Stress

The term stress (s) is used to express the loading in terms of force applied to a
certain cross-sectional area of an object. From the perspective of loading, stress is the
applied force or system of forces that tends to deform a body. From the perspective of
what is happening within a material, stress is the internal distribution of forces within a
body that balance and react to the loads applied to it. The stress distribution may or may
not be uniform, depending on the nature of the loading condition. For example, a bar
loaded in pure tension will essentially have a uniform tensile stress distribution. However, a
bar loaded in bending will have a stress distribution that changes with distance
perpendicular to the normal axis.

Stress–strain analysis (or stress analysis)

An engineering discipline that uses many methods to determine
the stresses and strains in materials and structures subjected to forces. In continuum
mechanics, stress is a physical quantity that expresses the internal forces that
neighboring particles of a continuous material exert on each other, while strain is the
measure of the deformation of the material.
Stress analysis is a primary task for civil, mechanical and aerospace engineers
involved in the design of structures of all sizes, such as tunnels, bridges and dams, aircraft
and rocket bodies, mechanical parts, and even plastic cutlery and staples. Stress analysis
is also used in the maintenance of such structures, and to investigate the causes of
structural failures.
Typically, the starting point for stress analysis are a geometrical description of the
structure, the properties of the materials used for its parts, how the parts are joined, and
the maximum or typical forces that are expected to be applied to the structure. The output
data is typically a quantitative description of how the applied forces spread throughout the
structure, resulting in stresses, strains and the deflections of the entire structure and each
component of that structure. The analysis may consider forces that vary with time, such
as engine vibrations or the load of moving vehicles. In that case, the stresses and
deformations will also be functions of time and space.
Stress analysis in engineering is often a tool rather than a goal in itself; the ultimate
goal being the design of structures and artifacts that can withstand a specified load, using
the minimum amount of material or that satisfies some other optimality criterion. Stress
analysis may be performed through classical mathematical techniques, analytic
mathematical modelling or computational simulation, experimental testing, or a
combination of methods.

General principles
Stress analysis is specifically concerned with solid objects. The study of stresses in
liquids and gases is the subject of fluid mechanics.
Stress analysis adopts the macroscopic view of materials characteristic
of continuum mechanics, namely that all properties of materials are homogeneous at small
enough scales. Thus, even the smallest particle considered in stress analysis still contains
an enormous number of atoms, and its properties are averages of the properties of those
atoms.
In stress analysis one normally disregards the physical causes of forces or the
precise nature of the materials. Instead, one assumes that the stresses are related
to strain of the material by known constitutive equations.
 By Newton's laws of motion, any external forces that act on a system must be
balanced by internal reaction forces, or cause the particles in the affected part to
accelerate. In a solid object, all particles must move substantially in concert in order to
maintain the object's overall shape. It follows that any force applied to one part of a solid
object must give rise to internal reaction forces that propagate from particle to particle
throughout an extended part of the system. With very rare exceptions (such
as ferromagnetic materials or planet-scale bodies), internal forces are due to very short
range intermolecular interactions, and are therefore manifested as surface contact forces
between adjacent particles — that is, as stress.

Types of structures
In civil engineering applications, one typically considers structures to be in static
equilibrium: that is, are either unchanging with time, or are changing slowly enough
for viscous stresses to be unimportant (quasi-static). In mechanical and aerospace
engineering, however, stress analysis must often be performed on parts that are far from
equilibrium, such as vibrating plates or rapidly spinning wheels and axles. In those cases,
the equations of motion must include terms that account for the acceleration of the
particles. In structural design applications, one usually tries to ensure the stresses are
everywhere well below the yield strength of the material. In the case of dynamic loads,
the material fatigue must also be taken into account. However, these concerns lie outside
the scope of stress analysis proper, being covered in materials science under the
names strength of materials, fatigue analysis, stress corrosion, creep modeling, and other.

Experimental methods
Stress analysis can be performed experimentally by applying forces to a test
element or structure and then determining the resulting stress using sensors. In this case
the process would more properly be known as testing (destructive or non-destructive).
Experimental methods may be used in cases where mathematical approaches are
cumbersome or inaccurate. Special equipment appropriate to the experimental method is
used to apply the static or dynamic loading.
There are a number of experimental methods which may be used:
 Tensile testing is a fundamental materials science test in which a sample is subjected
to uniaxial tension until failure. The results from the test are commonly used to select
a material for an application, for quality control, or to predict how a material will react
under other types of forces. Properties that are directly measured via a tensile test are
the ultimate tensile strength, maximum elongation and reduction in cross-section area.
From these measurements, properties such as Young's modulus, Poisson's ratio, yield
strength, and the strain-hardening characteristics of the sample can be determined.
 Strain gauges can be used to experimentally determine the deformation of a physical
part. A commonly used type of strain gauge is a thin flat resistor that is affixed to the
surface of a part, and which measures the strain in a given direction. From the
measurement of strain on a surface in three directions the stress state that developed
in the part can be calculated.
 Neutron diffraction is a technique that can be used to determine the subsurface strain
in a part.

Stress in plastic protractor causes birefringence.

 The photoelastic method relies on the fact that some materials
exhibit birefringence on the application of stress, and the magnitude of the
refractive indices at each point in the material is directly related to the state of
stress at that point. The stresses in a structure can be determined by making a
model of the structure from such a photoelastic material.
 Dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA) is a technique used to study and
characterize viscoelastic materials, particularly polymers. The viscoelastic
property of a polymer is studied by dynamic mechanical analysis where a
sinusoidal force (stress) is applied to a material and the resulting displacement
(strain) is measured. For a perfectly elastic solid, the resulting strains and the
stresses will be perfectly in phase. For a purely viscous fluid, there will be a 90
degree phase lag of strain with respect to stress. Viscoelastic polymers have
the characteristics in between where some phase lag will occur during DMA
tests.

Elastic and linear cases

A system is said to be elastic if any deformations caused by applied forces will
spontaneously and completely disappear once the applied forces are removed. The
calculation of the stresses (stress analysis) that develop within such systems is based on
the theory of elasticity and infinitesimal strain theory. When the applied loads cause
permanent deformation, one must use more complicated constitutive equations that can
account for the physical processes involved (plastic flow, fracture, phase change, etc.)
Engineered structures are usually designed so that the maximum expected
stresses are well within the realm of linear elastic (the generalization of Hooke’s law for
continuous media) behavior for the material from which the structure will be built. That is,
the deformations caused by internal stresses are linearly related to the applied loads. In
this case the differential equations that define the stress tensor are also linear. Linear
equations are much better understood than non-linear ones; for one thing, their solution
(the calculation of stress at any desired point within the structure) will also be a linear
function of the applied forces. For small enough applied loads, even non-linear systems
can usually be assumed to be linear
.
Built-in stress (preloaded)

Example of a Hyper static Stress Field.

A preloaded structure is one that has, internal forces, stresses and strains imposed
within it by various means prior to application of externally applied forces. For example, a
structure may have cables that are tightened, causing forces to develop in the structure,
before any other loads are applied. Tempered glass is a commonly found example of a
preloaded structure that has tensile forces and stresses that act on the plane of the glass
and in the central plane of glass that causes compression forces to act on the external
surfaces of that glass.
The mathematical problem represented is typically ill-posed because it has an
infinitude of solutions. In fact, in any three-dimensional solid body one may have infinitely
many (and infinitely complicated) non-zero stress tensor fields that are in stable
equilibrium even in the absence of external forces. These stress fields are often termed
hyper static stress fields and they co-exist with the stress fields that balance the external
forces. In linear elasticity, their presence is required to satisfy the strain/displacement
compatibility requirements and in limit analysis their presence is required to maximize the
load carrying capacity of the structure or component.

Example of a Hyper static Moment Field.

Such built-in stress may occur due to many physical causes, either during
manufacture (in processes like extrusion, casting or cold working), or after the fact (for
example because of uneven heating, or changes in moisture content or chemical
composition). However, if the system can be assumed to behave in a linear fashion with
respect to the loading and response of the system, then effect of preload can be
accounted for by adding the results of a preloaded structure and the same non-preloaded
structure.
If linearity cannot be assumed, however, any built-in stress may affect the
distribution of internal forces induced by applied loads (for example, by changing the
effective stiffness of the material) or even cause an unexpected material failure. For these
reasons, a number of techniques have been developed to avoid or reduce built-in stress,
such as annealing of cold-worked glass and metal parts, expansion joints in buildings,
and roller joints for bridges.
Simplifications

Simplified modeling of a truss by unidimensional elements under uniaxial uniform stress.

Stress analysis is simplified when the physical dimensions and the distribution of
loads allow the structure to be treated as one- or two-dimensional. In the analysis of a
bridge, its three dimensional structure may be idealized as a single planar structure, if all
forces are acting in the plane of the trusses of the bridge. Further, each member of the
truss structure might then be treated a uni-dimensional members with the forces acting
along the axis of each member. In which case, the differential equations reduce to a finite
set of equations with finitely many unknowns.
If the stress distribution can be assumed to be uniform (or predictable, or
unimportant) in one direction, then one may use the assumption of plane stress and plane
strain behavior and the equations that describe the stress field are then a function of two
coordinates only, instead of three.
Even under the assumption of linear elastic behavior of the material, the relation
between the stress and strain tensors is generally expressed by a fourth-order stiffness
tensor with 21 independent coefficients (a symmetric 6 × 6 stiffness matrix). This
complexity may be required for general anisotropic materials, but for many common
materials it can be simplified. For orthotropic materials such as wood, whose stiffness is
symmetric with respect to each of three orthogonal planes, nine coefficients suffice to
express the stress–strain relationship. For isotropic materials, these coefficients reduce to
only two.
One may be able to determine a priori that, in some parts of the system, the stress
will be of a certain type, such as uniaxial tension or compression, simple shear, isotropic
compression or tension, torsion, bending, etc. In those parts, the stress field may then be
represented by fewer than six numbers, and possibly just one.
Load transfer
The evaluation of loads and stresses within structures is directed to finding the load
transfer path. Loads will be transferred by physical contact between the various
component parts and within structures. The load transfer may be identified visually or by
simple logic for simple structures. For more complex structures more complex methods,
such as theoretical solid mechanics or numerical methods may be required. Numerical
methods include direct stiffness method which is also referred to as the finite element
method.
For parts that have broken in service, a forensic engineering or failure analysis is
performed to identify weakness, where broken parts are analysed for the cause or causes
of failure. The method seeks to identify the weakest component in the load path. If this is
the part which actually failed, then it may corroborate independent evidence of the failure.
If not, then another explanation has to be sought, such as a defective part with a
lower tensile strength than it should for example.

Uniaxial stress
A linear element of a structure is one that is essentially one dimensional and is
often subject to axial loading only. When a structural element is subjected to tension or
compression its length will tend to elongate or shorten, and its cross-sectional area
changes by an amount that depends on the Poisson's ratio of the material. In engineering
applications, structural members experience small deformations and the reduction in
cross-sectional area is very small and can be neglected, i.e., the cross-sectional area is
assumed constant during deformation. For this case, the stress is called engineering
stress or nominal stress and is calculated using the original cross section.

where P is the applied load, and Ao is the original cross-sectional area.

In some other cases, e.g., elastomers and plastic materials, the change in cross-
sectional area is significant. If the true stress is desired, it must be calculated using the
true cross-sectional area instead of the initial cross-sectional area, as:

where

is the nominal (engineering) strain, and

is nominal (engineering) stress.
The relationship between true strain and engineering strain is given by

In uniaxial tension, true stress is then greater than nominal stress. The converse
holds in compression.

Graphical representation of stress at a point

Mohr's circle, Lame's stress ellipsoid (together with the stress director surface),
and Cauchy's stress quadric are two-dimensional graphical representations of the state of
stress at a point. They allow for the graphical determination of the magnitude of the stress
tensor at a given point for all planes passing through that point. Mohr's circle is the most
common graphical method.
Mohr's circle, named after Christian Otto Mohr, is the locus of points that represent the
state of stress on individual planes at all their orientations. The abscissa, ,
and ordinate, , of each point on the circle are the normal stress and shear stress
components, respectively, acting on a particular cut plane with a unit vector n with
components .

Lame's stress ellipsoid

The surface of the ellipsoid represents the locus of the endpoints of all stress
vectors acting on all planes passing through a given point in the continuum body. In other
words, the endpoints of all stress vectors at a given point in the continuum body lie on the
stress ellipsoid surface, i.e., the radius-vector from the center of the ellipsoid, located at
the material point in consideration, to a point on the surface of the ellipsoid is equal to the
stress vector on some plane passing through the point. In two dimensions, the surface is
represented by an ellipse.
Cauchy's stress quadric

Stress Trajectories in a Plate Membrane

The Cauchy's stress quadric, also called the stress surface, is a surface of the
second order that traces the variation of the normal stress vector as the orientation of
the planes passing through a given point is changed.
The complete state of stress in a body at a particular deformed configuration, i.e.,
at a particular time during the motion of the body, implies knowing the six independent
components of the stress tensor , or the three principal
stresses , at each material point in the body at that time. However, numerical
analysis and analytical methods allow only for the calculation of the stress tensor at a
certain number of discrete material points. To graphically represent in two dimensions this
partial picture of the stress field different sets of contour lines can be used:
 Isobars are curves along which the principal stress, e.g., is constant.
 Isochromatics are curves along which the maximum shear stress is constant. This
curves are directly determined using photo elasticity methods.
 Isopachs are curves along which the mean normal stress is constant.
 Isostatics or stress trajectories are a system of curves which are at each material point
tangent to the principal axes of stress - see figure.
 Isoclinics are curves on which the principal axes make a constant angle with a given
fixed reference direction. These curves can also be obtained directly by photo
elasticity methods.
 Slip lines are curves on which the shear stress is a maximum.

Tolerance
An acceptable amount of dimensional variation that will still allow an object to
function correctly. A limit of acceptable unintended deviation from a nominal or theoretical
dimension. Therefore, a pair of tolerances, upper and lower, defines a range within which
an actual dimension may fall while still being acceptable.
Tolerance is the total amount that a specific dimension is permitted to vary; it is the
difference between the maximum and the minimum limits for the dimension. For Example
a dimension given as 1.625 ± .002 means that the manufactured part may be 1.627” or
1.623”, or anywhere between these limit dimensions.

Tolerances are specified because variations in properties of the material being

machined introduce errors; the production machines themselves may have some inherent
inaccuracies. It is impossible for an operator to make perfect settings. While setting up the
tools and workpiece on the machine, some errors are likely to creep in.
Three basic tolerances that occur most often on working drawing are: limit
dimensions, unilateral and bilateral tolerances.
 Limit Dimensions are two dimensional values stacked on top of each other. The
dimensions show the largest and smallest values allowed. Anything in between these
values is acceptable.

 Unilateral Tolerance exists when a target dimension is given along with tolerance that
allows variation to occur in only one direction.

 Bilateral Tolerance exists if the variation from a target dimension is shown occurring
both in the positive and negative directions.

Considerations when setting tolerances

A primary concern is to determine how wide the tolerances may be without
affecting other factors or the outcome of a process. This can be by the use of scientific
principles, engineering knowledge, and professional experience. Experimental
investigation is very useful to investigate the effects of tolerances: Design of experiments,
formal engineering evaluations, etc.
A good set of engineering tolerances in a specification, by itself, does not imply that
compliance with those tolerances will be achieved. Actual production of any product (or
operation of any system) involves some inherent variation of input and output.
Measurement error and statistical uncertainty are also present in all measurements. With
a normal distribution, the tails of measured values may extend well beyond plus and minus
three standard deviations from the process average. Appreciable portions of one (or both)
tails might extend beyond the specified tolerance.
The process capability of systems, materials, and products needs to be compatible
with the specified engineering tolerances. Process controls must be in place and an
effective Quality management system, such as Total Quality Management, needs to keep
actual production within the desired tolerances. A process capability index is used to
indicate the relationship between tolerances and actual measured production.
The choice of tolerances is also affected by the intended statistical sampling
plan and its characteristics such as the Acceptable Quality Level. This relates to the
question of whether tolerances must be extremely rigid (high confidence in 100%
conformance) or whether some small percentage of being out-of-tolerance may sometimes
be acceptable.

Mechanical component tolerance

Summary of basic size, fundamental deviation and IT grades compared to minimum and
maximum sizes of the shaft and hole.
Dimensional tolerance is related to, but different from fit in mechanical engineering,
which is a designed-in clearance or interference between two parts. Tolerances are
assigned to parts for manufacturing purposes, as boundaries for acceptable build. No
machine can hold dimensions precisely to the nominal value, so there must be acceptable
degrees of variation. If a part is manufactured, but has dimensions that are out of
tolerance, it is not a usable part according to the design intent. Tolerances can be applied
to any dimension. The commonly used terms are:
Basic size: the nominal diameter of the shaft (or bolt) and the hole. This is, in general,
the same for both components.
Lower deviation: the difference between the minimum possible component size and
the basic size.
Upper deviation: the difference between the maximum possible component size and
the basic size.
Fundamental deviation: the minimum difference in size between a component and
the basic size. This is identical to the upper deviation for shafts and the lower deviation
for holes. If the fundamental deviation is greater than zero, the bolt will always be
smaller than the basic size and the hole will always be wider. Fundamental deviation is
a form of allowance, rather than tolerance.
International Tolerance grade: this is a standardized measure of
the maximum difference in size between the component and the basic size
 Allowance
A planned deviation between an actual dimension and a nominal or theoretical dimension,
or between an intermediate-stage dimension and an intended final dimension whereas
allowance is one that we give to the material to undergo some process in the future.
Allowance is the difference between the dimensions of two mating part (hole and
shaft) for any type of fit. It is intentional difference between the lower limit of the hole and
higher limit of the shaft. It is the minimum clearance (positive allowance) or maximum
interference (Negative allowance) between parts.
For example, outer dimensions may be cut intentionally oversize, or inner
dimensions may be cut intentionally undersize, to allow for a predictable dimensional
change following the future cutting, grinding or heat treatment operations.
In engineering and machining, an allowance is a planned deviation between an
exact dimension and a nominal or theoretical dimension, or between an intermediate-stage
dimension and an intended final dimension. The unifying abstract concept is that a certain
amount of difference allows for some known factor of compensation or interference. For
example, an area of

Confounding of the engineering concepts of allowance and tolerance

Often the terms allowance and tolerance are used inaccurately and are improperly
interchanged in engineering contexts. This is logical because both words generally can
relate to the abstract concept of permission — that is, of a limit on what is acceptable.
However, in engineering, separate meanings are enforced, as explained below.
A tolerance is the limit of acceptable unintended deviation from a nominal or
theoretical dimension. Therefore, a pair of tolerances, upper and lower, defines a range
within which an actual dimension may fall while still being acceptable.
In contrast, an allowance is a planned deviation from the nominal or theoretical
dimension.

VARIABLE STRESSES IN MACHINE PARTS

The stresses which vary from a minimum value to a maximum value of the same
nature (i.e. tensile or compressive) are called fluctuating stresses.
The stresses which vary from one value of compressive to the same value of tensile or
vice versa, are known as completely reversed or cyclic stresses.
The stresses which vary from a minimum value to a maximum value of the opposite
nature (i.e. from a certain minimum compressive to a certain maximum tensile or from a
minimum tensile to a maximum compressive) are called alternative stresses.
When a material is subjected to repeated stresses, it fails at stresses below the yield
point stresses. Such type of failure of a material is known as fatigue. The failure may occur
even without any prior indications. The fatigue of material is effected by the size of the
component, relative magnitude of static and fluctuating loads and the number of load
reversals.
 If the stress is kept below a certain value as shown by dotted line, the material will
not fail whatever may be the number of cycles. This stress, as represented by dotted line,
is known as endurance or fatigue limit (fe). It is defined as maximum value of the
completely reversed bending stress which a polished standard specimen can withstand
without failure, for infinite number of cycles (usually 106 cycles).
The term endurance limit is used for reversed bending only while for other types of
loading, the term endurance strength may be used when referring the fatigue strength of
the material.

Mean or average stress:

Reversed stress component or variable stress:

For repeated loading (6 min = 0),

Effect of loading on Endurance Limit

The endurance limit will be different for different types of loading.

K b = Loads correction factor for reversed bending load. Its values usually taken as
unity.
Ka = Load correction factor for the reversed axial load. Its value may be taken as
0.8.
Ks = Load correction factor for the reversed torsional or shear load. Its value may be
taken as 0.55.
Ksur=surface finish factor.
Ksz = Size factor, this is due to the fact that a longer specimen will have more
defects than a smaller one.
Kr=reliability factor.
Kt=temperature factor.
K! = Impact factor.
For reversed bending load, endurance limit:
f1e = feb .Ksur .K sz .K r .K t .K i
For the reversed axial load, endurance limit: 1
f1e = f ea .K sur .Ksz .Kr .K t .Ki
For the reversed torsional or shear load, endurance limit: 1
f1e = f es .Ksur .Ksz .K r .K t .K i
In solving problems, if the value of any of the above factors is not known; it may be taken
as unity.
The factor of safety for fatigue loading should be based on endurance limit.

Stress Concentration
When a machine component changes the shape of its cross-section the
simple stress distribution no longer holds good and neighbourhood of the
discontinuity is different. This irregularity in the stress distribution caused by
abrupt changes in the shape is called stress concentration.

The material near the edges is stressed considerably higher than the average
value. The maximum stress occurs at some point on the fillet and is directed parallel
to the boundary at that point.
 Theoretical or form stress concentration factor is defined as the ratio of the
maximum stress in a member (at a notch or a fillet) to the nominal stress at the
same section. It is denoted by Kt.
In static loading, stress concentration in ductile material is not so serious as in
STUDENT CORNER brittle materials, because in ductile materials local deformation
or yielding takes place which reduces the concentration. In brittle materials, cracks
may appear at these local concentration of stress which will increases the stress
over the rest of the section. In order to avoid failure due to stress concentration,
fillets at the changes of section must be provided.
In cyclic loading, stress concentration is always serious because the ductility of
the material is not effective in relieving the concentration of stress caused by cracks,
flaws or any sharp discontinuity in the geometrical form of the member.
If the stress at any point in a member is above the endurance limit of the material, a
crack may develop under the section of repeated load and the crack will lead to
failure of the member.

Stress concentration due to holes

The stress at the joints away from the hole is practically uniform and the
maximum stress will be induced at the edge of the hole.

The presence of stress concentration cannot be totally eliminated but it may

be reduced to some extent.

Notch Sensitivity
It may be defined as the degree to which theoretical effect of stress
concentration is actually reached. The stress gradient depends mainly on the
radius of notch, hole or fillet and on the grain size of material. When notch
sensitivity factor q is used in cyclic loading, then fatigue stress concentration
factor may be obtained by the relations:

There are several ways in which problems involving combination of stresses may be
solved.
Gerber Method

fe = fatigue strength corresponding to the case of complete reversal (fm = 0) fu =

static ultimate strength corresponding to fv = 0 Generally, the test data for ductile
material fall closer to Gerber Parabola, but because of scatter in the test points, a
straight line relationship (i.e., Goodman line and soderberg line) is usually preferred.
According to Gerber,

where, F.S. = Factor of safety Considering fatigue stress concentration factor (kf)

Goodman Method for Combination of Stresses

A Goodman line is used when the design is based on ultimate strength and
may be used for ductile or brittle materials Line AB connecting fe and fu is called
Goodman’s failure stress line. If a suitable factor of safety (F.S.) is applied to
endurance limit and ultimate strength, a safe stress line CD may be drawn parallel to
the line AB.

Soderberg Method STUDENT CORNER

 A straight line connecting the endurance limit (fe) and the yield strength (fy)
is a soderberg line. This line is used when the design is based on yield strength.
If a suitable factor of safety (F.S.) is applied to the endurance limit and yield
strength, a safe stress line CD may be drawn parallel to the line AB.

References:

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