structures are used in many industries and often they have diameter/thickness ratios in the
range o f 500 < ID/t < 1500 [Galletly, (1979)]. Since the tangential compressive stress in
the knuckle region o f a torispherical heads is much larger than that in a semiellipsoidal
head, the possibility o f failure would seem to be higher. The thin-walled torispherical
heads having large diameter are known to collapse by elastic buckling, plastic yielding or
and high strength steel are almost the same, there is no advantage to use with a high
strength steel for the thin-wall torispherical heads with a large diameter. To predict a
possible failure under internal pressure the following approximate formula for the
collapse pressure, Pe, which is close to the test results, o f a torispherical head with large
I- - 2
(Rl ^ r r 1 ( R. ) r r 1
P.. = cr„ 0.43 + 7.56- + 34.8- 1-4.83 . -0.00081 (2 48)
[r j [ i D j Rc >
99
( t ^
p, = ^ y " 0.8836 + 24.7179- -0 .0 0 0 8 1 (2 .4 9 )
[ODj [oD j
The values o f critical pressure, pc in the elastic range for the torispherical ends
and 0.75<(?/Û<i.50. The values are obtained from the program B 0 S 0 R 5 and tlie simple
p^. = 1 0 0 E- + 0 .6 8 (2.50)
I D j
The Eq’s. (2.48) and (2.49) could be used to estimate the instability (collapsing)
ellipsoidal radii and are substituted. Semiellipsoidal heads with ID/2h = 2 have
torispherical properties equivalent to a torispherical head with RJID =0.9 and Rk/ID =
0.17. Using above equation, the instability equation for the semiellipsoidal can be
R.
_A
P. = cr, 0.33 + 5.5 + 28 1 2.2
- -0 .0 0 0 6 (251)
\ID j ^ID ) \ P c J
100
On the other hand, the critical intemal buckling pressure, pc, can be assumed and
derived from the computer program (B 0 S 0 R 5 ) results for the ellipsoidal end closure
having the diameter/thickness ratios in the range o f 700<D/f<1500. The pc equation can
( D \'^
p^. =A 55- E- — (2.52)
ellipsoidal end closures subjected to intemal pressure are not yet available in either
ASME or British pressure vessel codes. The situation is, however, rather better with the
axisymmetric yielding mode. They are the subjects o f present studies and some design
equations are suggested. Some equations were obtained from the buckling equations for
perfect end closures after considering all known experimental results on the fabricated
models. The empirical constants in the proposed design equations depend on the type
head constmction used. As a result, details o f the buckling and collapse o f torispheres
under intemal pressure may be found in some studies o f Galletly and Bushnell.
made from elastic, perfectly plastic steel. The Program (B 0 S 0 R 5 ) employed by Galletly,
(1986) in the analyses incorporates isotropic strain hardening-and the von Mises yield
criterion. The simple equation was suggested by Galletly and Radhamohan, (1979) for
the critical intemal buckling pressure, pc, o f the torispheres over the range o f
101
500<D/f<1500. is as follows;
r / R V "
285.[ 1- 125. O',,
yp 1.1
(153)
.J 10 j
This equation was argued by Galletly (1982) that, for various reasons, it was not
possible to predict the buckling pressures of the fabricated torispheres with precision. By
using some exponents in Eq. (2.53), the critical buckling pressure with more accuracy in
- 1.5
_D
p^. % 260 • a (2.54)
k J \
torispheres having D/( ratios down to 250 and in addition more values of cxyp were
explored. By using both the flow and deformations theories in the calculations for the
approximate equations for pc, they were suggesting an approximate equation as follows;
Rk
12 0 .
D
Pc * cr .p • 1.46 I IS
(155)
" D" ( Rk]
<t , .D,
102
The instability problems regarding both cylindrical shells and end-closures with
different shapes involving intemal pressure have been studied by many investigators.
Many remarkable studies on the instability analyses o f the end-closures usually imder
internal pressure loading conditions utilizing both experimental and analytical approaches
have been performed by Ualletiy, Soric, Tafreshi, Bushnell, and Blachut. A few
involving either finite element or finite difference methods. On the other hand, some
design equations for preventing buckling failure problems o f the torispherical end-
closures considering intemal pressures have been carried out theoretically by Galletly,
103
CHAPTER 3
The selection o f the steel material for producing a DOT specification cylinder was
requirements as well as other required factors. These factors are essential in the processes
o f the forming or drawing in the material into a cylindrical shape. The list o f factors are
tolerances, size, strength and shape o f the blank steel, quantities, surface characteristics,
special finishes, aging properties. The strength requirements in the formed shells o f the
NRV cylinders should also be considered affer drawing process. These factors generally
are considered to select the materials in part manufacturing. It is noted that the production
o f the DOT specification cylinders requires specialized low-carbon steels that are
104
The primary types o f steels used for this selection are cold-rolled and hot-rolled
steels. The advantage o f using these types is to obtain the material properties for cold
forming process. The cold-rolled steel was selected to produce the cylindrical shell o f the
DOT-39 non-refillable refrigerant cylinders as shown in Fig. 2.7. The hot-rolled steel was
refiliable propane cylinders as shown in Fig’s. 2 .1 1(a). Both materials are codified by the
Society o f American Engineering (SAE) as SAE-1008 and SAE-1018 steels which are
low-carbon steels as shown in Table 3.1 [Brady et al, (1997)]. This table provides data for
comparing the maximum values o f the elements involved in the composition o f the low-
such as deep drawing, these steels are selected based on their mechanical properties
availability, and formability in the production o f the drawn cylindrical cups. The selected
manufacturer during the production processes, including low cost, good formability,
The SEA-1008 steel. Aluminum Killed Drawing Quality (AKDQ) and cold-
rolled, is one of the low-carbon content steels, which contains 0.06%C in its chemical
which is required in manufacturing o f the pressure cylinders. In the literature, the SAE-
1008 has relatively low tensile strength values o f 30-35 Ksi (-205 to 240 MPa). Within
105
the carbon range o f the group, the strength and hardness o f this material increase with an
increase in carbon and cold work. This increase in strength is at the sacrifice o f ductility
or the ability to withstand cold deformation [Waterman & Ashby, (1997)] and [Brady et
al, (1997)]. The SEA-1018, Silicon Killed Draw Quality (SKDQ), is a low-carbon and
hot-rolled steel, which is rolled to its final thickness in an elevated temperature process.
The carbon content in the chemical composition o f this material is 0.18%C as shown in
Table 3.1.
Phosphorus ( P ) %
0.04 max. 0.025 0.15
Sulfur (S) %
0.05 max. 0.015 0 .0 1
Silicon ( S i ) %
0.5 max. 0 .2
Table 3.1: Physical properties o f the low-carbon steel, SAE-1008 and SAE-1018
106
The formability is commonly used to describe the characteristic o f the steel to
maintain its structural integrity while being plastically deformed into cylindrical shapes
as well. Therefore, in the drawing practice to make cylindrical shapes, selecting a grade
of steel that has the forming characteristics. These characteristics are nominally estimated
from an analysis of the mechanical properties o f these steels, which are determined by a
The concepts o f engineering stress and engineering strain are employed when
nominal material properties are evaluated or specified. The Engineering stress (or
nominal stress), oi, is generally defined to be the applied simple tensile force (F) per unit
f
of original cross sectional area {An), namely, = — . Similarly, the engineering strain
A.
(nominal strain), 4 , is defined as the elongation (AI) per unit o f original length (/»), which
engineering stress and engineering strain over a range o f loading, an engineering stress-
strain curve may be plotted from the data, as shown in Fig. 3.1.
In the definition o f engineering stress and engineering strain, the original cross-
sectional area and the original gage length are used. In fact, the dimensions do change as
the load (F) applied; these calculations o f engineering stress and strain are subjected to
errors. For ductile materials in the plastic range, and for certain brittle materials, these
107
errors in stress and strain calculations are based on Ao and /o and often become
intolerable. For ductile materials in the plastic range, the errors are generally small and
considered negligible. However, the errors are not negligible for the brittle materials. The
true stress and true strain have been defined to provide a more accurate measurement for
both stress and strain. True stress, a \ is the actual stress based on the actual area. A,
p
corresponding at every instant to current value o f load, F, which is <r = — . Similarly,
A
the true strain ( f 1 is defined as the integration o f the plastic strain increments that are
developed during the loading history [Stouffer & Dame, (1996)], and associated with an
only instantaneous value of gage length (//), which changes with increasing in the applied
load. Therefore, the true strain can be defined based on the integration result, which
yields as g = ln(l + g J .
stress-strain (ESS) and corresponding true stress-strain (TSS) curves as shown in Fig’s.
3.1 and 3.2. These stress-strain curves o f the low-carbon steels have a smooth transition
between very low elastic strain and the higher plastic strain regions o f the curve. When
the load is removed in the elastic region, the component returns to its original
dimensions. When this loading is done in the plastic region, the part retains permanent
The well-known tensile test technique applied to identify the material properties
108
of the selected SEA-1008 and SAE-1018 steels. Two different tensile test specimens are
cut out from the cold and hot rolled steels, non-drawn blank-steel sheets; o f which one is
in rolling and the other one is in perpendicular to the rolling direction. These specimens
are subjected to tensile test and the elongation values of the tension specimens that are
based on the applied tensile force (F). These values are used to find the engineering
stresses, then, the engineering stress-strain values are obtained with nonlinear curves as a
function o f elongation, as shown in Fig 3.3. Furthermore, the corresponding true stress-
strain (TSS) curves are obtained as seen in Fig. 3.4. These TSS curves are converted from
properties for the weld zone are obtained in the same way using the tensile test
specimens. The properties of the weld zone are represented with the ESS and TSS curves
Table 3.2. These properties are represented with ultimate tensile strength (UTS), tensile
yield strength (TVS), elongation and modulus o f elasticity (£). In that table, the
mechanical properties of the low-carbon steel can be compared with the properties o f the
selected steels (SEA-1008 and SEA-1018) for the NRV cylinder production. The
properties o f SAE-1008 cold-rolled steel are similar with the properties o f general low-
carbon steels. Table 3.2 illustrates some important findings such as the different
mechanical properties between the SAE-1008 cold-rolled and the SAE-1018 hot-rolled
steels. That is to say; the properties o f the cold-rolled (SAE-1008) steels are more ductile
than hot-rolled (SAE-1018) steels. In addition, table 3.2 depicts the mechanical properties
of weld zone where the cylindrical shell components are joined together to form a NRV
109
cylinder. For the joining o f the cylindrical shells, the Gas Metal-arc welding (GMAW),
NS-101 (AKA ER 70 S-3) was used. As expected, the weld zone properties are obtained
higher than carbon steel properties. This trend can also be seen in Fig. 3.3. and 3.4.
Table 3.2: Mechanical properties of the SEA-1008, SEA-1018 steels, and weld zone.
The mechanical properties such as the TYS and UTS increase slowly but
progressively with the increasing carbon (C) content, and depend on section thickness.
The sm aller sections have higher strength due to a faster rate o f cooling. The toughness
decreases with increasing both C content and cleanness. Figure 3.5 shows the influence
of the C content on the low-carbon steel [Davis, (1996)]. A careful study o f Fig.
110
3.5 indicates that an increase of C content highly affects the mechanical properties o f hot
rolled steels than cold rolled steels. Especially, UTS of hot rolled steels increases rapidly.
In addition, the ratio between UTS and TYS slightly elevated with increase o f the C
content.
400 56
Ultinr a te ter isile 1
48
sitrength
1
300
(0 — ^
40
Q.
5 1 1 3
{/» 1
1
32 S
V)
0) 200 t
1
1
w
tfj 1 24 %
o> 1 O)
c c
kZ 1 Yiei d strer ig th
16
0)
0)
100 1
1 1
1 Total
L
1
S
c 1 U niform | g j ^ )ngatic
’5) O)
c 1 elo n g atio n | ’"1 - c
LU \ UJ
1 1 I T _
10 20 30 40 50
E ngineering strain, %
Figure 3.1: ESS curve o f the low-carbon steels [Waterman & Ashby, (1991), (1997)] and
[Davis, (1996)].
Ill
400
300
200
100
0.2
True strain
Figure 3.2: TSS curve o f the low-carbon steels [Waterman Sc Ashby, (1991), (1997)] and
[Davis, (1996)].
112
E n g i n e e r i n g S tr e s s - S t r ai n C u rv e s
90000
Weld
80 00 0
70000
M S.4E-1018
a
co 60000
H
4>
5 00 00
V)
a
c 4 00 00
4> SAE-1008
O
Ç 30000
O) SAE-1008
c
LU 20000 SEA-1018
10000 Weld
0
0 0415 0.1 0.15 0.4
E n g i n e e r i n Strain (%)
Figure 3.3: ES S curves of the SAE-1008 and 1018 steels and weld zone materials.
113
Comparison of the Material Properties
120000
110000
Weld
100000
90000
SAE-1018
80000
w
t 70000
50000
SAE-1008
a, 50000
g 40000
30000 SAE-1008
20000 SAE-1018
10000
— Weld
Figure 3.4: TSS curves of the SAE-1008 and SAE-1018 steel and weld materials.
114
120
800 ■
700 100
600
IS .
Cold Drawn
2 500
400 60 3
Y.S. Odd Drawn
300
200
100
02 04 05 08 07 08 09
CARBCN C O N TB<rw r%
Figure 3.5: Influence of carbon content on the strength o f the carbon steel [Davis,
(1996)].
115
3.6 Design for M anufacturing
The cylindrical shells o f the NRV cylinders are usually produced from axially
thickness and different material properties. The DOT-39 pressure cylinders are designed
and produced as two cylindrical shell components, namely TOP and BOTTOM shell
components (see in Fig. 2.8) with the complete dimensional characterizations and
geometrical shapes as shown in Fig. 3.6. For geometrical reasons, these two cylindrical
shell components are welded together at the middle about their axis o f rotation to form
containing the hazardous material. For this reason, using appropriate tools o f design and
manufacturing process are very important in engineering standpoint, such as design for
manufacturing and assembly (DFMA). These tools are one o f the most effective
development.
The assembly a major part o f the total part manufacturing processes as shown in
the flowchart o f the DOT-39 pressure cylinders in Fig. 3.7. The integrated manufacturing
processes including raw materials, finished part, assembly, and product finish are
conducted in the DFMA processes o f the cylinder production. The DFA focuses on the
business aspects o f the assembly, which is the life cycle o f the production. On the other
hand, the purpose o f the DFM is to enable design teams to weigh alternative designs and
production procedures, quantifying manufacturing cost, and make the necessary decisions
116
between part consolidation, increased material and manufacturing costs [Waldron &
Waldron (1996)]. As an example for the process o f the DFMA applications, using the
sectional view in Fig. 3.8 shows the complete assembly o f the NRV cylinders including
Torispherical
Head
TopSheU ,
Component
WELD LINE
Bottom SheU
Component
Dimples for Feet
Knuckle
Figure 3.6; Design parameters for manufacturing and assembly of the DOT-39 refrigerant
cylinders.
117
■j Rmv M aterial
R aw M ateiial: S E A -i 008 I
I
J Finished Part
------ '
Top Shell Bottom Shell Handle Set Valve sys Tube
f* W
Welding of two Valve-Tube
Shells Assembly
'r 'F
Handle Welding
on the Cylinder
Painting
I
Assembly of DOT-39
: Assembh' Pressure Cylinders
Adjusting
I
Testing
Gas Filling
Product
Finish Production of DOT-39
Pressure Cylinders
— f— T-
Figure 3.7: The process flow of DFMA with integrated processes for the NRV cylinder.
118
Handle
Withdrawal Tube
and Assembly of
Valve-and-tubing
System
Dimples
for Feet
119
3.7 M anufacturing Processes of the DOT Specification Cylinders
such as top and bottom shells, valve-and-tubing system that are required to separately
manufacture with different processes. For the production o f these components in such a
way assembly them together as seen in Fig. 3.8, the procedures o f the DFMA processes
are taken place. Additionally, considering the DFMA requirements in the sequence o f
processes are selected for the production o f DOT-39 specification cylinders. These
processes are then chosen to optimize the properties o f the finished product to facilitate
inspection for quality control. Consequently, three types o f manufacturing processes are
workpiece o f an enclosed contour with a single stroke o f the press for further use in the
deep drawing process as shown in Fig 3.9. The blanking is cutting/shearing the sheet
metal strip in a circular shape to prepare it for the deep drawing process. The required
circular blanking diameters are given in Table 3.3 and based on the ID o f the DOT-39
refrigerant cylinders. The cutting operation during the blanking process is shown in Fig.
120
3.10 with the path of punching operation. The cutting force (Ft), during the blanking
process, increases until the maximum force is reached, then it decreases as illustrated in
the figure. The circular punch and die are used and the blank is completely sheared
without other resistance, so that the basic equation for calculating the shear (blanking)
force (Ft) for a circular shape o f ductile material is defined as: F^ = 0.85 • UTS -Tr-dQ-tQ,
where do is the circular blank diameter, and to is the blank sheet thickness.
Deep drawing process, one o f the most common sheet metal forming processes
compressive stresses. The main tools used in this process are a die, a pimch and a
blankholder. The blank sheet material is clamped between the die and the blankholder.
Primarily, the deep drawing is the permanent deformation process o f reducing a circular
blank o f a diameter (do) to a circular cup o f diameter (di or -ID) using a punch to deform
the sheet into a die cavity. The final shape o f the product is defined by both the punch
and die. Both the friction and blankholder forces are restraining the material flow during
the deep drawing process [Avallone & Baumeister, (1987)]. The plastic deformation
implies that the shape of the work-piece is changed, without a change in the volume. It
occurs as the metal moves from flange to the cylinder wall. Primary deformation zone in
this process occius in the circular wall o f the cylinder, which is undergoing axial tension
and circumferential compression. The secondary deformation zone is the bending aroimd
the radius o f the die while the tertiary deformation zone is the stretching in the cylinder
121
wall. Therefore, the deep drawing process a combination o f all three-deformation modes,
is relatively complex process to analyze. In addition, there is wall thinning in the final
The drawing o f the sheet metal causes elongation in one direction and
deep drawing, illustrated in Fig. 3.11, should be considered for manufacturing and
design. These specifications are related with material properties o f sheet metal and design
parameters including the clearance between the die and the punch, blank holder force
friction and lubrication at the interfaces o f the die, the punch and the workpiece, speed of
punch, and blank thickness ratio to punch diameter {to / IrJ). The deep drawing {Fdd) and
blank holder {Fbh) forces derived by Siebel can be calculated by using the following
equations (the factor “c" ranges from 2 to 3); also Hill's yield criterion introduced by
hh + cr.,
1.1 (Ty • In — + (3.1)
/ F- d f - t o 2 r,
3 ^ 0.005-c/q
fw = l O ' . c {LDR-\) (3.2)
122
Scrap skeleton Sheet m etal strip
Blank
Figure 3.9: Circular blanking from sheet metal strip [Mielnik, (1991)]
Table 3.3: Required circular blank diameters for each group of the cylinders.
123
Maximum punch focoe
Initiation o f crack
Circular punch Secondary cracki probably formed
Fnctional resistance between ;
Sharp or PrcMure (a) Blank and hole
ndiused (b) Punch and hole
(c) Blank and die
Frictional resistance
W o rk mainly between punch
a n d hole
Separation of blank
from sheet
D E T A IL - A
Blankholder
Sheet
(Elements)
DEEP DR-VWN,
DOT-J9 Die
S E M IE U JP S O ID A L
CYLINDER
HEAD Cylinder
CR O W N
Waü "
Figure 3.11: Drawing of the DOT-39 cylinder in the deep drawing process.
124
3.7.3 T h e W elding P rocess
The welding, one o f the joining processes, is a solid-state bonding process through which
interatomic bonds may be established by bnngmg the atoms o f two surfaces into class
contaminants such as oxides, absorbed gas films or lubricant residues. The deformation
o f the interface welding process is ensured by placing the sheets, or shells at a bent form
to each other as shown in Fig. 3.12. The welding technique applied for joining the
cylindrical shell is done based on the requirements of the CGA regulation as explained in
Section 2.2.3. For these reasons. Gas metal-arc welding (GMAW) a suitable technique
for most metal was used in the welding process. The GMAW is using the consumable
electrode fed through the welding gun and shielded an inert gas that is the older acronym,
which is metal inert gas (MIG) welding [Mielnik, (1991)] and [Schey, (1987)].
125
Handle
e ra
Svatera
Tonsphencal
Head
Top Shell
Com ponent
M e a iu re m e n t
d ir e c tio n
Tensile Test
Specimen for ^ iT
3
Weld zone • b
Weld Deposit
Bottom S hell,
[finer D iam eter i ID )
/
Component
Dimples for Feet
Knuckle
0 .0 3 3 > in
L ro w n
W e ld J o in t
(0.889*nim)
D e s ig n
Pole
Figure 3.12: Design o f the DOT-39 refrigerant cylinder and weld joining [Kisioglu et al,
( 2000 )].
126
3 .8 Investigation o f M aterial P roperties
It is well known that the work hardening effect o f the deep drawing process can
cause a variation o f material properties including shell wall thickneeses in the drawn shell
properties. The cylinder is produced using the SEA-1008 cold-rolled steel that has
homogenous material properties (see Fig. 3.3 and 3.4) before drawing it. However, after
drawing process, the general idea is that the deep drawing is a strain hardening process,
which highly affects to change the shell properties including the shell-wall thickness
uniformity as well. For this reason, it is necessary to well specify the material changes
and the thickness variations of the drawn shells o f the DOT-39 refrigerant cylinders. In
order to obtain more accurate results o f the cylinder analyses, these specified properties
validated by the experimental results. Accordingly, all these investigations o f the drawn
cylinder material properties have been done by using one o f the US major cylinder
manufacturer facilities.
The deep drawing process is deforming material plastically with strain hardening
the path of the punching operation in Fig. 3.10. That is; the variation o f the cylinder
material is changing non-uniformly at every point o f the drawn cylindrical cup (see Fig.
2.8). To investigate the actual drawn shell material properties, a drawn shell component
127
o f the cylinder is divided into four regions (zones) between points “a” and “b” as shown
in Fig. 3.13. These zones named are; ''shell by w eld' between the points “a” and “c”,
"shell by knuckle" between the points “c” and “d”, "crown by knuckle" between the
points “d” and **e”, and finally "crown" between the points '"e” and '‘b”.
Tensile test specimens, subjected to tensile force using well-known tensile test
technique, were cut from each cylindrical shell zones in both longitudinal and
circumferential directions about the principal axes. The orientations o f the tensile test
specimens were cut from the cylindrical shell regions as shown in Fig. 3.13. After applied
tensile test technique, it was observed that the material strength o f the cylindrical drawn
shell in the longitudinal direction was obtained higher than the material strength in the
circumferential direction. The shell material is stretched out during the drawing process
in the longitudinal direction. On the other hand, the material properties in the spherical
(crown) region, including most o f the knuckle zone, exhibit almost the same
characteristics in all directions. For this reason, the material properties o f the whole
crown region, including the knuckle, are represented as one region that has the same
property in the modeling process. These material properties were obtained and
represented with TSS curves o f each group o f DOT-39 refrigerant cylinders, which are
ID=7.5, ID=9.5, and /D=12 (see Fig. 2.7) as shown in Fig's. 3.14, 3.16, and 3.18,
respectively. In addition, to this, the material property o f the original blank steel, SAE-
1008, is represented by its TSS curve in these figures and the strain hardening highly
affects the material properties during deep drawing process. The TSS curves are
based on the conversion given in [Avallone & Baumeister (1987)]. The conversion
128
equations are defined as for true stress is cr, = cr • (1 + f ) , and for true strain is
s, = In(l + g ), where a and e refer to the engineering stress and engineering strain,
respectively.
The variations in the mechanical properties o f the drawn shell materials as listed
in Table 3.4, are altering significantly depending on the regions o f the drawn shell
components. These variations of the mechanical properties (UTS, TYS and elongation)
are calculated for each group of cylinder in a percentage o f the original material
for each group of the NRV cylinders are shown as a function o f the different regions o f
the drawn shell components in Fig's. 3.15, 3.17, and 3.19, respectively. As it can be
evidently seen from Fig. 3.17. the UTS and TYS increases while the elongation
represented by the second y-axis decreases. These variations are shown clearly within
numerical values in Table 3.4. For example, in the region o f shell by w eld', the UTS
about 58% and the TYS about 151% increase while the elongation decreases about 82%.
In the general aspects o f the design viewpoint, the welded joints must implement
functionality of the required strength, which is usually more intensive than jointed
stresses, the geometrical discontinuity at the welded joints must be applied smoothly
considering the welding procedures. The welded joints were used in the cylinder
manufacturing processes when the two cylindrical shell components; top and
129
bottom shells (see Fig. 2.8) were jointed together to form DOT-39 refrigerant cylinders.
In the case of welded joints o f the cylinders, the weld zone geometries were generally
generated quite uniform. Randomly a few cylinders selected for the test specimens were
removed from the manufacturing stack and cut out half to get its full cross-section then
weld zone geometries were measured using a micrometer with a precision o f 0 .0 0 1 -in
(0.0254-mm). The average values o f the nominal dimensions o f the weld joint as
To investigate the weld zone properties, a few tensile test specimens were taken
from the welded zone in the middle o f the assembled cylinders. These specimens were
cut circumferentially about axis o f rotation and examined by using the tensile test
technique. A tensile test specimen cut out is shown with a dashed line on the weld zone in
Fig. 3.12. From the tensile tests, the ESS data and associated ESS curves were obtained.
It was observed that the obtained ESS data and related ESS curves behave approximately
in the same ranges and slopes. Similarly, the conversion method, used to investigate the
drawn shells properties explained above, was also performed to explore the weld zone
properties that were converted from average values o f its ESS to TSS curves, which are
illustrated in Fig's 3.3 and 3.4, respectively. The mechanical properties o f the weld zone
were investigated from the tensile test technique, and the results are as follows;
Elongation ; 26.25%
130
Crown b AN
Knuckle
Tlie Orientation of
Shell by Tensile Test Specimens
Knuckle
Shell by W eld
We d z o n e
Tensile Test
I Specimens^
ID"? . 5 1 n , R e f r i g _ C ^ i n , t ° 0 . 0 3 o T n ^ l l A c t u a l S h e l l .KISIOGL^
Figure 3.13: The region division o f the actual drawn shell and the orientations o f the
tensile test specimens cut from the divided zones [Kisioglu et al, (2000)].
131
True S t r e ss Strain Curves of DOT-39 R. Cylinder (ID:7.5-in)
90000
Shell By Crowi.
80000 r \ _____________
70000
Shell By SAE-1008
60000 Knuckle
50000 Crown
40000
,SAE -1008
30000
S hell b y W eld
20000
S h e ! by Knuckle
10000 — C rovwi
True strain (% )
132
Variation o f Material P r o p e r ty (10:7.5-In)
180
160
140 -20
20 -30
0 0 ----- -40
Elongation -50
-60
-70
-8 0
-90
C row n Crown b y Shell b y Shell b y W eld
K n u ck le K n uckle
133
Transformation of SAE-1008 Steel Property as Drawn Cylindrical
shell
80000
B y W e ld
70000
SEA-1008
60000 By Knuckle
Crown
£ 50000
(A
(A
40000
£
25
0)
30000
SAE-1008
g
By Weld
20000
By Knuckle
Figure 3.16: True stress-strain curves (ID: 9.5-in) [Kisioglu et al, (2000)].
134
Var ia ti on o f Material P r o p e r t y (I D: 9. 5-i n)
155
135 ---10
- - -20
- a- u t s - -30
-a -T Y S - -40
c
o
Elongation
(0 -- -50
•c
«
>
-- -60
-- -70
-- -80
-90
Crown Crown by Shell b y Knuckle Shell b y Weld
Knuckle
Figure 3.17: The variations o f the mechanical properties (ID: 9.5-in) [Kisioglu et al,
(2000)].
135
True Stress-Strain Curve o f D o t - 3 9 R. Cylinder (ID: 12-in)
90000
SheUByWeld
80000
70000
Crown SAE-1008
SheUBy
60000 Knuckle
50000
40000
SAE-1008
30000
S h e l l by W e l d
20000 S h e l l by Knuckle
Crown
1 0 0 00
0 . 05 0. 25 0. 35
True Strain (% )
136
Variat ion o f Mat e ri ai P r o p e r t y (iD : 12- in)
175
- - 10
150
-■ -20
125
-■ -30
UTS
100 - -
-- -40
C TYS
o
- © —Elongation
(0 -■ -50
75 -H
L.
(0
> -- -60
- -70
-- -80
137
3.8.3 A ctual Draw n Shell thickness V ariation
components were considered as well. It is expected that the drawn shell thickness is non-
uniform due to the strain hardening. This variation is investigated by measuring the mil
cross-sectional geometry o f the DOT-39 refrigerant cylinder as shown in Fig. 3.12. The
sliding” the micrometer on the surface. Between points “a” and “h”, 12 different shell
thicknesses were measured at approximately every 0.4-in (I0.16-mm) along the length o f
the cylinder shell. From point “h” through point “u”, at the crown region, 13 different
shell thicknesses were measured. For instance, the wall thickness was measured to be
about 0.0365-in (0.9275-mm) at point “a”, about 0.0317-in (0.80418-mm) at point “h”,
and about 0.0388-in (0.98552-mm) at point “u”. It was noted that the thickness measured
at point “u” was very close to the nominal thickness o f SAE-1008 steel-sheet. In fact, the
SAE-1008 steel sheet is manufactured within the some tolerances o f the sheet thickness.
In this case, a close study o f the data obtained through the measurement indicated that the
minimum wall thickness occurred at point “h”, which is in the '"''shell by knuckle'" region.
shell regions in Fig. 3.20. The wall thickness changes in the cylindrical drawn shell
region more than that o f the "crown" region. The maximum and minimum thickness
variations were about 18% in the '"shell by knuckle" region, and about 1% at point “u”
138
Drawn Cyliudircal Shell Material Properties
Material T. Strength (UTS) Y. Strength (TYS) Elongation
Name psi (Mpa) psi (Mpa) %
139
CHAPTER 4
This study originated with the idea o f investigating the BP and BFL o f the DOT-
material, which is a significant portion o f the cylinder wall becoming fully plastic, so that
the cylinder loses its required functionality from the requirements o f the design. The BP
and BFL for each type of three NRV cylinder groups (see Fig. 2.7) must be determined as
their technical features based on the requirements o f the DOT regulations. Because it
contains the hazardous materials that are dangerously flammable and explosive in
transporting and service, the BP has to be at least 4-times that o f the SP. As a result, the
BP represents the strength and capacity o f the cylinder, which is the maximum pressure
that cylinders can hold without bursting. Likewise, the BFL is the place where the
deformation becomes fully plastic and the cylinder wall starts to be tom and fractured.
It is noted that the investigations o f the BP and BFL o f the NRV cylinders are
important in order to comply with the DOT Rules. The effects o f material performance
and geometrical properties on the relative loading (pressure) capacity o f the cylinder are
140
considered in the bursting test modeling. Based on these considerations, two different
types o f bursting test models, experimental and computer-aided finite element analysis
(FEA), have been conducted in order to specify the BP and BFL of each type o f the
The experimental burst investigations o f the NRV cylinders have been carried out
in the R&D laboratory o f a major U.S. cylinder manufacturer. In order to test these
cylinders in the experiment, the cylinders are completely filled with water, and the
pressure is controlled by means of a single acting hydraulic pump. By venting air during
the filling, the water is fully utilized for the tests at room temperature. The cylinders are
randomly selected from every 10 0 0 -manufactured stack and carefully placed in the
In the bursting experiments, 581 DOT-39 refrigerant cylinders with the ratio of
the inner diameter to the wall thickness t/ID = 0.0034 are tested at different tim es. Fig.
frequency o f the cylinders. Since the initial, to, o f the blank steel sheet is variable due to
manufacturing tolerances, the BP values range from a minimum o f 680 psi (4.67-M Pa) to
a maximum o f 760 psi (5.24-MPa). The mean BP value obtained is about 730-psi (5.03-
MPa) for 225-test specimens out o f 581 NRV cylinder samples. Similarly, the same
bursting experiments are applied for these cylinders in the same group with the ratios o f
141
t/ID = 0.0055 and t/ID = 0.0097, so that the average BP values for these cylinders
obtained are about 1196-psi (8.3-MPa) and 2010-psi (13.86-MPa), respectively. The
is observed with the same distribution as shown in Fig. 4.1. For instance, the burst
F r e q u e n c y of Bur st P r e s s u r e s
250
225
. 200
o 175
g 150
3 125
§■ 100
£ 75
679 680 685 690 700 710 720 730 740 750 760 770
B u r s t P r e s s u r e (psi)
142
The BFL of the DOT-39 non-refillable refrigerant cylinders is well demonstrated
by the experimental burst tests as shown in Fig. 4.3. When those cylinder specimens are
subjected to the burst test in the experiment, a bursting fracture is observed, which
usually occurs at the junction o f the cylindrical shell and knuckle regions, at point “A,” as
shown in Fig’s. 4.2 and 4.3. This point is defined as the BFL o f the NRV cylinders. In the
experiment, the cylinder specimens fracture at this point in such a way that the bursting
crack continues longitudinally up to point “B,” where the weld zone is located
circumferentially as shown in Fig's. 4.2 and 4.3. When the bursting fracture meets with
the weld stiffness, the fracture direction changes and continues circumferentially about
the rotation axis o f the shell as shown in Fig. 4.2. This fracture phenomenon and the BFL
are also in good agreement with the BFL definitions specified by the DOT regulations.
Burst
Failure
Location
Figure 4.2: Burst failure location (BFL) of the DOT-39 refrigerant cylinders.
143
Miller
Figure 4.3: Experimental bursting and bursting location in the DOT-39 refrigerant
cylinders.
144
4.3 Com puter-A ided Modeling of the Bursting Test
The finite element code ANSYS, versions 5.3, 5.4, and 5.5, was used to
investigate the BP and BFL o f the DOT 39 non-refillable refrigerant cylinders. In the
ANSYS code, the ANSYS programming design ianguage (APDL), has been performed
example, one o f the APDL programs developed for the burst modeling processes is given
in Appendix C. For the generation o f the computer-aided modeling (FEA model), the
current geometrical design parameters o f the NRV cylinders (see Fig’s. 2.7 and 2.10) are
considered here as an axisymmetric model in 2-D case with respect to the main axes o f
rotations and with respect to the applied uniform load. In addition, the material
nonlinearity measured from the actual cylinder is applied well in the FEA modeling
processes.
A 2-D axisymmetric FEA model has been developed by using the quarter
symmetry o f the current cylinder geometry and the mid-surface o f the wall thickness as
shown in Fig. 4.4. The reason for using the mid-surface o f the shell-wall thickness, the
finite shell elements are usually defined by the mid-surface o f the wall (part, or
component) thickness, which has to be used as a real constant to specify the shell element
modeling. Therefore, preliminary investigations for the FEA modeling processes have
been done to select the most suitable finite shell element from the ANSYS Code and
145
Crown A N
Crown Shell
Knuckle
<fc
Shell by
Knuckle
-- t
Shell by
Weld
'W
c
JL
<L tw 3. H Weld
Deposit
I D ° 7 . 5 i n , R e f r i g _ C y 1 i n d e r , t ° 0 . 0 3 0 , nrtr i : SAE-1 QO8_CR,KISIOGLU
146
4.4 M aterial Nonlinearity
curve that displays nonlinear structural behavior, starting at the origin with positive TSS
values in a data table as shown in graphical forms in Fig’s. 3.14, 3.16, and 3.18. The
behavior. The data tables associated with a material number are used to define nonlinear
material characteristics, which are TSS curves in the modeling processes. The form o f the
ANSYS, depends upon the data corresponding to TSS curves as seen in Appendix C. To
specify the TSS curves in the FEA modeling, one o f the options, isotropic hardening, is
used in the Batch file programming (APDL) as shown in Appendix C. In the FEA
modeling processes, the isotropic hardening rule uses the Von Mises yield criterion with
an isotropic work hardening assumption, which is performed for non-cyclic load histories
[ANSYS Manuel (1998)]. In addition, the isotropic hardening is preferred to specify the
material characterization in the simulation due to large strain effects involved in the
147
4.5 Selection of Axisymmetric Finite Shell Element
mid-surface o f the wall thickness o f the cylinder as shown in Fig. 4.4. By using the
design parameters o f the current geometry, the model has been defined with the aid o f the
wall thickness and the radii o f curvatures of the cylinders (see Fig. 2.8). For a suitable
FEA modeling, a fine mesh generation requiring small element size has been conducted
by using a 2D axisymmetric structural shell element. The length o f the shell element
within the element shape tolerance defines the element size. Because the model is
node axisymmetric finite shell element that allows the description o f such model
behavior. As a result, preliminary investigations are carried out to select the most suitable
finite shell element from the ANSYS element library, so that the axisymmetric structural
The finite shell element, SHELLS 1, is defined by 2-node, 2-end thicknesses, and
four degrees of freedom (DOF) associated with each node. The geometry, node locations,
and the coordinate systems for this element are shown in Fig. 4.S. These 2-nodes and 2-
faces, on which the BCs are applied, are labeled as “I” and “J” and “ 1” and “2”,
respectively. Since the SHELLS 1 element is defined with four DOFs, three o f the DOFs
are translational displacements in the nodal x, y, and z directions and the fourth one is
rotational displacement about the nodal z-axis. The output results o f SHELLS 1 from the
simulations consist o f the nodal solution, which is primarily the DOF solution. The
extreme orientations o f the conical SHELLS 1 element enable the user to use a linearly
148
varying thickness. In order to specify the cylindrical shell thickness in the FEA modeling
process, the wall thickness values have been used as real constant inputs in APDL by
applying them at each node. The SHELLS 1 element has nonlinear material capabilities,
the most accurate deformation o f the cylinder simulations, the SHELLS 1 element is
conducted with extra displacement shape functions (ESP) rather than without ESP
defined in the manual. (For details, see the ANSYS Manual, 1998).
circumstances o f the FE.A. modeling processes, the loading, and the geometrical
conditions have been considered. In the loading applications as BCs, the cylinders are
perform the geometrical conditions, the node located at point "a” has been restricted to
translational displacement in the “y” direction and the other node placed at point '‘6 ” has
been constrained translational displacement in the “x” direction as shown in Fig. 4.4.
Because o f the geometrical and selected finite shell element features, the rotational
displacements about the “z” axis for both nodes located at points “a ” and “ 6 ” have also
been constrained to free rotation. All other nodes in the entire FEA model are free to both
translational in both the x and y directions, except for the z-direction, since the model is
generated in 2D conditions. In addition, all of these nodes o f the model are free to
rotational displacements about the z-axis. Various parameters are used to specify the
149
BCs, consisting of geometrical and loading conditions in FEA simulations to predict the
structural behavior o f the NRV cylinders. These parameters for the BCs are illustrated on
the model and labeled related symbols as shown in Fig. 4.6. The meanings o f the labels
T4
T3
A X IA L (Y )
T1
T2
R A D IA L (X )
Figure 4.5: Axisymmetric finite shell element, SHELLS 1 [ANSYS Manual, (1998)].
150
Translational Displacements in x, y, z, directions.
Rotational Displacements about x, y, and z axes.
Normal Forces act on the perpendicular surfaces.
Normal moments.
Reaction Forces
Reaction Moments
Axisymmetrical Load (Uniform Internal Pressure)
Table 4.1 : Definitions of the labels used for the boundary condition.
ANSYS 5 . 3
DEC 4 1996
1 6 :3 0 : 1 8
ELEMENTS
TYPE HUM
J
NFCR
NWOM
af:r
RNOM
PRES
zv =1
• D I S T .4 .3 4
•XF S 2 .3 8 9
•YF = 3 .2 1 7
2-BUFFER
9 .5 ~ R e f . C y l . i n 1c k n = 0 . 0 0 5 8 . m t r 1 : 1008CR ( 7 8 6 ) . KISIOGLU
151
4.7 Development of Non-linear FEA Modeling
A FEA model has been developed using a suitable methodology investigated and
the modeling processes to determine the BP and BFL for each type o f the DOT-39
refrigerant cylinder groups. The modeling was performed in quasi-static, nonlinear large-
deflection and the axisymmetric plane strain conditions. The quasi-static analysis in
nonlinear conditions is used to determine the displacements, stresses, strains, and forces
in the cylinder structure caused by internal loads. Therefore, two different types o f non
linear FEA models, uniform and non-uniform, have been developed using 2D
cylinders has been generated with the effects o f the non-uniform geometrical properties.
However, in the uniform modeling process, the cylinder geometry is considered within
the constant thickness properties. As a result, the bursting tests o f the entire computer-
aided axisymmetric FEA modeling processes, considering all required conditions, are
determine the BP and BFL, some assumptions have been made for some geometrical
features excluded, even though they are part o f the current cylinder models. First, the 4
dimples located at the bottom shell component and the pressure relief dimple (device)
located at the top shell component (see Fig. 2.8) are not considered in these modeling
processes. That is; it is assumed that there are no effects o f these dimples on the BP and
152
the BFL o f the NRV cylinders. Second, since the crown region (including the knuckle
zone) has shown approximately homogenous properties after the drawing process,
homogeneous material properties have been applied to both zones in the modeling
process. Third, it is assumed that the effects o f the weld zones at the valve-and-tubing
area (including the nozzle zone, where the tube is placed (see Fig. 3.8)), are not
there are no residual stresses due to deep drawing and the welding processes.
The uniform FEA models have been developed within 2D axisymmetric and
uniform wall geometrical conditions with the effects o f nonlinear material properties.
Two different types of uniform FEA models, homogenous and non-homogenous, were
developed based on the types o f the material properties and will be explained in the next
sections. Besides the assumptions made above, other additional assumptions have also
been made in the uniform modeling processes. First, it is initially assumed that there is no
thickness variation in the cylindrical shell-wall after deep drawing processes so that the
initial blank-steel-sheet thickness, to, listed on Table 2.3, is utilized. The initial to is
considered a uniform wall in the entire uniform FEA model between points “a” and “b”
as shown in Fig. 4.4. Second, in addition to this, some more assumptions based on the
FEA modeling types are made that can be explained in two cases as follows:
Case I : It is assumed that there are no effects o f the weld zone properties on the
BP and the BFL of the DOT-39 non-refillable cylinders. The weld zone is located
153
circumferentially in the middle of the cylinder to connect two-cylindrical shell
components to form a NRV cylinder (see Fig. 2.10). This assumption was made for both
C ase II : The effects of the weld zone material properties including the zone
thickness, tw, were taken into account for both homogenous and non-homogenous
models. The weld zone material properties, including its thickness variations (see Fig.
3.12), were performed between points "a" and "c” as shown in Fig. 4.4.
are no changes in the material properties o f the cylindrical shells during the cup drawing
process, so that the initial blank steel (SAE-1008) material properties for the cylindrical
FEA modeling processes are performed for both Cases I and II. The SAE-1008 material
between points “a” and "b"’ in Case I as seen in Fig. 4.4. However, in Case II, the weld
zone material properties including the zone thickness, r„., values are adapted between
points “a” and “c” in the homogenous FEA model as shown in Fig. 4.4. The SAE-1008
material properties are used for the remaining zone o f the geometrical model between
points '‘c” and *‘b” as seen in Fig. 4.4. Therefore, the homogeneous model is generated
154
FEA Modeling Process of the Bursting Test
1
A nsynunetric Shell Element &L
SAE-1008 Blank
S tee l Sheet N onlinear FEA Process
M aterial
Properties
FEA Postprocess
Stress Stram
B urst Pressures
Large D e flectio n
Failure Locations
A nalysis
155
4.7.1.2 Nonlinear Non-bomogenous Axisymmetric FEA Modeling
considering the actual drawn shell material properties and constant wall thickness
conditions as seen apparently within the 3D case in Fig. 4.9. The material properties o f
three different drawn shell zones (see Fig's. 3.14 through 3.19) are taken into account for
these modeling processes. In order to perform the drawn shell properties in the modeling,
the 2D geometrical model has been divided into three regions as illustrated Fig. 4.10.
These three zones correspond to the three cylindrical shell regions where the places are
used to measure the drawn shell properties. The divisions of these shell zones are labeled
L I, L2, L3, and L4, representing the corresponding shell regions, which are weld, shell-
generated within the assumptions made in Case I, the LI and L2 zones are incorporated
as one shell region. The non-homogeneous FEA modeling has been generated as well as
the homogeneous model considering the assumptions made in both cases. Case I & II.
Especially the FEA model shown in Fig’s. 4.9 and 4.10 has been created using Case II
conditions, since the weld zone properties are considered in the model generation.
uniform axisymmetric FEA models primarily within the effects o f the non-uniform
156
thickness variations (see Fig. 3.20) are taken into account for the origination o f the non-
uniform FEA models and based on the shell regions, as explained and given in Section
3.8.3. A t the initiation o f the model, the geometry was divided into different small zones
where the thickness variations were performed as shown in Fig’s. 4.10 and 4.11. The
division quantity o f the geometry was done based on the available methods and applied to
perform the thickness variations. These zones also represented the shell regions between
points ‘"a” and "u" (see Fig. 3.12), where these places were used to measure the actual
shell thickness variations. In order to perform the shell thickness variations at the divided
geometrical functions, step and wedge, were applied by conducting the actual measured
values o f the thickness. In addition, the effects of the weld zone material properties
including its thickness variations were investigated at the weld zone in the entire non-
The concept o f the step function, as shown in Fig. 4.12, assumes that the variation
in thickness is not symmetric about the mid-surface o f the shell wall. The general idea is
to perform the step function. The cylindrical shell is divided into a series o f sub
cylinders, each sub-cylinder being considered with a constant wall thickness. [Bickell &
Ruiz, (1967)]. Accordingly, the non-uniform FEA model o f the NRV cylinder has been
divided into 13 sub-cylinders in order to perform the step function as shown in Fig. 4.10.
The thickness variations measured from the shell regions (see Fig. 3.12) were applied to
157
the corresponding areas o f the non-uniform FEA model and developed as shown in Fig.
4.13.
ID=7.5,DOT-39_R.Cylinder,t=0.030,mtrl:SAE-1008+Weld,KISIOGLU
158
AN
Crown Region
Properties
Shell by lâin ck le
Properties
S h e: by W eld
Properties
Weld Zone
Properties
ID:9.5"Ref-Cyln P=400 BaiinTest t=0.038+x SHELL+BELD KISIOGLU
159
ANSYS 5 .3
MAY 21 1997
1 4 :4 6 :4 4
LINES
MAT NUM
*DIST=3.7
hXF = 2 .7 5 1
«YF = 3 .4 0 3
Z-BUFFER
1.3
160
ANSYS 5 , 3
MAY 21 1 9 9 7
1 4 :4 8 :4 3
LINES
REAL N'uiM
»*DIST=3,662
hXF = 2 .7 1
hYF = 3 .3 9 7
Z-BUFFER
L17
Lie
LIS
L14
L13
L 12
L ll
LlO
16
161
A .I.2 .2 Wedge Function
The idea of the wedge function, shown also in Fig. 4.12, assumes that the
thickness variation is nearly symmetric about the neutral axis o f the mid-surface o f the
wall. In other words, the wall thickness is considered as a tapered shell with an irregular
ring at each end of the sub-divisions [Bickell & Ruiz, (1967)J. When the wedge function
is utilized to generate the thickness change, the geometrical model was divided into 19
sub-cylinders as shown in Fig. 4.11. The non-uniform wal 1-thickness o f the cylinder has
been specified as an irregular ring at each division. Therefore, both the step and the
wedge functions were used to generate the thickness variation in order to obtain more
accurate results from the FEA modeling processes. Fig. 4.13 shows two non-uniform
axisymmetric FEA models, using both step and wedge functions within the material non-
linearity conditions.
Different types of loading conditions represented with linear and nonlinear curves
are applied based on the modeling types by pressurizing the cylinders internally in the
FEA simulations. The incremental internal loading (pressure) conditions are performed in
the nonlinear axisymmetric modeling processes from zero pressure until bursting o f the
cylinders. At the initiation o f the loading, the incremental internal pressure is applied and
increased linearly with 10-psi (0.7-MPa) per increment. By programming the APDL, as
the load increases linearly and reaches roughly 80%-90% o f BP o f the cylinder model
162
(depends on the model types), the loading conditions become nonlinear as seen in Fig.
4.14. This is because the material o f the cylinder model becomes fully plastic range in
such a way that plastic deformation takes place. Some selected loading conditions
represented with corresponding curves in terms o f both linear and nonlinear cases are
163
AIM
Non-uniform FEA M odel with Step Function Non-uniform FEA Model with Wedge Ftmcbon
ID :9 .5 "Ref .Cyln_P=400_Bal .Test .Dmpls_t= .038X_SHL-mLD_KISIOGLU
Figure 4.13: Generation o f the thickness variations in the FEA modeling processes by
164
The incremental loading conditions for both homogenous and non-homogenous
axisymmetric FEA models and associated curves named as “Oij30-12” and “She30-12,”
respectively, are shown in Fig. 4.14. These homogenous and non-homogeneous models
represent the cylinders with the ratio o f the design parameters, t/ID = 0.0025. These
incremental loadings were applied to both FEA model types under the conditions o f Case
I. The incremental loads for both homogenous and non-homogenous FEA models were
performed in Case II are shown as curves named as ■‘OW 95-30” and AW 95-30”,
respectively, in Fig. 4.15. Additionally, these FEA models were generated for the
different NRV cylinders with the design parameter ratio, t/ID = 0.0032, as illustrated in
Fig. 4.14.
The loading increments for both homogenous and non-homogenous FEA models
were performed linearly up to points “a” and “b”, respectively, as shown in Fig’s. 4.14
and 4.15. When the linear loadings achieved these points, the cylinder materials entered
the fully plastic range and changed to nonlinear behavior. Therefore, these points, “a” and
"b”, can be called “break-down points” for the elastic-plastic range o f the material
properties. After these breakdown points, the nonlinear loadings increase gradually, since
the fully strain plasticity conditions are taking place. When the loads achieve points “c”
and “d” , the loads shift suddenly to a linear condition for a short burst o f time as seen in
Fig’s. 4.14 and 4.15. The loadings achieve the bursting loads o f the model at these points,
“c” and “d”, so that these points are called “bursting points” for the modeling processes.
After the bursting points, the loads reach points “e” and “f \ representing the initial
165
programming of FEA simulations.
Likewise, three types o f loading conditions are applied in the simulations based
on the FEA model types named as “She95-32”, “SheW95-32” and “SheW T95-32” as
shown in Fig. 4.16. The FEA models correspond to the DOT-39 refrigerant cylinders
with the design parameter ratio o f t/ID = 0.0034. The legends of the loading-curves
both Cases I and II, respectively. However, the loading curve, “SheWT95-32” , represents
the loading condition o f the non-uniform FEA model. The load increments o f the applied
load for the non-uniform FEA model are also illustrated as a function o f the loading sub
step with the legend o f “Load Incrmnt” as shown in Fig. 4.16. The function for the curve
o f the “Load Incrmnt” is represented with the secondary y-axis. The explanations o f the
points "a”, “b”, "c”, “d”. ”e", ”f ’, "g” “j ” and “k” shown in Fig. 4.16 can be specified
with similar definitions made above for the relevant points shown in Fig. 4.14. Similarly,
the points “a”, "b”. and "c” represent the “break-down points” for the elastic-plastic
range o f the material o f the model. Points “d”, ”e”, and “f% indicating the “bursting
points”, represent the corresponding FEA modeling types. Finally, points “g”, “j ”, and
“k” indicate the initial-loading estimates for the loading conditions corresponding to
166
Loading C onditions
750 T
700
Q. Shc30-12
650
Orj30-12 I
600
550
500
450
-I 400
350
Step
Figure 4.14: Case I; Loading conditions for both homogeneous and non-homogeneous
models.
167
L oading C onditions
non
850
800 AW95-30
750
700
650
OW95-30
•o 600
-I 550
500
450
400
350
300
250
100 125 150 175 200 225 250 275
Step
Figure 4.15: Case II, Loading conditions for both homogeneous and non-homogeneous
FEA models.
168
Loading Conditions
1 k --
Loatllncnant
300 P
■ n
1j I
1 g
750
1
-o
cs
o
700
650 — B.J
bÀ
1c
1
1d
SbeS 5-32
— Je
SheW95-3:>
- She
fr -
--
-■
1
%
e
600 t V.
/ s
r '— - ■—
550
Figure 4.16: Loading conditions for the uniform and non-uniform FEA Model [Kisioglu
etal, (2 0 0 0 )].
169
4.9 D eterm in ation s o f BP o f the DO T-39 N on -refillab le C ylin d ers
In general terms, resistance of the model to the burst or failure primarily depends
on the strength o f its material. When the DOT-39 non-refillable cylinders are subjected to
internal pressure loading incrementally, the internal pressure “■/?” reaches above some
critical value, ’'p>Pc\ then the system achieves an unstable behavior. As the ‘V ’
increases from zero stage through ''pc \ at the instant o f the '"p=pc \ a bifurcation state
takes place in such a way that the maximum stress o f the FEA model reaches the
corresponding material property (defined by the UTS). In this case, the maximum stress
tends to tear the wall o f the cylinder so that the bursting phenomenon begins to occur.
well as large strain distribution is an important item and should be allowed into the
design considerations. The proceeding o f the nonlinear analysis has been made under the
plane strain assumption that the material is isotropic, recommended for large strain
analysis. Since the material stress-strain properties input is in terms o f TSS, the large
deflection and large strain behavior o f the model are associated with plastic material
response. Therefore, the effective strain plays an important rule during the failures o f the
cylinder model. When the internal pressure applied to the cylinders reaches a certain
critical value, the large deflection behavior takes place in such a way that the fully plastic
strain o f the FEA model reaches the ultimate strain value o f the material. The
deformations at the selected points from both homogenous and non-homogenous FEA
models during the burst simulations are shown in Fig. 4.17 and 4.18, respectively. These
large deformations represent the large deflections and/or large strains obtained in terms o f
170
different nonlinear behaviors based on the material properties, which are ductile and
brittle used in the homogeneous and non-homogeneous FEA models, respectively. When
the ductile material such as SAE-1008 properties are taken into account for the
homogenous FEA modeling, the large deflections are obtained in long burst-loading time
as shown in Fig. 4.17. However, the large deflections are found in a short burst-loading
time, when the brittle materials such as drawn shell properties are considered in FEA
ANSYS 5.3
DEC a 1396
11:18:39
P0ST26
tliC •DIST=.660923
-XF =.449797
-YF =.411838
-:F =.5
2-BUFFER
320 AOO
240 400 560 730
Figure 4.17: Nodal deflection of critical points o f the DOT-39 refrigerant cylinders for
171
ANS
JUN 2 1999
17:58:00
P0ST26
MidiUeX
CrovvnY*
.6 4
CyKniiqY
>
.04
- .O S
Burst Ti me
Figure 4. 18; Large deflection at the selected points o f the non-homogenous FEA model.
172
There are several methods such as Von Mises yield criterion (e.g., DET) and
maximum principal stress theory (MPST) to realize the bursting failure o f the cylinder in
the FEA modeling simulation processes. Using the maximum plastic strain obtained from
the FEA simulations and comparing with the corresponding ultimate strain o f the cylinder
material can also indicate the bursting failure. In addition, the bursting phenomenon can
According to the MPST, for example, the maximum principal stress obtained
from the FEA model at the instant of burst time can be compared with the corresponding
UTS o f the material. The values of the maximum principal stresses (max_PS) found at
the failed shell regions by burst obtained from the FEA simulations and corresponding
material’s UTS are listed on Table 4.2. The bursting failure analysis, based on the
comparison o f the max_PS values obtained from both homogenous and non-homogenous
FEA models with related material properties, is explained on Table 4.2. For example
reading from Table 4.2, in the homogenous FEA modeling in the Case II conditions, the
max PS value (48863-psi) obtained at the shell-by-weld region (see Fig. 4.4) o f the FEA
model is found higher than the corresponding material UTS value (48510-psi). Since the
failure starting point is in the shell-by-weld region close to the weld zone, the weld zone
has not failed yet. That is; tlie weld zone’s max PS value, (53751-psi), obtained from the
FEA model, is less than the corresponding weld material UTS value (84900-psi). A
similar burst failure analysis can be done with the data o f the non-homogenous FEA
173
Bursting Failure Analysis
FEA Model Types Homogenous FEA Model Non-homognoues FEA Model
Modeling Cases Case n Case n
Selected Regions : Cylindrical Shell Weld Zone Cylindrical Shell Weld Zone
Matterial Types : SEA-1008 Weld SheU-by-weld Weld
Units: psi (IVIpa) psi (Mpa) psi (Mpa) psi (iVIpa)
FEA Model- A'laxJ*S 48863 (337) 53751 (371) 84206 (581) 70318 (485)
Table 4.2. The Maximum Stresses at the burst locations and corresponding material
properties (UTS).
Effective (equivalent) stress and strain (von Mises) values are obtained at the
selected nodes including the maximum deformed node where the FEA model fails first
and the equivalent stress reaches maximum, while the effective strain exceeds
corresponding material properties. The maximum deformed node for the non-
homogenous FEA model within the Case I assumptions is foimd at point “a” as shown in
Fig. 4.4. The equivalent stress strain values plotted as a function o f burst-time for this
point "a" are also shown in Fig’s. 4.19 and 4.20, respectively. The values o f the
equivalent stress, 76885-psi (530.1-Mpa), and strain 0.82 at point “a”, as shown in Fig’s.
174
4.19 and 4.20 respectively, are obtained higher than corresponding material properties,
E q u i v a l e n t S t r e s s e s ( Vo n M i s e s )
80000
70000
60000
105
&
T 50000 204
40000
> 30000
IS E Q V Mi dd le
20000
91 S EQVCyKnuc-j
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
8 u re t i n g T i m e
Figure 4.19: Equivalent (effective) stresses at the burst instant o f the non-homogeneous
175
A N r
JUN 2 1999
18:15:15
P0ST26
Crown
Figure 4.20: Equivalent (effective) plastic strain at the instant o f burst o f the non-
176
The prediction of the burst failure o f the nonlinear FEA modeling can also be
identified from the non-convergent simulations process as shown on Table 4.3. The
have their own different convergence tolerance values. The Newton-Raphson method
evaluates the out-of-load vector, which is the difference between the restoring forces (the
loads corresponding to the element stresses) and the applied internal pressure [ANSYS
Manual, (1998)]. In these nonlinear FEA simulations, the convergence criteria are
performed checking on the combinations o f both forces and moments. The last three
iterations at the end of the non-homogeneous FEA simulations processes (in Case I) are
given on Table 4.3 at the loading time of 653.43, which represents the bursting time. The
initial estimation o f the loading time for this FEA modeling simulation is 900 as shown
on Table 4.3. In this process, the non-convergent item, the force, is the stored element
stresses become higher than applied load. As it can be seen in the iteration process on
Table 4.3, the convergence norm o f the force calculated each time is getting higher than
the previous ones. Therefore, it can be noted that this idea is in good agreement w ith the
In the process of determining the BP of the NRV cylinder, the procedures used to
predict the burst failures in the FEA simulations are considered. From the findings in the
burst failure analyses, it is noted that the non-convergent loading time o f the simulation
processes represents the BP o f the FEA model. Consequently, the BP results based on the
FEA modeling processes are plotted as a function o f the ratios o f the wall thickness to
177
inner diameter (t / ID) as shown in Fig’s. 4.21 through 4.24. The BP results are obtained
from the FEA modeling for the three groups o f the DOT-39 refrigerant cylinders. Fig.
4.21 illustrates two curves o f the BP represented by two different legends “SAE-1008”
and “Actual Shell” resulting from both homogenous and non-homogeneous FEA models,
respectively. These BP values are obtained for the NRV cylinders group with the ratios o f
0.0027<r//£)<0.014 as shown in Fig. 4.21. Fig. 4.22 depicts that the BP values o f the
NRV cylinders having design parameters with the ratios o f 0.0021 <t//D <0.011 are
carried out using both homogenous and non-homogenous FEA modeling processes. Both
of these FEA models have been simulated under both Case 1 & 11 conditions. The effects
o f the weld zone material properties including its thickness variation on the BP values are
illustrated obviously in Fig. 4.22. The BP values o f the DOT-39 refrigerant cylinders
using both uniform and non-uniform FEA modeling are plotted as a function o f t/ID, in
the range o f 0.0015<//7D<0.0085 as shown in Fig. 4.23. The results o f the non-uniform
FEA model are illustrated by the label “Non-Uniform” . The uniform FEA models
including only non-homogenous models represented with the labels “ActualShell” and
“Act.Shell+W eld”, are performed in both Case 1 & 11, respectively, as seen in Fig. 4.23.
using the FEA modeling approaches are determined by the validations o f the
experimental result as shown in Fig. 4.24. The BP results o f the NRV cylinder group with
the design parameter ratios in the range o f 0 .0 0 2 1 <//70<0.011 are plotted as a function o f
t/ID in this figure. These results investigated are obtained using both bursting model
178
uniform”, and "Experiment”, which are named based on the FEA modeling types. The
first two curves illustrated and labeled by "Actual Shell” and "A.Shell+Weld” are the BP
results obtained by using the uniform FEA model in Cases I and II, respectively. The
third curve labeled "Non-uniform” is the BP results for the non-uniform FEA model and
the last curve labeled "Experiment” shows the BP results investigated from the
experimental burst tests. As it can be seen in Fig. 4.24, the BP curve for the non-uniform
FEA model is higher than that o f the uniform models. Since the non-uniform
geometrical non-uniformity, the results from the non-uniform model are most closely
experimental burst tests (see Fig's. 4.2 and 4.3), and failure occurs at the junction o f the
cylindrical shell and knuckle regions, which are indicated at point "e” as shown in Fig.
4.4. This point, defined as the failure location o f the refrigerant cylinders, is also shown
w ith a node number "N98” of the FEA model in Fig. 4.25. In the burst experiment, the
cylinder specimens fracture at point "e” in such a way that the burst tearing is continuing
longitudinally through the weld zone as shown in Fig. 4.3. When the burst tearing meets
w ith the weld zone, it continues on circumferentially about the rotation axis o f the shell.
179
Ti m e - 653.43 Load Seep- 1 Subscep- . ’b Equilibrium Iteration^ 4998.
“ Convergence Norm= 3138.7 Previous Norm- 3186.7
FORCE CONVERGENCE VALUE = 3191. CR I T E R I O N ^ 55.72
MOM E N T CONVERGENCE VALUE = ü.üOCOEtOO CR I T E R I O N : 7.514 <<< CONVE R G ED
EQ U I L ITER4993 COMPLETED. N E W TPIANG MATRIX. MA:< DCF INC= 0.1082E-Q2
LINE SEARCH PAR.AI4ETER = 1.000 SCALED .MAX DCF INC = 0.1082E-02
E leme n t Formation Element^ 130 Cum. Iter.- 9217 C?= 51130.739
T i m e = 653.43 Load Scep= 1 Dubnrep= 75 Equilibrium Iteration: 4999.
F Convergence Norm- (190.8 Previous Norm: 3188.7
FORCE '■'OM'^ERC.ENCE var UP - 3193 C R I T ERION: 55.72
MOM E N T CONVERGENCE VALUE ^ U.OCOOE+JO CRITERION: 7.514 « < CONVE R G ED
E Q U I L ITER4999 COMPLETED. N E W TRl.ANG MATRIX. MA X DOF INC= 0.1083E-J2
LINE SE.ARCH ?/vRAJ4ETER = l.COC SCALED M A X DGF INC = 0.1083E-02
E lement Formation Element: 160 Cum. Iter.: 9218 Cp: 51136.859
Time : 653.41 Load Step* 1 Substep: 15 Equilibrium Iteration: 5000.
r Convergence Norm- 1192.8 Previous Norm: 3190.8
FORCE CONVERGENCE VALUE : 3195. C R I T ERION: 55.73
MOME N T C C . W ERGENCE VALUE = O.OOOOE»00 C R I T ERION: 7.515 < « CONVE R G ED
E Q U I L ITER50')0 COMPLETED. NEIV TRI.ANC MATRIX. MA X DOF INC: 0.1084E-32
LINE SEARCH PARAMETER = l.COC SCALED MA X DOF INC % 0.1084E-02
Ele m e n t Formation Element 13Ü Cum. Iter.: 9219 CP: 51142.770
Ti m e : 6 5 3 . 4 3 Load Step- 1 Substep: 75 Equilibrium Iteration: 5001.
F Convergence Norm: 3194.8 Previous Norm: 3192.8
FORCE CONVERGENCE VALUE = 3197. C R I T E R I O N : 55.73
MOMENT C O N VERGENCE VALUE : O.OCOOF.tOO C R I T E R I O N : 7.516 « < CONVE R G ED
* " ERROR ' ' CP: 51143.289 TIME: 14:56:20
S o l u t i o n not c onverged at time 653.43 (load step 1 substep 75).
Run terminated.
•*» W A R NING C?= 51144.969 TIME= 00:02:14
T h e uncor.vnrqed solution 'identified an time 900 n u b step 999999) is
cutout for analysis debug purposes.
E lem e n t Output Element 13 Cum. Iter. 9218 CP: 51145.129
Ti m e : 900.00 Load Step- 1 Substep:999999 E q u i librium Iteration: 5000.
F Convergence Norm: 3195.8 Previous Norm: 3194.8
R E S T A R T I N F O R M A T I O N
R E A S O N FOR T E R M I N A T I O N UNCO N V E R G E D S O LUTION
FI L E S NEEDED FOR RESTARTING .............. file.osav
f i l e .emat
file.db
T I M E OF LAS- SO L U T I O N ................... 653.07
T I M E AT START O F THE LOAD STEP . . . . O.OCOOQEvOO
T I M E AT END O F T H E LOAD S T E P ......... 900.00
simulation.
180
a urst P r e s s u r e of D OT-39 R e f r i g e r a n t C y l i n d e r s (ID: 7.5)
3500
300 0
I-
W
(II
3 1000
CD
500
Figure 4.21: The BP values o f the NRV cylinders using the homogenous and non-
181
B u r s t P r e s s u r e s o f DOT - 39 R e f r i g e r a n t C y l i n d e r s (ID:9.S-in)
2250
2000 3 E A - 10 0 5
-a-SEA -1000+W E L D
1750
- ( ^ A c t u a l S hel l
1250
100 0
750
500
250
0.002 0.003 0 004 0.005 0 006 0.007 0 008 0 009 0.01 0.01 1
Figure 4.22: The BP results o f the DOT-39 non-refillable cylinders using both
homogenous and non-homogenous FEA modeling processes under both Case I & II
conditions.
182
B u r s t P r e s s u re s of DOT-39 R e frig e ra n t C ylin d ers (ID:12-In)
2 00 0
1900
1800
A c tu a l S h e ll
1700
1600 A c t .S h e ll+ W e ld
1500
N o n -U n ifo rm
1400
1300
1200
1100
1000
900
800
700
600
500
400
300
0.0015 0 0025 0 0035 0.0045 0.0055 0.0065 0.0075 0.0085
t/ID
Figure 4.23: The BP values of the DOT-39 refrigerant cylinders using non-homogenous
(under both Case I and Case II) and non-uniform FEA models.
183
Burst P ressure of DOT-39 Refrigerant Cylinders
2400
2200 Act ual Shell
A 1800 - 6 - Non-uniform
^
2 1600 o Experiment
w
4> 1400
i 1200
“ 1000
3
CO
800
600
400
0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005 0.006 0.007 0.008 0.009 0.01 0.011
t/ID
Figure 4.24; The Determination of the BP o f the DOT-39 refrigerant cylinders using both
184
In the case of computer modeling for bursting the DOT-39 refrigerant cylinders,
the BFL is obtained in different places, based on the nonlinear FEA modeling types. The
BFL investigated from the different FEA models are shown in Fig. 4.25. The burst
However, in Case II, the BFL o f the NRV cylinder is obtained in the region o f “shell-by-
weld” shown between the points "N16” and "N25” illustrated in Fig. 4.25. In addition,
the exact BFL from the computer-aided FEA modeling is obtained in the region o f “shell-
by-knuckle” shown by point "N98”, when the non-uniform FEA model is considered in
the simulation processes as shown in Fig. 4.25. This location is confirmed by the
experimental results in such a way that the BFL is determined using the computer-aided
thickness for a given shape that would safely sustain its expected loading conditions in
service. By the requirements o f the rules, the bursting failure including plastic
Consequently, the DOT-39 non-refillable cylinders must be sufficient to store and carry
service. For these reasons, the BP o f the NRV cylinders must be specified and well
corresponding curves for tfiree DOT-39 non-refillable refrigerant cylinder groups (see
185
Fig. 2.7) provided in Fig. 4.26. These three curves named as ID-7.5, ID-9.5, and ID-12,
represent the three groups o f the NRV cylinders that have the design parameters ratios
respectively.
Æ. OCT 16 1998
m 17:15:18
NODAL SOLUTION
STEP=1
SUB =999999
N112 TIME=700
USUM
N98 &a RSYS=0
DMX =.720832
SMN =.545008
SMX =.720832
ZV =1
*DIST=7.572
Z-BUFFER
IX
.545008
S .555997
S .566986
.577975
«X .588964
.599953
.610942
.621931
.63292
1=3 .643909
.654898
.665887
= 3 .676876
E=] .687865
.698854
.709843
.720832
186
B u r s t P r e s s u r e s o f t h e D O T -39 R e f r i g e r a n t C y l i n d e r s
000
2750
2500 ID: 7 . 5 - i n
m 2250
ID: 9 . 5 - i n
&
in 2000
«
3 1750
10
10
4l _> 1500
a.
(0
125 0
u
3
CD
1000
750
500
250
0.01 0. 02 0.03 0.04 0D7 0J)8 0.09 0.1
W a l l t h i c k n e s s (in)
187
C H A PTER 5
D E S IG N O F IM P E R F E C T E N D -C L O SU R E S
planning and implementing in the analysis modeling processes. From the standpoint o f
engineering design and analysis, the definition o f the problem comes significantly before
going to proceed to the methods and rules for the solution processes.
The objective o f this chapter is to design and analyze the imperfect end-closures,
the second primary components of the DOT specification cylinders, for the physical
imperfect end-closures (see Section 2.5). When the DOT specification cylinders are
subjected to the TP, the physical phenomena such as buckling (flip-flop) and ballooning
take place permanently at the bottom end-closure o f the cylinders. By the definitions o f
the regulations, the TP is 3/2 times the SP. W hen the end-closures have such permanent
phenomena, it is evidently realized that the cylinder is losing its primary required
188
function, which is the stationary position o f standing on the feet. According to the
regulations, the DOT specification cylinders are designed based on the TP, so that these
cylinders have to be tested at the TP to check the failure o f the design requirements, such
suitable FEA modeling to predict the collapse (failure) pressure for buckling, including
ballooning problems. The results o f the study will be compared with corresponding
developed to prevent the buckling and ballooning events at the bottom end o f the DOT
specification cylinders.
The ballooning phenomenon has occurred at the bottom end-closure o f the DOT-
39 non-refillable cylinders. When the NRV cylinders are pressurized until their test
pressure (TP) and then the pressure is released, the cylinder is permanently deformed,
permanently, the cylinder loses its stability because o f the ballooning phenomenon. The
ballooning formation specifically occurs among the 4-dimples, which are located at the
bottom o f the cylinder as shown in Fig. 5.1. The 4-dimples provide a stationary position
to the cylinder so that the cylinder is placed on these dimples. In addition, the ballooning
deformation is a residual deflection since the pressure is released after the cylinder is
189
Consider the horizontal plane, where the cylinder can only sit on the 4 dimples
located at the bottom because o f the positive clearance between points "a” and “b” as
shown in Fig. 5.2. The positive difference between these two points at the bottom is
designated and produced about 0.099-in (2.52-mm). Since the ballooning formation
although residual deflection, the negative difference between these two points, "a" and
"b” is taken place instead of positive difference as shown in Fig. 5.2. That is; the positive
value o f the difference between these two points, ”a" and "b”. is becoming a negative
The dimples are originally located with the circumferential radius o f DL (called
dimple location) at the bottom o f the DOT-39 non-refillable cylinders as seen in Fig. 5.2.
The manufacturer realized that the cylinders are losing their stability by testing the
cylinders at the TP because of the ballooning formation. The rate o f this instability
problem of the NRV cylinders under the TP is about 20%. that is. 20% o f the cylinders
are losing their stationary position so that they cannot sit on the dimples. The company
has eliminated this problem by performing the trial-and-error method to avoid the tooling
cost. In order to avoid the ballooning deflection, the manufacturer has selected a new
location for the dimples by reducing the dimension o f the DL about 70%. The new
dimple location (DI.svu). chosen closer to the point "a" at the crown region as shown in
Fig. 5.2. can be defined as DIwu = DL-Lx, in such way that tlie ballooning phenomenon
has been eliminated. However, the is bringing out a new problem with the
cylinders. That is; the DI.w»- plays an important negative-role in improving the cylinder
stability upon resting on the floor. When the cylinder is sitting on the dimples in the
190
horizontal plane, the cylinder can be tilted/overtumed easily by an oscillating
phenomenon.
Handle
Pressure Relief
Torispherical
Dimple
Head \
Knuckle
Top Shell
Component
Weld Zone
2L
Bottom Shell
Component
4 Dimples for Feet
Knuckle
Bottom-end of Cylinder
Figure 5.1 : The DOT-39 non-re tillable cylinders sit on the 4-dimples.
191
Axis o f Rotation
DL
Knuckle
Dimple
0.099-in
phenomenon are basically jointed by welding the torispherical bottomed cylindrical shells
with the convex end-closure as illustrated in Fig. 5.3. The problem associated with the
convex-shaped end-closure as shown in Fig. 5.4 is buckling (flip-flop), when the DOT-
4BA cylinders are tested at the TP. at which the cylinder must not fail. However, it was
realized that the bottom convex-end closure is buckling before reaching the TP during the
experiments when both the cylindrical shell and the end-closure have the same thickness,
/. as seen in Fig 5.3. That is, these cylinders are losing their design requirements, such as
192
the flip-flop event, at the bottom end-closure, at a pressure less than their TP values.
When the flip-flop phenomenon occurs at the bottom convex-end closure so that the
instability position for the cylinder takes place, this leads to change in the shape o f the
convex-end to a concave one as depicted in Fig. 5.5. The manufacturer has also
eliminated this buckling problem with these cylinders by selecting the new end-closure
L t Cylindrical
Shell
1 Covex-end
1 Closure
Weld Zone
193
.Axis û f Rotation
Figure 5.4: The geometry o f the convex end-closure of the D 0T-4BA retlllable cylinders.
ANSYS 5.6
Onaiial Convex-eiid Closure MAR 31 2000
12 :00:51
NODAL SOLO
USOM(.AVG)
- N155
194
To predict the physical phenomena, ballooning and buckling (flip-flop), two
conducted in this study. The results for ballooning and buckling obtained from the
computer modeling approaches are compared and validated by the experimental ones.
The experimental tests for the investigation of the buckling pressures o f both
ballooning and flip-flop phenomena were performed in the lab facilities of the major U.S.
cylinders at the TP. the same methods and apparatus, used in the burst test and explained
in Section 4.2. were used in both ballooning and buckling tests. However, these cylinders
The ballooning experiment is performed on the NRV cylinder groups with the
design parameter ratios of t/ID = 0.0034 and t/ID - 0.0026, where t is the minimum
thickness after the drawn shells. The ballooning experiments for each cylinder group are
applied on the 6 different cylinder samples and the experimental ballooning results o f the
experiments are listed in Table 5.1. The procedure of the ballooning experiment is
applied step-by-step for the given pressure values in the first column o f the table. W hen
the cylinders are subjected to each o f these pressure values, the pressure is released after
holding at least 10-sec. After each time o f testing the cylinders at these given pressures, it
was observed that the points "a'’ and “b" shown in Fig. 5.2 have been deformed
195
permanently. This deformation is the residual deflection, since the applied pressure is
released. The difference between points “a"’ and ”b” shown in Fig. 5.2 was measured and
the values for the cylinder sample 1 are given in the second column of Table 5.1. As can
be seen in Table 5.1, the difference between these two points is decreasing whereas the
applied pressure is increased. When the cylinders having the ratio of t/ID = 0.0034 are
subjected to 4U0-psi (2.8-Mpa). the difference between these two points becomes a
negative value (-0.026) for the first sample in such a way that the permanent ballooning
deformations take place. The average difference o f these two nodes' deflections obtained
from six specimens tested in experiments is reproduced from Table 5.1 as given on Table
5.2. The applied pressure values and the average differences between points "a" and "b"
(see Fig. 5.2) listed on Table 5.2 are taken as the base loads for the computer modeling
processes.
The buckling experiment for the D0T-4BA refillable cylinders was also
performed in the same lab facilities o f the cylinder manufacturer. According to the
information received from the manufacturer, the buckling experiment was applied to a
number of D0T-4BA cylinder specimens (about 20) selected randomly, which have the
design parameter ratio o f t/ID = 0.011. and the TP>750-psi (5.2-Mpa). ./\t the initiation of
the experiment, the cylinders are subjected to the TP hydrostatically by filling the
cylinder with water. As it was observed in the experiment, the flip-flop (buckling) takes
place permanently at the convex-end closure before reaching the TP value o f the cylinder.
The buckling pressure (& ) distribution is obtained as 650psi <Pc< 750-psi in between
from the buckling experiment. The average buckling pressures for these cylinder
196
12 " PSl BALLONING BOTTOM TEST
SAMPLE. S2 «3 74 75 76 TOTAL' AVERAGE:
PSl
UNTESTED Ü 12 3 0 12 5 13 0 0 ". 2 4 0 "24 0 (27 0 623 0103833333
325 00 Ü 0 O': 6 0 O': 3 0 050 0 05à 0 054 0.312 0.052
350 020 0 034 0 C 35 IJ U24 Û 02': (' j 3i 0.15 0.025
375 ■0 000 0 ':C5 0 004 0 L .". a 0 0 04 -0.001 ■0.00016667
400 ■0 043 •0C 32 ■Û C33 ■040 0 044 •3 0 3 6 -0 188 ■0.03133333
425 •0 074 0 005 0 •BOD®425 .070 'B 0D ,ï425 ■0 0 " 0 O'.iL ■0.34 ■0.05666667
450 ■Û 103 •OOD@450 C ':3a -BOD,Y450 0 L'(!2 •BOD...Ï440 0 '71: •Q CD.g440 ■0.202 ■0.101
Table 5.1 : The experimental results o f the ballooning test o f the NRV cylinders.
E xp erim e ta l R esults fo r B a llo o ning
of the D O T -39 R e frig e ra n t C ylinder
with t/ID = 0 .0 0 3 4
w all thickness under te s t p re ssure
Table 5.2: Experimental test results of the ballooning of the NRV cylinder t/ID = 0.0034.
The finite element commercial software. ANSYS, versions 5.5 and 5.6, is
employed to predict the permanent ballooning formation occurs at bottom the end-closure
of the DOT-39 non-refillable cylinder. In the FEA modeling processes, by performing the
APDL functions, the material nonlinearity and the geometry non-uniformity are taken
into account. An APDL program, for example, given in Appendix C. is developed for
requiring the stress calculations in x-, y-, and z-directions. In order to create the 3D FEA
model, the current design parameters o f the NRV cylinders including the dimple
198
geometry and its location (see Fig’s 2.7 and 2.10) are considered in the quarter-symmetry
of the 3D form by using the mid-surface o f the shell thickness as shown in Fig. 5.6. The
geometry o f the model is divided into different areas that enable it to develop an
appropriate finite element mesh generation. Based on the generated geometrical model, a
suitable axisymmetric boundary condition applied and a finite shell element are selected
from the ANSYS element library so that the SHELL 181 element is considered in the
applications.
In the selection o f the finite shell. SHELL181, element, the FEA modeling
specifications such as thin-shell structure, material nonlinearity, large strain analysis, and
suitable shell element for analyzing the thin-shell structure of the DOT-39 refrigerant
cylinder modeling for large strain analysis in the ballooning simulations. The SHELL181
element, as shown in Fig. 5.7. is specified with 4 nodes and 6 -DOF associated at each
node. Three of the DOFs define the translational nodal displacements in the x-. y-. and z-
directions and the other three DOFs specify the rotational nodal displacements about the
X -, y-. and z-axes. Besides, it is considered that the SHELL 181 element has a triangular
element option and is used as a filler element at the dimple area while generating the
modeling process. In addition, this element is well suited for large strain nonlinear
locations, and coordinate system of the SHELL181 element are shown in Fig. 5.7.
199
I D : 9 . 5 ’’R .C y ln _ P = 4 0 0 _ B a l .T e sC _ C = 0 . 038X_SHELL+;-IELD_KISIOGLU
200
THETA
K;.
Figure 5.7: The finite shell element. SHELLI81 [.ANSYS Manual. (1998)].
201
5.3.2 Selection of Axisymmetric Boundary Conditions
In the selection of the boundary conditions (BCs), the model specifications are
considered, which are axisymmetric with respect to the geometrical and the loading
conditions. In the case o f the loading conditions, the FEA models o f the DOT-39 non-
refillable cylinders are subjected to the incremental uniform internal pressure until the
TP. The incremental uniform load is performed at 10-psi (0.69-Mpa) per step during the
value, the pressure is released. In order to perform the BCs for the DOF for nodal
limitations, the nodes located between points "a" and "b" (see Fig. 5.6 and 5.8) have been
displacements are constrained in all three, x-. y-. and z-directions. Furthermore, the nodes
located between points "a" and "c" in this figure have been constrained to translational
displacements in the y-direction and the rotational displacements are constrained in all
three, x. y, and z directions. Additionally, the nodes located between points “b” and "c"
have also been constrained to translational displacements in the x-direction and the
rotational displacements are restricted in all three, x-. y-. and z-directions as seen in Fig.
5.8.
Using these BCs and the SHELL181 element specifications, the FEA modeling is
202
ballooning deformations as shown in Fig. 5.8. The FEA model has been conducted in
properties are applied as shown in Fig. 5.8. In order to do this, the isotropic hardening
option in the ANSYS. uses the Von Mises yield criteria coupled with an isotropic work
hardening assumption that is applied by using the TB family of commands in APDL. The
TB commands are used in the APDL to define the nonlinear material property
relationships in terms of a TSS data table. These properties are defined with
corresponding TSS curves o f the drawn shells including weld zone properties as shown in
Fig's. 3.14. 3.16. and 3.18. In addition, the geometrical non-uniformity requires
cylindrical shell thickness variations as well as the weld zone thickness variation
generated in the modeling processes by using the step function (see Fig. 4.12)
to predict the ballooning formation, some assumptions have been conducted. Since the
crowTi region including the knuckle zone has shown approximately homogenous
properties after the drawing process, the homogeneous material properties are applied for
both zones in the modeling process. Second, it is also assumed that the effects o f the weld
zones at the valve-and-tubing area including the nozzle zone, where the tube is placed
(see Fig. 3.8). are not incorporated into these modeling processes. Third, the thickness
variation and material property o f the dimples including the filler area circumferentially
(see Fig. 5.6) between dimples and the crown have no changes after dimpling during the
203
drawing processes so that the initial thickness o f the non-drawn sheet thickness (to) and
the crown region material property are performed in the dimple areas. Finally, from the
manufacturing viewpoint, an assumption is made that there are no residual stresses due to
D im ple Dimple
Crown Shell
M aterai as Drawn
Knuckle
Knuckle
Drawn
Shell by
Knuckle
Drawn
Shell by
W eld
W eld
Non-uniform FEA M odel
usmg STEP Function Non-homogenous FE A M odel y Zone
a
ID :9.5"R ef-C yin_P = 400_B aiinT e3t_C = Q .038+ x_S H E L L +W E L D _K IS IO <jL U
204
5.3.4 Predictions of Ballooning using FEA Modeling
study is representing the DOT-39 non-re tillable refrigerant cylinder with the design
parameters ratio o f t/ID = 0.0034 and the TP value is 400-psi (2.8-Mpa). This FEA model
IS subjected to the incremental internal pressure from zero pressure until the I P value.
The incremental internal pressure is applied and increased linearly with 10-psi (0.7-Mpa)
per increment from the beginning until the TP. Since the material property o f the cylinder
remains in the range of the elastic-plastic state, the loading conditions are sustained
linearly until TP in this application. The absolute convergence criteria o f these loading
conditions applied in the nonlinear simulation processes are performed and plotted as a
function o f the cumulative iteration number as illustrated in Fig. 5.9. In the APDL
applications, two convergence criteria, forces and moments, are selected in the conditions
of the Newton-Raphson method (see Section 4.7) and performed in the simulations. The
"F" sign designates the force criteria and the "M ” sign represents the moment o f
convergence criteria as shown in Fig. 5.9. As it can be seen in this figure, both o f these
In order to proceed with the ballooning tests, based on the TP values given on
Table 5.2. 4 different times of the ballooning trial, for the pressures 325-psi. 350-psi.
375-psi and 400-psi, have been conducted in FEA modeling processes as well as in
experimental tests. That is; In the first trial, the cylinder models are subjected to
incremental internal pressure loading from zero pressure to 325-psi and then the pressure
is released and thereafter the deflections are evaluated between the points N32 and N798
205
as seen in Fig. 5.10. Similarly, the second, third and fourth trials for the ballooning tests
in the FEA modeling as well as in the experiments are performed for the pressure values
When the internal loading reaches the TP along with the convergence norms, then
the pressure is released in the simulation processes to the pressure-free state. Also,
releasing the pressure is done incrementally with a 10-psi (0.7-Mpa) per increment from
the TP to zero pressure. After internal pressure is released, the residual deformation is
obtained as shown in Fig. 5.10. As it can be obviously seen from Fig. 5.10, the maximum
residual deflection occurs at the crown region. In order to predict the ballooning
deformation, the magnitude o f the residual deflections of the points (nodes), "N32" and
”N 798'\ are compared with each other on the horizontal plane. In this evaluation o f the
deflection, the residual nodal-displacements o f these two nodes are considered only in the
y-direction. These displacements are designated with the symbol o f " U c " and " u ,/y "
representing the nodes N32 and N798, respectively, as indicated in Fig. 5.11. As expected
from the nonlinear FEA simulations, the behaviors of the nodal displacements o f these
nodes obtained as nonlinear are plotted as a function of the incremental loading time as
seen in Fig. 5.12. These nodal displacements o f these nodes also represent both
conditions o f the loading, pressurize and then release the pressure, in the simulation
processes.
At the initiation o f the incremental loading time o f the simulation, the magnitudes
of the displacement for the N32 is lower than that of the displacement o f the N798 as
seen in Fig. 5.12. However, the nodal displacement behavior o f the N32 is increasing
faster, while increasing the loading increment and met at point ''a ” with the displacement
206
o f the N798 about the loading time o f 255, as illustrated in Fig. 5.12. As a result, the
expansion of the crown deflection at N32 after the coincident is rapidly increasing, so
that the large difference of deflection between these two nodes can take place. Therefore,
the displacement o f the N32 in the positive y-direction has come about higher than that o f
the N798, in such a way that the ballooning deformation has taken place permanently and
predicted as obviously seen in both untested (unloaded) and tested FEA models at the TP
in Fig. 5.13.
According to the deflection analysis made above for both nodes o f dimple (N798)
and crown (N32), it can be noted that the ballooning phenomenon is predicted as
obviously seen on the FEA models in Fig 5.13. Based on these FEA modeling processes,
these deflection results obtained from the simulations are compared with corresponding
experimental results as given in Table 5.3. The first column o f this table lists the pressure
values applied to the FEA models. The second and third columns give the deflection
results obtained from both experiment and FEA modeling approaches, respectively. In
order to find the magnitude {Differ) of these deflections listed in Table 5.3. the
displacement amount of the N32 in the y-direction is taken away from the displacement
amount of the N798 in the y-direction. That is; it is basically calculated using a simple
equation given on Table 5.3 as Differ = U - U , where Udy and Uc represent the
displacements in the y-direction for both nodes N32 and N798. respectively, as illustrated
in Fig's. 5.10 and 5.11. The negative Differ represents the ballooning problem is exists
the TP value of the DOT-39 non-refillable cylinders {t/ID = 0.0034) are obtained negative
207
as -0.0233-in (-0.592-mm) and -0.0241-in (-0.612-mm) from both experimental and FEA
AIM
Time = 400
g 1.0E»02
I .0E*00 F L2
I .OE-Ol
r I.OE-02
I.OE-03 M L2
1 .OE-04
N
0
r 1 .OE-05
m 20 40 60 80 100
10 30 50 70 90
C u m u lative I t e r a t i o n Number
Figure 5.9: The absolute convergence norm o f the nonlinear FEA simulation processes.
208
ANSYS 5.6
(T op o f the Dimple) •TTîM 1 ?nnn
N32 23:13:40
NODAL SOLUTION
STEP=2
SUB =12
TIME=500
N 1S23 USUM (.AVG)
RSYS=0
?owerGraphies
EFACET=2
AVRES=Man
DMX =.290625
SMN =.703E-03
SMX =.290625
N1451 _ .703E-03
.032917
.06513
.097344
.129557
.161771
N 36j S
.193984
.226198
□ .258411
.290625
N 360’
ID :9.5"Ref-Cyln_P=400_3allnTesC_C=0.038+x_SHELL+WELD_KISIOGLU
Figure 5.10: Residual deflections o f the end-closure after releasing the pressure.
209
DL
210
AN
(x lO * « - l)
3 .1 5
N32 Y
P o l e o f Cr own
1 .7 5
’3j
3 N798 V
1 .0 5 Pole of Dimple
.35
Figure 5.12: The nodal displacements behavior o f the crown (N32) and dimple (N798).
211
0.099-in 0.0241
Figure 5.13: Prediction o f ballooning deformation at the end-closure of the DOT-39 non-
refillable cylinders.
212
.-Applied Ballooning Deflection
lYessure D iffer = Uify - Uc
CTP) Experiment
(psi) (in)
0.0943 0.099
0.0495 0.0517
0.0252 0.0293
0.00283 0.00288
-0.0233 -0.0241
Table 5.3: Comparison of the ballooning results obtained from both experimental and
For the purposes of this study, the new designing approach viewpoint, it is
necessary to develop a new design to eliminate the ballooning phenomena that occurs at
the bottom of the NRV cylinders. In order to investigate a new model for the bottom end-
closure of the DOT-39 non-refillable cylinders, the current geometry o f the bottom-end is
re-designed. At the initiations o f the redesigning processes, the design parameters o f the
current end-closure geometry shown in Fig. 5.11 are evaluated. In the conduct o f these
evaluations, it was realized that the design parameters such as dimple location (DL),
knuckle radius (/?*), dimple radius (Rd), center location o f the dimple (Ri) and crown
radius (Rc) as seen in Fig. 5.11 cause the ballooning problem. From the cost o f the tooling
213
and the manufacturing processes standpoint, it was decided that the R j, Rk, R l and Rc
should remain constant with the initial shape o f the current model; however, the DL is
taken into account o f the redesigning the DL. In order to obtain the best DL. a suitable
optimization technique was utilized. As a result, an optimum location for the dimples to
prevent the ballooning phenomenon was found by optimizing the DL in the new
designing processes using the FEA modeling simulations. In order to optimize the DL. an
defined primarily as how to plan and analyze an experiment o f the stated problem to be
solved [Hicks & Turner, (1999)], [Weber & Skillings, (2000)] and [Barrentine, (1999)],
is to determine relationships between the DL and the Differ. The goal is to examine how
changing the design variable o f the DL value affects the response variable o f the Differ
value. The design variable, DL. is considered an independent variable, sometimes called
"factor" by Weber and Skillings (2000), and the response variable. Differ, is considered
dependent or the main interest variable to be determined. The independent variable, DL.
which potentially affects the response variable, is the controlled variable, which is varied
intentionally between points "o” (or "d”) and "e" on the horizontal plane as seen in Fig.
5.11. The distance between these two points in this figure is designated with '"Lx \ which
has one maximum value located at point "o" where the dimple is located and one
The experimental design in the FEA modeling processes has been performed in
two phases to optimize the DL and obtain a feasible value for the Differ to prevent the
ballooning problem. In order to carry out these two-phase experiments in the modeling,
214
the factor is divided into two-group o f levels as listed in Table 5.4, which are different
values than the design variable assumes during the experiment. The DL factor is varied in
the interval of the maximum and minimum levels o f Z,.r as seen in Fig. 5.11. The
minimum and maximum values o f the Lx are 1.5-in (38.1-mm) and 2.125-in (53.98-mm)
respectively, as given in Table 5.4. As mentioned above, the minimum and maximum
values o f Lx are the new {DLse^v) and the initial {DL) locations o f the dimples,
respectively.
In the first experiment, the independent variable. DL. between minimum and
maximum values o f the Lx is divided intentionally into 7 levels, which are the
optimization intervals as shown in Table 5.4. The experimental design is performed for
each level starting from a maximum value o f the factor by utilizing the nonlinear
axiysmmetric FEA modeling simulations. The value o f the maximum level is the initial
location of the design variable, which causes the ballooning deflection as negative Dijfer
as shown on Tables 5.3 and 5.4. .As mentioned above, the negative value o f Dijfer
represents the ballooning deflection, so that the experiment is started from maximum
through minimum levels o f the factor until obtaining the positive value o f Differ as seen
in Table 5.4. The experiment is stopped when the positive value o f the Differ is obtained
at the level of DL = 1.7-in (43.2-mm) as seen in Table 5.4. As a result o f the first
experiment, it can be noted that to eliminate the ballooning problem at the bottom o f the
In order to better approximate the optimum value o f the DL, the experimental
design is performed secondarily for the new levels o f DL divided into the small divisions
o f the interval as listed on Table 5.4. In the second design o f the experimental technique,
215
the new maximum and minimum levels o f the factor are selected as 1.8-in (45.7-mm) and
1.7-in (43.2-mm), respectively, which are based on the results o f the first experiment as
given on Table 5.4. This table lists the new interval o f the factor that is divided into 5
levels. Similarly, the second experiment has also been performed starting from the
maximum through minimum levels o f the factor until finding the positive value o f the
Differ, which is obtained at the level o f DL = 1.725-in (43.8-mm) as seen on Table 5.4.
for this small interval. However, from the manufacturing and tooling costs point of view,
the interval definition of the level was determined as indicated above. From the findings,
as a result, it can be understood that the dimple location can be considered DZ,< 1.75-in
(44.5-mm) in the new designing approach to prevent the ballooning phenomenon at the
TP, with the DOT-39 non-refillable refrigerant cylinders having the design parameter
216
Design Variable (DL) Ballooning Deflection
Optimization
Results Levels of Factors Differ = Uify - Uc
ill (inm) ill (uuu)
max 2.125 (535) -0.0241 (-0.612)
2 (50.8) -0.0208 (-0.513)
First Experiment 1.9 (48.2) -0.0105 (-0.267)
1.8 (45.7) -0.00249 (-0.0632)
1.7 (43.2) 0.00106 (0.0269)
1.6 (40.6) N/A
min 1.5 (38.1) N/A
Table 5.4: The optimization results o f the new dimple location {DL) using the design of
217
5.5 Computer-Aided Modeling for the Flip-Flop (Buckling) Analysis
The finite element commercial computer code, ANSYS, version 5.6, is employed
to analyze the buckling phenomenon which occurs at the bottom convex-end closure of
the D 0T-4B A refillable cylinder, which is subjected to the TP. In the FEA modeling
processes by performing the .APDL functions, the material nonlinearity and the
geometrical uniformity except for the welding zone (see Fig. 5.3) are taken into account
in the modeling processes. An APDL program developed for the buckling analysis, for
axisymmetric FEA model, the current design parameters o f the convex-end closure (see
Fig. 5.4) o f the D0T-4BA cylinders excluding the foot-ring shell region (see F ig 's 1.2)
Fig. 5.14. The 2D geometrical model is divided into different areas allowing for the
structural plane-strain element are selected from the ANSYS element library so that the
218
5.5.1 Selection of Finite Structural Solid Elem ent
nonlinearity, and large strain analysis in the buckling simulations. The PLANE2
triangular element, as shown in Fig. 5.15, is specified with 6 nodes and 6 -DOF associated
at each node. Three of the DOFs define the translational nodal displacements at each
node in the x-. y-. and z-directions and the other three DOFs specify the rotational nodal
displacements at each node about the x-, y-. and z-axes. In addition, this element is well
suited for large strain and large deflection, plasticity, plane-strain, and axisymmetric
specifications, node locations, and coordinate system of the PLANE2 triangular element
In the selection of the BCs, the model specifications are considered, which are
axisymmetric with respect to the geometrical and the loading conditions. In the loading
conditions, the FEA models of the convex-end-closure are subjected to the uniform
incremental external pressure loading until the TP value of the D 0T-4B A refillable
cylinders. The applied incremental pressure is internal for cylinder; it is external for the
convex-end closure (see Fig. 5.3). The uniform incremental load is performed at 10-psi
(0.69-Mpa) per step during the loading conditions o f the D0T-4BA cylinder. In order to
219
perform the BCs for the nodal limitations o f the DOFs, the nodes located at point “A” are
displacement about the z-direction as shown in Fig. 5.14. The axisymmetric BCs are
performed on the y-axis o f the model as seen in Fig 5.14. That is; the nodes located at
point "E " are constrained to translational nodal deflections in the x-direction and
Using these BCs and the triangular FLANE2 element specifications, the FEA
modeling is developed in order to simulate the convex-end closure to predict the flip-flop
deformation as seen in the 3D model case in Fig. 5.16. The FEA model has been
nonlinearity and geometrical uniformity except for the weld zone. The isotropic
hardening option, in ANSYS. uses the Von Mises yield criteria coupled with an isotropic
work hardening assumption that is applied by using the TB commands in the APDL. The
TB commands are used in the .VPDL to define the nonlinear material property
relationships in terms o f a TSS data table. The nonlinear material property is defined with
corresponding TSS curve of the convex-end closure including the weld zone properties as
shown in Fig. 3.4. In addition, the only geometrical non-uniformity (thickness variations
at the weld zone) is applied at the weld zone located circumferentially at the bottom o f
220
At the initiation o f the development o f the axisymmetric FEA modeling processes
to predict the buckling phenomenon, some assumptions have been conducted. Since the
convex-end closure is drawn as very shallow. ID/h <40 (see Fig. 5.4), the material
property o f the end closure remain constant after the deep-drawing process. Therefore,
the SAE-1018 hot rolled steel material property in a homogeneous condition is applied
for the end closure in the modeling process. Second, the thickness o f the end closure has
also no changes after the drawing process, so that the initial thickness {in) o f the non
drawn blank steel sheet is performed in the convex-end closure area. Finally, since the
D 0T-4BA refillable cylinders are being heat treated (stress relief process) after finishing
all welding and assembly processes, an assumption is made that there are no residual
Using the developed non-linear axisymmetric FEA model, the buckling deflection
the TP. In order to understand the buckling phenomenon after FEA simulations, the
values o f three relevant components o f the simulation processes, load (pressure), loading
increment, and deflection, can be evaluated. The FEA model o f the convex-end closure is
subjected to uniform incremental external loading until the buckling phenomenon occurs.
the load increment o f 77. then the convex-end closure is being at the instant o f the
bifurcation case. That is: the convex-end closure under the Per is reaching the maximum
221
critical deflection at the middle of the crown, which is not the buckling deflection as
shown in Fig. 5.17. 'WTien the loading increment is increased one more step from 77 to
78, then the convex-end closure is buckling with the collapse (flip-flop, failure) pressure,
deflection: when the loading increment is increased from 77 to 78, the maximum
respectively. The nodal-deflection behaviors for the selected nodes, as seen in Fig. 5.17,
o f the convex-end closure in the buckling simulations are plotted as a function o f loading
time as depicted in Fig. 5.18. In addition, the shapes o f both geometrical and flipped
models o f the convex-end closure in the 3D case are shown in Fig. 5.19.
222
AN
Figure 5.14: The 2D axisymmetric BCs o f the FEA model for the convex-end closure.
223
Y
(or Ax ia l)
'or Radial)
Figure 5.15: The PL.A.NE2 triangular structural solid element [ANSYS Manual. (1998)].
224
AM
Convex End-closure
Material
SAE-1018 (SKDQ, HR)
Weld Zone
Material
D 0 T - 4 B A C o n v e x _ E n d , B u c k l i n g A n a l y s i s , S A E - I O I B ( H R ) ,K I S I O G L U
225
ANSYS 5.6
.'U**. I 4. V 4.U U V
21:49:01
NODAL SOLUTION
STEP=1
SUB =77
TIME=747.436
USUM (.AVG)
N155 P,SYS=0
Max. PowerGraphics
Defection EFACET=2
AVRES=Mac
DMX =.055322
SMN =.02141
SMX =.055322
.02141
.025179
NI N I7 .029946
.032714
.036482
.04025
Budding Phenomenon occurs at the Pressure o f 747.W psL
(Loading Substep is 78) .044018
Buckling Deflection is 4.144-in .047796
.051554
.055322
DCT-4BA Convex înc-clcsure, Mtcl:SAE-1013 (HR), KISIOGLU
Figure 5.17: The maximum critical deflection of the convex end-closure at the instant of
bifurcation.
226
AN
N l-X
N35 X
- . 1(5 X155 X
-.64
u
w
t -*•“
® -2S6
M55 V
-3.04
.MIS V
Figure 5.18: The deflection behaviors of the selected critical nodes o f the convex-end-
c losure.
227
AN
ANSYS 5.6
MAY 9 2000
21:58:11
NODAL SOLUTION
Origuial Convex-Eiid
Closure Model
Buckling of Com-ex-End
Closure FEA Model
DOT-4 BA C o n v e x _ E n d , B u c l t l i n g A n a l y s i s , 3 A E - i 0 i 3 (HP.), KXSICGLU
Figure 5.19: The geometrical and after buckling models o f the convex-end closure.
228
5.7 Elimination of the Buckling Phenomenon
the D0T-4BA refillable cylinders has been performed using the developed nonlinear
axisymmetric FEA modeling processes. To make this happen, the axisymmetric PEA
model has been conducted in the design optimization method of the ANSYS computer
code. For the optimization techniques, the APDL shown in Appendix C has been
performed successfully in the FEA simulations in the cases of the quasi-static, plane
Design optimization utilized within the ANSYS program is a technique that seeks
to determine an "optimum design." which means one that meets all specified
requirements but with a minimum expense of certain factors such as volume, stress, and
thickness o f the component. The ANSYS program offers two optimization methods, sub
first order method which was appropriate to employ for the buckling problem in this
study is based on design sensitivities and is more suitable for this problem that requires
high accuracy. For the first order methods, the ANSYS program performs a series o f
performed, the results are evaluated against specified design criteria, and the design is
modified as necessary. This process is repeated until all specified criteria are met
229
[ANSYS M anual, (1998)]. Some o f the above concepts can be better understood through
an illustration as in the optimization data flow as shown in Fig. 5.20. which is the flow o f
to the design criteria in the optimization technique. These optimization variables include;
( 1) design variables (DVs) are independent quantities that are varied in order to achieve
the optimum design. Upper and lower limits o f the DVs are specified to serve as
"constraints" on the design variables. These limits define the range o f variation for the
□V. (2) State variables (SVs) are quantities that constrain the design. They are also
known as "dependent variables." and are typically response quantities that are functions
of the DVs. A state variable may have a maximum and minimum limit, or it may be
"single sided." having only one limit. (3) The Objective Function is the dependent
variable that is attempted to minimize. It is a function o f the DVs. that is, changing the
values o f the DVs changes the values o f the objective function [ANSYS Manual. (1998)].
230
F ile.D B
A N SY S
D a ta b a se
file
M odel
D a ta b a se F ile .L O O P
L o o p F ile
F ile .O P T
O p tim iz a tio n
, D ata File
231
5.7.2 The Procedure of the Design Optimization Technique
decided what criteria, such as design parameters, material property, etc. o f the convex-
end closure can be effective to prevent the buckling problem. The material property has
already been selected by the manufacturer so that it cannot be changed by the designer.
For this reason, the design parameters o f the convex-end closure are considered in the
optimization processes. The design parameters. /?*, Rc, and / as shown in Fig. 5.21. are
considered to optimize in the simulation processes. Since the buckling sensitivity depends
on these design parameters besides the material properties of the end closure, the first
order optimization method o f the .ANSYS code is employed in the optimization loop,
The design parameters. Rc. Rk, and i (see Fig. 5.21). are selected as design
variables (DVs) for the optimization loop in the data flow analysis o f the ANSYS code.
These DVs are the independent variables, which play a role of geometrical effects on the
material plastic strain, maximum equivalent and principal stresses are chosen as state
variables (SVs) (responses). These SVs are considered as dependent variables, which
depend on the DVs' criteria. In addition, the minimization o f the total end-closure
volume, a function of especially the DVs' thickness (f). is selected as the objection
technique is to minimize the volume of the convex-end closure while preventing the
buckling problem.
232
AIM
AUG 1 1998
12;09;26
ELEMENTS
TYPE HUM
The optimization loop is operated in some selected ranges o f the DVs within the
geometrical shape-allowance tolerance in the FEA modeling processes. That is. the
ranges o f the selected DVs do not cause any geometrical confirmation for each level of
the factors during the optimization loops. The shape allowance tolerances (Toi)
depending on the magnitude and ranges o f the DVs which are calculated basically using
the empirical formula defined as Tot = (m a x D F '-m in D T )/1 0 0 . Therefore, the design
parameters, t. Rc, and Rk, of the convex-end closure are considered as DVs in the
respectively, as shown in Table 5.5. The initial values o f these DVs, t, Rc, and Rk, are
233
taken as O.l-in (2.54-mm), 7 .14-in (181.4-mm) and 1.1426-in (29-mm), respectively,
which are used in the current geometrical model o f the convex-end closure.
analyze more precisely, all design parameters of the FEA model have been magnified
with a magnification number of 100. That is. all design parameters o f the model are
magnified 100 times the current one. In this analysis, the optimization cycles are
performed 15 times and the design set number is designated as 16 as seen in Tables 5.5
and 5.6. The best feasible design set is obtained at the set number o f 9. as seen in Table
5.7. The feasible design is the one that satisfies all specified constraints on the SVs as
well as constraints on the DVs. If any one of the constraints is not satisfied, the design is
considered infeasible. .All feasible and infeasible DVs during the optimization cycles are
listed in Table 5.6. The best design is the one that satisfies all constraints and produces
the minimum objective function value which is obtained at set number o f 9 as given in
Table 5.7.
When the optimization variables are taken in the optimization loops within their
ranges (levels) defined above, the optimum values for these DVs are obtained as shown
in Fig's. 5.22 and 5.23. The radii o f curvatures. Rc. and Rk, o f the convex-end closure are
optimized and plotted as a function o f the optimization set number as seen in Fig. 5.22.
Two curves indicated in Fig. 5.22 are named "RCRWN” and "RKNCK." representing the
optimum results o f the Rc and Rk, respectively. The optimum values for these radii. Rc,
and Rk, of curvatures are found and approximated to the upper limits o f their levels.
7.199-in (182.8-mm) and 1.168-in (29.67-mm). respectively, listed in Table 5.7. Also, the
234
function o f the cycle number as seen in Fig. 5.23 and the optimum thickness obtained as
f/z=0.l 13-in (2.87-mm) and indicated in the best design of the optimization cycles in
Table 5.7.
D e s i g n V a r ia b le s ( M a g n i f ic a t io n Nr.: 100 )
721 117
720
-- 1 1 6 .5
719
-- 1 16
718
717 115.5
716 -6-R C R W N
- 115
715 RKNCK
-- 1 1 4 .5
714
713 114
Set N um ber
Figure 5.22: The optimum values o f the design variables, Rknuckie and Rc
235
o : 2 A ? : 0 X S T A T U S
236
AN
20 UPPER
19
IS
17
13
TH
11
LOWER
10
L S 9 13 17 21
11 19
S e t N um ber
Figure 5.23: The optimum values o f the design variable, thickness (Th).
237
1.1S ^ 0 "TI :-!:2.:..TIC;i SETS FP.CM SET I TO SET 15 .7043 .SHOW
OMLV O-TT /'TZ.ATTC =.^R:o'irTE?s
SET : .SEO- 4
:As:3LEi F.-WS IBLF :
X:\3EFL .92429 ‘ .91:3.] .94122
JV 1 3:924. 5:555. 5 2 296.
M:ciLP5t: 13V1 I .91297E-C2 .H9545E-C3 7 .9 2 7 2 9 E-‘
12
? s :m s _: 1S'.'! 4-72:4. 46912. 4 75'.:.
in 1 12.9 5 7 12 .=29
.=.:-L'!CK iT'.’) 114.55 115.29 I 15 .29
?.c : (D'.’! :: "715. 94 "2C.20 7:9.98
=rvsu>: GHJ ) .1 ■■T S r E - 0 8 ; .:€r'5]’E-Cfl 1.255C2E-CH 0 .25575E*"}8
SET 7 S ET .3
FEAS:3L£, :FEASIBLE. FEASIBLE 1 1 FEASIBLE!
.96242 :.'3" 193 2.99:15
MrKFQV'.'y. :2992. Î4C54. 5 4 5 9 2.
.^ixNLPsr; ' : .9-'- IIE-I 3 ■.974 063-0 2 .1I ..42E-''T.
?R:XE_: ' ; 41950. 4'953. 4 5297.
TH . ) 12.239 13.3:5 12.113
?.:<:icK DV) 1:5.31 1:5.50 115. 3 23
RCHW; " : c .0 2 ': c .:0 "19.99
=r/suy ÜHJ) :.254033.C4 1'.25231E*':8 0 .:4H52E<-08
: .... . ^ SET 12
:ILTEASIBLEl :::FE7,s:3LE' 'FEL'-.SIBLE'i
M:tDF.p:. ■J. ; ',QQiQi -39919 ; ;P690
' ■ ; Of ; ,4 -74, 5445 1 .
J’.''
• - . . . » 1_ - w .11145E- . '96:BE-22
4F - 4 ) 4 : -,1 ,
D',' ■.'•.2:1 : 2 . 249 12.151
FKMCK 3v : • 1 '.' .T : : 5 .50 116.30
?.c?w; DV} "]?.99 "19.99 719.99 719.99
=r/su>: 03 J) ■].:',h 5: e - g != 9.:47393*C8 ; .:4725E + '18 J .24947E* IS
Table 5.6: List of the optimization results from all loops with the set numbers.
238
■t : m : - A : ' : ' <u p a f a i -i k t e
:. 99:3':
: 9 . 99
Table 5.7; The best set o f design variables for feasible solution o f optimization.
Similarly, the other optimization variables, such as the SVs and the objective
function are obtained from the cycles using the FEA modeling simulations as shown in
Fig's. 5.24. 5.25. and 5.26. The SVs. maximum critical deflection, maximum nonlinear
plastic strain, principal and maximum equivalent stresses are selected and performed as
response variables in the optimization loops and the results are plotted as a function of
the cycle set number. The results of the maximum critical deflection and maximum
nonlinear plastic strain are shown in Fig. 5.24. In addition, the results o f the principal
stresses and the maximum equivalent stress (effective or Von Mises) are seen in Fig.
5.25. At the initiation o f the optimization analysis, the selection o f the limitations for the
stress values, especially first principal and maximum equivalent stresses designated as
PRINS_1 and MXEQVVM. respectively (see Fig. 5.24), has been done in consideration
of the upper limit values. These upper limit values are selected smaller than
239
corresponding material UTS values, because the undesired buckling deflection is to be
prevented.
On the other hand, the result o f the objective function, minimizing the volume o f
the convex-end closure, is investigated and plotted as a function o f the cycle numbers as
shown in Fig. 5.26. The objective function, the dependent function o f the DVs. is to
minimize the volume of the end-closure. The optimum volume o f the end-closure based
on the optimized DVs is tbund about 2.5-in'’ (41-cm^) plotted and shown in Fig. 5.26. In
addition, the numerical values o f the optimization variables such as DVs. SVs. and
objective function as in data tables are gathered from the loop processes and listed based
According to the optimization results, the optimum values o f the DVs are
replaced as new design parameters in the FEA model for the buckling simulations and the
new buckling pressure values are investigated That is. the optimum design variables are
evaluated by using them in the FEA simulations for buckling deformation. .A.s expected,
the buckling pressure value based on the optimum values of the DVs is found higher than
the corresponding previous buckling pressure obtained when using the current
geometrical parameters. For instance, when using the optimum values o f the design
parameters, r. Rc. and /?*, in the FEA buckling simulation, the buckling pressure is
obtained about 1200-psi (8.3-Mpa) which is higher than the TP>750-psi (5.2-Mpa) o f the
D 0T-4BA refillable cylinder. On the other hand, using the only optimized thickness
value. r=0.131-in (3.3-mm) even though the radii, Rc and Rk, o f curvatures are taken as
constant in the simulation, the buckling pressure is found as about Pc=1080-psi (7.45-
Mpa) as seen in Fig. 5.27. which is also higher than the previous value o f the pressure
240
causing the buckling problem. Therefore, the design parameters o f the convex-end
closure are optimized so that the buckling problem is prevented. That is, the convex-end
closure with the new thickness does not fail at the TP value.
2.30E-03
-Ù -M X D E F L
2.10E-03
MXNLPSN
1.90E-03
yi
1.70E-03
1.50E-03
0.8
1.30E-03
0.6
l.lO E -03
0.4
9.00E -04
0.2 7.00E-04
5.00E-04
Set N u m b er
Figure 5.24: optimum values of the state variables, maximum deflection and maximum
241
AN
6500
6000
MXEQVVM
M
a
X
5000
s 4500
r
r
e
5
3500
S
e
s 3000
2000
L500
L 9 13 17 21
11 15 19
Set Number
Figure 5.25: State variables for max equivalent and principal stresses.
242
AN
2700
2600
T
0
t 2500 EVSUIVI
a
1
2300
0
1
2200
u
m
e 2L00
2000
1900
1800
1 5 9 13 17 21
11 15 19
Set N u m b e r
Figure 5.26; Objection function of' the optimization, minimization of the total end-closure
volume.
243
se
H4 -F
4E-0
'• -1c
OûC
244
AN
1
\3 0 X
a N2')l \
\4 4 X
Loading
Figure 5.27: The new buckling pressure value using the optimum thickness (Th) value.
245
5 .8 Sensitivity A n alysis o f the C on vex-en d C losure
In this practical problem, o f interest is not only the optimal solution o f the
convex-end closure problem, but also how the solution changes when the design
parameters of the end-closure change. The change in the design parameters may be
discrete. The study o f the effect of the discrete parameter, which changes on the optimal
solution, is called sensitivity analysis. One way to determine the effects o f changes in the
design parameters is to solve a series o f new problems once for each o f the changes made
[Rao. (1996)]. Based on these definitions, the sensitivity analyses o f the convex-end
closure to changes o f its design variables have been conducted using the nonlinear
axisymmetric FEA modeling processes. Some results obtained from the analyses are
illustrated in the following figures. In this analysis, two different FEA models.
model considers only the SAE-1018 blank steel material properties in the entire end-
closure model without using the weld zone properties. The weld-zone-effect model is
developed considering the effects o f the weld zone material properties including its
thickness variation along with the SAE-1018 property as seen in Fig. 5.16. The first and
second FEA models are designated with the signs o f SAE1018 and SAE1018W.
Figures from 5.28 through 5.33 illustrate 4 curves o f the results named,
corresponding to the FEA modeling types. Figure 5.28, the letters. BP, and BT on the
name o f the curves, represent the buckling pressure (BP) and buckling time (BT),
respectively. The names of the curves, ”SAE1018” and "SAE1018W,” represent the two
246
types o f FEA models, homogenous and weld-zone-effect. respectively as shown in Fig.
5.28. From Fig. 5.29 through 5.33. the names o f the curves begin with a letter followed
by underscore and then the name o f the corresponding FEA model types. The letters in
these figures. P and U on the name o f the curves, represent the critical buckling pressure
The effects of the design parameter ratio o i l /ID on the critical buckling pressures
(CBPs), buckling time (BT). and maximum critical deflections (MCDs) are obtained as in
similar influences while the radii. Rc and Rk, o f curvatures are taken as constant. The CBP
is the pressure where the end-closure o f the cylinder can hold without buckling. The
MCD is the maximum deflection where the end-closure is accomplished at the time o f
CBP before the buckling occurs. The BP and the BT are found and plotted as a function
of t/ID ratio within the same slope as shown in Fig. 5.28. .A.lso. the influence o f the
geometrical. t/ID, ratio on both CBPs and MCDs is found while the Rc and Rk are taken
The effects of the R k/ID ratio on both CBPs and the MCDs are obtained inversely
proportional to each other as illustrated in Fig. 5.30. while keeping the t and Rc constant.
That is, the CBPs increase while the MCDs decrease as a function o f the R k/ID ratio. In
addition, the CBPs are found from both FEA model types within the same slope.
However, the MCDs are obtained within different slopes and magnitudes as shown in
Fig. 5.30. On the other hand, the influences o f the Rc/'ID ratio on both CBPs and MCDs
are carried out within different slopes and magnitudes as illustrated in Fig. 5.31. when the
t and Rk are taken as constant. Additionally, the effects o f the Rc/ID ratio on the MCDs
247
are found from both FEA models as seen in Fig. 5.31, which is slightly different than the
When the only thickness, t. of the convex-end closure is taken as constant, the
effects o f the variable o f both radii o f Rc and Rk on both CBPs and the M CDs are
investigated inversely proportional to each other as seen in Fig. 5.32. In this case, both o f
the Rc and Rk radii are linearly increased proportional to each other in the simulation
processes. From Fig. 5.32, it is pointed out that the similar slopes o f both CBPs and
MCDs are carried out from both FE.A. modeling processes. In addition, the same
In the case that both radii Rc and Rk are taken and varied inversely proportional to
each other in both simulations while holding the t as constant, both o f the CBPs and the
MCDs are affected differently as shown in Fig. 5.33 than were previous ones, illustrated
in Fig. 5.32. Based on these inverse variations o f the radii Rc and Rk. the CBPs found
from both models decrease within slightly different slopes. However, the influences of
the RJRk ratios on the MCDs are obtained in nonlinear sinusoidal effects as seen in Fig.
5.33.
248
Buckling Pressu re and T im e o f C o n v e x E n d -clo su re
225
1750
200
175
1500
150
g 1250 125
100
1000 -o-BP_SA E1018W
-Û-BP_SAE1013
-*-BT_SAE1018W
750
-O -B T SAE1018
500
0 01 7 5 0 02 0 0225
T h i c k n e s s / ID
Figure 5.28: The effects of the t/ID ratios on the BP and BT.
249
Buckling P r e s s u r e & M a x Critical Deflection
2 0 0 0 -r 0 25
0 225
1750
a 0 175
S3 1500
I
1250 0. 125 Û
A
P_SAE1018W
1 1000
P SAE1018 0 075 X
<5
-6-n_SAE1018W 0 05
750
-•-U _SA E 1018
0 025
500
Figure 5.29: The influence of the t/ID ratio on both CBPs and MCDs.
250
T h = 0 1-m (2 5 4 - m m ) , R c r o w n = C i
760 0 088
750
-- 0 086
P_SAE1018+W
-- 0.084
P_SEA1018
U_SEA1018+W
720 IJ S E A 1 0 1 8 0.082 c
00
S
Z 710 - - 0 08
~ 700
a
■£ 6 9 0
-- 0 076
680
670 0 074
Figure 5.30: The effects o f the Ri/ID ratios on CBPs and MCDs.
251
T h = 0 . 1 -in , R k n u c k l e = C i
77 5 - r 0 105
-O -P _SA E 1018 +W
-6-P_SAE1018
75 0
-*-U _SE A 1018 +W
-4-U SEA1018
a 725 0 095
1)
3
700 0 09 c
ao
c
Q
67 5 0 085
650 0 08
O
0. 0 7 5
6 00 0. 0 7
0 73 0 74 0 75 0 76 0.77 0 78 0. 7 9
R c r o w n / ID
Figure 5.31 : The effects of the R^JID ratios on CBPs and MCDs.
252
Th = O.l-in ; R k & R c V ari ab le
800 0.11
Cm-P_SAE1018+W
775 0.105
>-P_SAE1018
o-lT_SAE10184-W
750
m-U SAE1018
725 0.095
S700 -- 0.09
Cq675 0.085
650 0.08
625 0.0 75
600 0.07
1.46 1. 4 8 1. 52 1. 54 1.56 1 . 58
R c r o w n / ED
Figure 5.32: The effects of both RJID and Ri/ID ratios on both o f CBPs and MCDs.
253
T h = 0 .1 -in , Rc &. Rk va riab le (in v e r s e )
750 0 095
725 0.09
0.085
o>
0 075 §
P SAE1018W
625
P SAE1018
U SAE1018W
600 0.065
<£^TJ S A E 1018
575 0 06
0 147 0 15 0 153 0 156 0 159 0.162 0 165 0 168 0 171 0 174
Rcrown / Rknuckle
254
CHAPTER 6
Research activities in this dissertation can be divided into three major parts. These
are (I) investigation of material properties. (2) determination o f the BP and BFL. and (3)
cylinders. The objective of the first part is the investigation o f the drawn-shell properties
including thickness variations for each three-group NRV cylinders along with
second part is intended to determine the BP and BFL including BP guidelines o f a series
of three-group DOT-39 non-refillable refrigerant cylinders. The third part is based on the
idea o f developing the new design for the imperfect end-closures, the possible utilization
of the nonlinear FEA modeling, and optimization techniques. The required tasks in these
three parts o f this dissertation have been completed successfully and the targeted results
have been accomplished by employing the nonlinear computer modeling processes. The
255
6.2 Investigations of the M aterial Properties
including shell thickness variation and the weld zone properties to specify them as an
investigation process, the tensile test technique was employed effectively. Ihe low-
carbon steel. SAE-1018 cold rolled ductile material, was selected and used in the
production o f the DOT-39 non-refillable refrigerant cylinders. It can be noted that the
property o f the S.A.E-1008 steel is highly altering from ductile to a brittle case because o f
the hardening effects of the deep drawing processes. This is predictable from the
investigations and explained in detail in Chapter 3. The property o f the SAE-1008 steel
changes mostly in the cylindrical shell part rather than the crown region, including the
knuckle. The changes in the drawn-shell materials are compared with corresponding non
drawn SAE-1008 steel property and indicated graphically by TSS curves in Fig's. 3.14.
3.16. and 3.18. Furthermore, in the cylindrical shell parts, the material has extremely
changed in the region ot' ".shell-by-kniickle". The changes on the mechanical properties o f
the drawn materials regarding the drawn shell areas are also well carried out and
illustrated graphically in Fig's. 3.15. 3.17. and 3.19 and listed numerically in Table 3.4.
The outcomes from the investigations o f the material properties can be concluded
and summarized from Fig's. 3.14 through 3.19. For example, in the "shell-by-w eld'
region of the cylinder group 1D=9.5. the UTS and TYS increase by about 58% and 151%
respectively, while the elongation decreases about 82% as indicated in Fig. 3.17. The
UTS change also increases about 3%, 5%, 40%, and 58% at the crown, crown-by-
256
knuckle, shell-by-knuckle. and shell-by-weld regions, respectively, as illustrated in Fig.
3.17. However, the TYS increases about 50%, 40%, 130%, and 151% at the crown,
the amount of the variations of the TYS versus elongation can also be analyzed using Fig.
3.17. In the same way. the changes in the material properties o f the cylinder groups of
ID=1.5 and ID=\2 can be analyzed using corresponding figures, as well. Regarding
cylinder groups, the variations of the properties are also important. The UTS, for
instance, in the shell-by-weld region of the cylinders ID=7.5. ID=9.5. and /D=12
increases about 75%, 58%. and 65% respectively. In the same zones o f these cylinder
groups, 7Z>=7.5, /D=9.5, and ID=\2. however, the elongation decreases about 87%, 82%.
The variation in shell thickness is also investigated and changed from the initial
blank steel sheet thickness (to) to the drawn shell thickness (/) due to effects o f the strain
hardening o f the deep drawing process. The drawn-shell thickness variation has highly
variations within the percentage o f the to regarding drawn-shell regions are explained in
Chapter 3. The maximum thickness change is investigated about 18% o f the to at tlie
jimction o f the cylindrical shell and the knuckle, whereas the minimum thickness change
is obtained at the crown region, about 1% of the to. as indicated in Fig. 3.20.
In addition to these investigations, the property o f the weld zone located at the
middle o f the NRV cylinders including its thickness variation is also well specified. The
weld zone thickness (r„.) is generally obtained from the measurement that is about 0.035-
in (0.89-mm) thicker than the shell thickness. In addition, as expected, tlie stiffness o f the
257
weld joint is obtained extremely higher than the properties o f the cylindrical shells. Based
on the UTS values, the weld zone was found stronger by about 44%, 20%, and 10% than
models are developed employing the FEA method within nonlinear material performance
development of the modeling processes, the nonlinear material properties o f the cylinders
Also, the geometrical non-uniformity o f the cylindrical shells is well specified and
applied to both geometrical functions, step and wedge, to determine the BP and BFL.
incremental internal pressure, the BP and BFL are determined exactly by the computer-
aided FEA approach and validated with corresponding experimental results. The FEA
results for the BP and BFL. Based on the generated results in Chapter 4, the following
258
conclusions can be made:
> Good agreement between the measured BP in experiments and the corresponding
values o f the FEA modeling simulations is found for all o f the models. However,
the BP values for the models generated by uniform modeling characteristics are
found to be less than the experimental ones. In the case o f the uniform modeling
uniformity are considered, the BP value is about 10.65% less than the
experimental ones. On the other hand, when the weld properties are taken into
account in the uniform modeling, the BP was only about 5.55% less than the
experimental values.
> A guideline chart for the BP o f the DOT-39 non-refillable refrigerant cylinders is
prepared performing the FEA modeling simulations. The BP o f the cylinders are
> Good experimental and FEA agreement is found for the BFL o f the NRV
investigated place o f the BFL complies with the definitions o f the DOT
regulations. However, for the uniform FEA modeling cases, the burst locations
259
> It can be concluded that the weld joint properties yielded crucial characteristics in
> Good agreement between analytical and FEA models is found for membrane
stresses and burst failure. The analytical approaches to find the bursting (collapse)
pressure {Pc) within the inelastic analysis are explained in Chapter 2. The
equations, given in Chapter 2 using required stress values gathered from FEA
> For each model, good experimental-FEA modeling agreement is found for the
deformed shapes that take place during the incremental loading process. The
modeling process.
> In the FEA analysis, the behavior of incremental loading regarding model types
> The actual drawn shell material properties including wall thickness variations and
weld zone properties are well-specified in the study o f the BP and BFL
investigations and successfully adapted into the .A.NSYS computer code FEA
modeling.
260
> The dimples for the feet located at the bottom of the cylinders did not affect the
The prediction and elimination o f the ballooning formation which occurs at the
bottom end-closure o f the DOT-39 non-refillable cylinders (see Fig. 2.7) have been
completed. Details and explanations of the modeling using both experimental and FEA
methods for both prediction and elimination can be seen in Chapter 5. The results o f the
3D FEA modeling applications yielded a very good outcome for the prediction o f the
simulate the nonlinear FEA modeling, which was developed successfully especially for
the dimple areas. Desired results were obtained for the residual ballooning deformations.
uniformity have been performed efficiently by employing the only geometrical step
function (see Fig. 4.12) in 3D modeling processes. In addition, the incremental internal
pressure for the cylinder model is performed during both loading and unloading (pressure
releasing) conditions. Therefore, the results obtained from both experiments and FEA
simulations to predict the residual ballooning deflections at the bottom o f the DOT-39
non-refillable refrigerant cylinders are compared and shown on Table 5.3. in Chapter 5.
One o f the major tasks in these research activities was to eliminate the problem,
the NRV cylinders, the bottom end-closure (see Fig. 5.2) is redesigned. This redesigning
261
process has accomplished finding the optimum location o f the dimple {DL) utilizing the
design of the experiment method, which was explained in detail in Chapter 5. The
The incremental loading conditions are performed in both loading and un-loading cases.
The FEA simulation cycles were employed well for variations o f the DL values since the
results obtained from computer-aided modeling utilizing the design of the experiment
The prediction and preventing o f the buckling (flip-flop) problem that D0T-4BA
reflllable cylinders encounter at the bottom convex end-closure have been completed
using the 2D axisymmetric FEA modeling. The procedures o f the utilized methods and
conditions are performed in the plane-strain and quasi-static nonlinear structural field. A
2-node triangular structural solid element is employed in the FEA modeling processes
Utilizing the first-order design optimization method in the nonlinear axisymmetric FEA
simulation, the design parameters o f the convex end-closures are optimized to prevent the
buckling phenomenon.
The outcome o f the FEA modeling process yielded detailed information regarding
262
analysis o f the convex end-closure. However, it was decided to proceed further with a
sensitivity analysis to understand the relative impacts of the design parameters, t, Rc, and
Rk, more objectively to support by numerical comparisons. Upon the completion o f the
effective determination of the new design to get higher buckling pressure. Increasing the
thickness o f the convex end-closure regardless o f buckling deflection and material cost is
more efficient from the tooling-cost viewpoint. However, increasing magnitudes o f the
radii of curvatures. Rc. and Rk. including thickness, i. are more valuable in obtaining low
This section designates the future work in this area to yield better findings for the
> An experimental work should be employed to test the new location o f the dimple
> An optimum location o f the dimple (DL) perhaps can be studied for better
5.11. Furthermore, the material property and thickness variation at the dimple area
263
An experimental test should also be re-employed for the buckling (flip-flop)
cylinders. The material properties and thickness variation after drawn processes o f
The new design parameters, r. and Rk, o f the convex end-closure found using
performed in the experimental test. Also, to avoid the tooling cost, only the
264
REFERENCES
6. Bednar, H.H.. " Pressure Vessel Design Handbook". 2"^* ed.. Van Nostrand Rainhold
Company inc.. 1986.
8. Bickell, M. B.. C. Ruiz. "Pressure Vessels Design and Analvsis". Macmillan Press.
1967.
10. Blachut, J., "Buckling of Sharp Knuckle Torispheres Under External Pressure". Thin-
Walled Structures, Vol. 30, N: 1-4. pp. 55-77, 1998.
11. Blachut, J., "Minimum Weight o f Internally Pressurized Domes Subjected to Plastic
Load Failure”, Thin Walled Structures, vol. 27. No. 2. pp. 127-146,1997.
12. Blachut, J.. "Plastic Loads for Internally Pressurized Torispheres”, International
Journal Pressure Vessels and Piping, vol. 64, pp. 91-100, 1995.
265
13. Blachut. J.. and G.D. Galletly, "Buckling Strength o f Imperfect Steel Hemispheres",
Thin-Walled Structures. Vol. 23. 1995. pp. 1-20.
14. Blachut, J.. and G.D. Galletly. "Clamped Torispherical Shells under External Pressure
- Some New Results". Journal of Strain Analysis. Vol. 23. No. 1. pp. 9-24, 1988.
15. Blachut. J.. and G.D. Galletly. and D.N. Moreton. "Buckling o f Near-Perfect Steel
Torispherical and Hemispherical Shells Subjected to External Pressure". AIAA
Journal. Vol. 28. No: 11. pp: 1971-1975. Nov. 1990.
17. Boote. D.; D. Mascia. M. Monti. E. Rizzuto. R. Tedeschi. "Elastic instability o f thin
cylindrical shells: numerical and experimental investigation". Ocean Engineering.
Vol: 24. Issue: 2. pp. 133-160. February 1997.
18. Boyle. J.T.. R. Hamilton. J. Shi. and D. Mackenzie. ".A simple Method o f calculating
Lower-Bound Limit Loads for .Axisymmetric Thin Shells". Journal of Pressure
Vessel Technology. Vol. 119. pp 237-242. May. 1997.
19. Brady, G.S.. H.R. Clauser. and J.A. Vaccari. " Materials Handbook". 14'*’ ed.
McGraw-Hill. Inc.. 1997.
21. Brown. K.W.. and H. Kraus. "Satiability o f Internally Vessels with Ellipsoidal
Heads", Transaction of tlie AS ME Journal o f Pressure Vessel Technology, pp: 156-
161. May 1976.
22. Brunig, M.. "Nonlinear analysis and behavior elastic-plastic behavior o f anisotropic
structures". Finite elements in analysis and design. v:20. 1995. pp: 155-177.
23. Bull. J. W.. "Finite Element Analysis of Thin-Walled Structures". Elsevier Applied
Science Publishers. Ltd.. London. 1988.
266
26. Bushnell, D., and G.D. Galletly, "Stress and Buckling o f Internally Pressurized.
Elastic-Plastic Pressure Torispherical Vessels Heads-Comparisons o f Test and
Theory”, Transaction o f ^ ASME Journal o f Pressure Vessel Technology, Feb.
1977, pp. 39-54.
27. Case, J., and A.H. Chilver. " Strength o f Materials and Structures”, John Case and
A.H. Chilver, 1971.
28. Chen, H., J. Jin. and J. Yu. "Study on the Stress Concentration at the Round Comers
o f Flat Heads in Pressure Vessels Subjected to Internal Pressure". Journal o f Pressure
Vessel Technology, vol. 118, pp. 429-433, Nov. 1996.
29. Chen. D.H.. H. Nisitani. and K. Mori. "Stress-lntensity Factors for an Internal Semi-
Elliptical Surface Crack in Cylindrical Pressure Vessels". Transaction o f the ASME
Journal of Pressure Vessel Technology. Vol: 117, Aug. 1995. pp: 213-221.
30. Chen, W„ and I. Finnie, "Determination o f Stress Intensity Factors for Partial
Penetration Axial Cracks in Thin-Walled Cylinders". Transaction o f ^ ASME
Journal of Pressure Vessel Technology. Vol: 108. Apr. 1986. pp: 84-86.
31. Cheng, W., and I. Finnie. "Measurement o f Residual Hoop Stress in Cylinders using
the Compliance Method". Transaction o f the ASME Journal o f Pressure Vessel
Technologv. Vol: 108. .Apr. 1986. pp: 87-92.
32. Cheng, W., and I. Finnie, "On the Prediction of Stress Intensity Factors for
Axisymmetrical Cracks in Thin-Walled Cylinders From Plane Strain Solutions".
Journal of Engineering Materials and Technology, vol. 107, July 1985. pp. 227-234.
33. Chinh, P. D.. "Adaptation o f Spherical and cylindrical vessels to variable internal
pressure and temperature”. International Journal o f Mechanical Science, V:37, NO: 7.
1995. pp:783-792.
34. Chuse, R., "Unfired Pressure Vessels; the .4SME Code Simplified”. 4“^ Ed.. F. W.
Dodge Corp., New York. I960.
35. Chuse, R., and B. E. Carson, "Pressure Vessels: The ASME Code Simplified”.
McGraw-Hill. Inc.. 1993.
37. Combescure, A., and G.D. Galletly, "Plastic Buckling o f Complete Toroidal Shells o f
Elliptical Cross-section Subjected to Internal Pressure”, Thin-walled Structures, Vol:
34, 1999, pp: 135-146.
38. Davis, J. R., Davis & Associates, "Carbon and Alloy Steels: ASM Specialty
267
Handbook”, ASM international, 1996.
39. Farr, J. R., and M. H. Jawad, Guidebook for the Design of ASME Section VIII
Pressure Vessels. ASME Press, New York, 1998.
40. Faupel. J. H., and F.E. Fisher, “ Engineering Design: A Synthesis o f Stress Analysis
and Materials Engineering”. 2"^ Ed. John Wiley and Sons, Inc, New York, 1981.
41. Galletly, G.D., "Buckling and Collapse o f Thin Internally-pressurized Dished Ends”,
Proceedings- Institution of Civil Engineers Part 1: Design and Construction. No: 67,
pp: 607-626. Sept. 1979.
42. Galletly. G.D., "A Design Procedure for Preventing Buckling in Internally-
Pressurized Thin Fabricated Torispheres”, Journal o f Construction Steel Research,
vol. 2, Nr. 3. pp. 11-21, Sept. 1982.
44. Galletly. G.D. and J. Blachut. "Torispherical Shells under Internal Pressure-Failure
due to Asymmetric Plastic Buckling or Axisymmetric Yielding”. Proceedings
Institution Mechanical Engineers, Part C, vol 199 (C3). pp. 225-238, 1985.
45. Galletly, G.D.. and D.A. Galletly, "Buckling o f Complex Toroidal Shell Structures",
Thin-walled Structures, Vol. 26, No. 3, pp. 195-212, 1996.
46. Galletly, G.D., and R. W. .A.ylward. "Plastic Collapse and the Controlling Failure
Pressures o f Thin 2:1 Ellipsoidal Shells Subjected to Internal Pressure". Transaction
o f the ASME Journal of Pressure Vessel Technology, vol. 101, pp. 65-71. Augusts
1979.
47. Galletly, G.D., J. Kruzelecki, D.G. Moffat, and B. Warrington, "Buckling of Shallow
Torispherical Domes Subjected to External Pressure - A Comparison o f Experiment.
Theory, and Design Codes”, Journal of Strain Analvsis, vol. 22, No. 3, pp. 163-175.
1987.
49. Green, R. E.. "Machinery's handbook”. 25'*’ Ed. Industrial Press. Inc. New York.
1996.
50. Gunia, R., B., "Source Book on Materials Selection”, vol: 1, American Society o f
Metals (ASM), 1997.
268
5 1. Harvey, J. F.. "Pressure Vessel Design: Nuclear and Chemical Applications”, D. Van
Nostrand Company, Inc.. 1963.
52. Hicks, C. R., and K. V. Turner, Jr., "Fundamental concepts o f the Design o f
Experiments” Ed., Oxford University Press, Inc., New York. 1999.
53. Hill, E.V.. J.L. Walker II. and G.H. Rowell, "Burst Pressure Prediction in
Graphite/Epoxy Pressure Vessels Using Neural Networks and Acoustic Emission
Amplitude Data”, Materials Evaluation, pp. 744-754, 1996.
54. Hosford. W.. Backofen. W.. "Strength and Plasticity of Textured Metal. Fundamental
Deformation Processing”, Proceedings of ^ 9^ Sagamore .Army Material Research
Conference (ARMA). Syracuse University press, pp259-291. 1964.
55. Jahed, H.; R. Sethuraman. and R.N. Dubey, "A Variable Material Property Approach
for Solving Elastic-Plastic Problems”. International Journal o f Pressure Vessels
And Piping. Vol: 71. Issue: 3. pp. 285-291. May 1997.
56. Jekerle, J. "Proposal for Calculation of Flat Oval Pipes Under Internal Pressure Under
Consideration of Material Plastification". Transaction o f ^ ASME Journal o f
Pressure Vessel Technologv. Vol.l 19. pp. 301-305. .August 1997.
57. Jiang, W . and K. H. Wu. "Thin-Walled Tubes Subjected to Combined Internal and
Axial Load”. A1A.A Journal, vol. 31. pp. 377-387. Feb. 1993.
58. Jiang, W.. "The Elastic-Plastic analysis of Tubes: Part 11 - Variable Loading”.
Transaction of the ASME Journal o f Pressure Vessel Technology. Vol.l 14. pp. 222-
228. May 1992.
59. Jiang, W., "The Elastic-Plastic Response of Thin-Walled Tubes Under Combined
Axial and Torsional Loads: Part 1 - monotonie loading”. Transaction o f the ASME
Journal of Pressure Vessel Technology. Vol. 115, pp: 283-290. A ug'1993.
60. Jones, E. 0 . Jr.. "The Effects o f External Pressure on Thin-shell Pressure Vessel
Heads”. Transaction o f ^ ASME. Journal o f Engineering Industry, pp. 205-219.
May 1962.
61. Kalnins, A., and D. P. Updike. “Effect o f Reinforcement on the Strength o f Junctions
Between Cylindrical and Conical Shells”. Transaction o f ASME. Journal of
Pressure Vessel Technology, yol. 117, pp. 135-141. May 1995.
63. Kam, T.Y.; Liu, Y.W.; Lee, F.T., “First-ply failure strength of laminated composite
269
pressure vessels”, Composite Structures, Vol: 38, Issue: 1-4. May 8 , pp. 65-70. 1997.
64. Kanodia, V. L.. and R.H. Gallagher, H.A. Mang, "Instability Analysis o f
Torispherical Pressure Vessels Heads with Triangular Thin-Shell Finite Elements”,
Transaction o f the ASME Journal o f Pressure Vessel Technology, pp: 64-73 Feb.
1977.
65. Kieselbach. R.. "Bursting of A Silo”. Engineering Failure Analvsis. vol. 4, Nr. 1, pp.
49-55, 1997.
66. Kirk, A. and S. S. Gill, "The Failure if Torispherical Ends o f Pressure Pessels Due to
Instability and Plastic Deformation-an Experimental Investigation” , International
Journal o f Mechanical Science, vol. 17. pp. 525-544. 1975
67. Kisioglu. Y.. J.R. Brevick. and G. L. Kinzel, "Determination o f Burst Pressure and
Failure Locations of DOT-39 Refrigerant Cylinders” ASME Journal o f Pressure
Vessel Technology, (Submitted and Accepted for Publication in June 2000).
68. Koves. W.J.. and Nair. S., "A Finite Element for the Analysis o f Shell Intersections”.
Journal o f Pressure Vessel Technology, Vol. 118, pp 399-406. Nov.' 1996.
69. Krieg, R.D.; Xu. S.. "Plane stress linear hardening plasticity theory”. Finite Elements
In Analysis And Design. Vol: 27. Issue: 1. September 30. 1997. pp. 41-67.
70. Lazzeri, L.. "Simplified Nonlinear Ratchet Model for Dynamic Analysis o f Pressure
Components”. Transaction o f ^ ASME Journal o f Pressure Vessel Technology. Vol:
114. Aug. 1992. pp: 321-327.
72. Li, J.Z., Y.H. Liu. Z.Z. Gen, and B.Y. Xu. Finite Element Analysis for Buckling of
Pressure Vessels with Ellipsoidal Head”. International Journal o f Pressure Vessels
and Piping, vol. 75, pp.l 15-129. 1998.
73. Lietzmann. A., J. Rudolph, and E. Weib. '‘Failure Modes o f Pressure Vessel
Components and Their Consideration in Analysis”, Chemical Engineering and
Processing, vol. 35. pp. 287-293, 1996.
74. Loghman, A., and M.A. Wahab, "Loading and Unloading Thick-walled Cylindrical
Pressure Vessels of Strain-Hardening Materials”. Journal o f Pressure Vessel
Technology. Vol. 116. May. 1994, pp 105-109.
75. Lu, Z., and H. Obrecht. and W. Wunderlich, '‘Imperfection Sensitivity o f Elastic and
Elastic-Plastic Torispherical Pressure Vessels Heads” . Thin-Walled Structures. Vol.
270
23, pp. 21-39, 1995.
76. Mackenzie, D., and J.T. Boyle. "A computational Procedure for Calculating Primary
Stress for the ASME B&PV Code”, Journal o f Pressure Vessel Technology (ASME),
vol. 116, pp. 339-344, Nov. 1994.
77. Meguid, S.A., and M.H. Refaat, "Finite element analysis o f the deep drawing process
using variational inequalities”. Finite Elements In Analysis And Design. Vol: 28.
Issue; 1, pp. 51-67, December 1997.
78. Meshii, T.. and K. Watanabe. "Closed-form stress intensity factor for an arbitrarily
located inner circumferential", surface crack in a cylinder subjected to axisymmetric
bending loads. Engineering Fracture Mechanics. Vol: 59. Issue: 5. pp. 589-597.
March 1998.
79. Mielnik. E. M.. “Metalworking science and Engineering”. McGraw-Hill. Inc.. 1991.
80. Mondai. S.K. and M.W. Uddin. "Stresses at the Junctions o f .Axisymmetric Shells
Under Axially Varying Load". International Journal o f Pressure Vessels and Piping,
vol. 75. pp. 727-733. [998.
81. Mott. R.L.. "Applied Strength o f Materials”. Prentice Hall. Inc., New Jersey, 1978.
83. Patel, P.R. and S. S. Gill, "Experiments on the Buckling under Internal Pressure of
Thin Torispherical ends of Cylindrical Pressure vessels". International Journal of
Mechanical Science, vol. 20. pp. 159-175. 1975.
84. Preiss. R., F. Rauscher. D. Vazda. and J.L. Zeman. "The Flat End to Cylindrical Shell
Connection-Limit Load and Creep Design”. International Journal o f Pressure Vessels
and Piping, vol. 75, pp. 715-726, 1998.
85. Radhamohan, S.K., and G.D. Galletly. "Plastic Collapse o f Thin Internally
Pressurized Torispherical Shells”. Transaction o f ^ ASME Journal o f Pressure
Vessel Technology, vol. 101, pp. 311-319, Nov. 1979.
86. Rao, S.S.. "Engineering Optimization; Theory and Practice”. 3'^ Ed. John Wiley and
Sons, Inc. New York, 1996.
87. Rausand, M.; and K. Qien. "The Basic Concepts o f Failure Analysis”, Reliability
Engineering And System Safety, Vol: 53, Issue: 1, pp. 73-83, July 1996.
88. Roach, D.P., and T.G. Priddy, ‘‘Effect o f Material Properties on the Strain to Failure
o f Thick-Walled Cylinders Subjected to Internal Pressure”, Journal o f Pressure
271
Vessel lechnology. Vol. 116, pp 97-104, May. 1994.
89. Seki, W.; and S.N. Atluri, "On newly developed assumed stress finite element
formulations for geometrically and materially nonlinear problems”, Finite Elements
In Analysis .And Design. Vol; 21, Issue: 1-2, pp. 75-110, October 1995.
90. Shigley, J.E.. and C.R. Mischke. "Mechanical Engineering Design”. 5“’ Ed. McGraw-
Hill, inc. 1989.
91. Siebel, E. and H. Bisswanger, "Deep Drawing”, Munich, Carl Hanser, 1995.
93. Soric, J., "Stability Analysis o f a Torispherical Shell Subjected to Internal Pressure”.
Computer and Science, vol. 36. No 1, pp. 147-156. 1990.
95. Spence. J.. and A.S. Tooth, " Pressure Vessel Design: Concept and Principles” . E &
FN Spon (Chapman & Hall). London. 1994.
96. Stanley, P., and T.D. Campbell, "Very Thin Torispherical Pressure Vessels Ends
Under Internal Pressure: Test Procedure and Typical Results”, Journal o f Strain
Analvsis. vol 16. No 3. pp. 171-186. 1981.
97. Stanley, P., and T.D. Campbell. "Very Thin Torispherical Pressure Vessels Ends
Under Internal Pressure: Strains. Deformations, and Buckling Behavior”. Journal of
Strain Analysis, vol 16, No 3. pp. 187-203, 1981.
98. Stouffer, D.C., and L.T. Dame, "Inelastic Deformation o f Metals: Models,
Mechanical Properties, and Metallurgy”, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York, 1996.
99. Sun, X. K., S. Y. Du, and G.D. Wang, "Bursting Problem o f Filament Wound
Composite Pressure Vessels”. International Journal o f Pressure Vessels and Piping,
vol. 76, pp. 55-59. 1999.
100. Szyszkowski. W.. and P.G. Glockner, "A Rational Design o f Thin-Walled Pressure
Vessel Ends”, Transaction o f ^ ASME Journal o f Pressure Vessel Technology. Vol:
109. pp. 368-373. Nov. 1987.
101. Tabiei, A., and Y. Jiang. "Instability of laminated cylindrical shells with material
non-linear effect”. International Journal O fN on-linear Mechanics. Vol: 33, Issue: 3,
pp. 407-415. May 1998.
272
102. Tadmor, E.B., and D. Durban, "Plastic Deformation and Burst o f Pressurized
Multilayered Cylinders", Journal o f Pressure Vessel Technology. Vol. 117, pp 85-91.
Feb. 1995.
103. Tafreshi, A., "Numerical analysis o f thin Torispherical end closures”. International
Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping, Vol: 71. Issue: l.p p . 77-88, April 1997.
104. Tafreshi, A., and R.T. Fenner, "Design Sensitivity Analysis using the Boundary
Element Method”, Journal of Strain Analysis, vol 28. NO 4. pp 283-291.1993.
105. Tafreshi. A., and T. E. Thorpe, "Effects of local Departures from nominal
Dimensions on Stresses in Thin Torispherical end Closures”. Journal o f Strain
Analvsis, vol 31. No. 4. pp 315-324.1996.
106. Teng, T. L. and C. C. Lin. "Effect o f Welding Conditions on Residual Stresses Due
to Butt Welds”, International Journal o f Pressure Vessels and Piping, Vol: 75, pp.
857-864, 1998.
107. Thielsch. H.. "Defects and Failures in Pressure Vessels and Piping”. Reinhold
Publishing Co.. Chapman & Hall, Ltd., London. 1965.
108. Timoshenko, S. and S. Woinowsky-Krieger, "Theory o f Plates and Shells”, 2^^* ed.
New York. McGraw-Hill. Inc.. 1959.
109. Ugural. A. C., "Stresses in plates and Shells” New York. McGraw-Hill. Inc., 1981.
110. Ugural, A.C., and S.K. Fenster, "Advanced Strength o f Applied Elasticity”. 3^'' Ed.
Prentice-Hall PTR. 1995.
111. Updike. D.P., and A. Kalnins. "Burst by Tensile Plastic Instability o f Vessels With
Torispherical Heads”. ASME PVP. Vol. 277. pp. 89-94. 1994.
113. Updike, D.P.. and A. Kalnins. "Tensile Plastic Instability o f Axisymmetric Pressure
Vessels”, Transaction o f the ASME Journal of Pressure Vessel Technology, vol. 120.
pp: 6-11. Feb. 1998.
114. Vinson, J. R., "The Behavior o f Thin Walled Structures: Beams, Plates, and Shells”,
Kluwer Academic Publishers, Boston 1989.
115. Wagener, H.-W., “New developments in sheet metal forming: Sheet Materials, tools
and Machinery”, Journal of Materials Processing Technology, vol: 72, issue: 3,
December 15, pp. 342-357. 1997.
273
116. Waldron, M.B., and K..J. Waldron, "Mechanical Design: Theory and Methodology”,
Springer-Verlag, New York, 1996.
119. Weber, D. C., and J. H. Skillings, "A First Course in ^ Design o f Experiments: A
Linear Models Approach", CRC Press LLC. New York. 2000.
120. Weib. E.. and J. Rudolph. "Finite Element Analysis. Concerning the Fatigue
Strength of nozzle-to-Spherical Shell Intersections". International Journal Pressure
Vessels and Piping, vol. 64. pp. 101-109. 1995.
121. Yeom. D.J.. and M. Robinson, " Numerical Analysis of the Elastic-plastic Behavior
of Pressure Vessels with Ellipsoidal and Torispherical Heads". International Journal
of Pressure Vessels and Piping, vol. 65. pp. 147-156. 1996.
122. Young, W.C.. “Roark's Formulas for Stress and Strain”. 6 ‘*’' Ed.. McGraw-Hill. Inc.
New York. 1989.
123. Younsheng. L.. and L. Ji. "Sensitivity Analysis in Shape Optimization Design for
Pressure Vessel". Transaction o f ASME Journal of Pressure Vessel Technology, vol.
114. pp. 428-432. 1992.
274
APPENDIX - A
275
P r in c ip a l N a t io n a l a n d In t e r n a t io n a l C o d e s
Legal
Country Code Title Scope Writing Body Force
A ustralia Standards A ssociation B., Standards A sso cia tio n Y es
o f Australia B oiler U .F .P .V . o f Australia
C ode, Pts. I-V
A ustria D am pfkessel Verordnung B. Bundesministerium fur Y es
(D K V ) RGBT N o . 83/ Handel und
1948 W iederaufbau
W erkstoff und Bauvor- P.V,
schriften (W BV) R G B I
N o . 264/1949
C an ad a C.S>A. Standard B 5 1 - B., C an ad ian Standards Y es
1957 incorporating U .FJ>.V . Association, A .S .M .E .
A .S.M .E . Rules
F in lan d D im ensioning, M aterials B., Y es
an d W elding o f Steel U J".P.V .
Pressure Vessels
France SN C T N o. I U .F .P .V . Syndicat N at. de No
Chaudronnerie e t T ôlerie
R églem entation des G overnm ental Rules n ot strictly Y es
appareils à vapeur et à form ing a D esign Code
pression de gaz
G erm any W erkstolf und Bauvor- B. Techniscbe Y es
schriften fur D am pfkessel Uberwachungs
und D am pfkessel Vereine
Bestimmungcn
A D -M erkbiatter U .F .P .V . -Arbeitsgem einschaft Y es
Druckbchaiter
D IN -2413 Pipes D IN Y es
H ollan d G rondsiagen waarop de B., D ienst voor het Y es
beoordeling van de U .F .P .V . Stoom wezen
constructie en het
material van stoom -
toesteien, dam ptoestelen
e n druckhoudersberust
India Indian Boiler B. Central Boilers B oard Y es
R egulations 1950
Italy Controllo della B .. A .N .C .C Y es
com bustione e U X P .V .
Apparecchi a Pressione
N e w Z ealand N % Boiler C ode B. Marine D ep t. N X Y es
N X Pressure Vessel U J .P .V .
C ode
Sw eden Tryckkarlsnormer B., P.V. C om m ission o f No
U .F .P .V . Swedish A cadem y o f
Angpanneform er B.. Eng. Science
Pannsvetnorm er B. W eld. Y es
C ode
Table A .I. Principal National and International Codes [Bickell & Ruiz. (1967)]
(CONTINUED)
276
Table A.I. CONTINUED.
Legal
Country Code Title Scope Writing Body Force
B— Boilers
U .FJ*.V .— U nfired pressure vessels
277
£5
ilSiilllili
il
B lï
xs
31
ill llii
I 23
p i Ip
lili s sS
Figure A .l. Reference chart for pressure vessel components [Chuse and Carson. (1993)].
278
ASM E PR E SSU R E VESSEL CODE (SECTION VIII, DIVISION 1)
F u l l FACC CASKCT.##>#»E. 1-8 2-1 SPtCIBCALLY OISHCO COVERS.
APPX. 1-8 F C . V 8
«CLOCD COM <CTON.UW >t9.UW >«.-
FC.UW -16.1 FLAT FACE f i a n c e . APPENOCX Y
RCr^OPCCHCNT PAO.UC-37. U C -40. U C -41 WELOEO CONNECTION. UW -t5.UW -l6.
Ü C -a2.U W -t5. 4 P P X J.-7 F C .im -1 6 .1
COOC TCfMNATON OF V C S S t l .U - U a ) OPEN N C .U C -38 TO U C -42. APPX. 1-7.
LAP J0941 STUe £ N 0 .U C -IIU C * 4 4 .U C * 4 S APPX .L-7
lo o s e TYPC F14WCC. U C - 4 4 .A P P X .2 .rc .2 * 4 OULTPlE O P E W C S . UC -42
C IIP S 0 O 4 L i<AO P fC S S U R tS MT NON PRESSURE PARTS. UC-5. UC -22.
O C -3 2 .C X T .U C -3 3 .4 P P X .V 4 4 P P X .I -6 VC -55. U C -82. APPX.8
U C '7 6 le
rCMSPXnCAL KAO.
» < 4 0 S X W T .U C -3 3 .rC . U W -!3 .lU W -a PRESSURES. NT. o C -3 2 . APPX. t-3 . V<.
EX T .U C -33. APPX .L-6
OPTIONAL TTPC FLANCCS. U C -U . U C -44
OW-V3 f C . Ü W - 0 .2 . A P P « . 2 TftCXNE3SES.UA - ;
F C . 2 -4.A P P X . S. F C . UW-9, UW-V3. F C . UW-13.1
NUTS 8 WASHCRS. UC-V3, SHELL THCKNESS. UC-16.
U CS-n.U N F-t3. UHA-13 PRES SIRES N T JJC -2 7 EXT.UC-28
APPX. 1-1. 1-2 APPX. L -3
STUDS 8 BOLTS. UC-12. A PPX .L-I TO L -5
UCS-tO. iP f - 1 2 . IM A-12
A PPlC O INMCS. P4AT UCl.- STFFE n n C R N C S.U C -29. U C -30, APPX. L -5
UC 2 8 . i P P t .r WELDED C0A#CCTCN.UW-15. U W -I8.F C . U W -C .I
NTCCRALIT ClAO PlATC. PART
u c i. APPx.r F l a t k a o . u C - 3 4 . rc .u c -3 4 .u w -i3 .
UC-B3(d)(3lFlC’S . UW-13.2 8 U W -13J
CORROSION. UC-2S. U C S-2S. V - I J .
0 0 . - 2 5 . APPX.C 'EN N CS.F l AT ►CAOS.UC-39. 14.30
STFFCNCR P lA TC .O C -5. U C -22.
U C -54.U G -82
SUPPORT LUCS. U C -5 .U C -5 4 ,. 8ACKNG STRP. TABLE UW-12. VW-35
U C -8 2. APPX.C
loncttuonal j o p <t s . u w - 3 3 . CRCmrERENTW L AONTS. UW-3. UW -33. V W -35
UW-3. U P -3 5 . UW-9
T C ll TALC MOlCS. U C -25. U C I-2 S
ATTaC hm CNT O f JA C X C T .rc . 9 - 5
F la t H E A 0.U C -34.F C .U C -34.
JACXETCQ VCSSClS. UG -28. tolerance UC -80. APPX. L UC 39
UC-471C». APPX. 9 TV8ESMEET. APPX. A. APPX. AA.
P lU C WCLOS. UW -lT.O W -37 TEUA ACCEPTA8LE.U3 (9 )
TUBES. UC-a. PRESSURE. VC-31
BARS 8 st r u c t u r a l Sma PCS USCO
rO R STATS. U C -M .U W -ig.riC .
u w - 19.2. STATED SURFACES. U C -47 PASS P aRTi TXJN. UC-5
st a yOOlTS U C -U . O C -2 7 f. U C -47
TO U C -50.U W -t9. F C . U W -« .Î CHAMCL SECTION. Ca STMC U C -2 4
0 2 APEX ancle. UC-32 PART UCS. UNA. CAST RON. UCL
FORCNC. PART OF. WELDED CONST.
SUPPORT C K R T .U G -5 .U C -2 ). VW.CAST OUCTlE RON UCO.
V C -5 4 .A P P X .G
TOACOMCAL K A O
PRESSURES M T.U Ç -32 CXT. UC_-33
Figure A.2. Quick handy chart for cylinder components [Farr and Jawad, (1998)].
279
C ybndncA l S h # lk
dT M 4 fV 3 4 to r>
So
UW-! 1
No
S«>«ct S « < tc t
A r *Of lJI RT*or Cjf
6 & C S tjii A&0 8wT1W#t<j»
jO'Hf £n c*'h:v|
'Of C'c
ST I
. O.BS
uvs 1
NOTES
' 1 ' S e e wVf : :3 ' ; 11
2i See UW M . 4»*5' '5;
Figure A.3: Joint efficiencies for cylindrical shells (ASME Section VIII Part I) [Chuse &
Carson, (1993)].
280
C overin g A p p lica b le C o d e
M a te r ia l C od e p a rt str e s s v a lu e ta b le s Remarks
C arbon a n d UCS Code S e c tio n II, B a s is for e s ta b lis h in g s tr e s s
low -alloy P a r t D , T a b le lA v a lu e s — C ode A p p e n d ix P ,
ste e ls U G -2 3
L o w -tem p era tu re s e r v ic e re
q u ir e s u se o f n o tc h -to u g h m a
te r ia ls — C ode P a r s. U C S -6 5 ,
U C S -6 6 , U C S -6 7 . U C S -6 8 , U G -
84
C o d e F ig s. U C S -6 6 , U C S -6 6 .1
C orro sio n a llo w a n c e — C ode
P a r. U C S -2 5
In h ig h -te m p e r a tu r e o p e r a
tio n , creep s t r e n g th is e s s e n
tia l
D e sig n te m p e ra tu r e — C ode
P a r. U G -20
D e s ig n p ressu re— C o d e P ar.
U G -2 1 , Fn. 8
T em p e r a tu r e a b o v e 80 0 " F m a y
c a u s e carbide p h a s e o f carb on
s t e e l to co n v ert to g r a p h ite
P ip e a n d tu b es— C o d e P a rs.
U G -8 , U G -10, U G -1 6 , U G -3 1 ,
U C S -9 , U C S -2 7
C reep an d r u p tu r e p rop er-
tie s--4 3 o d e P ar. U C S -1 5 1
N o n ferro u s UNF Code S e c tio n II, B a s is for e s t a b lis h in g v a lu e s —
m eta ls P a rt D , T a b le IB C o d e, A p p en d ix P , U G -2 3
M e ta l c h a r a c te r istic s— C ode
P a r . U N F , A p p e n d ix N F , N F -1
to N F -1 4
L o w -tem p e r a tu r e o p e r a tio n —
C o d e P a r. U N F -6 5
N o n fe r ro u s c a s t in g s — C ode
P a r. U N F -8
H ig h -a llo y UUA C ode S e c tio n II, S e le c tio n a n d tr e a t m e n t o f
s t e e ls P a r t D , T a b le LA a u s te n itic c h r o m iu m -n ic k e l
s t e e ls — C ode P ar. U H A -1 1 ,
U H A A p p en d ix H A , U H A -1 0 0
to U H A -1 0 9
(CONTINUED)
281
Table A-2: CONTINUED
u o v en n g Applicable Code
M ateria l Code part stress value tables R em ark s
282
Table A-2; CONTINUED
283
Efficiency allowed,
Type of joint and radiography percent Code reference
Double-welded butt joints (Type 1) Par. UW-11
Fully radiographed 100 Pars. UW-51, UW-35
Spot-radiographed 85 Pars. UW-12, UW-52
No radiograph 70 Table UW-12
Single-welded butt joints Par. UW-52
(backing strip left in place) (Type 2) Par. UCS-25
Fully radiographed 90 Par. UW-51
Spot-radiographed 80 Par. UW-52
No radiograph 65
Single-welded butt joints no backing 60 Table UW-12
strip (Type 3) limited to circumfer
ential joints only, not over %in
thick and not over 24-in ouside dia
meter
Fillet weld lap joints and single- Table UW-12
welded butt circumferential joints
Seamless vessel sections or heads 100 Par. UW-12(d)
(spot-radiographed)
Seamless vessel sections or heads 85 Par. UW-12(d)
(no radiography)
Table A-3. Welded joint efficiency (£,) values [Chuse & Carson. 1993].
284
Heads
Full
AT R#quif#d
S#i#ci
Type
r 1F 1r
NOTES
11) For nem« toner'cei need# use kMwesi |0 *ni rft<iencv •nciuding heed to snen etttcn m en i Ov*i w e id
12) S e e UG-32 lei end loctnoie 16
13) S ee UW )) leltSH O ’
Figure A.4: Joint efficiencies for formed heads and unstayed fiat heads and covers with
categories A and D butt welds [ASME Section-VIII Part-1] and [Chuse & Carson.
(1993)].
285
A P P E N D IX -B
286
49 CFR 173.302 (C) 178.65
Specification 39 Non-Reusable (Non-Refillable) Cylinders
(a) Type. size, service pressure, and lest pressure. .A. DOT 39 cylinder is a seamless,
welded, or brazed cylinder with a serv ice pressure not to exceed 80 percent o f the test
pressure. Spherical pressure vessels are authorized and covered by references to cylinders
in this specification.
(1) Size limitation. Maximum water capacity may not exceed: (i) 55 pounds (1.526
cubic inches) for a service pressure o f 500 p.s.i.g. or less, and (ii) 10 pounds (277 cubic
inches) for a service pressure in excess o f 500 p.s.i.g.
(2) Test pressure. The minimum test pressure is the maximum pressure o f contents at
130° F or 180 p.s.i.g. whichever is greater.
(3) Pressure o f contents. The term "pressure of contents" as used in this specification
means the total pressure of all the materials to be shipped in the cylinder.
(b) Material: steel or aluminum. The cylinder must be constructed o f either steel or
aluminum conforming to the following requirements:
(1) Steel.
(i) The steel analysis must conform to the following:
Ladle Check
analysis analysis
(ii) For a cylinder made of seamless steel tubing with integrally formed ends, hot
drawn, and finished, content percent for the following may not exceed: Carbon. 0.55:
phosphorous. 0.045; sulfur. 0.050.
(iii) For non-heat treated welded steel cylinders, adequately killed deep drawing
quality steel is required.
(iv) Longitudinal or helical welded cylinders are not authorized for service pressures
in excess o f 500 p.s.i.g.
287
(2) Aluminum. Aluminum is not authorized for service pressures in excess of 500
p.s.i.g. The analysis of the aluminum must conform to the Aluminum Association
standard for alloys 1060, 1100. 1170, 3003, 5052, 5086, 5154, 6061, and 6063 as
specified in its publication entitled "Aluminum Standards and Data".
(3) Material with seams, cracks, laminations, or other injurious defects not permitted.
(c) Manufacture.
(3) Attachments to the cylinder are permitted by any means which will not be
detrimental to the integrity o f the cylinder. Welding or brazing o f attachments to the
cylinder must be completed prior to all pressure tests.
(4) Welding procedures and operators must be qualified in accordance with CG.A
Pamphlet C-3.
(d) Wall thickness. The minimum wall thickness must be such that the wall stress at test
pressure does not exceed the yield strength of the material o f the finished cylinder wall.
Calculations must be made by the following formulas:
(1) Calculation of the stress for cylinders must be made by the following formula:
^ P - ( l.3 - D - + 0 .4 - J - )
D--d-
288
Where:
S = Wall stress, in p.s.i.:
P = Test pressure;
D = Outside diameter, in inches;
d = Inside diameter, in inches.
(2) Calculation of the stress for spheres must be made by the following formula;
P- D
S =
A- t - E
Where;
S = Wall stress, in p.s.i.;
P = Test pressure;
D = Outside diameter, in inches:
t = Minimum wall thickness, in inches.
(e) Openings and attachments. Openings and attachments must conform to the following;
(1) Openings and attachments are permitted on heads only.
(2) All openings and their reinforcements must be within an imaginary circle,
concentric to the axis of the cylinder. The diameter o f the circle may not exceed 80
percent o f the outside diameter o f the cylinder. The plane o f the circle must be parallel to
the plane o f a circumferential weld and normal to the long axis o f the cylinder.
(3) Unless a head has adequate thickness, each opening must be reinforced by a
securely attached fitting, boss, pad, collar, or other suitable means.
(4) Material used for welded openings and attachments must be o f weldable quality
and compatible with the material o f the cylinder.
(i) A failure occurs at a gage pressure less than 2.0 times the test pressure;
(ii) A failure initiates in a braze or a weld or the heat affected zone thereof;
(iii) A failure is other than in the sidewall o f a cylinder longitudinal with its long
axis; or
(iv) In a sphere, a failure occurs in any opening, reinforcement, or at a point of
attachment.
289
(3) A "lot" is defined as the quantity o f cylinders successively produced per
production shift (not exceeding 10 hours) having identical size, design, construction,
material, heat treatment, finish, and quality.
(g) Flattening test. One cylinder must be taken from the beginning o f production o f each
lot (as defined in paragraph (f)(3) o f this section) and subjected to a flattening test as
follows:
(1) The flattening test must be made on a cylinder that has been tested at test pressure.
(2) A ring taken from a cylinder may be flattened as an alternative to a test on a
complete cylinder. The test ring may not include the heat affected zone or any weld.
However, for a sphere, the test ring may include the circumferential weld if it is located at
a 45 degree angle to the ring. -/'^5 degrees.
(3) The flattening must be between 60 degrees included-angle. wedge shaped knife
edges, rounded to a 0.5 inch radius.
(4) Cylinders and test rings may not crack when flattened so that their outer surfaces
are not more than six times wall thickness apart when made o f steel or not more than ten
times wall thickness apart when made o f aluminum.
(5) If any cylinder or ring cracks when subjected to the specified flattening test, the lot
o f cylinders represented by the test must be rejected (see paragraph (h) o f this section).
(h) Rejected cylinders. Rejected cylinders must conform to the following requirements:
(2) Repairs to welds are permitted. Following repair, a cylinder must pass the pressure
test specified in paragraph (f) of this section.
(3) If a cylinder made from seamless steel tubing fails the flattening test described in
paragraph (g) of this section, suitable uniform heat treatment must be used on each
cylinder in the lot. All prescribed tests must be performed subsequent to this heat
treatment.
(i) Markings.
(1) The markings required by this section must be durable and waterproof. The
requirements of § 173.24(c)(1) (ii) and (iv) o f this subchapter and § 178.35(h) do not apply
to this section.
(2) Required markings are as follows:
(i) DOT-39.
290
(ii) NRC.
(iii) The service pressure.
(iv) The test pressure.
(v) The registration number (M****) o f the manufacturer.
(vi) The lot number.
(vii) The date of manufacture if the lot number does not establish the date o f
manufacture.
(viii) With one of the following statements:
(A) For cylinders manufactured prior to October 1. 1996: "Federal law forbids
transportation if ret'illed-penalty up to $25,000 fine and 5 years imprisonment (49
U.S.C. 1809)" or "Federal law forbids transportation if retilled-penalty up to
$500,000 fine and 5 years imprisonment (49 U.S.C. 5124)."
(B) For cylinders manufactured on or after October 1. 1996: "Federal law forbids
transportation if refilled-penalty up to $500,000 fine and 5 years imprisonment (49
U.S.C. 5124)."
(3) The markings required by paragraphs (i)(2)(i) through (i)(2)(v) o f this section must
be in numbers and letters at least \ l / 8 \ inch high and displayed sequentially. For example:
DOT-39 NRC 250/500 M l001.
(4) No person may mark any cylinder with the specification identification "DOT-39"
unless it was manufactured in compliance with the requirements o f this section and its
manufacturer has a registration number (M****) from the Associate .A.dministrator.
291
49 CFR 173.302 (C) 178.51
Specification 4BA Welded or Brazed Steel Cylinders.
(a) Type, size, and service pressure. A DOT 4BA cylinder is a cylinder, either spherical
or cylindrical in shape, with a water capacity o f 1 .0 0 0 pounds or less and a service
pressure o f at least 225 and not over 500 pounds per square inch. Closures made by the
spinning process are not authorized.
(1) Spherical type cylinders must be made from two seamless hemispheres joined by
the welding of one circumferential seam.
(b) Steel. The steel used in the construction o f the cylinder must be as specified in Table
1 o f Appendix A to this part.
(c) Identification of material. Material must be identified by any suitable method except
that plates and billets for hotdrawn cylinders must be marked with the heat number.
(d) Manufacture. Cylinders must be manufactured using equipment and processes
adequate to ensure that each cylinder produced conforms to the requirements o f this
subpart. No defect is permitted that is likely to weaken the finished cylinder appreciably.
A reasonably smooth and uniform surface finish is required. Exposed bottom welds on
cylinders over 18 inches long must be protected by footrings.
(i) Minimum thickness of heads and bottoms must be not less than 90 percent o f the
required thickness o f the side wall.
292
(iii) Longitudinal seams in shells must be made by copper brazing, copper alloy
brazing, or by silver alloy brazing. Copper alloy composition must be: Copper 95 percent
minimum, Silicon 1.5 percent to 3.85 percent. Manganese 0.25 percent to 1.10 percent.
The melting point of the silver alloy brazing material must be in excess o f 1,000 °F. The
plate edge must be lapped at least eight times the thickness of plate, laps being held in
position, substantially metal to metal, by riveting or by electric spot-welding. Brazing
must be done by using a suitable flux and by placing brazing material on one side o f
seam and applying heat until this material shows uniformly along the seam o f the other
side. Strength of longitudinal seam: Copper brazed longitudinal seam must have strength
at least \3/2\ times the strength o f the steel wall.
(2) Welding procedures and operators must be qualified in accordance with CGA
Pamphlet C-3.
(e) Welding and brazing. Only the welding or brazing o f neckrings, footrings. handles,
bosses, pads, and valve protection rings to the tops and bottoms o f cylinders is
authorized. Provided that such attachments and the portion of the container to which they
are attached are made of weldable steel, the carbon content of which may not exceed 0.25
percent except in the case of 4130v0A steel which may be used with proper welding
procedure.
(f) Wall thickness. The minimum wall thickness o f the cylinder must meet the following
conditions:
(1) For any cylinder with an outside diameter o f greater than 6 inches, the minimiun
wall thickness is 0.078 inch. In any case the minimum wall thickness must be such that
the calculated wall stress at the minimum test pressure may not exceed the lesser value of
any o f the following:
(i) The value shown in Table I o f Appendix A to this part, for the particular material
under consideration;
(ii) One-half of the minimum tensile strength o f the material determined as required
in paragraph (j) of this section;
(iv) Further provided that wall stress for cylinders having copper brazed longitudinal
seams may not exceed 95 percent o f any of the above values. Measured wall thickness
may not include galvanizing or other protective coating.
(2) Cylinders that are cylindrical in shape must have the wall stress calculated by the
formula;
(3) Cylinders that are spherical in shape must have the wall stress calculated by the
formula:
A-t-E
Where:
S = wall stress in pounds per square inch;
P = minimum test pressure prescribed for water jacket test;
D = outside diameter in inches;
t = minimum wall thickness in inches;
E = 0.85 (provides 85 percent weld efficiency factor which must be applied in the girth
weld area and heat affected zones which zone must extend a distance o f 6 times wall
thickness from center line of weld);
E = 1.0 (for all other areas).
(4) For a cylinder with a wall thickness less than 0.100 inch, the ratio o f tangential
length to outside diameter may not exceed 4.1.
(g) Heat treatment. Cylinders must be heat treated in accordance with the following
requirements:
(1) Each cylinder must be uniformly and properly heat treated prior to test by the
applicable method shown in Table 1 o f Appendix A to this Part. Heat treatment must be
accomplished after all forming and welding operations, except that when brazed joints
are used, heat treatment must follow any forming and welding operations, but may be
done before, during or after the brazing operations.
(2) Heat treatment is not required after the welding or brazing o f weldable low carbon
parts to attachments o f similar material which have been previously welded or brazed to
the top or bottom o f cylinders and properly heat treated, provided such subsequent
welding or brazing does not produce a temperature in excess o f 400° F in any part o f the
top or bottom material.
(h) Openings in cylinders. Openings in cylinders must comply with the following
requirements:
294
(2) Each opening in a spherical type cylinder must be provided with a fitting, boss, or
pad o f weldable steel securely attached to the container by fusion welding.
(3) Each opening in a cylindrical type cylinder must be provided with a fitting, boss, or
pad, securely attached to container by brazing or by welding.
(4) If threads are used, they must comply with the following:
(i) Threads must be clean-cut. even, without checks and tapped to gauge.
(ii) Taper threads must be of a length not less than that specified tor .A.mencan
Standard taper pipe threads.
(iii) Straight threads, having at least 4 engaged threads, must have a tight fit and a
calculated shear strength of at least 10 times the test pressure o f the cylinder. Gaskets,
adequate to prevent leakage, are required.
(i) Hydrostatic test. Each cylinder must successfully withstand a hydrostatic test, as
follows:
(1) The test must be by water jacket, or other suitable method, operated so as to obtain
accurate data. A pressure gauge must permit reading to an accuracy o f 1 percent. An
expansion gauge must permit reading of total expansion to an accuracy o f either 1 percent
or 0.1 cubic centimeter.
(2) Pressure must be maintained for at least 30 seconds and sufficiently longer to
ensure complete expansion. .Any internal pressure applied after heat treatment and
previous to the official test may not exceed 90 percent of the test pressure.
(3) Permanent volumetric expansion may not exceed 10 percent o f the total volumetric
expansion at test pressure.
(i) At least one cylinder selected at random out of each lot o f 200 or less must be
tested as outlined in paragraphs (i)(l), (i)(2), and (i)(3) o f this section to at least two times
service pressure.
(ii) All cylinders not tested as outlined in paragraph (i)(4)(i) o f this section must be
examined under pressure o f at least two times service pressure and show no defect.
(j) Physical test. A physical test must be conducted to determine yield strength, tensile
strength, elongation, and reduction o f area of material, as follows:
(I) The test is required on 2 specimens cut from one cylinder or part thereof having
passed the hydrostatic test and heat-treated as required, taken at random out o f each lot o f
200 or less. Physical tests for spheres are required on 2 specimens cut from flat
295
representative sample plates of the same heat taken at random from the steel used to
produce the spheres. This flat steel from which 2 specimens are to be cut must receive the
same heat treatment as the spheres themselves. Sample plates must be taken from each lot
of 2 0 0 or less spheres.
(i) A gauge length of 8 inches with a width not over l\l/2 \ inches, or a gauge length
of 2 inches with a width not over l\l/2 \ inches, or a gauge length at least 24 times the
thickness with a width not over 6 times the thickness is authorized when a cylinder wallis
not over \3/16\ inch thick.
(ii) The specimen, exclusive o f grip ends, may not be flattened. Grip ends may be
flattened to within one inch of each end of the reduced section.
(iii) When size of the cylinder does not permit securing straight specimens, the
specimens may be taken in any location or direction and may be straightened or flattened
cold, by pressure only, not by blows. When specimens are so taken and prepared, the
inspector’s report must show in connection with record of physical tests detailed
information in regard to such specimens.
(i) The yield strength must be determined by either the "offset" method or the
"extension under load" method as prescribed in ASTM Standard E 8 .
(ii) In using the "extension under load" method, the total strain (or "extension under
load"), corresponding to the stress at which the 0 .2 percent permanent strain occurs may
be determined with sufficient accuracy by calculating the elastic extension of the gauge
length under appropriate load and adding thereto 0.2 percent o f the gauge length. Elastic
extension calculations must be based on an elastic modulus o f 30.000,000. In the event o f
controversy, the entire stress-strain diagram must be plotted and the yield strength
determined from the 0 .2 percent offset.
(iii) For the purpose of strain measurement, the initial strain reference must be set
while the specimen is under a stress o f 1 2 .0 0 0 pounds per square inch, and the strain
indicator reading must be set at the calculated corresponding strain.
(iv) Cross-head speed of the testing machine may not exceed \ l / 8 \ inch per minute
during yield strength determination.
(k) Elongation. Physical test specimens must show at least a 40 percent elongation for a
296
2-inch gauge length or at least 20 percent in other cases. Except that these elongation
percentages may be reduced numerically by 2 for 2 -inch specimens, and by I in other
cases, for each 7,500 pounds per square inch increment o f tensile strength above 50,000
pounds per square inch to a maximum of four such increments.
(1) Tests o f welds. Except for brazed seams, welds must be tested as follows:
(1) Tensile test. A specimen must be cut from one cylinder of each lot o f 200 or less, or
welded test plate. The welded test plate must be o f one o f the heats in the lot o f 200 or
less which it represents, in the same condition and approximately the same thickness as
the cylinder wall except that in no case must it be o f a lesser thickness than that required
for a quarter size Charpy impact specimen. The weld must be made by the same
procedures and subjected to the same heat treatment as the major weld on the cylinder.
The specimen must be taken from across the major seam and must be prepared and tested
in accordance with and must meet the requirements o f CGA Pamphlet C-3. Should this
specimen fail to meet the requirements, specimens may be taken from two additional
cylinders or welded test plates from the same lot and tested. If either o f the latter
specimens fail to meet the requirements, the entire lot represented must be rejected.
(2) Guided bend test. .\ root bend test specimen must be cut from the cylinder or
welded test plate, used for the tensile test specified in paragraph (l)(l) o f this section.
Specimens must be taken from across the major seam and must be prepared and tested in
accordance with and must meet the requirements of CGA Pamphlet C-3.
(3) Alternate guided-bend test. This test may be used and must be as required by CGA
Pamphlet C-3. The specimen must be bent until the elongation at the outer surface,
adjacent to the root of the weld, between the lightly scribed gage lines a to b, must be at
least 2 0 percent, except that this percentage may be reduced for steels having a tensile
strength in excess o f 50,000 pounds per square inch, as provided in paragraph (k) o f this
section.
(m) Rejected cylinders. Reheat treatment is authorized for rejected cylinders. Subsequent
thereto, cylinders must pass all prescribed tests to be acceptable. Repair o f brazed seams
by brazing and welded seams by welding is authorized.
(n) Markings. Markings must be stamped plainly and permanently in one o f the following
locations on the cylinder:
(1) On shoulders and top heads not less than 0.087 inch thick.
(2) On side wall adjacent to top head for side walls not less than 0.090 inch thick.
(3) On a cylindrical portion o f the shell which extends beyond the recessed bottom o f
the cylinder constituting an integral and non-pressure part o f the cylinder.
(4) On a plate attached to the top of the cylinder or permanent part thereof; sufficient
space must be left on the plate to provide for stamping at least six retest dates; the plate
must be at least \ 1/16\ inch thick and must be attached by welding, or by brazing at a
temperature of at least 1100 °F., throughout all edges o f the plate.
297
(5) On the neck, neckring, valve boss, valve protection sleeve, or similar part
permanently attached to the top o f the cylinder.
(6) On the footring permanently attached to the cylinder, provided the water capacity
of the cylinder does not exceed 25 pounds.
298
APPENDIX - C
(APDL PROGRAMS)
299
APDL of FEA M odeling for Determination o f T he BP And BFL o f the
D O T-39 Non-refillable Refrigerant Cylinders
/BATCH
/COM.ANSYS RELEASE 5.3 UP071096 18:19:37 07/25/1997
/input.start.ans ./ansvs53/docu/ ...........1
/TITLE,9.5"Cyln_T=0'.038+X.WedgeWall_Matrl:SHELL+WELD. YKISIOGLU
/UNITS.BIN
/prep7
! Actual Shell & Weld & nonuniform thickness-9.5" and 0.038" apply WEDGE function
/com, THIS IS THE LAST "LOG FILE" FOR THE CYLINDER
/com. Thick = 0.038+X" .AND DIA=9.5" Using SHELL + WELD and Different
THIKCNESSES
ET.1.SHELL51
/com. REAL CONSTANT FOR WELD BAND
R.1.0.073.0.073
/com. REAL CONSTANTS FOR CYLINDER SHELL
R.2.0.073.0.0365
R.3.0.0365.0.0365
R.4.0.0365.0.0341
R. 17.0.0330.0.0330
R. 18.0.0330.0.0338
R. 19.0.038,0.038
eshape.2
/com. Geometric Modeling for Preprocess
/com. Center Line o f Cross Section o f the Cylinder
/pnum .kp.l
Ri=4.75
Rs= 1.509
Rb=7.7001
k.,Ri+0.038/2.0
k..Ri+0.038/2.5/38
k..Ri+0.038/2.4.5
L,3.4
LDIV,2,„8
wpav,3.241,4.5.
pcirc,Rs+0.03 8/2,,0.90
ADELE, I
300
L D E L E ,ll.l2
LDELE,9
KDELE,4
LDIV,2,0.08
LDIV,3,0.08
LDIV.6,0.08
LDIV.7,0.08
LDIV,8.0.08
LDIV.9,0.08
LDELE.all
L.2,4
L 4.15
L I 5,3
L.3.16
L 6.18
L.18,7
L 2 2 ,l l
L, 11.23
L,23,12
pcirc.Rs+0.038/2.,0.90
ADELE.l
LDELE.21.22
LDELE.19
KDELE.12
L,23,24
LDIV.20.0.018
vvpav.,-0.775,
pcirc,Rb+0.038/2..0.90
.ADELE.l
LDELE.23.24
LOVLAP,21,22
LDELE.24,25
LCOMB,23.26
/pnum ,line,l
/com, Stress_Strain C un e for the WELD material
mptemp, 1.0.0
mp,ex,1.23.62
T B .M ISO .l.l
301
h X L 22 199S
a£}4 r>».* t * t
AIM ' T jsle Catj
, :v =i
: -G IST ».0=9373
i ..XF = .4053:2
i .tF = .457752
! 'ZF = .5
I Z-cU FFE P
m jo p«r w t* r ;A ; anSVS 5 . 3
JUL 16 1 9 9 7
:5 :5 4 ::4
: ’jDie Data
! :!=0.C0
! :v =;
I :IS T = .7 5
I
! :F =.5
;-=UFFER
:a 7n .*» .n :.i»
ANSVS 5 . 3
JUL I c 1 9 9 7
15:56:46
TaD le D ata
i T l= O .G O
I :v =L
I D I3T = .:5
1 <V = .5
:::
: :- 3 U F F E R
*1=0.CC
:v :1
-w-j ::sT = .: :
= 5
=.5
Z-2U FFEF
EPS
/COM, MESHING
esize„I
TYPE,1
MAT.l
303
REALI
ESYS.O
LMESH.All
eplor
/com.
/com, THICKNESS = 0.038" AND Different Thickness InnerDlA=9.5" Refrigerant
Cylinder,
/com. Using SHELL and WELD material properties for Cylinder
/SOLU
ANTYPE,static
NLGEOM.ON
sstiLon
NROPT.full
pred,on
csys, 1
/com, AxisSymmetric Nodes on the X&Y Axes
D,alLUZ.O
nseLs.node,, 1
dsym.symm.x,0
/com, Inner Nodes
nseLs.node.,2,103
D,all.rotz.0
nsel.s,node.. 105.223
D.all.rotz.O
nsel.all.node
SFE.all.,pres..lOOO
/pbc.all.,1
/psf,pres.norm.2
TIME. 1000
autots.on
NSUBST. 100.2500.100
KBC.O
NCNV.2
eplot
Insrch.on
outres.all.all
outpr.all.all
SBCTRAN
NEQIT.6000
save
solve
save.Rs A WT3 S.db
finish
exit
304
APDL o f FEA M odeling for Prediction and Elim ination o f the
Ballooning Problem o f the DOT-39 Non-refillable Refrigerant C ylinders
/BATCH
/COM,ANSYS RELEASE 5.6 UP19991022 22:33:44 04/02/2000
/input.menust.tmp .................. 1
/GRA,POWER
/GST.ON
/SHOW
/TITLE.ID:9.5"Ref-Cyln_P=400_BallnTest_t=0.038+x_SHELL+WELD_KISIOGLU
/UNITS.BIN
t=0.038 ! Cylinder Wall Thickness
Rcyl=4.75 Radius of Cylindrical Shell
Lcyl=4.5 Length o f Cylinfrical Shell
tvvld=5/38 Thickness o f Weld Zone
Rknck= 1.509 Radios of Knuckle
Rcr\vn=7.70095 ! Radius o f Crown
DL=2.125 ! 1.7 < DL < 2.2 Location o f Dimple
Rdimp=0.688 ! 0.5 < Rdimp <0.72 Radius o f Dimples & Fillet
xl=0.70710678*DL ! Dimple Location coordinates
yl=(6.9431+0.099)-Rdimp
zl=-0.70710678*DL
YAYA=34 ! .ARC Value: Must be Even and Bigger than 30
YAYB=(90-2*YAYA)/2
!*
KEYW,PR_SET.l
KEYW.PR_STRUC.l
KEYW.PR_THERM.O
KEYW.PR_ELMAG.O
KEYW,PR_FLUID,0
KEYW,PR_MULTLO
KEYW,PR_CFD.O
KEYWXSDYNA.0
/PMETH,OFF
I*
/prep7
/com,
305
/com , THIS IS THE LAST "LOG FILE" FOR THE CYLINDER
/com , THICKNESS = 0.038+X" (NON-UNIFORM THICKNESS)
/com , WITH THE DIMPLE OF THE FEET ON THE BOTTOM
/com . Using SHELL + WELD Material Properties
/com,
/com . Geometric Modeling for Preprocess
/com . Center Line o f Cross Section o f the Cylinder
/Pnum,kp, 1
/Pnum ,line,l
/Pnum ,area,l
k ,l„ ! Center o f Origin
k,2,Rcyl+t/2,
k,3,Rcyl+t/2.t\vld Center o f Knuckle curve
K,4.Rcyl-Rknck-i-t/2.Lcyl ! Center of Crown curve
K,5„-0.776, ! Coefficient of Magnification
K,6..Rcrwn-0.776. ! Coefficient of Magnification
CIRCLE,4.Rknck+t/2...90.
L,2,3
L,3,7
LDIV,3„.8
KDELE,S
L A RC, 16.6.5,Rcrwn+t/2
Iplot
!* Generate the 3D Shell Model
AROTAT.all l.6,Y.AYA 32% o f the Line
LSEL.S.LINE..12.22.1
AROTAT.all L6.YAYA !* 32% o f the Line
LSEL.ALL.LINE
LGLUE,all
/VIEW , 1 .1.1.1
/AN G , 1
/REP,FAST
BTOL,0.00001
aplot
/Com , GENERATION OF DIMPLE
/Com , DIMPLE LOCATION 2
K „ x l,y l,z l
A PTN, 11,22.47.48
A PTN ,33,44.45.46
ADELE,54.56
ADELE,50
ADELE,59,61
ADELE,22
LDELE,104.107
L D E L E ,lll
306
LDELE,22
KDELE,61
KDELE,63,65
!* Delete Areas at Crown and Dimple Zones
ADELE,5I.53
ADELE,57.58
ADELE,47,49
ADELE, II
ADELE,62
LDELE,l 14.124.10
LDELE.129.133.4
LDELE.103
LDELE.134
/prep7
ET.1.SHELL181
!* Real Constants For Finite Shell Elements
/com. Selection of the Element Type and Real Constant
/com. REAL CONSTANT FOR WELD ZONE
TK1=0.075
R .l.T K l
/com, REAL CONSTANTS FOR CYLINDER SHELL
TK2=0.0375
TK3=0.0368
TK4=0.0360
TK5=0.0352
TK6=0.0344
TK7=0.0336
TK8=0.0330
TK9=0.0320
TKl 0=0.038
TKl 1=0.0388
■ t i =o ..: q
; :v u
•D:ST=.639373
, "XF « . 4 6 5 3 2 2
;-rr «.457757
I.Z F = .5
I :-EU;F'-E=
UCU'j
»*■)
•’ " i
'•“ i
i
I £=>3
Ig.g'TY i SHELL M a te r :a i Curve 2y JELJ - ; n e _<I5ICGLL'
JL’L 16 1 9 9 7
1 5 :5 6 46
" a o le Z ata
■ 1 = 0 . ' ij
““ 1
:v %
75
-i :vF
'f
=
=
:F =
Z -3 U F F If.
o ' j* ■ .1 T ^ ' I I
.la p? -» a .n i.m
EPS
9 . 5 “CVL_SHELL M a t e r i a l C urve 2y CGRNEP . C S I C G L U
:i=o.OQ
zv =1
C IS T = .:5
<r = 5
rP = :
O
I)
/gropt.view. 1
/COM. MESHING
MESHING
TYPE. I
Iesize.2...I
esize.0.22
MAT. I
REAL. I
A M E SH .I.34.II
Iesize.3..,4
MAT.2
REAL.2
AM ESH.2.35.II
LESIZE.4...4
REAL.3
AM ESH.3.36.II
Iesize,5..,4
REAL.4
AMESH,4,37.11
Iesize,6.,,4
REAL,5
311
AMESH,5,38.11
lesize,7,„4
MAT,3
REAL,6
A M ESH,6.39.ll
Iesize,8,.,4
REAL,?
LESIZE.10...4
lesize,9..,4
R£AL,9
AMESH,9.42.11
LESIZE.1.,,12
MAT.4
REAL. 10
AMESH, 10.43.11
313
APDL of FEA Modeling for Prediction and Elimination of the
Flip-Flop (Buckling) Problem of the DOT-39 Non-refillable Refrigerant Cylinders
/BATCH
/COM.ANSYS RELEASE 5.6 UP 19991022 14:43:46 03/30/2000
/inpuLmenust.tmp ........... 1
/GRA.POWER
/GST,ON
/UNITS,BIN
/TITLE.D0T-4BA Convex, End. Buckling Analysis.SAE-1018(HR).KISI0GLU
/show.
/STATUS.all
MN=1
th=MN*0.1 ! 10 < t h < 2 0 th=0.1 Thicknes
Rcrv\Ti=MN *7.14 ! 680 < Rcrwn < 720 Rcrwn=7.14 Crown Radius
Rknck=MN* 1.1426 ! 108 < Rk n c k < 116.8 Rknck= 1.1426
Knuckle Radius
Rcy 1=4.6* NIN
CentRc=4.9*MN
twld=MN*5/38 ! Thickness o f Weld Zone
DL=MN*2.5 ! 1.7 < DL < 2.2 Location o f Dimple
Rdimp=MN*0.9 ! 0.5 < Rdimp <0.72 Radius o f Dimples and Fillet
Rfilt=Rdimp ! *0.75 ! Fillet Radius between Dimple and Crown area
xl=0.70710678*DL ! Dimple Location coordinates
y 1=MN*(2.24-i-0.1)-Rdimp
zl=-0.70710678*DL
YAYA=30 .ARC Value: Must be Even and Bigger than 30
YAYB=(90-2*YAYA)/2
/PREP7
KEYW.PR_SET.l
KEY\V.PR_STRUC,1
KEYW.PR_THERM.0
KEYW.PR_FLUID.O
KEYW,PR_ELMAG.O
K EW ,M AG NO D .O
KEYW,MAGEDG.O
KEYW,MAGHFE,0
KEYW,MAGELC,0
314
KEYW,PR_MULTI.O
KEYW,PR_CFD.O
/Pnum,Line,l
/PN U M XINE.l
/PNUM,kp,l
/PN UM area. 1
CIRCLE,2.Rknck+th/2„.90
LDIV, 1,0.5
LDELE,2
AROTAT,aII I.4.YAYA !* 32% o f the Line
LSEL,S.LINE..4.6.I
AR0TAT,aIl.,.,..I,4.YAYB !* 13% o f the Line
LSEL,S.LINE„I0.12.1
AROTAT.all I.4.YAYB !* 13% of the Line
LSEL.S.LINE..I6.I8.1
AROTAT.all I.4.YAYA !* 32% of the Line
LSEL.ALL.LINE
LGLUE.all
/VIEW. I .1.1,1
/ANG, I
/REP.FAST
aplot
/Com, GENERATION OF DIMPLE
/Com, DIMPLE LOC.ATION 2
K ,.x l,y l.z l
ADELE, 13
LDIV.31
AROTAT,28....,.20.22.360
APTN,3.6,I6.I5
A PT N ,9.I3,I2.I4
ADELE.22,24
ADELE.27.29
ADELE.6
ADELE, 18
LDELE,32,35
LDELE.64.66
LDELE.39
LDELE.6
LDELE,48,54.6
LDELE.63
!* Delete Areas at Crown and Dimple Zones
ADELE, 15 .17
ADELE,19.2I
ADELE.25,26
315
ADELE,36,37
ADELE,3
ADELE,30
LDELE.60.62
LDELE,42.46,4
LD ELEJ2
LDELE,45
LDELEJl
!* Generation of Trajectory for Fillet
LCOMB.56,55
LCOMB.55.53
LCOMB.38,40
LCOMB.38.41
LGLUE.53.38
LGLUE,44.59.43.47
!* Generation of Fillet Zone
ADRAG.18 12
ADRAG.28 6
ADRAG.31 38
ADRAG.34 44
ADELE.3.12.3
LDELE.6.12.6
LDELE.38,44.6
LDELE.37
LGLUE.39.29.43.18
LGLUE.40.30.18.47
LARC.22.29.20.Rdimp+thy2
LARC,26.4.3.Rcrwn+thy2
LARC, 16.24.3.Rcr\vn+tliG
LARC, 10,31.3 .Rcrwn+th/2
LDIV.24,0.3 !* 30 % DIVI of the Line
LDIV.3.0.3 !* 3 0 % DIVI of the Line
LARC,35,31,3.Rcrvvn+thy2
LARC,24.34,3.Rcrwn+th/2
\vprotat..,-45
WPAV,,,
LCOMB,47.37
LDIV,37,2
LARC,22,32.20,Rdimp+th/2
LARC,25,22,20.Rdimp+tt/2
Iplot
!* Generation of Surface Areas
AL,9,3,40,44 !* A3
AL,15,40,6,43 !* A6
AL,21,43,29,39 !* A9
AL,27,39,24,45 !* A12
316
AL.44,42,35,38 !* A13
A L,45,41,32,38 !* A14
AL,29,28,I8.30 !*A15
AL.32,31,28.33 !* A16
AL,35,31,34,36 !* A17
AL, 18,6,12.34 !* A18
Al,30,48,37 !* A19
Al,33,48,46 !* A20
AL,36,46,47 !* A21
AL.37.47.12 !* A22
aplot
/PREP7
ET,1,SHELL 181
!* Real Constants For Finite Shell Elements
/com. Selection o f the Element Type and Real Constant
/com. REAL CONSTANT FOR WELD ZONE
TK1=0.135*MN
R.1,TK1
/com, REAL CONSTANTS FOR CYLINDER SHELL
R,3,TK3
/Com. Volume Calculations
MSHKEY.l ! MAPPED MESH
MSHAPE.0.2D ! Mesh with Quadr Elem when 2D
MSHMID.2 ! Do not Midside Nodes
/com. WELD material property for WELD band of the Cylinder
/com, Stress_Strain Curve for the WELD material
mptemp, 1.0.0
mp,e.x,l,23.62E+7
TB.MISO. 1.1.30
/com. HOT ROLLED material property for PROPANE Cylinder
/com, Stress_Strain Curve for the SAE-1018 HR Steel Sheet
MgNr=1.10
mptemp, 1.70.0
MSHKEY.O I* Free Meshing
LESIZE.42,,,24
LESIZE,41,.,24
LESIZE,38.„11
LESIZE.35,,,18
LESIZE,32,..18
LESIZE,44„.12
LESIZE,45.„12
LESIZE,28„.7
LESIZE,31,.,7
LESIZE,47,„8
LESIZE,6,„10
LESIZE,29,„10
317
AMESH, 15,18
AMESH, 19.22
LESIZE,3.„11
LESIZE,24,„11
LESIZE,39,„12
LESIZE,43.„10
LESIZE,40,„12
AMESH,3,12,3
ESIZE,0.18*MN
MSHKEY.l ! MAPPED MESH
LES1ZE,2.„9
AMES H .2,11,3
LESIZE,1.„2
REAL.l
AMESH, 1,10.3
eplot
/COM,
/COM. Generation OF BC's and Solution Index
/SOLU
ANTYPE.static
SOLCONTROL.on
SOLUOPT
STAT
NLOPT
OUTOPT
NLGEOM.ON
sstif.on
NROPT.fiill
pred.on
CNVTOL.M.,0.005..1
CNVTOL.F,.0.005..1
319