SYNTAX

“FINAL”

BY

NAME : HIJRAWATI

REG.NO : N1D217018

ENGLISH LITERATURE STUDY PROGRAM

FACULTY OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

UNIVERSITASY OF HALUOLEO

KENDARI

2019
 PREFACE

First of all, thanks to Allah SWT because of the help of Allah, writer finished writing the
paper entitled “how the phrase structure rule describe in sentences” right in the calculated time.
The purpose in writing this paper is to fulfill the assignment.

In arranging this paper, the writer truly get lots challenges and obstructions but with help
of many individuals, those obstructions could passed. Writer also realized there are still many
mistakes in process of writing this paper.

Because of that, the writer says thank you to all individuals who helps in the process of
writing this paper. Hopefully Allah replies all helps and bless you all. The writer realized that
this paper still imperfect in arrangement and the content. Then, the writer hope the criticism
from the readers can help the writer in perfecting the next paper.

Kendari, 7th January 2019

The Writer
 CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

A. Background

Syntax is a set of rules for grammar and spelling. In other words, it means
using character structures that a computer can interpret. For example, if a user tries to
execute a command without proper syntax, it generates syntax error, usually causing the
program to fail.
In linguistics, syntax refers to the rules that govern the ways in
which words combine to form phrases, clauses, and sentences. It's the concept that enables
people to know things like adjectives generally come before the nouns they describe (green
chair), how to start a question with a question word (What is that?), that subjects often
come before verbs in non-question sentences (She jogged.), prepositional phrases start with
prepositions (to the store), helping verbs come before main verbs (can go, will do), and so
on.

B. Identification of problem

How the phrase structure rule describe in sentences?

C. Objective

To know how is the phrase structure rule describe in sentences.

 CHAPTER II

LITERATURE REVIEW

A. Concept of syntax

1. SYNTACTIC CATEGORIES
A syntactic category is a set of words and/or phrases in a language which share a
significant number of common characteristics. The classification is based on similar
structure and sameness of distribution (the structural relationships between these elements
and other items in a larger grammatical structure), and not on meaning. In generative
grammar, a syntactic category is symbolized by a node label in a constituent structure
tree.

There are major and minor syntactic categories:

Major Categories

 All phrasal syntactic categories

Examples: NP (noun phrase), VP (verb phrase), PP (prepositional

phrase)

 Word-level syntactic categories that serve as heads of phrasal syntactic categories

Examples: noun, verb

Minor categories
 Categories that do not project to a phrase.
Examples: yes-no question markers

2. SYNTACTIC STRUCTURE
The standard theory of Syntactic Structures and especially of Aspects of the
Theory of Syntax employed a phrase-structure grammar—a grammar in which the
syntactic elements of a language are defined by means of rewrite rules that specify their
smaller constituents (e.g., “S → NP + VP,” or “a sentence may be rewritten as a noun
phrase and a verb phrase”)—a large number of “obligatory” and “optional”
transformations, and two levels of structure: a “deep structure,” where semantic
 interpretation takes place, and a “surface structure,” where phonetic interpretation takes
place. These early grammars were difficult to contrive, and their complexity and
language-specificity made it very difficult to see how they could constitute a solution to
Plato’s problem.
In Chomsky’s later theories, deep structure ceased to be the locus of semantic
interpretation. Phrase-structure grammars too were virtually eliminated by the end of the
1970s; the task they performed was taken over by the operation of “projecting” individual
lexical items and their properties into more complex structures by means of “X-bar
theory.” Transformations during this transitional period were reduced to a single
operation, “Move α” (“Move alpha”), which amounted to “move any element in a
derivation anywhere”—albeit within a system of robust constraints. Following the
introduction of the “minimalist program” (MP) in the early 1990s, deep structure (and
surface structure) disappeared altogether. Move α, and thus modification of structure
from one derivational step to another, was replaced by “Move” and later by “internal
Merge,” a variant of “external Merge,” itself a crucial basic operation that takes two
elements (such as words) and makes of them a set. In the early 21st century, internal and
external Merge, along with parameters and micro parameters, remained at the core of
Chomsky’s efforts to construct grammars.

B. Concept of sentence element

 Simple Sentences

A simple sentence is one independent clause that has a subject and a verb and
expresses a complete thought. Notice that there are some important requirements for
a simple sentence:
1. Must have a subject and a verb.
2. Must express a complete thought.
3. Must only have one clause.

Examples of Simple Sentence:

1. Joe went to the store.
2. Sarah and Jessie are going swimming.
3. The frog jumped and landed in the pond.

 Compound Sentences
A compound sentence contains at least two independent clauses. These two
independent clauses can be combined with a comma and a coordinating conjunction or
with a semicolon.
A compound sentence is made by joining two independent clauses together with
a conjunction.
Some examples:

 John bought some new shoes, and he wore them to a party.

 Lydia liked her new house, but she didn't like the front yard.
 We can go see a movie, or we can get something to eat.

 Complex Sentences
A complex sentence contains at least one independent clause and at least one
dependent clause. Dependent clauses can refer to the subject (who, which) the
sequence/time (since, while), or the causal elements (because, if) of the independent
clause.
If a sentence begins with a dependent clause, note the comma after this clause. If,
on the other hand, the sentence begins with an independent clause, there is not a comma
separating the two clauses. Key: independent clause = yellow, bold; comma = pink,
regular font; dependent clause = blue, italics. Here are a few examples:
Although she completed her literature review, she still needed to work on her
methods section. Note the comma in this sentence because it begins with a dependent
clause. Because he organized his sources by theme, it was easier for his readers to follow.
Note the comma in this sentence because it begins with a dependent clause. They studied
APA rules for many hours as they were so interesting. Note that there is no comma in this
sentence because it begins with an independent clause.
C. Tree diagram

A tree diagram allows a user start at a single point and make mutually exclusive
decisions or experience mutually exclusive events to follow a path down the branches of
the tree. Using the tree diagram is simple once you assign the appropriate values to each
node. Chance nodes, representing a possible outcome, must be assigned a probability.
Decision nodes ask a question and must be followed by answer nodes, such as "yes" or
"no." Often, a value will be associated with a node, such as a cost. Tree diagrams
combine the probabilities, decisions, costs and payouts of a decision and provide a
strategic answer. The price of an option such as a put or call can be modeled using a
decision tree given the price of the underlying security at a given point in time.

Sentences

NP VP

The girl has NP

A beautiful room.
 CHAPTER III

DISCUSSION

A. Presentation of data

I know I’m not an ordinary ten-year-old kid. I mean, sure, I do ordinary things. I eat ice
cream. I ride my bike. I play ball. I have an X Box. Stuff like that makes me ordinary. I guess.
And I feel ordinary. Inside. But I know ordinary kids don’t make other ordinary kids run away
screaming in playgrounds. I know ordinary kids don’t get stared at wherever they go. If I
found a magic lamp and I could have one wish, I would wish that I had a normal face that no
one ever noticed at all. I would wish that I could walk down the street without people seeing
me and then doing that look-away thing. Here’s what I think: the only reason I’m not ordinary
is that no one else sees me that way.

(From book “Wonder” written by R.J. Pallacio)

B. Analysis using tree diagram

1. I’m not an ordinary ten-year-old kid.

S

VP NP

N V Neg Det NP

N NP

I am not an ordinary N NP

N NP

Adj N
Ten years
Old Kid
2. I eat Ice cream
S

VP NP

N V Adj N

I eat Ice Cream

3. Stuff like that makes me ordinary

NP VP

N NP V NP

N Adj N Adj

Stuff like that makes me ordinary

 CHAPTER IV

CONCLUSION

Phrase structure rules are a type of rewrite rule used to describe a given language's
syntax and are closely associated with the early stages of transformational grammar, being
first proposed by Noam Chomsky in 1957. They are used to break down a natural language
sentence into its constituent parts, also known as syntactic categories, including both
lexical categories (parts of speech) and phrasal categories. A grammar that uses phrases
structure rules is a type of phrase structure grammar. Phrase structure rules as they are
commonly employed operate according to the constituency relation, and a grammar that
employs phrase structure rules is therefore a constituency grammar, as such, it stands in
contrast to dependency grammars, which are based on the dependency relation.
 REFERENCE

Dawson, C, Hope.1980_Editors.Introduction to language and linguistic. pages 32 of the book.

Nordquist, Richard.2019.Syntax: Definition and Examples. https://www.thoughtco.com/syntax-

grammar-1692182. (diakses tanggal 7 January 2019)

Palacio.R.J.2012.Wonder.Random House Children’s Books: New York