Contents

Chapter One .................................................................................................................................................... 1

1. Introduction............................................................................................................................................. 1
1.1. Building lift system ......................................................................................................................... 1
1.2. Components of Elevator System .................................................................................................... 3
1.3. Working mechanism of building lift system ................................................................................. 5
Chapter Two .................................................................................................................................................... 7
2. Basic failure mode of building elevators ............................................................................................... 7
2.1. Failure rate predictions are based on the following assumptions: ............................................. 7
2.2. Failure Accelerated Life Testing ................................................................................................... 7
2.3. Techniques to analyze failures of building elevator................................................................... 11
2.4. Accelerated tests to predict failure .............................................................................................. 13
2.5. Determinant factor or causes of elevator failure........................................................................ 14
2.6. Failure rate and MTBF for each item of the system which is failed. ....................................... 15
2.7. Overall system the failure rate and the mean time between failures (MTBF) ........................ 16
Chapter Three ............................................................................................................................................... 17
3.1. Reliability prediction of the system ...................................................................................................... 17
3.2. Reliability Tests - Accelerated Life Testing ......................................................................................... 18
3.3. Equipment or part relationship diagram ............................................................................................ 22
3.2.1. Series network ................................................................................................................................. 24
Chapter Four ................................................................................................................................................. 26
4.1. Warranty prediction and forecast system life ..................................................................................... 26
4.1.1. Warranty prediction ....................................................................................................................... 26
Chapter Five .................................................................................................................................................. 28
5.2. Case Studies ............................................................................................................................................ 28
5.3. Building Overview ................................................................................................................................. 28
5.3. Elevator Systems .................................................................................................................................... 28
5.4. Safety Systems ........................................................................................................................................ 29

References...................................................................................................................................................... 30

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Chapter One
1. Introduction

1.1. Building lift system

An elevator is vertical transport equipment that efficiently moves people or goods between
floors (levels) of a building, vessel or other structure. Elevators are generally powered by electric
motors that either drive traction cables or counterweight systems like a hoist, or pump hydraulic fluid
to raise a cylindrical piston like a jack [1].
Elevators are devices that demand a high safety requirement. The elevator faults affect not only the
operations of other assets but may also result in serious injuries or even death. Elevator installers and
repairers, also called elevator constructors or elevator mechanics, were by far the largest occupation
affected, accounting for 36% of the deaths during work on or near elevators [2].
In fact, construction elevator installers and repairers have the sixth-highest rate of work-related
deaths of all construction trades. The average death rate for elevator installers and repairers in
construction was 29.1 per 100,000 full-time-equivalent workers (FTE) in 1992-2002, more than
twice the death rate for all construction workers combined. The rate for elevator installers and
repairers, however, is based on small numbers of deaths and thus may not be statistically reliable [3].
Consequently, an elevator frequently requires the effective and appropriate maintenance
strategy to sustain its functional operations. The advent of high-rise buildings in modern cities
requires high-speed elevator systems to provide quick access within the buildings. These buildings
require that elevators run at speeds faster than ever before. To attain this requirement, elevators
achieve at the super high speed of 810 m/min, and handle capacity loads from 9 KN to 20 KN
Elevators have various mechanical structures according to the rating speed and the maximum load
capacity.
A typical elevator maintenance or inspection work includes: Mechanical components and
equipment to be intact and properly fastened (such as sheaves, buffers, limit switches and door
components), Hoisting mechanics and ropes to be checked for weariness, lubrication, vibration and
mounting, Guide rails to ensure alignment and fastening of among rails, brackets, and fish plates,
Observation operational conditions of communicators, brushes in the machine room and Other
electrical equipment and safety devices are also included such as emergency brakes, over speed
governor.

1
Generally, elevators consist of three principal mechanical parts: traction machine, cage, and
counterweight. The traction machine is installed in a machine room located on the top of a building.
It is composed of traction motor, main sheave, and breaker. The counterweight is used to balance
with the cage and connected to the second sheave of the traction machine through a moving pulley.
The compensation rope and the sheave are used to eliminate the weight difference of both side ropes
according to the cage position.
In elevator techniques, proper installation, ongoing maintenance, and inspection are required. Long-
time continuous usage increases fault-occurrence probability, which requires troubleshooting
quickly. To assess the reliability and efficiency of the elevators, a maintenance program is a
significant part of overall elevator system. Safe and reliable operations are of paramount importance
to the owners, the management company, and the tenants as well as visitors who travel throughout
these buildings daily. The targets of elevator maintenance are as follows:
• Prolong equipment life
• Improve equipment safety and reliability
• Reduce the cost of major repairs
• Minimize the inconvenience of equipment downtime

2
 1.2. Components of Elevator System
Elevators consist of complex structural, mechanical, and electrical components. The main
components of a typical traction elevator are shown in Figure below. The components related to the
rail-counterweight system are explained briefly here. The central and most visible component of an
elevator is the passenger car. The car frame, consists of the upper crosshead beam, two vertical
uprights (stiles) joining upper and lower members, and lower safety plank, provides the supporting
structure for the car. The suspension ropes are attached to the crosshead beam. The safety plank
supports the car platform, on which passengers or other loads rest during travel. A pair of guide rails
is placed on two opposite sides of the car, guiding the car during its vertical motion. The weight of
the car and part of its load is balanced by the counterweight. The counterweight consists of steel
frame and stacked fillers or weights secured by two or more tie-rods. These weights fill up to two-
third of the height of the counterweight.
Both passenger car and counterweight are connected through traction ropes that pass through traction
system at the top of the hoist way consisting of driving sheaves and electric motor. Similar to the
passenger car, the counterweight is also guided by two guide rails along its sides during the vertical
motion. In environmental protection, In today's world the existence and development of relations has
been clearly realized: no environmental protection no life. The green concept has been deeply rooted
in the hearts of the people in the whole world. The green concept is always the lift development
trend. The experts have predicted that who is the first to launch green products, then they can grasp
the market competitive initiative. The development trend is mainly as follows: improving the design
of the product, making the production of non-pollution, having low energy consumption and low
noise, no leakage, no electromagnetic interference, no oil pollutionof the guide rail. Lift decoration
will use no (little) environment pollution materials. The motor of the lift will use the renewable power
generation technology. Lift parts have no impact on the environment in the process of the production
and use. For example, brakes must not use the asbestos, and materials can be recycled. [5]

Figure 1. components of building lift system

3
Lifts consist of complex structural, mechanical, and electrical components. The main components of
a typical traction lift are listed and explained as follows.
Car frame: The central and most visible component of a lift is the passenger car. The car
frame consists of the upper crosshead beam, two vertical uprights (stiles) joining upper and
lower members, and lower safety plank, provides the supporting structure for the car, and
car door.
Suspension rope: The rope has different thickness based on the weight designed for the lift
to carry. It connects the counter car frame with the car frame. It passes through the pulley
of the motor which exists on the motor house at the final lift to connect the two frames i.e.
car frame and counter frame.
Counter frame: The weight of the car and part of its load is balanced by the counterweight.
The counterweight consists of steel frame and stacked fillers or weights secured by two or
more tie-rods. These weights fill up to two-third of the height of the counterweight.
Guide rail: A pair of guide rails is placed on two opposite sides of the car, guiding the car
during its vertical motion. Similar to the passenger car, the counterweight is also guided by
two guide rails along its sides during the vertical motion. The guide rails are made of
structural steel with a T-shaped cross section. The guide rails are fixed on brackets, usually
at each floor level, by means of clips, and the brackets are fastened to the wall of the
building by the use of anchoring bolts also known as fishers.
Motor: the motor has different size based on the power needed for the lift to work properly.
The motor is put at the top of the building i.e. above the last floor of the building. In most
buildings there is a small house at the top of the building commonly known as motor house.
Otherwise the motor is placed at the last floor of the building where no lift is required. The
main components of the motor are gear box, motor, pulley and motor seat.
Governor: it is a part of a lift that controls the speed of the lift. It regulates the lift to go
up and down within the designed and desired speed using sensors. Two speed governors
are used one in the basement and the other in the motor house. These two speed governors
are connected with a rope and it is connected to power supply.
Controller: it is a control box which has many wires and sensors to monitor the whole lift
mechanism i.e. it makes the number of the floor to be displayed, senses the weight of the
persons or materials loaded on the lift and many more.
Buffer: the buffer is the part af the lift that functions as a damper. It is found at the basement
of the lift or its initial floor.

4
 Brake: The brake shall be capable of stopping and holding the Elevator car in its
downward travel to rest with 125% of its rated load from the maximum governor tripping
speed. In this condition the retardation of the Car shall not exceed that resulting from the
operation of the Safety gear or stopping on the buffer.

1.3. Working mechanism of building lift system

The lift system to be installed depends on the needs of the customer and the type of the buildings.
The two types of lift systems are traction system and hydraulic system.
Traction system
Traction lift is suitable for buildings with more than five floors. Traction system without
machine room is also available which is a new technology that saves building space and cost i.e.
by placing the motor in the pit or shaft. Geared traction machines are driven by AC or DC
electric motors. Geared machines use worm gears to control mechanical movement of lift cars by
"rolling" steel hoist ropes over a drive sheave which is attached to a gearbox driven by a high
speed motor. These machines are generally the best option for basement or overhead traction use
for speeds up to 500 ft/min (2.5 m/s).
Gearless traction machines are low speed (low RPM), high torque electric motors powered either
by AC or DC. In this case, the drive sheave is directly attached to the end of the motor. Gearless
traction lifts can reach speeds of up to 2,000 ft/min (10 m/s), or even higher. A brake is mounted
between the motor and drive sheave (or gearbox) to hold the lift stationary at a floor. This brake
is usually an external drum type and is actuated by spring force and held open electrically; a power
failure will cause the brake to engage and prevent the lift from falling. In each case, cables are
attached to a hitch plate on top of the cab or may be "under slung" below a cab, and then looped
over the drive sheave to a counterweight attached to the opposite end of the cables which reduces
the amount of power needed to move the cab. The counterweight is located in the hoist-way and
rides a separate railway system; as the car goes up, the counterweight goes down, and vice versa.
This action is powered by the traction machine which is directed by the controller, typically a relay
logic or computerized device that directs starting, acceleration, deceleration and stopping of the lift
cabin.
The weight of the counterweight is typically equal to the weight of the lift cabin plus 40-50% of the
capacity of the elevator. The grooves in the drive sheave are specially designed to prevent the cables
from slipping. "Traction" is provided to the ropes by the grip of the grooves in the sheave, thereby
the name. As the ropes age and the traction grooves wear, some traction is lost and the ropes must

5
be replaced and the sheave repaired or replaced. Sheave and rope wear may be significantly reduced
by ensuring that all ropes have equal tension, thus sharing the load evenly. Rope tension equalization
may be achieved using a rope tension gauge, and is a simple way to extend the lifetime of the sheaves
and ropes.
Hydraulic system
Hydraulic lifts provide smooth, quiet and efficient operation for buildings up to five floors.
Hydraulic lifts use the principles of hydraulics (in the sense of hydraulic power) to pressurize an
above ground or in-ground piston to raise and lower the car. When the lift goes up, the counterweight
goes down and vice-versa, which helps us in four ways:
The counterweight makes it easier for the motor to raise and lower the car—just as sitting
on a see-saw makes it much easier to lift someone's weight compared to lifting them in your
arms. Thanks to the counterweight, the motor needs to use much less force to move the car
either up or down. Assuming the car and its contents weigh more than the counterweight, all
the motor has to lift is the difference in weight between the two and supply a bit of extra
force to overcome friction in the pulleys and so on.
Since less force is involved, there's less strain on the cables which makes the lift a little bit
safer.
The counterweight reduces the amount of energy the motor needs to use. This is intuitively
obvious to anyone who's ever sat on a see-saw: assuming the see-saw is properly balanced,
you can bob up and down any number of times without ever really getting tired—quite
different from lifting someone in your arms, which tires you very quickly. This point also
follows from the first one: if the motor is using less force to move the car the same distance,
it's doing less work against the force of gravity.
The counterweight reduces the amount of braking the lift needs to use. Imagine if there was
no counterweight: a heavily loaded elevator car would be really hard to pull upwards but, on
the return journey, would tend to race to the ground all by itself if there weren't some sort of
sturdy brake to stop it. The counterweight makes it much easier to control the lift car.

6
Chapter Two
2. Basic failure mode of building elevators
2.1. Failure rate predictions are based on the following assumptions:
 The prediction model uses a simple reliability series system of all components, in other
words, a failure of any component is assumed to lead to a system failure.
 Component failure rates needed for the prediction are assumed to be constant for the time
period considered. This is known to be realistic for electronic components after burn-in.
 Component failures are independent.
 No distinction is made between complete failures and drift failures
 Components are faultless and are used within their specifications.
 Design and manufacturing process of the item under consideration are faultless.
The failure rate prediction process
The failure rate prediction process consists of the following steps:
 Define the equipment to be analyzed
 understand system by analyzing equipment structure
 determine operational conditions: operating temperature, rated stress;
 determine the actual electrical stresses for each component;
 select the reference failure rate for each component from the database;
 in the case of a Failure rate prediction at operating conditions calculate the failure rate
under operating conditions for each component using the relevant stress models;
 sum up the component failure rates;
 Document the results and the assumptions.
The following data is needed
 description of equipment including structural information;
 all components categories and the number of components in each category;
 failure rates at reference conditions for all components;
 relevant stress factors for the components;
Elevator Maintenance
The elevator maintenance system at One WTC uses Microsoft’s Azure Intelligent Systems Service.
This system responds to problems proactively by continuously sending service engineers real-time
data so that they can take steps to prevent elevators from breaking down. These data are entered into
dynamic predictive models that help engineers to take precautionary actions. In case an elevator
reports a problem, the system immediately suggests the most likely causes. This helps technicians
more quickly diagnose and commence repairs, thereby reducing potential down time of the elevators
[43].

2.2. Failure Accelerated Life Testing

Life testing can be used to provide evidence to support predictions calculated from reliability
models. This testing can be performed either by testing a quantity of units at their likely operating
environment (e.g. 25°C) or at an elevated temperature to accelerate the failure mechanism. The

7
 latter method is known as accelerated life testing and it is based on failures being attributed to
chemical reactions within electronic components. The mechanism can be used to predict how much
MTTF will be reduced from its value at25°C.
If there are any failures the test time is extended. For example, with two failures the test is continued
to twice the minimum length of time. Preferably the test would be continued indefinitely even if
there were no failures, until the space or the jigs are needed for another product. Every failure would
be analyzed for the root cause and if that resulted in a component or design change all the test
subjects would be modified to incorporate the change and the test would be restarted.

Most parts of building elevator initially can perform their function but throw-outs time due to wear
& tear, lubricant failure, dirt, disassembly (falling apart) and human error initial capability of the
equipment falls below the desired performance and this types of failure mode is called falling
capacity.
2.2. Basic elevator component failures

1. Traction or driving machine failure

 Crack of sheave
 Excessive wear of sheave groove of sheave
 Excessive creep of sheave
 Undercut residue of sheave
 Excessive rope slip of sheave
 Bearing fault frequency
 Increase of noise & vibration of bearing
 Deterioration of seal
 Leakage of gear oil

2. Motor failure
o Weakness of insulation resistance
o Abnormal vibration
o Overheating
o Bearing fault frequency
o Increase of sound & vibration

8
 3. Brake failure
o Insulation weakness of coil
o Plunger wear & deformation
o Switch wear & rust
o Crack & torsion of spring

4. Elevator controller failure

o Wear of contact
o Trembling of contact
o Wear of contact
o Melting
o Capacity shortage
o Wear of contact
o Melting
o Capacity shortage Wear of contact
o Melting
o Capacity shortage
o Use of single brake and door circuit

5. Governor failure
o Aging, wear
o Not working

6. Car door failure

This includes Safety shoe, Guide Shoe, Hanger Roller, Interlock switch, Door motor, door
controller and Door switch
o Shoe deformation
o Operational badness Safety shoe
o Electric wire contact badness of Safety shoe
o Wear, corrosion of Guide Shoe
o Buried quantity of guide shoe
o Urethane damage of Hanger Roller
o Noise of Hanger Roller
o Bearing fault of Hanger Roller

9
 o Aging, wear of Interlock switch
o solation breakdown of door motor
o Abnormal vibration of door motor
o Motor overheating
o Insulation resistance Weakening of door controller
o Aging, wear and carbonization of contact of door switch

7. Cage (car) failure

o Increase of the vibration & noise

o Resonance
o Misalignment frequency
o Unbalance frequency
o Rail shock vibration
o Guide roller vibration
o Fan noise
o Button getting stuck
o Aging, wear
8. Guide rails of elevator system failure

This includes Guide rail, Rail guide Shoe and Rail guide Rolle.
o Corrosion
o Bending
o Periodic vibration
o Wear, aging
o Vibration

9. Elevator rope failure

o Wear, element wire rupture

o Excessive slip
o Wire rupture

10
 10. Buffer failure
o Damage of spring
o Spring rust
o Operation badness
o Insufficient oil

2.3. Techniques to analyze failures of building elevator

Test Cases for lift
1. Check when we press from the outside of the lift it should be opened when it is in ground floor
2. Verify it should give a beep when it reaches opens we
3. Check it should display in the outer box that from which floor it comes to reach us
4. Check when we step in to the lift after 10 seconds when it knows nothing in the door it to be
closed automatically
5. Check when we give or press the number to which up to the floor it be activated
6. Check when we press different no`s it should be highlighted
7. Check up to the capacity of the lift only the load is given

8. Verify when we’re going upwards on 1st floor it anyone pressed the lift it should stop there
9. Verify on reaching the correct floor it should be automatically stopped and open
10. Verify when the lift is empty when any one touches it should reach very fatly

11
Functionality tests Outside Elevator
1) We can call elevator from every floor
2) Elevator alerts arrival with an audible sound
3) When elevator arrives it is clear which direction the elevator is going
4) The direction indicators extinguish when its last occupants are delivered to a floor.
5) The elevator open within a reasonable amount of time after arrival
6) The elevator doors remain open within a reasonable amount of time
7) Elevator doors reopen when blocked during closure

Inside Elevator
1) Pressing all buttons from bottom floor causes elevator to stop at each ascending floor in
succession.
2) Pressing all buttons from top floor causes elevator to stop at each descending floor in
succession.
3) Pressing only top floor button from bottom floor causes elevator to deliver we to the top floor
without stopping.
4) Pressing only bottom floor button from top floor causes elevator to deliver we to the bottom
floor without stopping.
5) Elevator stops at next floor in succession no matter when it was pressed.
5) Elevator travels in the same direction until all illuminated buttons have extinguished in that
direction.
6) Elevator changes direction when there are no more illuminated buttons in that direction.
7) Elevator remains at the last delivered floor until called upon.
8) Pressed buttons are clearly illuminated until floors are reached.
9) When destination floors are reached their illuminated buttons turn off.
10) Floor numbers are accurate and clearly visible upon reaching their corresponding floors.

12
Performance tests

1) The amount of time (speed) elevator travels between floors meets specification.
2) The amount of time elevator waits between opening and closing doors meets specification

Security tests
1) STOP button causes elevator to stop.
2) Pressing alarm button reaches security within specified amount of time.
3) Verify elevator's maximum weight capacity meets or exceeds specification.
4) Verify integrity of pulley system
5) Verify integrity of the braking system

Load test:
At which load does the elevator break? Test this between floors. At which load does elevator
refuses to move

2.4. Accelerated tests to predict failure

The approach of the investigation is outlined below:

 Inspect, check and analyze the lift components that were involved in the incident, including
the broken suspension ropes, machine brake, over speed governor, safety gears, guide rails,
traction sheave and buffer;
 Conduct the following tests and examinations with the assistance of independent experts
 Thorough examination of the broken suspension ropes and conduct tensile testing of the
rope sections to assess the quality of the ropes;
 Examine the critical components of the lift and conduct on site simulation tests to verify
the functioning of the lift components including machine brake simulation test, activation
speed test and pull-through test of the over speed governor.
 Assess the impact speed of the lift car on the buffer during the incident.
 Visual inspection
 Vibration and noise analyzing
 Operational inspection

13
 2.5. Determinant factor or causes of elevator failure

Type of part Time of failure (month) Counter measurement

Traction or driving machine 30 Adjustment or change for
baseline
value
Motor 15 Insulation reinforcement
Change
Brake 5 change
Elevator controller 47 Change
Circuit complement, correct
Governor 6 Repair
Change
Car door 18 Repair
Change
Circuit correction
Cage (car) 31 Repair
Adjustment
Change
Guide rails 112 Adjustment
Repair
Elevator rope 30 change
Buffer 29 Repair
change

 For a stated period in the life of an item, the ratio of the total number of failures to

the total cumulative observed time is defined as the observed failure rate.

total number of f a i l u r e s
observed failure rate 
total cumulative observed time

ˆ = k/T where ˆ is the failure rate of each item observed

14
 2.6. Failure rate and MTBF for each item of the system which is failed.
 For the driving machine:
𝒌
̂ = 𝑻 = 1/Td= 1/21600= 4.6296*10-5 failures per hour

MTBF= 1/̂ = 1/ (4.6296*10-5) = 21600.14 hr

 For the motor:

𝒌
̂ = 𝑻= 1/Tm= 1/12960 = 7.716*10-5 failures per hour
MTBF= 1/̂ = 1/ (7.716*10-5) = 12960.08 hr

 For the brake:

𝒌
̂ = 𝑻 = 1/Tb = 1/3600 = 2.77*10-4 failures per hour
MTBF = 1/̂ = 1/ (2.77*10-4) = 3601 hr

 For the elevator controller:

𝒌
̂ = 𝑻 = 1/Tb = 1/33840 = 2.955*10-5 failures per hour
MTBF = 1/̂ = 1/ (2.955*10-5) = 33840.94 hr

 For the governor:

𝒌
̂ = 𝑻 = 1/Tg = 1/10800= 9.259*10-5 failures per hour
MTBF= 1/̂ = 1/ (9.259*10-5)= 10800.3 hr

 For the car door:

𝒌
̂ = 𝑻 = 1/Tc= 1/4320= 2.3148*10-4 failures per hour
MTBF= 1/̂ = 1/ (2.3148*10-4)= 4320.03 hr

 For the car:

𝒌
̂ = 𝑻 = 1/Tb= 1/22320= 7.716*10-5 failures per hour
MTBF= 1/̂ = 1/ (7.716*10-5)= 12960.08 hr

15
  For the guide rail:
𝒌
̂ = 𝑻 = 1/Tb= 1/80640= 1.24*10-5 failures per hour
MTBF= 1/̂ = 1/ (1.24*10-5) = 80645.16 hr

 For the elevator rope:

𝒌
̂ = 𝑻 = 1/Tb= 1/21600= 4.6296*10-5 failures per hour
MTBF= 1/̂ = 1/ (4.6296*10-5)= 21600.14 hr

 For the buffer:

𝒌
̂ = 𝑻 = 1/Tb= 1/20880= 4.78927*10-5 failures per hour
MTBF= 1/̂ = 1/ (4.78927*10-5) = 20880 hr

2.7. Overall system the failure rate and the mean time between failures
(MTBF) becomes:
𝒌
̂ = 𝑻 , ˆ is the failure rate of N items observed
In our given system as shown above in the table N = 10, k = 4 , and t = 2 years= 17520 hr
Tt = Tbrake + Tgovernor + Tmotor + Tcar door + t(N-k)
Tt = 3600 + 10800+ 12960 + 4320 + 17280 * (10-4) = 135360 hr

𝒌 -5
̂ = 𝑻 = 4/135360 =2.9 * 10 failures per hour

MTBF = 1/ ̂ = 1/2.9 * 10 = 33839hr

-5

16
Chapter Three
3.1. Reliability prediction of the system
Reliability is the process of calculating the anticipated system reliability from assumed component
failure rates.

Reliability calculation is an imprecise calculation, but provides a quantitative measure of how close
a design comes to meeting design objectives and permits comparisons to be made between different
design proposals.

Reliability prediction is important for the following reasons:

 It provides an early indication of a system’s potential to meet the design reliability

requirements.

 It enables an assessment of life cycle costs to be carried out.

 It enables establishment of areas which contribute major part system unreliability.

 It enables the achievement of a given availability.

 It provides prior knowledge as to the magnitude of expected maintenance work load.

A practical definition of reliability is “the probability that a piece of equipment operating under
specified conditions shall perform satisfactorily for a given period of time”. The reliability is a
number between 0 and 1.

Reliability of a power product can be predicted from knowledge of the reliability of all of its
components.

Prediction of reliability can begin at the outset of design of a new product as soon as an estimate
of component count can be made. This is known as ‘parts count’ reliability prediction. When the
product has been designed and component stresses can be measured or calculated then more
accurate ‘parts stress’ reliability prediction can be made.

Reliability can also be predicted by life tests to determine reliability by testing a large number of
the product at their specified temperature. The prediction can be determined sooner by increasing

17
 the stress on the product by increasing its operating temperature above the nominal operating
temperature. This is known as accelerated life testing. Predictions by these methods take account
of the number of units and their operating hours of survival before failure. From either method the
reliability under different specified end-user operating conditions can be predicted.

Successful reliability prediction generally requires developing a reliability model of the system
considering its structure. The level of detail of the model will depend on the level of design detail
available at the time. Several prediction methods are available depending on the problem (e.g.
reliability block diagrams, fault tree analysis, state-space method).

During the conceptual and early design phase a failure rate prediction is a method that is applicable
mostly, to estimate equipment and system failure rate. Following models for predicting the failure
rate of items are given:

 Failure rate prediction at reference conditions (parts count method)

 Failure rate prediction at operating conditions (parts stress method)

3.2. Reliability Tests - Accelerated Life Testing

Life testing can be used to provide evidence to support predictions calculated from reliability
models. This testing can be performed either by testing a quantity of units at their likely operating
environment (e.g. 25°C) or at an elevated temperature to accelerate the failure mechanism. The
latter method is known as accelerated life testing and it is based on failures being attributed to
chemical reactions within electronic components. The mechanism can be used to predict how much
MTTF will be reduced from its value at25°C.

If there are any failures the test time is extended. For example, with two failures the test is continued
to twice the minimum length of time. Preferably the test would be continued indefinitely even if
there were no failures, until the space or the jigs are needed for another product. Every failure would
be analyzed for the root cause and if that resulted in a component or design change all the test
subjects would be modified to incorporate the change and the test would be restarted.

18
The MTTF demonstrated by life tests under representative operating conditions is often found to be
many times longer than the calculated value and it has the benefit of providing operational evidence
of reliability.

If predictions are required for higher temperatures, then the tests at 25°C can be used with an
acceleration factor to predict the reduced MTTF at elevated temperatures. Alternatively, if units are
tested at temperatures higher than 25°C then an acceleration factor again applies. In this situation the
time to failure is ‘accelerated’ by the increased stress of higher temperatures and the test time to
calculate MTTF at 25°C can be reduced.

And if the required failure data values are given it can be use formulas to obtain item
reliability hazard rate and mean time to failure.

Reliability Measures
Reliability of the lift is important. If a lift often doesn’t work, it will affect people's normal life and
production, causing great inconvenience to the people, unreliable and accident, are often the causes
of insecurity. To improve reliability, firstly, increase the reliability of individual components of the
lift must be increased. Only when every component of the lift is reliable, the entire lift is reliable.
This section presents formulas to obtain item reliability hazard rate and mean time to failure. Time
and use is the test of an elevator system's reliability. The system should continue to operate in the
same way it did when it was first installed. The users do not want surprises, all components must
continue to function for their intended function and in the intended way. This is important for the
building owner and clientele. If the users have a bad experience with the elevator, they will likely
get a bad impression of the business or businesses that are located in the building with the faulty
elevator. Besides losses of customers, unreliable elevators will need costly and timely maintenance
and will lead to major financial burdens.

19
 Reliability Function
The reliability of an item can be obtained by using any of the following three equations:
The probability that an item may fail between running times 0 and t is:

Where:  R(t)=reliability at time t,

 F(t)=cumulative distribution function,
 f(t) =failure density function.
Which gives the reliability function?


 λ(t) =hazard rate or time-dependent failure rate.
Then assuming constant failure rate

Rt   exp t   et

Hazard test:
This is defined by

f t Rt 
 t  
Substituting for f(t) in the equation for λ (t),

For constant 

MTTF): this is
defined by

20
The following summarizes the events that would lead to failure of a lift and the related reliability
data:
Basic Events (all MTTF λ = 1/MTTF R MTTR µ= 1/MTTR A= µ/ λ+ µ
in series)
for
t t= 30
E1Rope broken 6000 0.000167 0.995012 5 0.2 0.999167
=
E2Pulley broken 6000 0.000167 0.995012 5 0.2 0.999167

E3Door failure 150 0.006667 0.818731 1 1 0.993377

e
E4Control failure 100 0.010000 0.740818 0.5 2 0.995025
-
E5Motor failure 450 0.002222 0.935507 2 0.5 0.995575
λt
E6Elec.supply 300 0.003333 0.904837 0.5 2 0.998336
failure

For the lift as a whole, the reliability and the availability are calculated as:
R30 = 0.508309; and

A (∞) = 0.980926

Assume that the lift is under preventive maintenance, with its components replaced periodically
as follows:
Component Cable Pulley Door Control Motor Elec.
MTTF 6000 6000 150 100 450 300
Replacement period 900 900 60 30 150 90

Suppose Door and Motor is replaced more frequently, as shown below:

Component Cable Pulley Door Control Motor Elec.

MTTF 6000 6000 150 100 450 300

Replacement period 900 900 30 30 90 90

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 Reliability Networks

This section is concerned with the reliability evaluation of most standard networks occurring in
engineering systems. The networks covered in this section are series, parallel, and standby.
For our system for the building lift the relation of the components is in series. This is from the
listed parts if in one of occurs failure, then the system stops working. However, for safety system
it is mostly designed with safety brake.

3.3. Equipment or part relationship diagram

Since block diagrams are logic diagrams which show the functional relationship among the system
elements and to be able to predict reliability of a system, the system is represented as a number of
functional blocks that are interconnected according to effect.

The following diagram shows simplified form of relationship blocks that only includes major parts
of elevator. If we see in detail there may change the diagram in to stand by (safety systems), parallel
(ropes) and etc.

Driving machine Controller Motor Governor

Rope

Car

Buffer Door Brake Guide rail

22
 3.2. Mathematical relationship for reliability
What is reliability prediction?

Reliability prediction describes the process used to estimate the constant failure rate during the
useful life of a product. This however is not possible because predictions assume that:

 The design is perfect, the stresses known, everything is within ratings at all times, so that
only random failures occur
 Every failure of every part will cause the equipment to fail.

 The database is valid

These assumptions are sometimes wrong. The design can be less than perfect, not every failure of
every part will cause the equipment to fail, and the database is likely to be atleast15 years out-of-
date. However, none of this matters much, if the predictions are used to compare different
topologies or approaches rather than to establish an absolute figure for reliability. This is what
predictions were originally designed for.

Some prediction manuals allow the substitution of use of vendor reliability data where such data
is known instead of the recommended database data. Such data is very dependent on the
environment under which it was measured and so, predictions based on such data could no longer
be depended on for comparison purposes.

Performance
Performance is the measure of a components ability to do its job. How powerful is the motor, how
long will the structures last, how much current can the power source deliver, etc. An effective
elevator system has the best performing parts with respect to certain constraint thresholds.

23
3.2.1. Series network
In this case n number of units forms a series system. If anyone of the units fails, the system fails.
All system units must work normally for successful operation of the system. For independent
and non-identical units, the series system reliability is: For such above system to work all
components must work. For a system of two blocks failure of either block prevents operation
of the system.

Reliability of a series-connected system is

Rsy tR1 t R2 tRn t


Assuming each components of the system by different R value we can get the final
mathematical formula for reliability
Driving machine=R1 controller=R2 motor=R3 governor=R4 rope=R5 car=R6 guide rail=R7
brake=R8 door=R9 buffer=R10

Rsys= R1.R2.R3.R4.R5.R6.R7.R8.R9.R10
Rsys = exp [-(λ1 +λ2 +……+λ10 )t] is reliability of total item e

Reliability of each item

Ri= exp[-λiti] … in which i= 1,2,3…10
We have calculated the failure rates, and set the corresponding times for each items in the
previous chapter.
 For the driving machine:
Ri = e-λt = e-(4.6296*10-5)*17520 = 0.44436
 For the motor:
Ri = e-λt = e-(7.176*10-5)*17520 = 0.2844

24
  For the brake:
Ri = e-λt = e-(2.77*10-4)*17520 = 0.0078
 For the elevator controller:
Ri = e-λt = e-(2.955*10-5)*17520 = 0.5958
 For the governor:
Ri = e-λt = e-(9.259*10-5)*17520 = 0.1975
 For the car door:
Ri = e-λt = e-(2.3148*10-5)*17520 = 0.666
 For the car:
Ri = e-λt = e-(7.716*10-5)*17520 = 0.2587
 For the guide rail:
Ri = e-λt = e-(1.24*10-5)*17520 = 0.8047
 For the elevator rope:
Ri = e-λt = e-(4.6296*10-5)*17520 = 0.44436
 For the buffer:
Ri = e-λt = e-(4.78927*10-5)*17520 = 0.432

Reliability of the whole system

Rsys= R1.R2.R3.R4.R5.R6.R7.R8.R9.R10
From the above failure rate calculation, the reliability is:
 Assuming constant failure rate,

Rt   exp  t   et

R(t) =exp (-3*10-5*17520) =0.6

25
Chapter Four
4.1. Warranty prediction and forecast system life
4.1.1. Warranty prediction
One criteria for the success of the company is depends on the paired of warranty, if it is too large
loss will increase and if it is too small may customers not satisfies. To compromise this warranty
paired must be optimum. For the given elevator company, we propose like the following. Standard
products manufactured by the Company are warranted to be free from defect sin

Workman ship and material for a period of one year from the date of shipment, and any products,
which are defective in workmanship or material, will be repaired or replaced, at the Company’s
option, at no charge to the Buyer. Final determination as to whether a product is actually defective
rests with the Company. The obligation of the Company hereunder shall be limited solely to repair
or replace, at the Company’s discretion, products that fall within the foregoing limitations, and
shall be conditioned upon receipt by the Company of written notice of any alleged defects or
deficiency promptly after discovery and within the warranty period, and in the case of components
or units purchased by the Company, the obligation of the Company shall not exceed the settlement
that the Company is able to obtain from the supplier thereof. No products shall be returned to the
Company without its prior consent. Products, which the company consents to have returned, shall
be shipped prepaid f.o.b. the Company factory. The Company cannot assume responsibility or
accept invoices for unauthorized repairs to its components, even though defective. The life of the
products the

Company depends, to a large extent, upon type of usage thereof and the company makes no
warranty as to fitness of its products for the specific applications by the buyer or as to period of
service unless the company specifically agrees otherwise in writing after proposed usage has been
made known to it.

This warranty does not apply to experimental products for which no warranty is made or given and

26
Buyer waives any claim thereto.

The foregoing warranty is exclusive and in lieu of all other warranties, expressed or implied,
including, but limited to, any warranty of merchantability or of fitness for a particular purpose and
buyer hereby waives any and all claims therefore

Warranty Registration

Name (print):

E-mail:

Address:

Phone number:

Model Number: Purchase Price:

Date you received elevator: Month: Day: Year:

City: State: Zip:

27
Chapter Five
5.2. Case Studies
The following case studies illustrate the implementations of state-of-the-art elevator technologies
in major skyscraper projects in Burj Khalifa in Dubai. This projects are of national and
international significance so that their sponsors, developers, and owners worked hard to implement
the most advanced technologies in this building, including elevator technologies. This case study
starts by providing an overview of the building. Then, it explains technologies related to elevators
structured according different topics.

Burj Khalifa, Dubai, UAE

 Height: 828 m; 2717 feet
 Floors above ground: 163; below ground: 2
 Architect: Skidmore, Owings & Merrill
 Completion: 2010

5.3. Building Overview

Burj Khalifa is the tallest building in the world. The tower was designed as a centerpiece of a grand
plan for a large mixed-use development that will contain up to 30,000 homes, nine hotels, 19
residential towers, the Dubai Mall, 3 ha (7.5 acres) of parkland, and a 12 ha (30-acre) artificial
lake, among other functions and uses. The tower can hold up to 35,000 people, and it contains
swimming pools, 900 private apartments, 144 residences in the Armani section, 49 floors of
corporate office suites, restaurants, sky lobbies, an observation deck, and the world’s most
advanced computerized “dancing fountain” on the lake [4].

5.3. Elevator Systems

Burj Khalifa contains 57 elevators, of which, two are double-deck elevators used exclusively for
travel to the observation deck. The tower boasts a number of outstanding elevator features
including: long travel distance of 504 m (1654 feet), the highest elevator landing at 638 m (2093
feet), and fast double-deck elevators that travel with a speed of 10 m per second or 1969 feet per
minute. Double-deck elevators, with built-in light and entertainment features including LCD
displays, carry visitors to “At The Top, Burj Khalifa”, the world’s highest outdoor observation
deck located on the 124th level. They also serve office users transferring at the sky lobby at level
123. These elevators have a capacity of 12 to 14 people per cabin [6]. In Burj Khalifa, elevators
are arranged in zones to serve different functions according to a sky lobby system. The sky lobby
is an intermediate floor where residents, guests and executives change from an express elevator to
a local elevator, which stops at every floor within a certain segment of the building. Burj Khalifa’s
sky lobbies are located on levels 43, 76 and 123 and include lounge areas and kiosks, among other

28
amenities. Another highlight is the state-of-the-art circular observation elevator that serves three
floors in the Armani Hotel restaurant area. All elevators have been supplied and installed by Otis,
Farmington, CT, USA. Unique to the elevators are 25 machine-room-less (MRL) elevators
featuring flat, polyurethane coated belts instead of steel ropes, and gearless drives instead of bulky
motors, which eliminated the need for engine rooms. These features reduce energy consumption
by up to 50% when compared to conventional units. Called energy-efficient Gen 2, the system
does not require lubrication, eliminating the need for storage, cleanup and disposal of hazardous
waste. A computerized destination dispatching system also was implemented. Since the cables are
very long, under strong winds, their movements may become dangerous and damage the elevators
shafts. “Sway sensors” are incorporated toward the top of the elevator shafts to inform if the
movements and vibrations of elevator ropes become too strong. In that case, elevators get
shutdown temporarily.

5.4. Safety Systems

Accommodating up to 35,000 people presents potential safety concerns and hazards, and “the
highest-risk part of the Burj Khalifa is its high speed elevators” [7]. In response, the designers of
Burj Khalifa have equipped the elevators with safety devices and included features such as
fireproof concrete and sills so that water from sprinklers does not flood the shafts. Burj Khalifa
uses an intricate system of elevators to aid with fire safety. In case of emergency, fast and large
service elevators (with 5500 kg capacity) can be utilized to transport the building’s occupants.
Ten elevators enjoy “lifeboat” features, meaning that passengers are encapsulated in a completely
fire-resistant environment. These elevators are operable on emergency back-up power, and can be
manually controlled using a camera and a joystick by the Dubai Civil Defense. The “lifeboat
evacuation” operation mode enables emergency responders to take occupants to refuge areas,
which are two-hour fire-resistant areas that are pressurized (to minimize the migration of smoke
into the compartment), air-conditioned, and are placed approximately every 25 floors. They also
contain LCD monitors to convey evacuation instructions and critical information. The refuge areas
are connected to multiple staircases, which are protected by highly fire- resistant concrete walls.
Occupants walking down the stairways during an evacuation can rest safely in the refuge areas.
Multi-alarm sensors of smoke, heat and motion are located in all rooms throughout the building.
In emergency situations such as a fire, the system will immediately notify occupants through an
emergency voice/alarm communication system in multiple languages. The building’s ventilation
system also helps with the issue of smoke and other toxins [8,9].
A major measure of effectiveness is the safety of the elevator system. Lack of an effective safety
system could lead to injury, or possibly death of users or maintenance personnel. The elevator
system must be designed so as to protect riders with multiple backup systems for use in the event
of failure of one or more than one critical mechanism. The elevator should also be easy to maintain
with the control room and electric motor in an easily accessible location. The various safety
systems often utilized are described in the above system structure section. For the sake of this
project and simplicity, we will assume the various types and manufacturers under consideration
make equally safe elevators.

29
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[1]. Silver, E.A., D.F. Pyke and R. Peterson,(1998) Inventory Management and Production
Planning and Scheduling, Third Edition, John Wiley & Sons, New York.
[2]. Blazewicz, J., Ecker, K.H., Pesch, E., Schmidt, G. und Weglarz J. (2001). Scheduling
Computer and Manufacturing Processes. Berlin (Springer). ISBN 3-540-41931-4.
[3]. Department of Community Medicine, University College Hospital, Ibadan, Nigeria. (1993).
FACE Report
93CA00301: Manufacturing Supervisor Falls and Dies in an elevator Shaft
[4]. Al-Kodmany, K. Eco-Towers: Sustainable Cities in the Sky; WIT Press: Southampton, UK,
2015.
[5]. Association, 2010-2015 China lift market analysis report, 2010
[6]. Burj Dubai Features World’s Highest Elevators. WORLD. Available online:
http://news.xinhuanet. com/english/2010-01/04/content_12753604.htm (accessed on 1 April
2010).
[7]. Lowe, A.; Saleem, N. “Evacuation during Emergency Will Be a Smooth Process in Burj
Khalifa” Gulf New. Available online: http://gulfnews.com/business/property/evacuation-during-
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[8]. Beyer, M.T. An Evaluation of the Fire and Wind Safety of the Burj Dubai; University of
Wisconsin-Madison, Mechanical Engineering: Madison, WI, USA, 2009.
[9]. CW Staff. How the Burj Khalifa Was Built UPDATED, Construction Week Online.
Available online: http://www.constructionweekonline.com/article-32805-how-the-burj-khalifa-
was-builtupdated/5/ (accessed on 3 March 2015).
[3] Stapelberg, R. F. 2009. Handbook of reliability, availability, maintainability and safety in engineering
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[8] Mobley, R. K., Higgins, L. R. and Wikoff, D. J. 2008. Maintenance engineering handbook. New York:
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