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Lecture Manual
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PART I
Contents
1. Basic Concepts of Thermodynamics
2. Properties of Pure Substances
3. First Law of Thermodynamics
Figure 1 Figure 2
Figure 4
3. Isolated System, which can be differentiated into
Thermally isolated system where there is no exchange of energy and
matter with the surroundings, and
Mechanically isolated system where there is no work done on the
system or by the system
4. Adiabatic system - is one which is thermally insulated from its
surroundings. It can, however, exchange work with its surroundings. If it
does not, it becomes an isolated system.
Phase. A phase is a quantity of matter which is homogeneous
throughout in chemical composition and physical structure.
5. Homogeneous System - A system which consists of a single phase is
termed as homogeneous system. Examples: Mixture of air and water
vapour, water plus nitric acid and octane plus heptane.
6. Heterogeneous System - A system which consists of two or more phases
is called a heterogeneous system. Examples: Water plus steam, ice plus
water and water plus oil.
1.6 State
State is the condition of the system at an instant of time as described or measured
by its properties. Or each unique condition of a system is called a state.
It follows from the definition of state that each property has a single value at each
state. Stated differently, all properties are state or point functions. Therefore, all properties
are identical for identical states.
On the basis of the above discussion, we can determine if a given variable is
property or not by applying the following tests:
- A variable is a property, if and only if, it has a single value at each equilibrium
state.
- A variable is a property, if and only if, the change in its value between any two
prescribed equilibrium states is single-valued.
Therefore, any variable whose change is fixed by the end states is a property.
1.7 Process
A process occurs when the system undergoes a change in a state or an energy
transfer at steady state. A process may be non-flow in which a fixed mass within the
defined boundary is undergoing a change of state. Closed systems undergo non-flow
processes. A process may be a flow process in which mass is entering and leaving through
the boundary of an open system.
In a steady flow process, mass is crossing the boundary from surroundings at entry,
and an equal mass is crossing the boundary at the exit so that the total mass of the system
remains constant.
Quasi-static process. Quasi means ‘almost’. A quasi-static process is also called
a reversible process. This process is a succession of equilibrium states and infinite
slowness is its characteristic feature.
1.8 Cycle
Any process or series of processes whose end states are identical is termed a cycle.
The processes through which the system has passed can be shown on a state diagram, but
a complete section of the path requires in addition a statement of the heat and work crossing
the boundary of the system
1.11 Temperature
The temperature is a thermal state of a body which distinguishes a hot body from
a cold body. The temperature of a body is proportional to the stored molecular
energy i.e., the average molecular kinetic energy of the molecules in a system. (A
particular molecule does not hhave a temperature, it has energy. The gas as a
system has temperature).
1.13 Pressure
Pressure is defined as a force per unit area. Pressures are exerted by gases, vapours
and liquids. The instruments that we generally use, however, record pressure as the
difference between two pressures. Thus, it is the difference between the pressure exerted
by a fluid of interest and the ambient atmospheric pressure.
Such devices indicate the pressure either above or below that of the atmosphere.
When it is above the atmospheric pressure, it is termed gauge pressure and is positive.
When it is below atmospheric, it is negative and is known as vacuum. Vacuum readings
are given in millimetres of mercury or millimetres of water below the atmosphere.
It is necessary to establish an absolute pressure scale which is independent of the
changes in atmospheric pressure. A pressure of absolute zero can exist only in complete
vacuum.
Mathematically :
(i) Absolute pressure = Atmospheric pressure + Gauge pressure
pabs. = patm. + pgauge.
(ii) Vacuum pressure = Atmospheric pressure – Absolute pressure.
Vacuum is defined as the absence of pressure. A perfect vacuum is
obtained when absolute pressure is zero, at this instant molecular
momentum is zero.
Heat (denoted by the symbol Q), may be, defined in an analogous way to
work as follows :
“Heat is ‘something’ which appears at the boundary when a system
changes its state due to a difference in temperature between the system and its
surroundings”.
Heat, like work, is a transient quantity which only appears at the boundary
while a change is taking place within the system.
It is apparent that neither δW or δQ are exact differentials and therefore any
integration of the elemental quantities of work or heat which appear during a change
from state 1 to state 2 must be written as
Sign convention :
If the heat flows into a system from the surroundings, the quantity is said to
be positive and, conversely, if heat flows from the system to the surroundings it is
said to be negative.
In other words :
Heat received by the system = + Q
Heat rejected or given up by the system = – Q.
Dissimilarities :
(i) In heat transfer temperature difference is required.
(ii) In a stable system there cannot be work transfer, however, there is no
restriction for the transfer of heat.
(iii) The sole effect external to the system could be reduced to rise of a weight but
in the case of a heat transfer other effects are also observed.
SAMPLE PROBLEMS:
Basic Concepts of Thermodynamics
Example 1:
A tube contains an oil of specific gravity 0.9 to a depth of 120 cm. Find the gauge
pressure at this depth (in kN/m2).
Example 2:
An artificial satellite revolves round the earth with a relative velocity of 800 m/s. If
acceleration due to gravity is 9 m/s2 and gravitational force is 3600 N, calculate its
kinetic energy.
Example 3:
A vacuum recorded in the condenser of a steam power plant is 740 mm of Hg. Find the
absolute pressure in the condenser in Pa. The barometric reading is 760 mm of Hg.
Example 4:
The specific heat capacity of the system during a certain process is given by
cn = (0.4 + 0.004 T) kJ/kg°C.
If the mass of the gas is 6 kg and its temperature changes from 25°C to 125°C find :
(i) Heat transferred
(ii) Mean specific heat of the gas.
Example 5:
The properties of a closed system change following the relation between pressure and
volume as pV = 3.0 where p is in bar V is in m3. Calculate the work done when the
pressure increases from 1.5 bar to 7.5 bar.
2. PROPERTIES OF PURE SUBSTANCES
Figure 3 Figure 4
Vapour pressure curve - For a pure substance, definite relationship exists between
the saturation pressure and saturation temperature
Subcooled liquid - if the temperature of the liquid water on cooling becomes lower
than the saturation temperature for the given pressure, the liquid water
Compressed liquid - the pressure on the liquid water is greater than the saturation
pressure at a given temperature. In this condition, the liquid water
The term compressed liquid or sub-cooled liquid is used to distinguish it
from saturated liquid. All points in the liquid region indicate the states of the
compressed liquid.
Superheated vapour - When all the liquid has been evaporated completely and heat
is further added, the temperature of the vapour increases.
The difference between the superheated temperature and the saturation
temperature at the given pressure is called the degree of superheat.
From the heating process at a constant pressure of 225 bar represented by
the curve 9-10-11 in Fig.3, it can be seen that there is no constant temperature
vapourisation line. The specific volume of the saturated liquid and of the saturated
vapour is the same, i.e., vf = vg. Such a state of the substance is called the critical
state. The parameters like temperature, pressure, volume, etc. at such a state are
called critical parameters.
The curve 12-13 (Fig.3) represents a constant pressure heating process,
when the pressure is greater than the critical pressure. At this state, the liquid water
is directly converted into superheated steam. As there is no definite point at which
the liquid water changes into superheated steam, it is generally called liquid water
when the temperature is less than the critical temperature and superheated steam
when the temperature is above the critical temperature.
The slopes of sublimation and the vapourisation curves for all substances are
positive. The slope of the fusion curve, however may be positive or negative. The fusion
curve of most substances have a positive slope. Water is one of the important exceptions.
Triple point
The triple point is merely the point of intersection of sublimation and
vapourisation curves. It must be understood that only on p-T diagram is the triple
point represented by a point. On p-V diagram it is a line, and on a U-V diagram it
is a triangle.
The pressure and temperature at which all three phases of a pure substance
coexist may be measured with the apparatus that is used to measure vapour
pressure.
Suffices: Solid i
Liquid f
Vapour g
Dry (saturated) vapour. Vapour which has just completed evaporation. The pressure and
temperature of the vapour are the saturation values. Dry vapour is represented by a point g
on a diagram.
Wet vapour. The mixture of saturated liquid and dry vapour during the phase change.
Superheated vapour. Vapour whose temperature is greater than the saturation temperature
corresponding to the pressure of the vapour.
Degree of superheat. The term used for the numerical amount by which the temperature
of a superheated vapour exceeds the saturation temperature.
Thus if in 1 kg of wet steam 0.9 kg is the dry steam and 0.1 kg water particles then
x = 0.9. Note. No steam can be completely dry and saturated, so long as it is in contact with the
water from which it is being formed.
5. Superheated steam.
When steam is heated after it has become dry and saturated, it is called superheated
steam and the process of heating is called superheating. Superheating is always carried
out at constant pressure. The additional amount of heat supplied to the steam during
superheating is called as ‘Heat of superheat’ and can be calculated by using the specific
heat of superheated steam at constant pressure (cps), the value of which varies from 2.0 to
2.1 kJ/ kg K depending upon pressure and temperature
2. Throttling calorimeter
The steam to be sampled is taken from the pipe by means of suitable
positioned and dimensioned sampling tube. It passes into an insulated
container and is throttled through an orifice to atmospheric pressure.
3. Separating and throttling calorimeter
If the steam whose dryness fraction is to be determined is very wet
then throttling to atmospheric pressure may not be sufficient to ensure
superheated steam at exit. In this case it is necessary to dry the steam
partially, before throttling.
SAMPLE PROBLEMS:
Properties of Pure Substances
Example 1:
Calculate the dryness fraction (quality) of steam which has 1.5 kg of water in suspension
with 50 kg of steam.
Example 2:
A vessel having a volume of 0.6 m3 contains 3.0 kg of liquid water and water vapour
mixture in equilibrium at a pressure of 0.5 MPa. Calculate :
(i) Mass and volume of liquid ;
Example 3:
What amount of heat would be required to produce 4.4 kg of steam at a pressure of 6 bar
and temperature of 250°C from water at 30°C ? Take specific heat for superheated steam
as 2.2 kJ/kg K.
Example 4:
Determine the mass of 0.15 m3 of wet steam at a pressure of 4 bar and dryness fraction
0.8. Also calculate the heat of 1 m3 of steam.
Example 5:
Find the specific volume, enthalpy and internal energy of wet steam at 18 bar, dryness
fraction 0.85
3 FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
In the early part of nineteenth century the scientists developed the concept
of energy and hypothesis that it can be neither created nor destroyed ; this came to
be known as the law of the conservation of energy. The first law of thermodynamics
is merely one statement of this general law/principle with particular reference to
heat energy and mechanical energy i.e., work.
If the electric, magnetic and chemical energies are absent and changes in
potential and kinetic energy for a closed system are neglected, the above equation
can be written as
Generally, when heat is added to a system its temperature rises and external
work is performed due to increase in volume of the system. The rise in temperature
is an indication of increase of internal energy. Heat added to the system will be
considered as positive and the heat removed or rejected, from the system, as
negative.
The specific heat of a solid or liquid is usually defined as the heat required
to raise unit mass through one degree temperature rise.
For a gas there are an infinite number of ways in which heat may be added
between any two temperatures, and hence a gas could have an infinite number of
specific heats. However, only two specific heats for gases are defined.
According to Joule’s law u = f(T), which means that internal energy varies
linearly with absolute temperature. Internal energy can be made zero at any
arbitrary reference temperature. For a perfect gas it can be assumed that u = 0 when
T = 0, hence constant K is zero.
i.e., Internal energy, u = cv T for a perfect gas
or For mass m, of a perfect gas
Internal energy, U = mcv T
For a perfect gas, in any process between states 1 and 2, we have from Eqn. (4.21)
Gain in internal energy,
U2 – U1 = mcv (T2 – T1)
3.9 Enthalpy
Example 2:
In an air motor cylinder the compressed air has an internal energy of 450 kJ/kg at the
beginning of the expansion and an internal energy of 220 kJ/kg after expansion. If the work
done by the air during the expansion is 120 kJ/kg, calculate the heat flow to and from the
cylinder.
Example 3:
0.3 kg of nitrogen gas at 100 kPa and 40°C is contained in a cylinder. The piston is moved
compressing nitrogen until the pressure becomes 1 MPa and temperature becomes 160°C.
The work done during the process is 30 kJ. Calculate the heat transferred from the nitrogen
to the surroundings. cv for nitrogen = 0.75 kJ/kg K.
Example 4:
When a stationary mass of gas was compressed without friction at constant pressure its
initial state of 0.4 m3 and 0.105 MPa was found to change to final state of 0.20 m3 and
0.105 MPa. There was a transfer of 42.5 kJ of heat from the gas during the process. How
much did the internal energy of the gas change ?
Example 5:
A container is divided into compartments by a partition. The container is completely
insulated so that there is no heat transfer. One portion contains gas at temperature T1 and
pressure p1 while the other portion also has the same gas but at temperature T2 and pressure
p2. How will the First Law of Thermodynamics conclude the result if partition is removed
?
REFERENCES
Books
[1] Smith, J., Van Ness, H., & Abbott, M. (2005). Introduction to chemical engineering
thermodynamics. Boston, Mass.: McGraw-Hill.
[3] Borgnakke, C., Sonntag, R., Van Wylen, G., & Sonntag, R. (2009). Fundamentals
of thermodynamics. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
THERMODYNAMICS II
Lecture Manual
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PART II
Introduction
Energy’s value cannot be conserved and some energy must be perpetually reduced
to a lesser value whenever energy transfer occurs. “Whenever energy is transferred, energy
must be conserved, but the value of energy cannot be all consumed and some energy must
be permanently reduced to a lower value.”
Second Law offers a way of foreseeing the course of processes; forming
equilibrium conditions; defining the greatest theoretical cycle performance and engine;
assessing quantitatively the factors that affect the greatest theoretical cycle performance
and engine; outlining a temperature scale autonomous of the thermometric properties of
any substance; and lastly, developing means for evaluating U and H in terms of
thermodynamic properties which can be experimentally obtained.
The left diagram shows a refrigerator (R) taking heat, Q, from a low-
temperature reservoir and transferring it to a high-temperature reservoir. The
Second Law says, "NO!" to such a device.
The center and right diagrams show what is possible. The center diagram
shows heat being transferred from a high-temperature reservoir to a device that
transfers it to a low-temperature reservoir. This is the opposite of what is forbidden.
We know that heat will naturally flow from high temperature to low temperature,
even without any device in between. Actual refrigerators and heat pumps operate
by putting work, W, into the device (R), taking heat, QL, from the low-temperature
reservoir and transferring a different amount of heat, QH, to the high-temperature
reservoir, as shown by the right diagram.
3. The Principle of Planck - “It is impossible to devise an engine, which working in a
complete cycle will produce no effect other than raising of a weight and the cooling
of a heat reservoir.”
The left diagram shows an engine (E) taking heat from a reservoir and
converting it to work. According to the First Law, W = Q. The Second Law says
"NO!" to this. What is possible is shown in the center and right diagrams. The center
diagram shows work being converted completely to heat, exactly the opposite of
what is forbidden. This is readily done, because of friction. Think of what happens
when you drive your car with the brakes on. The work of the engine is converted to
heat in the brakes, which is eventually transferred to the surrounding atmosphere.
The right diagram shows a typical engine that can be made to work. Heat, QH, is
transferred to the engine from a reservoir at a high temperature. Part of this energy
is converted to work, W, which is delivered to an external load, and part of the
energy, QL, is transferred as heat to a low temperature reservoir.
2. Second Kind - A machine that exchanges heat with a single thermal reservoir, while
providing work that equals the amount of heat exchanged with the reservoir, is
called Perpetual Motion Machine of Second Kind.
It violates the Second Law of Thermodynamics, both the Kelvin-Planck and the
Clausius statements.
HEAT ENGINES
Are device of machines that produces work from heat in a cyclic process. Closed system
that exchanges only heat and work with its surrounding and that operates in cycles.
Example of which is a combustion engine and turbine engine or steam power plant.
The Carnot heat engine is a hypothetical, ideal engine that operates on the reversible
Carnot cycle. It is used as a reference cycle although ironically, no real Carnot Engines
are known to have been made. It is a closed cycle using the external application of heat.
The Carnot cycle when acting as a heat engine consists of the following steps:
Change
Carnot Heat Cycle Processes
of State
Reversible isothermal compression of the cold gas. Isothermal heat
A to B rejection. Gas starts at its "cold" temperature. Heat flows out of the gas to
the low temperature environment.
Reversible adiabatic compression of the gas. Compression causes the gas
B to C
temperature to rise to its "hot" temperature. No heat gained or lost.
Reversible isothermal expansion of the hot gas. Isothermal heat
C to D addition. Absorption of heat from the high temperature source. Expanding
gas available to do work on the surroundings (e.g. moving a piston).
Reversible adiabatic expansion of the gas. The gas continues to expand,
D to A doing external work. The gas expansion causes it to cool to its "cold"
temperature. No heat is gained or lost.
Carnot Principles
The thermal efficiency of an internally irreversible heat engine is always less than
the thermal efficiency of an internally reversible heat engine operating with heat
transfer at the same high- and low-temperature regions.
The thermal efficiencies of two internally reversible heat engines operating with
heat transfer at the same high- and low-temperature regions are equal.
Sample Problem
An ideal gas heat engine operates in Carnot cycle between 227°C and 127°C.It absorbs
6x102 cal of heat at the higher temperature. Calculate the amount of heat supplied to the
engine from the source in each cycle.
Solution
T1 = 227°C = 500 K
T2= 127°C = 400 K
ηcarnot = 1 - (T2/T1) = 1/5
Now, also Efficiency = Heat supplied from source/Heat absorbed at high temperature
so Heat supplied from source = (6x102)(1/5) = 1.2x102 cal
Heat pumps, air conditioners, and refrigerators are heat engines operated backward.
The one shown here is based on a Carnot (reversible) engine. (a) Schematic diagram
showing heat transfer from a cold reservoir to a warm reservoir with a heat pump. The
directions of W, QH, and QC are opposite what they would be in a heat engine. (b) PV-
diagram for a Carnot cycle similar to that in the figure but reversed, following path
ADCBA. The area inside the loop is negative, meaning there is a net work input. There is
heat transfer Qc into the system from a cold reservoir along path DC, and heat transfer QH
out of the system into a hot reservoir along path BA.
Sample Problem
A heat pump used to warm a home must employ a cycle that produces a working fluid at
temperatures greater than typical indoor temperature so that heat transfer to the inside can
take place. Similarly, it must produce a working fluid at temperatures that are colder than
the outdoor temperature so that heat transfer occurs from outside. Its hot and cold reservoir
temperatures therefore cannot be too close, placing a limit on its COPhp. Is the best
coefficient of performance possible for such a heat pump, if it has a hot reservoir
temperature of 45.0°C and a cold reservoir temperature of −15.0°C?
Solution
Carnot efficiency in terms of absolute temperature is given by:
η = 1 − Tc/TH
The temperatures in Kelvin are TH = 318 K and Tc = 258 K, so that
η = 1 – 258 K/318 K = 0.1887
Thus, from the discussion above,
COPhp = 1/0.1887 = 5.30
or
COPhp = QH/W = 5.30
so that
QH = 5.30 W
This result means that the heat transfer by the heat pump is 5.30 times as much as the work
put into it. It would cost 5.30 times as much for the same heat transfer by an electric room
heater as it does for that produced by this heat pump. This is not a violation of conservation
of energy. Cold ambient air provides 4.3 J per 1 J of work from the electrical outlet.
ENTROPY
The second law leads to the definition of a new property called entropy.
Entropy
The Clausius inequality forms the basis for the definition of a new property called entropy.
As can be seen in the equation above, for an internally reversible process the cyclic
integral of δQ / T is zero. A quantity whose cyclic integral is zero depends on the state only
and not the process path, and thus it is a property.
Clausius in 1865 realized that he discovered a new property and he called it entropy:
𝛿𝑄
𝑑𝑆 = ( ) (𝑘𝐽/𝐾)
𝑇 𝑖𝑛𝑡,𝑟𝑒𝑣
Entropy per unit mass is designated by s (kJ/kg.K).
The entropy change of a system during a process can be calculated:
2
𝛿𝑄
∆𝑆 = 𝑆2 − 𝑆1 = ∫ ( ) (𝑘𝐽/𝐾)
1 𝑇 𝑖𝑛𝑡,𝑟𝑒𝑣
To perform this integral, one needs to know the relation between Q and T during
the process.
Note that the cyclic integral of δQ / T will give us the entropy change only if the
integration carried out along an internally reversible path between two states.
For irreversible processes, we may imagine a reversible process between the two states
(initial and final) and calculate the entropy change (since entropy is a property).
Note that the entropy generation Sgen is always a positive quantity or zero (reversible
process). Its value depends on the process, thus it is not a property of a system.
The entropy of an isolated system during a process always increases, or in the
limiting case of a reversible process remains constant (it never decreases). This is known
as the increase of entropy principle.
The entropy change of a system or its surroundings can be negative; but entropy
generation cannot.
>0 𝑖𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝑆𝑔𝑒𝑛 = { = 0 𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠
<0 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠
1‐ A process must proceeds in the direction that complies with the increase of entropy
principle, Sgen > 0. A process that violates this principle is impossible.
2‐ Entropy is a non‐conserved property, and there is no such thing as the conservation of
entropy. Therefore, the entropy of universe is continuously increasing.
3‐ The performance of engineering systems is degraded by the presence of irreversibility.
The entropy generation is a measure of the magnitudes of the irreversibility present
during the process.
Entropy Balance
Entropy is a measure of molecular disorder or randomness of a system, and the second law
states that entropy can be created but it cannot be destroyed.
The increase of entropy principle is expressed as
Therefore, the entropy change of a system is zero if the state of the system does
not change during the process. For example entropy change of steady flow devices such
as nozzles, compressors, turbines, pumps, and heat exchangers is zero during steady
operation.
Heat Transfer: heat is a form of disorganized energy and some disorganization (entropy)
will flow with heat. Heat rejection is the only way that the entropy of a fixed mass can be
decreased. The ratio of the heat transfer Q/ T (absolute temperature) at a location
is called entropy flow or entropy transfer
𝑄
Entropy transfer with heat (T = constant) 𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 = 𝑇
Since T (in Kelvin) is always positive, the direction of entropy transfer is the same of the
direction of heat transfer.
When two systems are in contact, the entropy transfer from warmer system is equal to the
entropy transfer to the colder system since the boundary has no thickness and
occupies no volume.
Note that work is entropy‐free, and no entropy is transferred with work.
Mass Flow: mass contains entropy as well as energy, both entropy and energy contents of
a system are proportional to the mass. When a mass in the amount of m enters or leaves a
system, entropy in the amount of ms (s is the specific entropy) accompanies it.
Assumptions:
1‐ The water in the piston‐cylinder assembly is a closed system.
2‐ There is no heat transfer with the surroundings.
3‐ The system is at an equilibrium state initially and finally. ΔPE = ΔKE = 0.
Solution
The network can be calculated by using the law:
ΔU + ΔKE + ΔPE = Q – W
That is simplifies to: ΔU = ‐ W
On a unit mass basis, the energy balance becomes:
W / m = ‐ (ug – uf)
W / m = ‐ 2087.6 kJ/kg
The negative sign indicates that the work input by the stirring is greater than the work done
by the water as it expands.
Using an entropy balance, the amount of entropy produced can be found. Since there is no
heat transfer,
2
𝛿𝑄
∆𝑆 = ∫ + 𝑆𝑔𝑒𝑛 = 𝑆𝑔𝑒𝑛
1 𝑇
The entropy balance in the rate form for a control volume becomes:
𝑑𝑆𝐶𝑉 𝑄𝑘°
= ∑ + ∑ 𝑚𝑖° 𝑠𝑖 − ∑ 𝑚𝑒° 𝑠𝑒 + 𝑆𝑔𝑒𝑛,𝐶𝑉
°
𝑑𝑡 𝑇𝑘
For a steady‐state steady‐flow process, it simplifies to:
𝑄𝑘°
°
𝑆𝑔𝑒𝑛,𝐶𝑉 = ∑ 𝑚𝑒° 𝑠𝑒 − ∑ 𝑚𝑖° 𝑠𝑖 − ∑
𝑇𝑘
Sample Problem: Entropy balance for a CV
Steam enters a turbine with a pressure of 3 MPa, a temperature of 400 °C, and a velocity
of 160 m/s. Saturated vapor at 100 °C exits with a velocity of 100 m/s. At steady‐state, the
turbine develops work equal to 540 kJ/kg. Heat transfer between the turbine and
its surroundings occur at an average outer surface temperature of 350 K. Determine the
rate at which entropy is produced within the turbine per kg of steam flowing, in
kJ/kg.K. Neglect the change in potential energy between inlet and exit.
Assumptions:
1‐ Steady state operation in CV. ΔPE = 0.
2‐ Turbine outer surface is at a specified average temperature.
Solution
From the mass balance, we know that m° = m°1 = m°2
Since the process is steady‐state, one can write:
𝑄𝑘° °
0= ∑ + 𝑚° (𝑠𝑖 − 𝑠𝑒 ) + 𝑆𝑔𝑒𝑛,𝐶𝑉
𝑇𝑘
The heat transfer occurs at Tb = 350 K, the first term of the right hand side of the entropy
balance reduces to Q°/ Tb
°
𝑆𝑔𝑒𝑛,𝐶𝑉 𝑄𝑘°
= − ° + (𝑠𝑖 − 𝑠𝑒 )
𝑚° 𝑚 𝑇𝑘
We need to calculate the rate of heat transfer. The first law (energy balance) can be used
to find the heat transfer rate. Combining the mass balance and the first law, one finds:
° °
𝑄𝐶𝑉 𝑊𝐶𝑉 𝑉22 − 𝑉12
= + (ℎ2 − ℎ1 ) + ( )
𝑚° 𝑚° 2
From the table, h1 = 3230.9 kJ/kg, and h2 = 2676.1 kJ/kg. After substitution, and
converting the units, one finds:
°
𝑄𝐶𝑉
= −22.6 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔
𝑚°
From the table, s2 = 7.3549 kJ/kg.K and s1 = 6.9212 kJ/kg.K. Inserting values into
the expression for entropy production:
°
𝑆𝑔𝑒𝑛,𝐶𝑉 𝑄𝑘°
= − + (𝑠𝑖 − 𝑠𝑒 ) = 0.4983 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔 𝐾
𝑚° 𝑚° 𝑇𝑘
Entropy
Entropy can be viewed as a measure of molecular disorder, or molecular randomness. As
a system becomes more disordered, the positions of the molecules become less
predictable and the entropy increases.
For isentropic processes of ideal gases, the following relationships can be found by setting
ds = 0,
𝑇2 𝑅 𝑣2
ln = − ln
𝑇1 𝐶𝑣 𝑣1
𝑇2 𝑣2 𝑅 𝑇2 𝑣1 𝑘−1
ln = ln( )𝐶𝑣 𝑜𝑟 ( ) = ( ) 𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝑇1 𝑣1 𝑇1 𝑣2
Assumptions:
1‐ As shown in the figure, the closed system is the mass initially in the tank that remains
in the tank.
2‐ There is no significant heat transfer between the system and its surroundings.
3‐ Irreversibilities within the tank can be ignored as the air slowly escapes.
Solution
Using the ideal gas equation of state, the mass initially in the tank that remains in the tank
at the end of process is:
𝑃2 𝑉
𝑚2 = 𝑅𝑇 𝑃2 𝑇1
2
} 𝑚2 = ( ) ( ) 𝑚1
𝑃1 𝑉 𝑃1 𝑇2
𝑚1 = 𝑅𝑇
1
Since the volume of the tank V remains constant during the process. We need to find the
final temperature T2. For the closed system under consideration (m1), there are no
irreversibilities, and no heat transfer. Accordingly, it is an isentropic process, and thus the
isentropic relationships can be used:
With a constant k = 1.4 for air, after substituting values, one finds:
T2 = 315.55 K
Finally, inserting values into the expression for system mass
m2 = (100/500) (500/315.55) (5 kg) = 1.58 kg
REFERENCES
________________________________________________
PART III
where U, S, and V are molar values of the internal energy, entropy, and volume.
This equation, combining the first and second laws, is derived for the special case of a
reversible process.
Maxwell's equations
Enthalpy and Entropy as Functions of T and P:
Consider first the temperature derivatives. The equation below defines the heat
capacity at constant pressure:
whence
The partial derivatives in these two equations are given by:
where superscript "ig" denotes an ideal-gas value. These are merely restatements of
equations for ideal gases.
Alternative Forms for Liquids
Alternative form Equations result when ( V/ T)p is replaced by βV:
Since β and k are weak functions of pressure for liquids, they are usually
assumed constant at appropriate average values for integration.
The Gibbs energy when given as a function of T and P therefore serves as a generating
function for the other thermodynamic properties, and implicitly represents complete
property information.
Residual Properties
Residual Volume
of pure chemical species is transferred from phase α to phase β at the equilibrium pressure
and temperature.
At equilibrium pressure and temperature upon integration of equation,
dH = TdS – VdP (5)
αβ αβ
leads to latent heat of phase transition: ∆H = T∆S (6)
αβ αβ
Also equivalent to: ∆S = ∆H /T (7)
αβ
Then, dP sat
∆H
=
dT T∆Vαβ (8)
which is the Clapeyron equation,
For the particularly important case of phase transition from liquid l and v,
dPsat ∆Hlv
=
dT T∆Vlv (9)
Example 1: For vaporization at low pressures, one may introduce reasonable approximations
by assuming that the vapor phase is an ideal gas and that the molar volume of the liquid is
negligible compared with the molar volume of the vapor. How do these assumptions alter the
Clapeyron equation?
Solution: ∆Vlv = Vv = RT/Psat
dPsat ∆Hlv
=
dT T∆Vlv
dPsat ∆Hlv
=
dT RT2/Psat
dPsat/Psat ∆Hlv
=
dT/T2 R
∆Hlv = -R d ln Psat
d(1/T) (10)
Clausius-Clapeyron Equation
Relates the latent heat of vaporization directly to the vapor-pressure curve.
∆Hlv is almost constant, virtually independent of T.
Not valid, ∆Hlv decreases monotonically with increasing temperature from the triple
point to the critical point, where it becomes zero.
The equation is applicable only at low pressures.
∆H = H2 - H1
∆H = 2627.0 – 2942.9
∆H = -315.9 kJ/kg
Reduced Parameters
𝑇
𝑇𝑟 =
𝑇𝑐
𝑃
𝑃𝑟 =
𝑃𝑐
𝑉
𝑉𝑟 =
𝑉𝑐
Pitzer Correlations
𝑍 = 𝑍 ° + 𝜔𝑍1
Perry’s HB Eq. 2-63
The values for Z ⁰ and Z for gases are listed in the Perry’s HB Table 2-351 and 2-352,
1
respectively.
The Lee-Kesler correlation provides reliable results for gases which are nonpolar or only
slightly polar. When applied to highly polar gases, large errors can be expected.
Of the two kinds of data needed for evaluation of thermodynamic properties, heat
capacities and PVT data, the latter are most frequently missing. Fortunately, the
generalized methods developed for the compressibility factor are also applicable to residual
properties.
𝑃 = 𝑃𝑐 𝑃𝑟
𝑑𝑃 = 𝑃𝑐 𝑑𝑃𝑟
𝑇 = 𝑇𝑐 𝑇𝑟
𝑑𝑇 = 𝑃𝑐 𝑑𝑇𝑟
The resulting equations are
𝑃𝑟
𝐻𝑅 2
𝜕𝑍 𝑑𝑃
= −𝑇𝑟 ∫ ( )
𝑅𝑇𝑐 0 𝜕𝑇𝑟 𝑃𝑟 𝑃𝑟
𝑃𝑟 𝑃𝑟
𝑆𝑅 𝜕𝑍 𝑑𝑃 𝑑𝑃
= −𝑇𝑟 ∫ ( ) − ∫ (𝑍 − 1)
𝑅 0 𝜕𝑇𝑟 𝑃𝑟 𝑃𝑟 0 𝑃𝑟
Calculated values of the quantities as determined by Lee and Kesler are given as functions
of Tr. and Pr.
𝐻 𝑅 (𝐻 𝑅 )° (𝐻 𝑅 )1
= +𝜔
𝑅𝑇𝑐 𝑅𝑇𝑐 𝑅𝑇𝑐
𝑅 𝑅
(𝑆 ) ° (𝑆 𝑅 )1
𝑆
= +𝜔
𝑅 𝑅 𝑅
Calculated values of the enthalpies and entropies are given as functions of Tr.
𝐻𝑅 𝑃 𝑑𝐵
= (𝐵 − 𝑇𝑟 )
𝑅 𝑅 𝑑𝑇𝑟
𝑆𝑅 𝑃 𝑑𝐵
=
𝑅 𝑅𝑇𝑐 𝑑𝑇𝑟
This equations result to:
𝐻𝑅 𝑑𝐵 ° 𝑑𝐵1
= 𝑃𝑟 (𝐵 ° − 𝑇𝑟 + 𝜔 (𝐵1 − 𝑇𝑟 ))
𝑅𝑇𝑐 𝑑𝑇𝑟 𝑑𝑇𝑟
𝑆𝑅 𝑑𝐵 ° 𝑑𝐵1
= 𝑃𝑟 ( +𝜔 )
𝑅 𝑑𝑇𝑟 𝑑𝑇𝑟
The dependence of B⁰ and B1 on reduced temperature is given by
0.422
𝐵 ° = 0.083 − 1.6
𝑇𝑟
Perry’s HB Eq. 4-77
0.179
𝐵1 = 0.139 − 4.2
𝑇𝑟
Perry’s HB Eq. 4-78
𝑇𝑝𝑐 = ∑ 𝑦𝑖 𝑇𝑐𝑖
𝑖
𝑃𝑝𝑐 = ∑ 𝑦𝑖 𝑃𝑐𝑖
𝑖
The values so obtained are the mixture and pseudocritical temperature and pressure, Tpc
and Ppc which replace Tc, and Pc, to define pseudoreduced parameters:
𝑇
𝑇𝑝𝑟 =
𝑇𝑝𝑐
𝑃
𝑃𝑝𝑟 =
𝑃𝑝𝑐
Reference:
Smith, J.M. et al., Introduction to Chemical Engineering Thermodynamics 5th Edition
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc, Singapore, 2001.
THERMODYNAMICS II
Lecture Manual
________________________________________________
PART IV
Introduction
Flow processes inevitably result from pressure gradients within the fluid.
Moreover, temperature, velocity and even concentration gradients may exist within the
flowing fluid. This contrasts with the uniform conditions that prevail at equilibrium in
closed systems. The distribution of conditions in flow systems requires that properties be
attributed to point masses of fluid. Thus we assume that intensive properties, such as
density, specific enthalpy, specific entropy, etc., at a point are determined solely by the
temperature, pressure, and composition at the point, uninfluenced by gradients that may
exist at the point. Moreover, we assume that the fluid exhibits the same set of intensive
properties at the point as though it existed at equilibrium at the same temperature, pressure
and composition.
EQUATION OF BALANCES
dX CV
X T X G
dt
Differential Equation of Balance
dX T dX G dX CV
dX CV
Where: dX T X T dt dX G X G dt dX CV dt
dt
X T X G X CV
t2 t2
Where: X T X T dt X G X G dt
t1 t1
t2 dX CV
X CV dt X CV (t 2 ) X CV (t1 )
t1 dt
For flow processes with no chemical reaction happening between the surrounding and the
system
dX total
X G 0
dt
Mass Balance
dmCV
Mass is conserved, X G 0 m T
dt
T , net transport of mass into the control volume
Where: m
dmCV
(m ) fs 0
dt
m mass flow rate uA
dmCV
Continuity equation: uA fs 0
dt
2u2 A2 1u1 A1 0
m const 2u2 A2 1u1 A1
u1 A1 u 2 A2 uA
m
V1 V2 V
Energy Balance
Considering transport energy balance:
Since U + PV = H
X T Q W [( H 12 u 2 zg )m ] fs
Energy Balance Equation with accumulation:
d (mU ) CV
] fs Q W
[( H 12 u 2 zg )m
dt
Q W S
( H 12 u 2 zg ) Q WS
m m
u 2
H gz Q WS
2
Entropy Balance
dS
ST SG CV
dt
Entropy is transported across the control surface in two ways:
1. Transport by means of heat transfer.Net rate of entropy transport into the control
volume:
Q
T
j
j cs , j
Q
Entropy transport: ST ( Sm ) fs
j Tcs , j
Q j d (mS ) CV
Tj
( Sm ) fs SG
dt
cs , j
Q j Q j T , j TCS , j
T
T , j
Q j
T T
j cs , j j j , j CS , j
Q j d (mS ) CV
T ( Sm ) fs SG S 'G
dt
j ,j
T , j TCS , j
Where: S 'G Q j external thermal irreversibilities
T T
j , j CS , j
Qj
S S G ,total
j T , j
The appropriate energy balance is shown below. With Q, W, and Δz all set equal to zero,
u 2
H 0
2
uA
Continuity Equation )0 d(
V
dV du dA
0
V u A
Equations derived
dV T V
dS 2 dP
V Cp c
u 2 u2
(1 M 2 )VdP (1 )TdS dA 0
Cp A
Where: M is the Mach number, ratio of the speed of the fluid in the duct to the speed of
sound in the fluid.
u 2
M2
udu TdS 1 u
2
Cp
dA 0
1 M 2 1 M
2
A
dP u 2 dS u 2 dA
V (1 M )
2
T 1 0
dx Cp dx A dx
u 2
M2
T dS 1 u dA 0
2
du Cp
u
dx 1 M 2 dx 1 M 2 A dx
dS
0
dx
PIPE FLOW
Steady state adiabatic flow in a horizontal pipe of constant cross-sectional area, dA/dx=0.
u 2
1
dS
dP T Cp
dx V 1 M 2 dx
u 2
M2
T dS
du Cp
u dx
dx 1 M 2
dP du
Subsonic flow, M2 < 1 0 and 0
dx dx
For subsonic flow, the maximum fluid velocity obtainable in a pipe of constant cross
section is the speed of sound, and this value is reached at the exit of the pipe. The equations
for pipe flow indicate that when supersonic stream is enters a pipe of constant cross section,
a compression shock occurs, the result of which is an abrupt and finite increase in pressure
and decrease in velocity to a subsonic value.
Sample Problem 1
Consider the steady-state, adiabatic, irreversible flow of an incompressible liquid in a
horizontal pipe of constant cross-sectional area. Show that:
a. The velocity is constant.
b. The temperature increases in the direction of flow.
c. The pressure decreases in the direction of flow.
Solution:
a.
u2A2 u1A1
=
𝑉2 𝑉1
Hence, u2 = u1
b.
𝑇2 𝑑𝑇
Sg = S2 = S1 = ∫𝑇1 𝐶 𝑇
But Sg is positive (flow is irreversible) and hence, by the last equation, T2 > T1, the
temperature increases in the direction of flow.
c.
As shown in a, u2 = u1, and therefore the energy balance reduces for the stated conditions
to H2-H1 = 0. Combining this with the integrated form applied to an incompressible liquid
yields:
𝑇2
H2 – H1 = ∫𝑇1 𝐶𝑑𝑇 + 𝑉 ( 𝑃2 − 𝑃1) = 0
Whence,
𝑇2
V (P2 – P1) = - ∫𝑇1 𝐶𝑑𝑇
Thus the equation, P2 < P1 and pressure decreases in the direction of flow.
NOZZLES
The limitations observed for flow of compressible fluids in pipes do not extend
properly designed nozzles, which bring about the interchange of internal and kinetic energy
of a fluid as the result of a changing cross-sectional area available for flow. The relation
between nozzle length and cross-sectional area is not susceptible to thermodynamics
analysis, but is a problem in fluid mechanics. In a properly designed nozzle, area changes
with length in such a way as to make the flow nearly frictionless. In the limit of reversible
flow, the rate of entropy increase approaches zero, and dS/dX = 0.
dP u 2 1 dA
dx VA 1 M 2 dx
du u 1 dA
dx A 1 M 2 dx
The characteristics of flow depend on whether the flow is subsonic (M < 1) or supersonic
(M > 1).
Characteristics of Flow for a Nozzle
Subsonic: M < 1 Supersonic: M > 1
Converging Diverging Converging Diverging
dA/dx - + - +
dP/dx - + + -
du/dx + - - +
( 1) /
P2 2P1V1 P2
u u 2 VdP
2 2
1
1 P1
2 1
P1
/( 1)
P2 2
Pressure ratio at the throat:
P1 1
Sample Problem 2
A high-velocity nozzle is designed to operate with steam at 700 kPa and 300⁰C. At
the nozzle inlet velocity is 30 m/s. Calculate values of the ratio A/A1 (where A1 is the
cross-sectional area of the nozzle inlet) for the sections where the pressure is 600,500, 400,
300 and 200 kPa. Assume that the nozzle operates isentropically.
Solution:
𝐴 𝑢1 𝑉
= And u2 = u12 – 2 (H-H1)
𝐴1 𝑉1 𝑢
Initial values of entropy, enthalpy, and specific volume from the steam tables:
A 30 418.25
= x = 0.120
A1 371.39 3282.3
Area ratios for other pressure are evaluated the same way.
THROTTLING PROCESS
Sample Problem 3
Propane gas at 20 bar and 400 K is throttled in a steady-state flow process to 1 bar.
Estimate the final temperature of the propane and its entropy change. Properties of propane
can be found from suitable generalized correlations.
Solution:
(Cpig )
= 1.213 + 28.785 x 10 −3 𝑇 − 8.824 𝑥 10−6 𝑇 2
𝑅
𝑇2 𝑃2
ΔS = (Cpig)S ln 𝑇1 − 𝑅 ln 𝑃1 - 𝑆1 𝑅
(Cpig)S = (Cpig)H = 92.73 J/ mol K
J
S1 R = (8.314)(0.2934) = −2.439 mol K
ΔS = 92.73 ln (385/400) – 8.314 ln (1/20) +2.439 = 23.80 J/mol K
TURBINE
The expansion of a gas in a nozzle to produce a high-velocity stream is a process
that converts internal energy into kinetic energy, which in turn is converted into shaft work
when the stream impinges on blades attached to a rotating shaft. Thus a turbine (or
expander) consists of alternate sets of nozzles and rotating blades through which vapor or
gas flows in a steady-state expansion process. The overall result is the conversion of the
internal energy of a high-pressure stream into shaft work. When steam provides the motive
force as in a power plant, the device is called turbine; when it is a high-pressure gas, such
as ammonia or ethylene in a chemical or petrochemical plant, the device is called an
expander.
Steady-state flow through a turbine or expander
Adiabatic Turbine
Negligible potential and kinetic energy changes
Actual shaft work produced= W s H H 1 H 2
maximum shaft work produced= W sisentropic H s H 1 H 2 s
actual shaft work produced
turbine efficiency
max imum shaft work produced
W S H1 H 2
W S isentropic H1 H 2 S
Sample Problem 4
A steam turbine with rated capacity of 56,400 kW( 56,400 kJ/s) operates with steam
at inlet conditions of 8,600 kPa and 500⁰C, and discharges into a condenser at a pressure
of 10 kPa. Assuming a turbine efficiency of 0.75, determine the state of steam at discharge
and the mass rate of flow of the steam.
Solution:
At inlet conditions,
H1 = 3,391.6 kJ/kg S1= 6.6858 kJ/kg
H2 = H2 + x2 (H2V – H2L)
H2 = 191.8+ (0.8047)(2,584.8 – 191.8) = 2,1147.4 kJ/kg
ΔH = n(ΔH)s = 0.75(-1,274.2) = -955.6 kJ/kg
H2 = H1 + ΔH = 3,391.69 – 955.6 = 2,436.0 kJ/kg
Thus the steam in its actual final state is also wet, with its quality given by:
2,436.0 = 191.8 + x2 ( 2,584.8 – 191.8 )
X2 = 0.93378
COMPRESSOR
Adiabatic compressor
Negligible potential and kinetic energy changes
actual shaft work consumed= W s H H 2 H 1
minimum shaft work consumed = W sisentropic H s H 2 S H 1
min imum shaft work consumed
compressor efficiency
actual shaft work consumed
W S isentropic H 2S H1
WS H 2 H1
Sample Problem 5
Saturated-vapor steam at 100 kPa is compressed adiabatically to 300 kPa. If the
compressor efficiency is 0.75, what is the work required andwhat are the properties of the
discharge stream.
Solution:
Ws = ΔH = 284.5 kJ/kg
PUMPS
Liquids are usually moved by pumps, generally rotating equipment. The same
equations apply to adiabatic pumps as to adiabatic compressors.
Adiabatic pump
Negligible potential and kinetic energy changes
actual shaft work consumed= W s H H 2 H 1
minimum shaft work consumed = W sisentropic H s H 2 S H 1
W S isentropic H 2S H1
W H 2 H1
S
H C p T V 1 T P
T2
S C p ln VP
T1
Sample Problem 6
Water at 45 C and 10 kPa enters an adiabatic pump and is discharged at a pressure
of 8,600 kPa. Assume the pump efficiency to be 0.75. Calculate the work of the pump, the
temperature change of the water, and the entropy of the change of the water.
Solution:
(ΔH)s 8.676
ΔH = = = 11.57 kJ/kg
𝑛 0.75
Ws = ΔH = 11.58 kJ/kg
Carnot Cycle
The Carnot cycle gives the most efficient heat engine that can operate between two fixed
temperatures TH and TL; it is independent of the type of working fluid and can be closed
or steady flow.
Area, which is enclosed by cyclic curve presents net work or heat transfer during the
cycle.
Process Description
1-2 Isothermal heat addition
2-3 Isentropic expansion
3-4 Isothermal heat rejection
4-1 Isentropic compression
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡
𝜂th = 𝑞𝑖𝑛
𝑞𝑖𝑛 − 𝑞𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝜂th = 𝑞𝑖𝑛
𝑇
𝜂th, Carnot = 1 - 𝑇 𝐿
𝐻
6000 kPa
400
3
300
T [C]
200
10 kPa
100 2
4
1
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
s [kJ/kg-K]
w pump v1 ( P2 P1 )
m3 kJ
0.00101 (6000 10) kPa 3
kg m kPa
kJ
6.05
kg
h4 h f x4 h fg
kJ kJ
191.81 0.758(2392.1)
kg kg
kJ
2005.0
kg
Otto Cycle
The processes in Otto Cycle are as per following:
1-2 Isentropic compression
2-3 Constant volume heat addition
3-4 Isentropic expansion
4-1 Constant volume heat rejection
𝑉
Where r is the compression ratio r= 𝑉1
2
Mean Effective Pressure
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡
MEP = 𝑉
𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛
Sample Problem 8
An Otto cycle having a compression ratio of 9:1 uses air as the working fluid. Initially P1
= 95 kPa, T1 = 17°C, and V1 = 3.8 liters. During the heat addition process, 7.5 kJ of heat
are added. Determine all T's, P's, 𝜂th, the back work ratio and the mean effective pressure.
Solution:
T1 = 290K
𝑉1
=9
𝑉2
Q23 = 7.5 kJ
P1 = 95 kPa
V1 = 3.8 Liters
T2 = 290(0.9)0.4 = 698.4K
𝑃2 𝑉 𝑘−1
= ( 𝑉1 )
𝑃1 2
P2 = 95(9)1.4 = 2059kPa
P1v1 = RT1
0.2871(290)
v1 = = 0.875 m3/kg
95
𝑄23 𝑣1
q23 = = Q23 = 1727 kJ/kg
𝑚 𝑉1
T3 = 3103.7K
But V3 = V2
𝑃3 𝑃
= 𝑇2
𝑇3 2
P3 = 9.15 MPa
𝑇4 𝑉 𝑘−1
= ( 𝑉3 )
𝑇3 4
T4 = T3(1/9)0.4 = 1288.8K
𝑃4 𝑉 𝑘
= ( 𝑉3 )
𝑃3 4
Then,
Wnet = qin - qout = q23 – q41 = 1009.6kJ/kg
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡
𝜂,Otto = 𝑞𝑖𝑛
𝜼,Otto = 0.585 (58.5%)
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡
MEP = 𝑉 = 1
𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑉1 − (1− )
𝑟
MEP = 1298kPa
Diesel Cycle
The processes in Diesel Cycle are as per following:
1-2 Isentropic compression
2-3 Constant pressure heat addition
3-4 Isentropic expansion
4-1 Constant volume heat rejection
Related formula based on thermodynamic properties
Sample Problem 9
An air-standard Diesel cycle has a compression ratio of 18 and a cut-off ratio of 2.5. The
state at the beginning of compression is fixed by P = 0.9 bar ant T = 300K. Calculate:
i. the thermal efficiency of the cycle,
ii. ii. the maximum pressure, Pmax, and
iii. iii. The mean effective pressure.
Solution:
Data given:
𝑉1
=18
𝑉2
𝑉3
=2.5
𝑉2
P2= P3
𝑉2 𝑉
= 𝑇3
𝑇2 3
𝑉
T3 = T2 (𝑉3 ) = 2383.3K
2
Process 3-4 (isentropic expansion)
𝑉4 𝑉 𝑉
= 𝑉1 (𝑉2 ) = 18(1/2.5) = 7.2
𝑉3 2 3
𝑇4 𝑉3 𝑘−1
= (𝑉 )
𝑇3 4
T4 = 2383.3(1/7.2)0.4 = 1082K
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡
i) 𝜂,Diesel = 𝑞𝑖𝑛
𝜼,Diesel = 0.6093 (60.93%)
ii) Pmax = P2 = P3
𝑘−1
𝑃2 𝑇2 𝑘
= (𝑇 )
𝑃1 1
P2 = 5148kPa (Pmax)
MEP= 969.1kPa
REFRIGERATION
Refrigeration Cycle
Heat flows in direction of decreasing temperature, i.e., from high-temperature to
low temperature regions. The transfer of heat from a low-temperature to high-temperature
requires a refrigerator and/or heat pump.
Refrigerators and heat pumps are essentially the same device; they only differ in
their objectives. The performance of refrigerators and heat pumps is expressed in terms of
coefficient of performance (COP):
𝑄𝐿
𝐶𝑂𝑃𝑅 =
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡,𝑖𝑛
𝑄𝐻
𝐶𝑂𝑃𝐻𝑃 =
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡,𝑖𝑛
Wnet,in = QH - QL
The Reversed Carnot Cycle
Reversing the Carnot cycle does reverse the directions of heat and work
interactions. A refrigerator or heat pump that operates on the reversed Carnot cycle is called
a Carnot refrigerator or a Carnot heat pump.
The reversed Carnot cycle is the most efficient refrigeration cycle operating
between two specified temperature levels. It sets the highest theoretical COP. The
coefficient of performance for Carnot refrigerators and heat pumps are:
𝑇𝐿
𝐶𝑂𝑃𝑅 =
𝑇𝐻 − 𝑇𝐿
𝑇𝐻
𝐶𝑂𝑃𝐻𝑃 =
𝑇𝐻 − 𝑇𝐿
The Carnot cycle cannot be approximated in an actual cycle, because:
1- executing Carnot cycle requires a compressor that can handle two-phases
2- also process 4-1 involves expansion of two-phase flow in a turbine.
COPR = 3
Sample Problem 11
A heat engine is used to drive a heat pump. The heat transfers from the heat
engine and the heat pump are rejected to the same sink. The efficiency of the heat engine
is 27%and the COP of the heat pump is 4. Determine the ratio of the total heat rejection
rate to the heat transfer to the heat engine.
𝑊
𝜂=𝑄
1
W = 0.27Q1
𝑄4
COPHP = 𝑊
𝑄4
4= 𝑊
𝑄4
W= 4
0.27Q1 = Q4/4
Q4/Q1 = 1.08
𝑄
𝜂 = 1 - 𝑄2 = 0.27
1
𝑄2
= 0.73
𝑄1
𝑄2 +𝑄4
= 1.08 + 0.73
𝑄1
𝑸𝟐 +𝑸𝟒
= 1.81
𝑸𝟏
The ratio of the total heat rejection rate (Q2+Q4) to the heat transfer to the heat engine
(Q1) is 1.81.
The Ideal Vapor‐Compression Refrigeration Cycle
The vapor-compression refrigeration is the most widely used cycle for refrigerators,
air conditioners, and heat pumps.
Fig. 3. T-S and P-H diagrams for an ideal vapor-compression refrigeration cycle
1-2: A reversible, adiabatic (isentropic) compression of the refrigerant. The saturated vapor
at state 1 is superheated to state 2.
Wc =h2 − h1
2-3: An internally, reversible, constant pressure heat rejection in which the working
substance is de-superheated and then condensed to a saturated liquid at 3. During this
process, the working substance rejects most of its energy to the condenser cooling water.
qH = h2 − h3
3-4: An irreversible throttling process in which the temperature and pressure decrease at
constant enthalpy. The refrigerant enters the evaporator at state 4 as a low-quality saturated
mixture.
h3 = h4
4-1: An internally, reversible, constant pressure heat interaction in which the refrigerant
(two-phase mixture) is evaporated to a saturated vapor at state point 1. The latent enthalpy
necessary for evaporation is supplied by the refrigerated space surrounding the evaporator.
The amount of heat transferred to the working fluid in the evaporator is called the
refrigeration load.
qL = h1 − h4
Sample Problem 12
In an ideal vapour compression refrigeration cycle, the enthalpy of the refrigerant
at exit from the condenser, compressor and evaporator is 80kJ/kg, 200kJ/kg and 180kJ/kg,
respectively. What is the coefficient of performance of the cycle?
h3 = h4 = 80 kJ/kg
h1 = 180 kJ/kg
h2 = 200 kJ/kg
Wc = h2 – h1 = 200-180 = 20 kJ/kg
Q = h1 – h4 = 180 – 80 = 100 kJ/kg
𝑄 100
COP = 𝑊 =
𝑐 20
COP = 5
Sample Problem 13
In a vapour compression refrigerant plant, the enthalpy values at different points
are:
(i) Enthalpy at exit of the evaporator = 350 kJ/kg
(ii) Enthalpy at exit of the compressor = 375 kJ/kg
(iii) Enthalpy at exit of the condenser = 225 kJ/kg
The refrigerating efficiency of the plant is 0.8. What is the power required per kW of
cooling to be produced?
h3 = h4
Refrigerating effect (Qo) = (h1 – h4) x 𝜂r
= (350 – 225) x 0.8
= 100 kJ/kg
Compressor work (W) = (h2 – h1)
= 375 – 350
= 25 kJ/kg
𝑊 25
The power required per kW of cooling = =
𝑄 100
= 0.25 kW/kW of cooling
R22: CHClF2 has less chlorine, a little better for the environment than R12 - used for lower
temperature applications
Ammonia NH3: corrosive and toxic- used in absorption systems-cheap- high COP