Broken or Cracked Castings - Chapter 1: Description

Broken or Cracked Castings - Chapter 1
Description
This refers to castings, which have been broken or cracked by mechanical action, rough handling, or thermal
shock.
Causes
I. Casting and Pattern Design
1) Irregular sections, sections, such as isolated heavy sections, light sections or projections require
careful handling at shakeout, cleaning, finishing and heat-treating.
2) Lack of fillets
3) Lack of proper reinforcing ribs, tie bars or stress relieving
II. Pattern Equipment
1) Failure to provide proper break-off notches on the gates and risers
2) Flask bars that extend into deep pockets, not allowing normal collapse of the
sand.
III. Gating and Risering
1) Lack of adequate fillets
2) Incorrectly placed or dimensioned cracking strips and tie bars
3) A gating system which promotes stresses or segregation due to turbulence
V. Molding Sand
1) Poor sand collapsibility due to excessive hot or dry compressive strength
2) Low sintering point materials in sand
3) High hot compressive strength coupled with hot sand deformation
VI. Core Practice

1) Poor collapsibility due to excessive hot compression strength
2) Low hot deformation when coupled with poor collapsibility
3) Rods or arbors that are too close to the surface of cores
4) Over-reinforced cores
VII. Molding Practice
1) Mold rammed too hard
2) Rods, arbors, and gaggers which are too close to the mold surface
3) Risers or sprues too close to a flask bar
4) Excessive swabbing or sponging
5) Improper use of chills or excessive chilling
VIII. Metal Composition
1) Improper metal composition for the application
2) A composition having too high a shrinkage characteristic
IX. Melting Practice

1) Excessive carbide stabilizers which promote high shrinkage
2) Composition having too high a shrinkage characteristic
3) Gaseous or over oxidized metal
4) Contamination
X. Pouring Practice
1) Insufficient pouring temperature to promote proper collapsibility of sand and cores
XI. Miscellaneous
1) Shakeout too hot or too rough
2) General carelessness in handling at shakeout
3) Improper packing in tumbling barrels or barrel blast
4) Careless and rough handling in loading or tumbled with light thin section castings
5) Careless and rough handling in loading or tumbled with light thin section castings
6) Improper piling or stacking
7) Banding too tight on pallets
8) Any mechanical handling that drops castings any distance into containers
Crushes, Pushups and Clamp-offs - Chapter 2
Description
Crushes, pushups and clamp-offs are indentations in the casting surface. These defects are caused by disruption
of the mold surface due to external or internal force or weight. The major cause of these defects are carelessness
particularly related to flask equipment, rigging, and molding practice.
Causes
None
1) Worn patterns and core boxes. A worn pattern can result in the core print being too small for the
normal core. Conversely, a worn core box results it the core being too large for a normal print
2) Insufficient draft
3) Pattern not correctly mounted
4) Misalign cope and drag patterns, or plates
5) Worn pins and bushings
6) Core prints not properly marked
7) Lack of crushing strips
8) Core print too small to support the core
9) Warped or untrue pattern plate (cope and drag)
10) Excessive flexibility of matchplate
11) Flask landing strips too high above parting line. This creates a condition of
excessive loading at the sand-to-sand contact
III. Flask Equipment and Rigging
1) Misalignment of flask equipment, pins, and bushings
2) Weights too heavy or uneven
3) Insufficient sand bearing surface
4) Warped or uneven flask joints
5) Worn stripping plate on molding machine
6) Improperly fitting, dirty, or crooked jackets
7) Worn pins and bushings
8) Uneven, dirty or burned bottom boards
9) Weak bottom boards
10) Improperly barred cope
IV. Gating and Risering
1) Gating and risering do not, by themselves, create a crush although mounting gate runners too
close to the pattern can result in an inadequate sand bearing surface.
V. Molding Sand
1) Weak sand
2) Low green tensile strength may permit the cope to sag
3) Low green deformation causes the sand to crush rather than give during closing of flask
4) Low dry strength in a dry sand mold may fail to support the normal load
VI. Core Practice
1) A core too large for the core print will fail to seat properly and cause a crush
2) A misaligned assembly will cause incorrect contact when the flask is closed
3) Core sagged out of shape may be the result of:
a. Rough handling while green
b. Soft ram
c. Low green strength
d. Excessive water in the core mix
e. Warped driers
f. Low warm strength such as from excessive solvent
g. Improper cure
h. Reinforcement i.e.: rods, wires, or arbors
4) Warped cores (including shell)
5) Excessive core wash can result in an oversized core
1) Careless closing of the molds
2) Uneven clamping of the molds
2
3) Faulty bedding of molds on bottom boards or plates
4) Improper setting of the jackets
5) Careless core setting
6) Use of wrong chaplets or failure to use chaplets
7) Setting dirty jackets
8) Stem chaplets not properly wedged or seated
9) Unshaved core prints and joints
10) Failure to wedge flask joints
11) Careless handling of molds during carry-out or on the conveyor
12) Dropping of the weights

None
None
X. Pouring Practice
1) Resting ladles or heavy objects on molds
XI. Miscellaneous
1) Rough handling during any part of the molding process can break or crush a mold
2) Resting heavy objects on the mold
Cuts and Washes - Chapter 3

Description
Cuts or washes are rough spots and areas of excess metal caused by erosion of the mold or core surface by
metal flow. This definition differentiates between a cut and an erosion scab, in spite of the fact that the two defects
are often similar or identical in general appearance. It is necessary to make such a distinction because the cure
for the two defects may be diametrically opposed.
Causes
1) A design that promotes excessive metal flow over any given area of the mold surface
2) A design which includes unavoidable nozzle effects within the casting
1) Pattern layouts which prevent correct gating. Equalized flow is essential if excessive localized heating of
sand in mold or core is to be avoided.
1) Flask too small to permit proper gating
2) Flask bars too close to pattern
1) A gate which forces metal to impinge on a mold or core surface as in the case of gating into a thin wall of
a casting
2) A downsprue which does not provide a pool or well of metal ahead of the gating system
3) Too much metal across any mold surface will eventually redissolve the metal skin which is formed during
early stages of pouring
4) Excessive metal velocity across a given mold surface
5) Unequal distribution of metal through the gating system
V. Molding Sand
1) Inadequate hot strength
2) Insufficient clay
3) Inadequate water to properly activate the clay and improper mixing
4) Excessive use of certain additives such as cellulose
5) Hot molding sand
6) Low hot strength self-curing binders
VI. Core Practice
1) Soft core surface
2) Overcuring or undercuring
3) Insufficient binder or water
3
4) Improper mixing
5) Improper application and control of core wash
6) Vents or reinforcements too close to the surface
7) Poorly patched cores or filled hook holes
8) Nonuniformly made cores
9) low density
10) Damage in handling
11) Soft cores (rising self-curing binders)
a. Overmixing
b. Improper sand temperature
c. Use beyond bench life
d. Stripping too early
e. Excessive variation of acid demand of sand
1) Soft or nonuniformly rammed molds. Hot strength varies greatly depending on the mold Hardness
or moisture
2) Mold edges burned by excessive drying temperatures
3) Gaggers, bars or soldiers set too close to mold surface
None
None
X. Pouring Practice
1) Excessive pouring temperature for molding or core materials used
2) Hard pouring
XI. Miscellaneous
1) Excessive parting or solvent such as kerosene can materially change the hot and dry strength
2) Hard pouring
Dirt, Slag and Other Inclusions - Chapter 4

Description
Inclusions are surface or subsurface particles of sand, slag, dross, oxides or other materials imbedded in the
metal. They may originate from the molds, cores, metal, ladles or careless practices.
Causes
1) Those design factors which contribute to scabs, cuts, washes and erosion will intensify the tendency
toward inclusions in a casting
1) Improper coating for materials involved. Some pattern coatings produce a tendency towards sticking of
the sand
2) Insufficient clearance for setting cores and closing
3) Lack of fillets
4) Insufficient draft
5) Loosely mounted pattern or gating system
6) Worn flask landing areas can create a crush or disrupt sand gains
7) Inaccurate partings
1) Any factor in the rigging which creates a rubbing or gouging effect during the closing of the mold, or
setting of cores
2) Warped or dirty flasks
3) Worn or crooked pins or bushings
4) Inaccurate core setting assembly or inspection jigs
5) Dirty pins and bushings
6) Inadequate locators
1) Factors causing scabs, cuts and washes
2) Gating systems that create slow pouring can cause scabs particularly on cope surfaces
4
3) Gating systems which create a non-filled runner should be avoided since the cope of such runners will
eventually scab and drop sand into the gating system
4) Gating which promotes high velocity metal flow
5) The choke or the area of the choke core in the gating system may be inadequate to stop the flow of slag
or dross
6) Exothermic materials if used in such a way as to permit the by-product of the reaction to enter the mold or
casting
V. Molding Sand
1) Sands with low physical properties, such as low green, dry and hot compressive strength
2) Mold gas-metal reaction
3) Low fusion point materials
4) Coatings too heavy, not dried, or wrong for the purpose
VI. Core Practice
1) Improperly bonded or cured cores
2) Excessive core gas-metal reaction
3) Improperly cleaned cores
4) Premature collapse of cores in molds and gating system
5) Core wash too heavy, not dried, or wrong for the application
6) Broken cores
1) Any molding factor which contributes to displaced or loose sand in the mold cavity
2) Sloppy or careless molding
3) Excessive use of liquid parting
4) Loose sand from cores or molds
5) Loose sand from molds left open too long
1) In many metals, it is possible for off-analysis to create a separation of slag or slag-like materials
2) In cast irons, a high sulfur may lead to sulfide slag, which could separate during cooling
3) Oxides and intermetallic compounds in steel, copperbase or light alloys

1) Undissolved alloy addition, inoculant, or deoxidizer
2) Dross resulting from alloy addition or inadequate fluxing
3) Too low a melting temperature may result in the inability of the slag or dross to separate
4) Insufficient slag cover during melting to maintain metal cleanliness
5) Thin watery slag
6) Refractory-metal reaction can easily release impurities into the metal
7) Excessive fluxes or deoxidizers
X. Pouring Practice
1) A wet or boiling lip on a ladle can promote, or interfere with proper separation of slag
2) Careless skimming of the ladle can result in excess slag being carried into the mold
3) Low pouring temperature
4) Intermittent or slow pouring
5) Dirty ladles
6) Ladle linings must be adequate, to avoid mechanical or chemical loss
XI. Miscellaneous
1) Careless maintenance. handling, and general housekeeping
5
Erosion Scabs - Chapter 6
Description
An erosion scab is a defect usually occurring in the drag, in which the loosened sand has been eroded away by
the motion of the metal, and has left a solid junction between the casting and the defect. The defect can be
removed usually leaving a solid surface. The erosion scab may result in sand holes or sand inclusions in some
other part of the casting.
Causes
1) A design which necessitates gating through thin sections

1) Insufficient fillets on gates and abrupt section changes
2) Parting the pattern to necessitate gating through thin sections

1) Bars improperly placed, preventing uniform ramming
2) Bars, soldiers, and gaggers coated with wet clay and too close to the mold surface
3) Rigging in too small a flask so that the vertical pattern wall is too close to flask or bar
4) Plugged flask vents
1) Gating which creates interrupted metal flow
2) Metal impinging on and disrupting sand surface
3) Gating which creates localized overheating of the sand
V. Molding Sand
1) High moisture content
2) Excessive volatile material
3) Insufficient carbonaceous (or cellulose) material for expansion control
4) Insufficient hot deformation
5) Improper conditioning of the sand, such as clay or moisture not uniformly distributed
6) Under tempered sand
VI. Core Practice

1) Excessive moisture in or on the core
2) A core blow may cause an erosion scab on the adjacent mold surface
3) Insufficient hot deformation
4) Core wash not properly dried
5) Insufficient penetration of the wash
6) Undercured cores
7) Excessive core wash
1) Nonuniform ramming
2) Gaggers too close to pattern
3) Excessive clay on gaggers
4) Excessive slicking
5) Moldwash, not properly dried
6) Insufficient penetration of wash
7) Excessive wash
None
None
X. Pouring Practice
1) Excessive pouring temperatures
2) Interrupted, or slow pouring
XI. Miscellaneous
1) Any foreign body close to the mold surface
6
Expansion Defects - Chapter 7
Description
Stage one in this family of defects is RATTAILS which are irregular lines caused by low temperature expansion of
the mold surface resulting in a fault in the mold surface.
Stage two is BUCKLES which are V-shaped indentations which may occur by themselves or under an expansion
scab.
Stage three is EXPANSION SCABS, which are rough layers of metal connected to the main body of the casting by
a vein of metal.
Stage four is COPE SPALLS or pull downs which are indentations in the cope surface of the casting. Depending
on the time of formation they may have the appearance of a buckle, rattail, shrink, or blow.
Blackening scabs are a special form of a scab in which the defect is related to the coating rather than to the sand.
Since sand surfaces go through the process of expansion and contraction during the pouring and solidification of
the casting, it is a common practice to assume that the sand is the principal cause. This is a mistake, as these
defects are all closely related to all practices.
1) Large uninterrupted flat surfaces
2) Inadequate radii
3) Large, smooth uninterrupted concave or convex surfaces
1) Inadequate fillets
1) Bars or flask too close to pattern surface
2) Rigging which prevents proper pouring speed
3) Flask too shallow
1) Gating which prevents adequate pouring speed
VI. Core Practice
1) Low hot deformation
2) Green sand or green top cores (See “Molding Sand”)
3) Nonuniform shell thickness
4) Rods or arbors too close to the core surface
5) A nonuniform ram
7) Improper type of wash
8) Excessive wash
9) Insufficient drying of wash
10) Poor sand grain distribution
1) Nonuniform or hard ramming
3) Excessive wash
4) Insufficient drying of mold or wash
5) Gaggers, soldiers, and bars too close to mold surface
6) Excessive trowelling and slacking
7) Downsprue and risers too close to bars and flask
1) Metals vary in their tendency toward expansion defects as they vary in temperature and pouring rate
1) Factors which control fluidity
X. Pouring Practice
1) Pouring too slow
2) Pouring too hot
XI. Miscellaneous
1) Foreign material between centrifugal mold and sand, which appears similar to and
expansion type defect
7
Gas Defects - Chapter 8
Description
“Blows” or gas holes in castings are cavities, either spherical, flattened or elongated. They are related to localized
gas (including entrapped air) pressure that exceeds metal pressure in any locality during solidification of the metal.
One of the greatest problems with core blows is the ease with which they may be confused with mold blows.
Since gas travels upwards in the mold it is quite possible for a gas bubble to form from a core and then travel
toward the cope surface.
Pinholes, blisters, and body scars as well as certain types of porosity are variations of gas holes. In gas defect
problems, there are several possible sources, among which are cores, molding sand and metal. The volume of
gas may be kept unchanged but offset by providing easier escape or by providing more metal pressure, forcing
gas through existing vents.
Causes
1) Insufficient print or outlet provided for venting
2) Design that prevents adequate metal pressure
3) lnsufficient vents at the parting line

None
1) Bars too close to the mold surface
2) Flask wall too close to mold surface
3) Cope too shallow
4) Sprues and risers too close to bars or flask walls
5) Insufficient venting in flasks
1) Insufficient cope height
2) Gating causing turbulence
3) Gating design that causes interrupted flow of metal
4) Inadequate riser height or size
5) Improper sprue or gate design allowing air or mold gas to enter metal stream
6) Insufficient spinning speed in centrifugal casting of pipe
7) Insufficient vents and flow-offs
V. Molding Sand
1) High moisture content
2) Inadequate permeability for the volatile materials involved
3) Foreign material in sand-shot, nails, coke, cinders, etc.
4) Clay balls
5) Poorly mixed sand
6) Coarse particles of gas-producing materials
7) Coatings containing excessive gas-producing materials
8) Excessive permeability in skin-dried molds, allowing sweat-back
9) Excessive or insufficient reducing volatile materials
VI. Core Practice
1) Underbaked or undercured cores
2) Excessive binder
3) Inadequate permeability for conditions involved
4) Inadequate venting
5) Excessive or wet core paste
6) Core wash too heavy, skin broken or not dried
7) Excessive gas-producing material either in the core sand or wash
8) Cores that absorb moisture either in storage or in the mold
9) Exposed hooks, wires or hangers
10) Chill or sealing materials not dried
11) Hooks or hanger holes filled and not dried
12) Foreign materials, such as roots, leaves, coke, coal, etc.
13) Excess nitrogen content in resin binders
8
14) Poorly mixed core sand
1) Combinations of hot and cold materials
2) Improper venting in green or dry sand molds
3) Insufficiently dried molds
4) Hard spots caused by improper ramming for conditions involved
5) Gagger, soldiers, arbors, or bars too close to pattern
6) Clay wash too heavy on gaggers
7) Excessive slicking and patching of green sand
8) Dough roll too wet or too close to mold cavity
9) Wet pouring basins and gating systems
10) Insufficient sand in flask
11) Excessive liquid parting (especially in pockets or depressions)
12) Mold wash or coating too heavy or not dried
13) Failure to lead core vents out of molds
14) Vents too close to surface causing sweatback

1) Gas dissolved in molten metal
2) Metallic impurities e.g. aluminum, bismuth, lead, tin, antimony and boron
3) Greasy or rusty scrap
4) Enamelled scrap containing boron
5) Incorrect balance of aluminum and silicon in steel
1) Steel
a. Too short a boil
b. Insufficient deoxidation
c. Wet refractories
2) Iron
a. Cold melted metal
b. Oxidized iron
c. Tramp elements (e.g. aluminum, lead, tin, antimony, boron, bismuth, enamelled iron
d. Stripping too early
e. Excessive variation of acid demand of sand
3) Non-ferrous
a. Improper fluxing or degassing procedures
b. Excessive melting temperatures
c. Wet refractories
d. Wet or cold melt addition
e. Wet or cold skimmer
f. Metallic impurities or tramp elements
g. Oxidized metal
X. Pouring Practice
1) Cold, damp, or green crucibles or ladles
2) Pouring cold metal
3) Interrupted pouring
4) Ladle or crucible too high above mold
5) Slow or fast pouring
6) Improperly cleaned ladles
7) Heel of metal left in ladle
8) Insufficient spinning speed in centrifugal casting
XI. Miscellaneous
1) Chills, chaplets, wires which are rusty, improperly coated, oxidized or damp
9
Hard Spots, Hard Areas and Chilled Spots - Chapter 10
Description
Hard spots, hard areas and chilled spots in a casting
are localized zones of excessive hardness.
Causes
1) Thick and thin sections
2) Metal chemistry, as related to casting section thickness

1) Worn or warped patterns and core boxes cause thin sections
2) Mismatched pattern equipment causing thin sections

1) Mold cavity too close to bars or wall of flask
2) Shift created by worn flask pins and bushings
3) Weak or warped flasks and bottom boards
4) Not enough sand between bottom board and casting

1) Gating that fails to provide adequate heat to thin sections
V. Molding Sand
1) Wet spots
2) Tramp materials
VI. Core Practice

1) Wires or rods too close to surface
2) Improper or wet coating
3) Warped cores (causing thin sections)
4) Improper print size (causing thin sections)
1) Careless core setting (causing thin sections)
2) Arbors, rods, gaggers, bars too close to mold cavity
3) Excessive nailing
4) Wash too thick and not dried
5) Excessive or improper chills

1) Metal composition not suitable for section size
2) Tramp elements from the charge
1) Cold melting that results in poor alloy distribution
2) Excessive Superheat and oxidation
3) Wet refractories in furnaces and ladles
4) Crucibles or ladles containing residue from prior heats
5) Incorrect inoculation
a. Wrong inoculant
b. Inoctilant added at the wrong time
c. Failure to use inoculant when required
d. Improper inoculant that does not go into solution readily.
e. Metal too cold to dissolve inoculant
X. Pouring Practice
10
1) Cold metal because of cold or wet ladles
2) Skull left in ladles
XI. Miscellaneous
1) Shaking out too hot (insufficient sand for insulation on casting)
2) Localized heating from cut-off torch or grinding
3) Failure to heat treat after welding
4) Wrong composition of welding rod
5) Uneven temperature of metal mold
6) Wrong exothermic compound or sleeves for metal poured
Hot Tears - Chapter 11

Description
A hot tear is a crack in the casting which occurs while it is still hot, or either solid or semisolid.
Causes
1) Lack of adequate fillets
2) Abrupt change in section thickness
3) Any design which causes the mold to resist metal contraction
1) Incorrectly placed or sized cracking strips and tie bars
1) Flask bars too near the riser or sprue
2) Flask bars preventing casting contraction
3) Pattern too large for the flask
1) Gates and risers that prevent normal contraction
V. Molding Sand
1) Poor collapsibility
2) Low sintering-point materials which form a ceramic bond
3) Sand that gives a rough surface which prevents normal contraction
VI. Core Practice
1) Poor collapsibility
2) Low hot deformation with poor collapsibility (high hot strength)
3) Reinforcement rods too close to core surface
4) Failure to shake out reinforced core soon enough
1) Hard ramming
2) Rods, gaggers, etc., too close to mold surface
3) Riser or sprue too close to bars or flask wall
4) Excessive swabbing or sponging
5) Failure to use chill when specified
6) Uneven ramming that causes swell and prevents contraction
1) Wrong composition for the design
1) Excessive carbide stabilizers
2) Wrong composition due to careless charging
3) Presence of tramp elements
4) Charging contaminated scrap
X. Pouring Practice
1) Pouring temperature too low to promote collapsibility
XI. Miscellaneous
1) Shakeout too soon
2) Cooling too fast after shakeout-fans at shakeout
3) Spinning speed too high in centrifugal casting
4) Rough flask or mold in centrifugal casting
5) Moving a mold in a rough manner too soon after pouring
11
Metal Penetration and Fusion - Chapter 14
Description
Metal penetration is a condition in which the metal or metallic oxides have filled the voids between the sand grains
without displacing them or by chemically changing the silica or binder. In conventional molds or cores this can
take place because of an open grain or surface porosity. In high density molds iron oxide readily combines with
the silica to form a fayalite which is fluid at several hundred degrees lower temperature than that of the original
metal. Generally, the higher the free moisture content at the metal sand interface the greater will be this
phenomena.
Fusion is a related surface defect having a rough glossy appearance resulting from metallic oxides acting as a flux
on the sand or low fusion binders which melt leaving voids on the surface. Controlled fusion may result in a hard
cake or fused layer which peels away from the casting leaving a smooth finish. As the fusion progresses it results
in penetration.
Causes
1) Sharp corners
2) Overhanging or protruding sections
3) Thin core or sand section surrounded by heavy metal

1) Pattern equipment constructed so as to promote uneven or soft ramming
2) Improper location of parting line which induces soft ramming
3) Improper location of the pattern on the plate causing narrow pockets
4) Multiple patterns mounted too close together
5) Improper location of sprues, risers, and runners
6) Inadequate draft
7) Pattern equipment constructed to promote excessive metal pressure such as a vertical rather
than horizontal mounting.
8) Inadequate provision for mold and core venting in high density molding
Ill. Flask Equipment and Rigging

1) Design and construction of flask equipment which promotes uneven or soft ramming
2) Excessive cope height
3) Lack of venting of flask and bottom boards in high density molding
4) Metal inserts or chills which act as condensers for moisture

1) The location of gates and risers which promote localized overheating of the sand
2) Incorrect ratio of sprue, runner, and gate permitting metal oxidation during pouring
3) Pouring cup or sprue designed so as to permit aspiration of air
4) A riser neck which overheats the sand
V. Molding Sand
1) A low sintering or low fusion sand or binder
2) Any sand condition that promotes nonuniform density
3) Improper distribution of the sand grains which induce poor ramming
4) Poor flowability or moldability caused by: moisture segregation; poorly mixed sand; excessive moisture;
excessive cereal; excessive green deformation; and prepacked or lumpy sand
5) Nonuniform coating of shell sand
6) Insufficient carbonaceous or deoxidizing material which will prevent the water vapor from reacting with the
metal
7) Excessive mold permeability or, in the case of high density molding, insufficient permeability
VI. Core Practice
1) Too low a sintering or fusion point of sand or binders
2) Grain size which is too large or improperly distributed in uncoated cores
3) Soft rammed cores
4) Plugged vents
5) Improperly tucked sand under loose pieces
12
6) A rough or porous core surface
7) Core surface which is bruised or abraded
8) Improper or insufficient release agent
9) A partially disintegrated core surface due to overbaking
10) A broken or disturbed core wash due to rough handling
11) A dirty core box
12) In self curing binders; improper ratio of catalyst to binder
13) Poorly mixed core sand
14) Any condition promoting veining or finning such as a core crack
15) High cereal, low core oil, or low moisture
16) Low hot compressive strength
17) Poorly cleaned or finished cores
18) Dipped or sprayed cores that are not redried
19) Cores that have picked up moisture during storage
20) Low air pressure for core blower or rammer which results in soft-rammed cores

1) Soft or uneven ramming
2) Excessive ramming or density
3) Poorly patched areas
4) Loose fitting stop-off
5) Uneven or insufficiently dried mold coatings
6) Excessive use of parting compounds
7) Insufficient facing to cover the pattern
8) Low air pressure on molding machine or rammer
9) Any combination of hot and cold materials which can cause condensation
10) Combining high permeability facing sand with a low permeability backing sand particularly in high
density molding

1) Metals which form fluid oxides
2) Low melting constituents such as lead or tin
3) Excessive phosphorus in copper alloys
4) Metal oxides which readily react chemically with sand
5) Metals requiring high pouring temperature

1) Oxidized metal
2) The excessive use of any fluxing-type material such as
3) limestone, soda ash, and fluorspar
4) Melting too hot.
X. Pouring Practice
1) Excessively high pouring temperature
2) Excessive pouring height
3) Poor skimming practice
XI. Miscellaneous
1) Any factor involving free moisture in the mold cavity
2) Shaking out too cold or too late-particularly in high density molding
3) Sand coated with low fusion materials
4) Sand or binder reacting chemically with metal oxides
5) Insufficient venting in high density molding
13
Misruns and Cold Shuts - Chapter 15
Description
A misrun casting is one which lacks completeness due to failure of the metal to fill the mold cavity. There may be
a smooth rounded-edge hole through the casting wall. One or more extremities may be only partially filled out.
A cold shut casting is one in which a definite discontinuity exists due to imperfect fusion where two streams of
metal have converged. This defect may have the appearance of a crack or seam with smooth, rounded edges.
Both defects may be related to insufficient fluidity of the metal or excessive gas pressure in the mold. It is well to
check the chapter on Gas Defects before assuming that cold metal is the only cause.
Causes
1) Non-uniform casting sections resulting in interrupted metal flow
2) Metal sections too thin for area involved
3) Isolated thin sections

1) Worn patterns or core boxes causing thin metal sections
2) Patterns not made according to blueprint
3) Pattern equipment not properly reinforced
4) Misalignment of pattern or core equipment

1) Cope or drag shift causing too thin metal sections
2) Worn flask pins or bushings
3) Patterns not properly mounted
4) Failure to tilt molds causing interrupted metal flow
5) Flask insufficiently barred allowing cope to sag
6) Distorted or dirty jackets causing a crush
7) Weak or improperly reinforced flasks
8) Distorted bands
9) Cope flask too shallow

1) Improper sizing of gates, runner and sprue-ingates too small or too few
2) Gates not properly located
3) Improper distribution or balance of gates
4) Too low head pressure
V. Molding Sand
1) Excess moisture
2) Sand too high in volatile matter
3) Sand too weak allowing mold distortion
4) Permeability too low
5) Too rapid heat transfer of molding material
VI. Core Practice
1) Excess organic core binders
2) Under cured or green cores
3) Insufficient permeability
4) Insufficient vents
5) Cores not properly sized or fitted allowing decreased metal sections
6) Excess wash, mudding compound or paste. Metal sections may be reduced and/or excess gas formed
7) Raised or sagged cores
8) Core shift causing too thin metal sections
9) Cores warped or distorted-thermoplastic binders
10) Reinforcing rods too close to core surface chilling effect
11) Cores with too rapid heat transfer characteristics-chilling the metal
1) Excessive ramming causing low mold permeability
14
2) Soft ramming permitting mold distortion or sagging
3) Mold insufficiently reinforced
4) Improperly bedded or clamped bottom boards
5) Excessive sticking or patching
6) Molds for thin flat castings set level instead of tilting
7) Too few or too small chaplets allowing core to raise
8) Core prints too tight
9) Excessive wash
10) Misalignment of sprue
1) Gray, malleable or nodular irons with low
1) Carbon equivalent or excess carbide stabilizers
2) Low phosphorus in gray iron or brasses
3) Steel-composition changes affect fluidity
4) Inadequate fluidity in brass or bronze alloys
5) Low silicon or iron in aluminum alloys
6) Improper degassing of aluminum alloys
7) Magnesium-improper metal composition
1) Wrong composition due to careless weighing or charging
2) Cold melting
3) Oxidized or gassy metal
4) Over reduced metal-hydrogen reduces fluidity in all metals especially aluminum
5) Excessive ladle additions
6) Damp ladle additions
X. Pouring Practice
1) Pouring temperature too low
3) Reducing the rate of pour too soon
4) Boiling metal from wet spout, wet lining, etc.
5) Cold ladles
6) Thin castings poured on the level
7) Low head pressure
8) Slag, dross or ladle refractory which plugs the gate
9) Poured short
10) Pouring too slow
XI. Miscellaneous
1) Chills and chaplets too large for metal section
2) Reduced metal section from any cause, e.g. excessive mold weights, careless weight shifting, etc.
3) Condensation from warm sand on cold cores, chills, inserts, or chaplets
Open Grain Structure - Chapter 17

Description
Open grain structure is a condition wherein a casting, when machined or fractured is too coarse grained. It may be
throughout the casting or it may be localized.
The most important areas of control are design, gating, composition and melting. This is primarily a metallurgical
-type defect. It is often difficult to differentiate between open grain, porosity and micro shrinkage.
Causes
1) Slow cooling in heavy sections
2) Lack of cores in heavy sections that are later drilled out
3) Sections promoting heat retention
4) Lack of liaison between designer, patternmaker, foundry and machine shop

1) Improper cored heavy sections (See 1)
15
1) Lack of rigidity in flasks
1) Gating which does not permit directional solidification
2) Ingate and riser locations creating hot spots in localized areas
3) Oversized gates and risers
4) Insufficient number of ingates
V. Molding Sand
1) High deformation in sand, permitting mold wall movement
2) Improper selection of molding additives
3) Molding materials that retard heat transfer
VI. Core Practice

1) Underbaked oil sand cores and/or oil bonded air set cores
2) Exothermic materials or insulating materials

1) Lack of chills or chill promoting materials

1) Improper analysis for section size
2) Gray iron and malleable-carbon equivalent or phosphorus too high
3) Insufficient carbide stabilizers
4) Excessive use of graphitizers
5) Aluminum alloys-impurities such as iron or lack of grain refiners
6) Magnesium alloys-incorrect composition
7) Brass and bronze-incorrect composition

1) Cupola melted gray iron
a. Improper balance of air and coke creating an excessive carbon pickup
b. High coke bed
c. Slow tapping out or excessive shutdowns
d. Careless charging or weighing of materials
2) Brass and bronze

a. Contamination from dirty crucibles
b. Careless segregation of return scrap
c. Unknown origin of ingots and return scrap
d. Allowing turnings and chips to become
mixed
3) Aluminum
a. Overheated
b. Reducing atmosphere
c. Carelessness in charge makeup or contamination
d. Omitting grain refiners
X. Pouring Practice
1) Pouring too hot
XI. Miscellaneous
1) Improper heat treatment
2) Improper machining
16
Rough Surface - Chapter 20
DESCRIPTION
A casting that lacks the required degree of smoothness for a specific application.
Causes
1) Design is a contributing factor only when sharp corners, deep pockets and the like are involved
1) Inaccessible areas
2) Fillets too small
3) Rough pattern surface
4) Weak patterns
5) Materials and coatings which induce sticking of sand
6) Non-uniform heating in shell or hot box
1) Flask bars too close preventing proper ramming
2) Too small a flask
IV. GATING AND RISERING
1) Hot spots created by the gating
2) High metal velocity at ingates
3) Excessive head pressure
V. Molding Sand
1) Moisture too high
2) Moisture too low
3) Permeability too high-coarse sand
4) Improper mulling
5) Foreign material
6) Low fusion point materials
7) Low carbonaceous materials
8) High carbonaceotis materials
9) Poor flowability
10) Insufficient hot compressive strength
11) Carbonaceous materials too coarse
12) Excessive use of release agents
13) Insufficient new sand additions
VI. Core Practice

1) Dirty core boxes
2) Soft rammed cores
3) Improper application of core wash
4) Over or undercured cores
5) Rough handling
6) Permeability too high-coarse sand
7) Hot strength too low
8) Improper mixing
9) Poorly cleaned and finished cores
10) Wrong release agent

I) Soft ramming
2) Dirtv patterns
3) Improperly riddled or screened sand
4) Improper application of mold coatings
5) Poorly finished molds
6) Excessive use of parting compounds
1) Composition requiring high pouring temperature
2) Composition that reacts to mold surface
17
1) Poor slag practice
X. Pouring Practice
1) Too high pouring temperature
2) Improperly skimmed ladles
3) Ladle too high
XI. Miscellaneous
1) Improper cleaning
2) Cleaning abrasive too coarse
18
Runouts and Bleeders or misruns - Chapter 21
Description
Runouts and bleeders are defects which result in an incomplete casting. Runouts occur during pouring and
usually the mold cavity has not been completely filled. Bleeders occur after pouring has stopped and the mold
cavity has been filled.
Causes
None
1) A pattern mounted on too small a board or plate
2) Worn bearing surfaces
3) Dirty bearing surfaces on plate or flask
4) Mismatched patterns
5) A thin pattern plate
1) A flask too small
2) A warped or twisted flask
3) Dirty flask joint
4) Faulty pins and bushings
5) Worn hinges and locks on snap flasks
6) Warped and twisted bands
7) With a cope and drag arrangement the pattern plate may be mounted higher than the flask landing strip
8) Weak, burned or uneven bottom boards
9) Improperly fitting jackets
10) Insufficient or improperly placed weights
11) Bumping molds on a conveyor
12) Insufficient drag depth
1) Sprue, runner or riser too close to the flask
2) Patterns too close to the flask
3) Excess head pressure
V. Molding Sand
1) Weak sand
2) Sand too low in green deformation
3) Excessive expansion and contraction in shell molds
4) Late gas explosion in mold
VI. Core Practice
1) Core prints too large
2) Vents too close to surface or not properly sealed
3) Weak cores
4) Shell cores with thin spots
5) Shell cores not sealed at prints
6) Thermal cracking of shell cores
7) Excessive peel back (shell cores)
8) Too rapid heating or cooling

1) Soft ramming
2) Insufficient or improperly weighted molds
3) Uneven clamping
4) Improperly bedded bottom boards
5) Non-uniform hardness or lumpy bedding sand
6) Careless closing of molds
7) Venting too close to the mold cavity or not sealed
8) Lack of proper cope seal in large molds
9) Under or over baked dry sand molds
10) Too rapid Heating of skin dried molds
11) insufficient reinforcing or support of dry sand molds
19
1) High fluidity
2) Wide solidification range
None
X. Pouring Practice
1) Failure to use jackets, weights or clamps
2) Pouring too hard or high
3) Pouring too hot
4) Bumping molds during pouring
5) Removing weights, clamps or jackets too soon
XI. Miscellaneous
1) Shaking out too hot
2) Knocking off gates and risers too soon
20
Shot Metal or Cold Shots - Chapter 24
Description
Shot metal or cold shots are small globules of metal imbedded in, but not entirely fused with the casting. A cold
shot shows as an approximately round shot, while a cold shut is a form of misrun and appears as a crack or seam.
Causes
None
1) Excessive clearance on prints requiring excessive amount of sealing compound
2) Inadequate venting at parting line
3) Any gating which results in turbulence
1) Bars and flask too close to mold surface
2) Sprues and risers too close to bars or flask walls
1) Gating which causes turbulence or interrupted flow
2) Multiple gating which results in most of the metal entering into one or two of the ingates
3) Pop or pencil gates which are too small.
V. Molding Sand
1) High moisture or excessive gas which results in a severe blowing action causing metal to spatter
2) Foreign material such as clay balls, etc., which produces excessive gas in a localized area
VI. Core Practice

1) Undercured core or excessive gas from core, core wash, or core paste
2) Exposed wires, arbors, and supports which are wet, dirty, oily, or rusty

1) Poorly dried molds or core coatings
2) Plugged vents
3) Excessive sticking of mold

1) Certain metals which are more prone to rapid oxidation and thus, prevents the shot from redissolving
(Example: low carbon steel or aluminum)
2) Off analysis metal which results in an excessive rate of solidification
3) Phosphorus too high (centrifugal casting)

1) Oxidized metal
X. Pouring Practice
1) Careless skimming, spilling or splashing metal in a sprue or riser
XI. Miscellaneous
1) Any foreign material which causes metal to splatter
2) Condensation in the mold
21
Shrinkage Cavities and Depressions - Chapter 25
Description
A shrinkage cavity is a jagged hole or spongy area lined with fern-like structure called dendrites. A
shrinkage depression on the surface of the casting is a recession from the true plane
of the mold surface.
There is apt to be confusion determining between a shrink and a blow. If a doubt exists, refer to the chapter on
Gas Defects. Many of the cures for both are the same, but in some cases the cure is just the opposite.
It is characteristic of a shrink to appear in heavier sections, at abrupt changes of section thickness or at hot spots.
These same locations are also prone to producing gas defects and hot tears.
Causes
1) Abrupt change in section size
2) Isolated heavy sections which cannot be fed
3) Inadequate or too large fillets
4) Insufficient area for feeding or chilling isolated sections

1) Worn patterns and/or core boxes
2) Incorrect pattern dimensions resulting in thin or heavy sections
3) Poor pattern construction-improperly reinforced for high pressure molding

1) Insufficient cope height
2) Flask too small
3) Improperly fitted jackets
4) Too many patterns in flask

1) Gates and risers not promoting progressive solidification
2) Insufficient number and/or improperly attached gates and risers
3) Risers too small
4) Improper ratio of riser neck to casting size
5) Large ingates
V. Molding Sand
1) Any condition that permits excessive moldwall movement
2) Soft ramming
3) Low green compressive strength
4) High green deformation
5) High hot deformation
6) Wet sand
VI. Core Practice

1) Core movement-oversize prints
2) Insufficient chaplets
3) Weak cores
4) Soft or insufficient prints
5) Lack of fillets

1) Any molding practice that will permit moldwall movement under pressure-refer to molding sand
2) Omission of exothermic or insulating materials if required
3) Lack of chills

1) Chemical composition unsuited for section involved
22
2) Low carbon
3) Aluminum
a. Insufficient grain refiners
b. Low silicon
c. Insufficient gas content
4) Ductile iron
a. Too high or too low carbon
b. Too high or too low carbon equivalent

1) Careless charging or weighing
2) Wrong composition
3) High temperature metal
X. Pouring Practice
1) Pouring too hot and/or too cold
2) Failure to touch up risers with hot metal
XI. Miscellaneous
1) Cracked molds
2) Runouts
3) Run-in (shellcores)
4) Improperly clamped molds
Warped Castings - Chapter 29

Description
Warpage is deformation that occurs during or after solidification, mostly in gray or white cast iron (nonductile) . The
problems are the same as those described in Chapter 11. Hot Tears, namely differential stresses setup during
cooling. The difference between the defects (aside from appearance) is either in the degree of stress or difference
in tearing tendency of various metals. For example, a stress situation which would hot tear a steel or malleable
casting might warp a gray iron or ductile casting.
Causes
1) Large flat uninterrupted sections
2) Lack of ribs

1) Large flat sections can be broken up with wavy or roughened sections provided this does not interfere
with the use (including appearance) of the casting.
2) Pattern not faked to compensate for warping
3) Incorrect number of tie bars

1) Bars too close to pattern
2) Bars too close to risers and downsprues
3) Weak bottom boards
4) Flask too small
5) Weak flasks
6) Weak squeeze board

1) Gating system which prevents desired contraction
2) Too small gate area
3) Improper location of ingates
23
V. Molding Sand
1) Too low green strength
2) Too low flowability or moldability
3) Hot strength too low or too high
VI. Core Practice

1) Poor collapsibility of cores
2) Too high hot strength
3) Over-reinforced (rods and arbors)
4) Rods too close to casting surface
VIl. Molding Practice

1) Improper relationship of mold hardness between cope and drag. Soft cope allowing
upward movement of the contracting metal or vice versa
a. Warpage can be alleviated or reduced by ramming the part of the mold harder in the direction of
the warpage. The mold can also be rammed by hand or pneumatically after pouring.

1) High combined carbon
2) Excessive use of carbide stabilizers
3) Chills etc., which promote the stabilization of combined carbon.
1) Careless charging
2) Metal too cold
3) Any metal practice which stabilizes carbides or changes metal composition
X. Pouring Practice
1) Too hot or too cold for casting design
XI. Miscellaneous
1) Shake out too hot
2) Failure to provide proper support during heat treat
3) Peening action during cleaning
4) Machining: If it creates a partial stress relief
5) Large castings not properly supported during shipment
Corrosion is the deterioration of a metal as a result of chemical reactions between it and the surrounding
environment. Both the type of metal and the environmental conditions, particularly gasses that are in contact with
the metal, determine the form and rate of deterioration
24

Broken or Cracked Castings - Chapter 1: Description

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Broken or Cracked Castings - Chapter 1

VI. Core Practice

IX. Melting Practice

VIII. Metal Composition

Cuts and Washes - Chapter 3

Dirt, Slag and Other Inclusions - Chapter 4

IX. Melting Practice

II. Pattern Equipment

III. Flask Equipment and Rigging

VI. Core Practice

II. Pattern Equipment

VIII. Metal Composition

II. Pattern Equipment

III. Flask Equipment and Rigging

IV. Gating and Risering

VI. Core Practice

VIII. Metal Composition

Hot Tears - Chapter 11

II. Pattern Equipment

Ill. Flask Equipment and Rigging

IV. Gating and Risering

VII. Molding Practice

VIII. Metal Composition

IX. Melting Practice

II. Pattern Equipment

III. Flask Equipment and Rigging

IV. Gating and Risering

Open Grain Structure - Chapter 17

II. Pattern Equipment

VI. Core Practice

VII. Molding Practice

VIII. Metal Composition

IX. Melting Practice

2) Brass and bronze

VI. Core Practice

VII. Molding Practice

VII. Molding Practice

VI. Core Practice

VII. Molding Practice

VIII. Metal Composition

IX. Melting Practice

II. Pattern Equipment

Ill. Flask Equipment and Rigging

IV. Gating and Risering

VI. Core Practice

VII. Molding Practice

VIII. Metal Composition

IX. Melting Practice

Warped Castings - Chapter 29

II. Pattern Equipment

III. Flask Equipment and Rigging

IV. Gating and Risering

VI. Core Practice

VIl. Molding Practice

VIII. Metal Composition

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