Certification Course on

Quality Assurance and Statistical Quality Techniques

Code 0.05: 7 Q C Tgools
Course Level A Issue No.: 01
Seven Quality tools
Effective Date: 15-04-2014

HISTOGRAM

A bar chart that displays the

variation within a process.
Also called a frequency
distribution. The frequency of
occurrence of any given value
is represented by the height of
the bars.

Uses
 Allows one to quickly visualize what's going on within a large amount of data.

 Provides clues to causes of problems. It tells about the process behaviour with
respect to process setting and process variability.

 May be used to show the relationship between the engineering tolerance and the
capabilities of the process.

When should we use the Histogram

 When a key process/product characteristic is being analyzed.

 When Capability studies are being performed, particularly for examining the data
distribution pattern

 Analyzing the quality of incoming material

General approach
 Collect measurements (variable data) from a process on key characteristic.

 Fifty or more measurements are preferred.

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  Construct a check sheet to record the data.
 Find the range by subtracting the smallest measurement from the largest.
 Use the guide in Table 1. to determine the proper number of class intervals:

Observations Number of classes

25 to 50 5 to 8
51 to 100 6 to 11
101 to 250 8 to 13
251 to over 11 to 15

Table 1

Construction

STEP 1: Gather at least 50 data items. Express the overall number of data items as N.
Example : The length (in mm) of 80 samples of a component was measured, producing
the results shown in Table -2. The specified value is 30.2  0.9 mm.

29.9 30.1 O30.3 30.2 30.1 30.3 29.9 29.7

O30.6 30.4 29.9 x29.5 30.4 29.7 30.0 O30.5

29.9 29.7  29.1 30.2 30.3 29.4 30.2 29.8

x29.6 30.6 29.8 29.9 29.8 30.0 30.3 30.0

30.1 29.9 29.3 29.8 30.4 x29.2 29.8 30.0

29.9 30.0 29.6 O30.5 x29.8 29.8 30.4 29.9

30.4 x29.4 30.3 30.0 29.9 O30.3 30.0 x29.5

30.0 30.4 29.4 30.0 O30.0 29.6 x29.7 29.9

30.5 29.7 29.9 30.1 30.6 29.5 O30.4 29.7

30.2 O30.8 29.5 29.9 30.2 29.8 30.1 29.9

Table 2 : Measurement Data

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STEP 2: Finding the maximum and minimum value L and S in the data. Mark the
maximum value (O) and the minimum value (X) in each column (or row) of the data
table. Find the maximum value among the maximum values (O = L) and the minimum
value among the minimum values (  = S). This method is both fast and accurate. The
values obtained were:
Maximum value: L = 30.8, Minimum value : S = 29.1

STEP 3: Determining the width of the section

Divide the distance between the maximum value and the minimum value into a suitable
number of equal intervals. First, divide the difference (range) between L and S into k
classes and find the width of each class. Ten is the usual value selected for k to
produce an integral multiple h of the unit of measure. (Refer Table 1) Precise
calculation of k is not necessary. A thumb rule of k = N is many times applied in
determining k Divide the range ( L - S) into 10 classes and round off the result to an
integral multiple of the unit of measure (here, 0.1 mm):

L  S 30. 8  29.1
  0.17  0. 2  h , Class width : h = 0.2
10 10

STEP 4: Determining the class boundary values.

The boundary value of class is specified to an accuracy of one-half the smallest unit of
measure. The first class has the minimum value as the lower boundary. Calculate the
higher boundaries by adding the width of a class to the lower boundary. Since the unit
of measurement is 0.1 mm, one-half that value (0.5 mm) is subtracted from the lowest
0.1
value (29.1) to create the lower boundary. 29.1   29. 05
2

Adding the section width h = 0.2 to this result makes the upper boundary value of the
first class 29.25. The range of the first class is thus 29.05 to 29.25. Find the boundary
values of the remaining class by successively adding h = 0.2.

Notes :
1. In general, the starting point of the section boundary value = minimum value – unit /2.
2. Use an integral multiple of the unit of measurement as your boundary value to make
clear its relationship with the specified value.

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STEP 5: Determining the median value of the classes
For example, the median value of the first class is
29. 05  29. 25
 29.15 .
2
Use the same method to calculate the median value of subsequent classes.

STEP 6 : Making a frequency table

Assign data items one by one to the appropriate class by placing a mark in the check
column. Total the data in the frequency column to make certain that the number of data
items equals N (See Table 3)

o Section Median Check frequency

Boundary Value
Values
1 29.05 - 29.25 29.15 11 2
2 29.25 - 29.45 29.35 1111 4
3 29.45 - 29.65 29.55 1111 111 8
4 29.65 - 29.85 29.75 1111 1111 1111 14
5 29.85 - 30.05 29.95 23
6 30.05 - 30.25 30.15 10
7 30.25 - 30.45 30.35 12
8 30.45 - 30.65 30.55 6
9 30.65 - 30.85 30.75 1
Total 80

Table - 3. Frequency chart

STEP 7 : Draw and label the histogram

Write the dimensions along the horizontal axis and the frequency scale along the
vertical axis to create the histogram (see Figure -1). Record information on items
outside the upper and lower specifications limits.

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 Length (mm)

Strengths :
ã Simple and powerful tool.
ã Quickly summarizes large amounts of data
ã Can be used to show relationship of key characteristic variation to engineering
tolerance.

Weaknesses :
ã Not time-sensitive
ã Generally takes large amounts of data before patterns can be seen.
ã Tempting to over-interpret.

Patterns :

The histogram is generally a normal distribution, but sometimes the histogram from a
process does not produce a normal curve. Studying histogram patterns provides clues
to causes of problems. Some common non-normal patterns, with their probable
causes, are listed below.

1. Skewed to the Left :

Could be caused by centering the process toward the high end of the tolerance, and
sorting the parts that fall out on the high side; or the nature of the process physically
prohibits any measurements past a maximum value.

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2. Skewed to the Right:

Could be caused by centering the process toward the low end of the tolerance, and
sorting the parts that fall out on the low side; or the nature of the process physically
prohibits any measurements past a minimum value.

3. Bi-modal :

Two combined populations. Reasons: two shifts, operators, inspectors, suppliers,

machine settings, gages, tools, machines, measurement locations, etc.

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4. Truncated:

This distribution is not normal because there are no gradually tapering outer ends. This
can happen when a process is not capable of meeting the specifications, the parts are
sorted from both ends, or too few classes are chosen.

5. Missing Center :

The center of the distribution has been sorted from the rest. This portion may have
been delivered to a customer with tighter specifications.

6. Spike(s) at the Tail(s) :

The parts in the outer ends of the distribution are probably being reworked to bring the
characteristic just within specifications.

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PARETO ANALYSIS 100

45
90

40 80

35 70
A bar chart that helps to
prioritise actions by 30
No. of stoppages

60

Cumulative %
arranging in descending
order of occurrence. 25 50
Sorts out the “vital few”
from the “trivial many.” 20 40

15 30

10 20

5 10

0 0
A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S
Uses

 To prioritise actions needed to solve complex problems.

 To separate important from non-important causes contributing to a problem.
 To select the vital few for further action

When should we use the Pareto Analysis?

When many factors are impacting a problem and we need to focus on the important
ones.
Attention needs to be directed only to the few factors that account for most of the
problem.

The approach

 Define a problem and collect data on the factors that contribute to it. Historical
records generally provide sufficient information.

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  Classify the data by type, cost, percent, number of occurrences, or whatever is
appropriate for the situation.
 Arrange the data in descending order.
 Calculate % contribution of each category taking all categories as 100 %
 Calculate cumulative % age starting with the highest contributor
 A bar graph is produced displaying the data.
 A line graph is drawn on cumulative % age and superimposed on the bar graph.
 Decide a cumulative % age as a cutoff to select the most significant categories
for further action.
 A genral rule is to take 80 % or around 80 % as a cutoff. The Pareto principle
states that 20 % contributors cover 80 % of the total contributions.

See the example below for the construction of a Paerto chart in respect of Complaints
received at the various Sales Branch offices of company

TABLE. 2: PARETO ANALYSIS

Complaints RATIO CUM. %

received TO
BRANCH TOTAL
Ernakkulum 45 50 50
Delhi 20 22.2 72.2
Chennai 10 11.1 83.3
Ahmedabad 5 5.6 88.9
Bangalore 3 3.3 92.2
Faridabad 2 2.2 94.4
Hyderabad 1 1.1 95.6
Guwahati 0 0.0 95.6
OTHERS 4 4.4 100.0

TOTAL 90 100.0

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The analysis shows us that Ernakulum, Delhi and Chennai branches are receiving more
than 80 % of all complaints. If the objective is to reduce the overall number of
complaints in the company, the Pareto analysis helps us in identifyin these 3 branches
for further investigation and corrective actions.

The Company could also have decided to conduct a Pareto analysis on the category of
complaints. In such a case the cutiff would be decided based on the top 3 or 4
categories that may be contributing to around 80 % of the complaints, and in which case
all branch offices will be covered.

In Quality applications, pareto analysis is most often used to identify problems that have
greatest impact on the company in terms of costs, and also for identifying the top most
causes of rejections or rework when a quality problem has been selected.

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SCATTER
DIAGRAM
A visual tool used to
study the ‘possible’
relationship between one
variable and another.

Uses

To test for possible ‘Cause & Effect’ relationships between any two variables.
Important Notes :

a) On many occasions, an actual cause and effect relationship may not exist in two
variables, but a small sample size may indicate a weak or medium correlation by
sheer chance. The user should therefore apply his mind and not draw
inappropriate conclusions.

b) Sometimes a common factor may actually be responsible for two different

responses that may not be directly correlated with each other. For example the
higher ambient temparatures in the summer months may give rise to more fire
accidents due to heat, as well as higher consumtion of electrical power. In
statistical analysis, we do not base relationships on such common factors as they
will lead to drawing wrong conclusions.

When should we use the Scatter Diagram

When there is a need to display what happens to one variable when another one
changes, in order to test a theory that the two variables are related.

The Approach
 Collect data of paired samples expected to be related. The more the number of
data points, the better will be the graphical visualization.
 Construct a data sheet as follows:

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 Measurement Quality rating score No. of customer complaint
1 50 30
2 81 10
3 76 11
.
 Draw the horizontal and vertical axes of the diagram. The measurement value
should get higher as you move up and to the right on each axis.
 Label the axes. The variable that is being investigated as the possible cause is
usually on the horizontal, and the “effect” variable is usually on the vertical.
 Plot the data on the diagram. If values repeat, circle that point. The resulting
diagram is:
. .
Y 40 .....
30 .. . . .
.. .. . . .
20 .. .. . . . .
.. . . .
0 . ..
25 50 75 100 X

See how the plotted points form a clustered pattern. The direction and “ tightness” of the
cluster gives a clue as to the strength of the relationship between variable 1 and
variable 2. The more this cluster resembles a straight line, the stronger the relationship.

Y Y

X X
No Correlation No linear Correlation

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 Y Y

X X
Positive Correlation Possible Positive Correlation

Y Y

X X
Negative Correlation Possible Negative Correlation

A scatter diagram is used as an initial visual tool, prior to conducting correlation and
regression studies that numerically determine the strength of the relationships and
predict reulsts. This tool is well understood in making presentations, where the
numerical strength is not so important.

Examples of uses of Scatter diagram in quality applications could be:

a) Establish relationship between tool life and turning defects

b) Study possible relationship between welding current and welding defects such as
undercuts
c) Operator eye sight and ability to detect visual defects
d) Ambient humidity level and storage life related defects

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STRATIFICATION

Stratification is the process of

grouping members of the
population into relatively
homogeneous subgroups

Uses
Stratification tool is used for diagnosing the cause of a problem by identifying the major
contributing source(s) among mutliple similar sources

Exmples of multiple but similar sources could be : operators, machines, production

lines, plants, suppliers, mines, finished product categories, raw material sources, shifts,
seasons

Note: When using stratification, sources cannot be mixed, for example you cannot
analyse and compare data between opertors and mahcines together. These will
constitute two separate studies - one between operators and one between machines

When should we use the Stratification tool

Stratification is carried out during diagnostic phase of problem solving for investigating
the causes of problems. It is specifically used:

 At the time of conducting data analysis, specially when data displays unusually
high variation or when frequency distribution reveals bi modal or mutli modal
patterns (see section on Histograms)
 When any of the above indications are present, stratified data analysis will be
conducted using other tools such as check sheet

The Approach
A stratification study must be conducted by taking adequate sample size or accessing
large enough recordred data that will gived us enough information to detect significant
difference. If the difference is in the order of 1000 – 3000 ppm (0.1 to 0.3 %), analyzing
50 samples or records or even 500 samples may not show significant difference. 0.1 %

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Example:

Machine A Machine B

N = 450 N = 450

D = 12 D = 118

P% = 2.7 P% = 26.2

COMBINED

N = 900

D = 130

P% = 14.4

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