Name: Section:_lnstructor:

SOCIETY & CULTURE WITH FAMILY PLANNING,

sTD, HrV & ArDS PREVENTTON {SOC. SCr. 4)

SOCIETY .AND SOCIAT CULruRE

Sociology
Sociology was derived from the terms logus which means science or study, and socius, which means "group or partners." Hence,
sociology is the scientific study of human social relations or group life, or in another way of stating it, a systematic study of human society.
lnteraction is the basic component of all relationships and groups that make up human society. Sociolog.ists examine the ways in which social
structures and institutions-such as class, family, community, and power-and social problems-such ab.onme and abus+*influence society.
Other disciplines within the social sciences are also concemed with topics that fall within the scope of socie\such as economics, political
science, anthropology, and psychoiogy.
Social interaction, or the responses of indviduals to each other, is perhaps the basic sociological concept. Some soctologists
concentrate on the details of particular interactions occuning in everyday life called microsoclology. Macrosociology, on the other hand is
concemed with the social structure and broader systerns such as the state and the economy.
Socioiogy as a branch of knowledge, has its own unique characteristics, it is different from other sciences in certain respects. An
analysis of its intemal logical charactenstics helps one to understand what kind of science it is. The following are the main charactenstics of
socioiogy.

Essential charac'teristics of sociology

1. Sociology is an independent science
Sociology has now emerged into an independent science. lt is not treated and studied as a branch of any other science like
philosophy or political philosophy or history. As an indepen&nt science, it has its own field of study, boundary and method.
2. Sociology is a social science and not a physical science
Sociology belongs to the family of social science and not to the family of physical science. As a social science, it concentrates its
attention on man, his social behavror, social activrtres and social life. As a member of the family of social sciences like history, political science,
economics, psychology, anthropology etc. The fact that sociology deals with the social universe distinguishes it from astronomy, physics,
chemistry, zoology, mathematics and other physical sciences.
3. Sociology is a categorical and not a normative discipline
Sociology "confines itself to statements about what is not what should be or ought to be". As science, sociology is necessarily silent
about questions of value. lt does not make any kind of value judgments. lts approach is neither moral nor immoral but amoral. lt is ethically
neutral. lt cannot decide the directions in which sociology ought to go. lt makes no recommendations on matters of social policy or legislation
or program. But it does not mean that sociological knowledge is useless and serves no purpose, it only means that sociology as a discipline
cannot deal with probtems of good and evit, right and wrong and morai or immoral.
4. Sociology is a pure science and not an applied science
A distincfion is often made between pure sciences and appiied sciences. The main aim of pure sciences is the acquisition of
knowledge and it is not bothered whether the acquired knowledge is useful or can be put io use. On the other hand, the aim of applied science
is to apply the acquired knowledge into life and to put it to use. Each pure science may have its own applied field. For example, physics is a
pure science and engineering is its applied field. Similarly, the pure sciences such as economics, political science, history etc. have their
applied fields like business, politics, and joumalism respectively. Sociology as a pure science has its applied flelds such as adninistration,
diplomacy, sociaf work, etc. Each pure science may have more than one appllcation.
Sociology is a pure science, because the immedate aim of sociology is the acquisition of knowledge about human society, not the
utilizatron of thai knowledge. Sociologists never determine questions of public policy and do not recommend legislators what laws should be
passed or repeated. But the knorleQe acquired by a sociologist is of great help to the adninistrator, the legislator, the diplomat, the teacher,
the foreman, the supervisor, the social worker and the citizen. But sociologists themselves do not ap$y the kno#edge of life and use as a
matter of their duty and profession.
5. Sociology is relatively an abstract science and not a concrete science
This does not mean that sociology is an art and not a science. lt only means that sociology is not interested in concrete
manifestations of human events. lt is more concemed with the form of human events and their pattems. For example, sociology rs not
concemed with particular wars and revolutions. They are, in general considered as social phenomena and as types o{ social conflici. Similarly,
sociology does not confine itself to the study of this society or that particular society or social organization, or maniage or religion, or group and
so on, ln this simple sense sociology is an abstract and not a concrete science.
5. Sociology is a generalizing and not a particularizing or individualizing science
Sociology tries to find out the general laws or pnnciples about human interactron and association, about the nature, form, content and
structure of human groups and societies. lt does not study each and every event that takes place in society. lt is not possibfe also. lt tnes to
make generalizations on the basis of the study of some selected events. For example, a sociologist makes generalizations about the nature of
secondary groups. He may conclude that secondary groups are comparatively bigger in size, less stable, not necessanly spatially, limited,
more specialized, and so on. This, he does not by examining all the secondary groups but by observing and studying a few.
7. Sociology is a general science and not a special science

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themsdves to be senerar sociar sciences
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knowledge. ln sociological inquiry, both are said, "theorieswithout facts are empty and facts
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exceprion. lt is crear from tne anove that sociology
i".n ina-#noent, a social, a categoricil, a pure, an abstract, a
and empirical social science.

lmportance of SociologY
1. Sociology studies role of the institutions
in the development of the individuals
work community
religion, the state and govemment ,industry and
-home and family ,the school and education, m" .-nui.n and 'the
suitable measures for
and suggests
and their role in the devoopment ol tnJindividual
and association- Sociology studies these institutions
witt a view to enable them to serve the individual better'
L-.tr"ngth.ning them
planning of society
slrlv oi socioiogy is inoispensable for understanding and
*.idodv ptannlng
no rear effective sociat would be possible' lt helps us to determine the
without the investrgation camed out ov is necessary before any social policies
most ef{icient means for reaching the goals ,gr"ud
up;n. A..l.tuin r*ornt of xnowreoge ibout society
can be camed out.
problems
iociology is of great importance in thesolution of social us to controi the
wirr urtrmatety piovide the body of knowledge and pnnciples thatwill enable
The scientrfic study of human affairs
condttions of social li{e and improve them'
Sociologyhasdrawnouraftentiontotheintrinsicrvorthanddignityofman o{ the motives by which others
we can hardly know the people of otner areas intimatelylln
orer to nave insight and appreciation
.
knowledge oi sociology is essential'
ltve and the conditions under which ihey exist,
Sociologyhaschangedouroutlookwithregardtotheproblemsofcrime The cnminals are now treated as
ouflook on various aspects of cnme has change'
It is through the study of sociology that ouiwhole as useful members of the society'
maol to rehabilitate them
human beings sufiering from mental defisencies ano ettorts are accordingly
culture
io"iology ias mde lreat contribution to enrich human questions conceming onesel{, one's religion' customs' morals
and
Socrology has given us training to have r,atlonar
approach io
both of himself and
taught us to be objectrve, crltcat and dispassionate. it enautes *"]n to hur" better understanding
institutrons. lt has turther would othemase be'
o{ others. By comparatrve study of societies uno
g*rp, ;ther than his existenle, nii life becomes ncher and fuller than it
hatred.
narow personal prejudices, ambitions and class
Sociology also impresses upon uS the necessity of overcoming
io"ioroiv is of great importance in the solution of international problems
the social field the worid
the nations oi tne worto nearer to each other. But in
The progress made by physical sciences has brought to stress and conflict Men have
potitically giving rise
progress of ine sciJnce. The world is divrded
has been left behind by the revolutionary
understanding the underlying causes and tensions'
failed to bring in p"r.*. i*6ogy."n n"ip u-s in

us update on modern situations

The value ol sociology lies in the fact that it keeps knovdedge of the society lt
.olutrons to tne community problems. lt adds to the
It contnbutes to making good citizens ,no'r,nJing promotng what Giddens calls
of
stuov o:f social pn*no*"nu ,nd of the ways and means
helps the individualnno nis reut[i to society. rne because it looks at the structure o{ society and
social adequacy is one of the most urgent needs ot1i,"
*oo"* sosety sooorogv is impo*ant aM this
can help to socialize individuals in society
us to understand how iristitutions
how its components and institutions fit togetner. lt'hJps in the past to those that we
cultures. socidogy allows us to compare societies
therefore provides a good insight into why w" r,"ue Jtrer"nt
from different penpectives'
have now and it can look at hJmanity and analyze it

Areas of SociologY
1' Social groups and individual People' social
3::il?:"#.tion refers to a pattem of rerationships betneen and among difierent
complex activites that other
modem Lociety, as it allows for t6e canyrng out of very
organization could be ,"io to tn" rundamental basis of
mlmbers of society either par'ticipate in or are affected by'
 3

ldentilying and classifyng dfferent groupings of people is a crucialj& for socidogists Typically, sociologists define a group as consisting of af
least fwo members who interact with each other, have a sense of identity or belon$ng, and share norms or expecfafions that those outside the
group do not.
While the larger society of a particular nation is itself an exampe of smial organization, that society is in tum made up of a collection of
organized groups of interacting individuals. lt is precisely how those groups interact and organize that sociologists study.
Typically, when sociologists discuss socialorganizations, they are refemng to:
- Social institutions, such as the family or school.
- Social groups, such as professional associations, or voluntary orgnizations like the Kiwanis Club or neighborhood associations.
- Social inequality, which groups people according to class, such as the midde-class, working class, underclass, upper class, etc.
- Religious groups, such as churches and affiliated chanties.
- Bureaucracies, includrng govemment agencies adninistrailve units.

2. Social Psychology
Social psychology emphasizes ihe relationship between individual people and the larger social structures and processes in which
:.ey participate. While the study of social organization and structure is the defining core of sociology, all social structure comes out ol
nleractions between individuals. So, to understand the significance, nature, and effects of social structure, we need to understand the people
wnose behavior constitutes that structure.
Ma.ior areas of stu{ include devrance, socialization, group dynamics, health, race and ethnicity, and gender. Sociologists in this field
have studied some really interesting subjects, such as obedience and disobedience during the Holocaust, the psychological consequences oi
work and family liie and the attitudes of minority groups to the cultural mainstream.
3. Social Change
Sociologists are interested in studying both "what is' and.what changes." ln this sense, social change refers to any alteration in how
a society is organized. Sociologists thus seek to explain the causes and effects of these social changes.
Some theones of social change emphasize evolutionary explanations. These theones hold that society deveiops from simple to increasingly
complex forms of organization. Social change, then, is linear and progressive.
Sociologists typically identify a few key iactors that influence social change:
The physical environment. Changes in the environment, such as climate change, may reguire different forms of social organization in
or&r for humans to survive. Very rapid changes in the physical environment can cause severe disruptions to social and cultural ltfe.
Population changes. Migrations and conquest bring new people into new places, which in tum can lead to forms of social change.
lsolation and contact. Societres that are cut ofi from the larger world may change very quickly once they come into contact wiih outside
cuitures and peoples.
Technology. Adyances in technology, such as the car or airplane, can dramatically change social organization as these new
technologies offer new ways for people to interact.
Major toplcs of study for this field include; ecological changes, population, mignation, technological change, new production
:echniques, culture change, political processes, social transformation, modemization, mass communication, and the impact of natural disaster.
Socral change and disorganization is the study of the change in culture and social relailons and the disruptton that may occur in
society and it deals with the study o{ such cunent problems in society such as juvenile delinquency, criminality, drug addiction, family conflicts,
irvorce, population problems, and other similar subjects.
4. Human ecology
This is the study of the nature and behavior ol a given population and its interaction with the sunounding environment. Specifically, it
iocuses on how social structures adapt to the qua(ity and quantity of natural resources and to the existence of other human groups
Studies of this kind have shown the prevalence of mental illness, criminality, delinquency, prostitution, and drug addicton in urban
centers and other modem, developed locales.
5. Population
Population or demography is the study of populatron number, composition, change, and quality as they influence the economic,
oolitrcal. and social system.
This area of study is concemed with the study of populatron number, composition, change, and quality and how these factors
rnfiuence the larger economic, social, and political systems.
This area also focuses on things such as fertility and mortality rates, the impact of migration on the dstribution of certain populations.
Examples of topics that sociologists in this field study include trends in populatron growth and how those trends are affected by fertility,
mortality and migraiion rates, how population is distnbuted over a particular area (for example, segregation), poverty and inequality.
6. Sociological Theory and Research
This field is concemed with the applicability of sociological princides and insights to study and regulate peoples'social envtronment.
it represents an effort to build and develop theories that can explain people's actions and behaviors.
7. Applled Sociology
This field is concemed with using sociological problerns to solve social problerns. For instance, some of the main social problems
where I live include squatters, prostrtution, tooJarge farnilies, nurse shortages, and pmr nutntion. An apptied socidogist would bring his or her
knowledge to bear on how to solve these problems.
 community
Applied sociology utilizes the findings of pure sociological research rn various fields such as criminology, social work,
relations, family counseling, and other aspects and problems of daily life
developmeni, education, industrial relations, maniage, ethnic

History of Sociology
Sociology as a scientific drscipline emerged in the early 19th century as an academic response to the challenge of modemity. The
manuscnpt (Faur6
term sociology waiiirst corned in 1780 by the Frenih essayist Emmanuel-Joseph Sieyds (1748-1836) in an unpublished
studied to be an engineer, but later became a
et al. 199g). In tAga, the term was reinvented by Auguste Comte (1798-1857), Comte originally
(1760-1825). They both thought that society could be studied
pupil of social philosopher Claude Henn de Rouvroy Comte de Saint-Simon
also believed in the potential of social scientists to work toward the
using the same scientific methods utilized in natural sciences" Comte
problems such as poor
betjrment of society. He held that once scholars identified the laws that governed society, sociologists could address
education and poverty (Abercrombie et al. 2000),
Comte named the scientific study of social pattems positivism. He described his philosophy in a series of books called
Ihe Course in
poslfive phitosophy (1g30-1842i and A Generat View of Posit|ism (1848). He felt that science could be used to study the social world. Just as
could also cfscover the laws goveming
there are testaUie faits regarding gravity and other natural laws, Comte thought that scienflfic analyses
positivism to sociology-a way to understand the socialworld based
our social lives. lt was in tnis context that Comte introduced the concept of
on scientific facts.
He believed that, with thrs new understanding, people could build a better future. He envisioned a
process of social change in which
sociologists played crucial roles in guidng society. For this reason, he is known as the 'Father of Sociology''
times of
Other events of that time-period also iniluenced the development of sociology. The nineteenth and twentieth centuries were
many social upheavals and changes in the sociat order that interested the early socio{ogists. The political revolutions sweqx'ng Europe dunng

the eighteenth and nineteenth centunes led to a focus on social change and the estabiishment of social order that still concems sociologists
today.
Many early smiologists were also concemed with the lndustrial Revolution and rise of capitalism and socialism. Addittonally, the
growth of cities and religious transformations were causing many changes in people's lives.
bther classical theonsts of sociology from the late nineteenth and mrly twentieth centuries include Karl Man, Emile Durkheim, Max
Weber, W.E.B. DuBois, and Harriet Martineau. As pioneers in sociology, most o{ the early sociological thinkers were trained in other
academic dlsciplines, includng history, philosophy, and economics. The diversity of their trainings is reflected in the topics they researched,
including religion, education, economics, inequali$, psychology, ethics, philosophy, and theology
These pioneers of sociology all had a vision o{ using sociology to call attention to social concems and bnng about social change. ln
Europe, for example, Karl Max teamed with wealthy industrialist Friedrich Engels to address class inequality. Writing during
the lndustrial
Revolution, when many factory otuners were lavishly wealthy and many factory workers despainngly poor, they attacked the rampant
inequalities of the day and focused on the role of caprtalist economic structures in perpetuating these inequalities. ln Germany, Max
Weber was active in politics while in France, Emite Durkheim advocated for educational reform. ln Britain, Hamet Marttneau advocated
for
the rights of girls and women, and in the US, W.E.B. DuBois focused on the problem of racism.
Society
group
This term has been derived from a Latin word "socius" that means association or companionship, thus, society means a larger
that exist among indivrduals of the groups. lt refers to people
of individuals who are associative with each other. li is a system of relationships
who interact in a defined tenitory and share culture. Macionis (1999) defined society as the organized interaction of people in a nation or within
some other boundary.
How have societies changed over the course of human societies? Why have they changed? Gerhard Lenski and Jean Lenski
believed that new technology can hive revolutionary consequences for social life. Karl Max set the idea that social conflict arises from how
people produce matenal goods. Max Weber revealed ihat ideas hare a powerful efiect on society. Weber contrasted the traditional thinking of
'hang
simple societies with rational thought that dominates our modern way of life. Finally, Emile Durkheim helped us see how societies
together.' He explained that societyhas an objective existence apart from indivrduals. Traditional societiesand modem societies are cohesive
foi quite different reasons. Traditional societies are fused by mechanical solidarity which is based on moral likeness and modem societies
depend on organic solidarity, which is based on the division of labor.
Components of Social structure
Social structure today has 4 main components: stafus, roles, groups, and lnsffutions. Each one these components play out a
different action in how we behave within the main framework that is being created. The statuses we have are basically positions that we
occupy in society and are associated with particular nghts and obligations (Elements). Each status comes with a set of expectations that
defrne our identity (Mooney).
These statuses can be either acftieyed or ascn0ed. Achieved statuses are ones that we usually have control over and are able to
direct where they go (Fenis 141). Examples of these types of achieved statuses can be seen every day in almost any environment. From
people that have blcome doctors, to people who are now parents, achjeved statuses are usually eamed by hard work and diligence. This is
not always the case in negative statuses such as convicts and felons.
The other type of status, ascnbe4 is one that you are usually bom into and can be very hard to change (Fenis 142). Examples of
this are person's race, cultural background, and sexuality.
ln society today, people have numerous statuses which are a combination of both ascribed and achieved, but there is always one
status that is consideredihe master status. lt is the status that mosi peopie view an individual by, and is considered the one that ovemdes all
 other statuses. This master status is usually in some way related to a person's occupation (Mooney). lf you are a full time stu&nt and a son,
then you would be considered as a 'studenf in society, and if you are a law enforcement agent as well as a father, you would most likely be
viewed as a'cop" rather than a father. These statuses that we occrpy everyday of our lives are accompanied by certain actions that we must
perform in order to keep those statuses.

/ Statuses come with a set of obligations and expectations defining certain status, and the behaviors and actions that one are called
social roles. These roles guide our behaviors and help us predict the behaviors of people around us. For example, as a stu&nt, I am
expected to listen and take notes in class, take tests, and study at home. These are the roles that are associated with having a status of a
student. All of these roles that are attached to a single status are consi&red toh a role set (Mooney). By being a student I can also predict
certain things from my teachers who must act their roles of teachers. Because I knor what the role of a teacher involves, I can predict that my
teacher wili lecture, give exams, and assign homework. These real life examples can be seen every day of our lives, and are the basis for the
way of how our society functions as a whole. When multiple roles mllide, role conflict occurs and presents a ctrlemma to the indvidual. For
instance, if a student has to go to work {or an emergency, he is faced with the decision of whether to study for the next day's exam orgo to
work and not risk hteing fired. These decisions that we make help build who we are and our identity in society. Certain roles can be hard to
accomplish, and may result in role strain. RoIe sfaln occurs in occasions where there are contradictory "expectations with the same role". For
example, when a parent is forced to eiher discipline a child or nurture him.
The same concept can be seen in work environments when bosses are laced to discipline co-workers even though they might be
close fnends. Sometimes, people are also forced to perform role exits when they no longer need to fulfill a certain status. A student that has
graduated from college has no longer the status of a student, but of a worker in society. Status changes result in role changes, and these roles
and statuses help shape our individual identities and who we are in our so,ciety today. Social structure has another basic block that combines
these individuals with thdr statuses into one united fonn.
Social groups are defined as "two or more people who have a common identity, interact, and form a social relafionship' (Mooney).
These groups are just as important to society, as the individual person is. Groups can be seen everywhere and all the time. From families to
soccer teams, groups are an inevitable part of our social structure. Primary groups are compnsed of the people who are rnost important to a
percon, and have ongoing'Tace-to-face" interactions whrch contnbute to a strong sense of belonging and attachment. An example of this type
of group is the family, in which people are blood related and function together in unity on a daily basis. Close fnends can also be considered a
part of this group, even though other people can be in it as well. On the other hand, secondary groups are larger, less intimate groups which
are usualfy formed around a spectfic activity or formed in order to accomplish a specific task. From a macro sociological prspectrve, ffrrough
these groups, individuals can form a new sense of identity and status, which in tum helps them become a more productive member of society.
This helps strengthen society as a whole by creating more social cohesion. When people feel part of a group, they feel a sense of belonging
and identity which helps the individual build a stronger personality and also a larger social network. This social network ties people drectly and
indirectly and forms stronger bonds between the individuals (Fenis 153).
Groups are also directly tred to the last structure block in our society.
lnstitutions are establishments in our social structure that govem our behaviors and actions through a system that has standardized pattems of
ru{es and regufations (Elements}. The main five instrtutions in our society are family, religion, pofifcs, economics, and educafion (Mooney]
Each one of those institutes provides a specific concept that is followed by the majority of the population, and results in an organized and
structured society. These social concepts and practices involve members of society by having them follow these regulations and rules in order
to maintain peace. For example tf a member of society chooses to go against the institution of law and commit a crime, hdshe puts himself at
risk of being detained and sentenced to do jail time. Unlike this example, most people do follow the rules and conducts of these insttutrons and
are rewarded for it. These significant factors in a society's identity are important for understanding the society and integration into the
society. An outsider normally has to become aware of these social institutjons to gain acceptance and credibility in the host society (Moor-ey)
That is why feaming how these insttutions function and the guidelirres that they provide are crucial to having a strong place in society.
The way we present ourselves to others almost always involves some kind of actrng andor presentatlons. Based on the teachtngs of
Erving Goffman, the dramaturgical approach to life has been greafly valued by sociologist and people today (Fenis 131). lt invdves a way of
perceiving things as if all people are in a way, "acting'. Everyone goes on through their day and acts upon the roles of which they have
attached a certain status to without realizing that they are constantiy sending out messages and trying to impress the people around them.
Goffman called this impression management (Fenis 31). lt is a way of Mewing the world and society as a movie setting, and the people that
are involved in this movie are;usi mere actors. Although unorthodox, this perspectrve makes a lot of sense when everyday situations are
presented, and the way people behave is anaiyzed. Most people do not act the same in a working environment as they do at home or when
they are with friend or family. This front that people put for differentoccasions varies from situailon to situation and from group to group. This
exact way of thinking explains why peope behave the way they do when they are actrng upon drfferent roles and statuses, To sum up, it is
notable that these social structures exist for the good of all people regardless the gender, color of the bo{, sex among other personal
attributes. lt is through these exact building blocks that the society develops well behaved and intelligent strzens, thereby giving hope for the
future. Each different culture varies its importance on certain aspect of society, but as a whole, all these structures can be seen in every
society around the world and are vital to the existence of mankind.
Socio-cultural evolution
Lenski saw human society as something of a process of change involving a societt's level of innovation, transmissions and
technological advances. He describes thls process of changing as socio-cultural eyolution.
To quote Gerhard Lenski regarding sociocultural evolutron, 'Societal survival has been largely a functron of a society's level of technological
advance relative to the societies with which it has been in competition.' This simpy means that a society who uses its technology to further its
cr rnrirral urill rln cn mror a cnniohr that mmainc ctnndinn etill
 Socioculturalevolutionisanumbrellatermfortheonesofculturalevolutionand,:T:1-:Y:1"*"?:trJ:i:i;}"il'}:ffiLl
socetes;:;:%:#A:1ff[i:#-:H'f:5;il:;il*"1':"::::::i:'-Xl*l;g::U,ffiTlfl:ly";'ffiT::',$,"#i'3;
ffi".#;u. **[iitv (deseneraron) or"the
that can produce variation or
:::fffi.H[;,|i[ffiiffi":1ffi;"ti'i#:1X1"::I'il:; ch structurar
process by which structural
ccic\ soniocrrlttrral evolution is
:&fi:'i'"ffi&':i::::t:y"i[]"*,',:'*"f:"#Hfl'#*:Xl,*ffm":Uh
;?ffi:*iffi';il"ilt:l,i:Hl*'i il::'lx:Xt'.lri]',.4.iil;.ffii:]ffiffi'. *ni.n q'Jitativerv d,rrerent rrom the ancestrar iorm"
:J:'[',H:[J''["$fllHi;fi1?]i "
Characteristics
Diflerent Types of Soeieties and Their Major
1' Forasins"societies
rand and domesticare rhe animars, rhev
had to live together, share work, use
Hli:tjnoflltitrH*stlff1f;]t" if rivers oned up or they run out of animals
Usually
fresh water carefuly and arso migrate gregariousry ;;;ytfiwent wrong, t.r
"-r*pr"
mairiarchy because men were always in danger dunng
and women were gatherers in ir,*" .o.i"tl., and this caused
men were hunters
hunting and generary nuntei m"*ue[ retumed
no*" -.uu" with rimited ,ffi;;
L;b"r in hunting and gathering societies was divided
of
was not any political organization compared to understanding
were so smatt and mobile. rnere
equally among the members because they tn" ;*''"ty and equality conducted it' They gathered plants
uoo1, incruo"a *v"rv p"oon *no riulln
today.s dipromacy uut tneir iecison mating
to make cloths
ug and small animals and using their hides in order
'nunGJ
uno
2' Pastoral Societies ' uls for transportation and permanent
---,^ ,:..^r:^ ^ ^nr+ain nrano rr
Approximately12,000yearsago,peoplelivedinacertainplaceandstartedtopastureantn horticulture and manufactunng are not
of societies still exist in so*aiia, Etniopia and ruo*n ntnca countrles where
food. Those types using animals' wool' milk' and
J,i*.ti..te,.animail-necause tney realized that
possible (samarar, 1gB9: 35),hunter-gathere, ,o","ti'oiJ had aroused
fedilrty was more uener;Jtn , rrrntir'g ana
wasfing'th*. conr*qu"ntrv, ,"i*[
trrJe nao startea,.but arso non-survival class
nomadic did not
&main and
such as the spirituar readers, hearers, traders,
*6;&i; iil.* rormation nio society together in a certain
ot-peopte came out {or the {irst time; the nomadic
;;.;;th; pasture arimitirle vlrsion of urban- uno uiro on"t*nce animals and
migrate so far, circurate Moreover, as they had to domesticate
o{ p"opr" *n" riue in *ral,and urban areas.
and settled people. rnese are the first forms rapidly' Trade improved easily
rntJJ *'r'rithey needed. ey tdm"ar- iecnnotogy
oeveloped
people need some toors and they in to hunter-
use them,
and differences between nomadic and setfled
p"oprl gr; up, .on."quuntri *.-c
"r
social inequality started to appear compared

gatherer societies.

3. Horticultural Societies these societies cultivated

first appeared 10,000 to 12,000 years ago but
similar to pastoral societies, horticultural societies instance, {orced the people to leave since' they
lands resources or ciwindling water supplies, for
vegetables, fruits and plrrt.. n"pr-ti"n o{ the trade as well Division of labor continued'
there was not a non-survivai class and not
were mobile and smalr like hunter-gatherer societies; from foraging societies' They could not develop
not develop and because oiinir, t ort.rltural societies oia not dtfier
social structures d[d plants dried up lt is
g,oooyears ago and tney couio noi r"to.ut rivers and iater sources' thar
because agricurturar *uL,iui, inu"nted about same trme in the other parts of
to shape societies, at the
easiry rearized that why deveropment of technorogf
i; rr *p"ttqT ano'no* iirttecls
technology was not enough'
the world, people could i;;;;i;; develop wnat tnlv neeouo nut tor agnculture,

4. Agricultural Societies
8,000's with the new inventions'
were the late agricultural inventions around the
what cause horticultural societies to extrnguish, land owners and also waniors
together.-popuradon gr.* up.*piJ; ;iilrd
came.up.and farmers,
food suppries increased and peopre setfled showed itself A ngid caste
arouseJ firsily r. ih;; .o.i.ti"., sociai inequality solidly
who protect farms in exchange fcr food against "n"*i"i C system developed the dfferentiation
sravery ind ownership started to be too different
.on."pir in I'ylt:-9:ste
system deveroped; after
to fifteenth centuries'
between the erite and agricurturar raborers inctuorn!
Jruo. t-rro" started to be so important, especially iiorn ninth
of people who live for them as well
the understanding of feudalism developed, .u"rv
*i,rriiand owners saw tnemsetves as kings and owners
did not have to try to survive
Euiope ana not only land o*n.", but alslo religious
leaders
concept of social classes spread througn me w"ri'in religious leaders' hands because of this'
that ihey had. A*, fitlrature-anJpiirorophv
because workers had to give them everything rulei in their lands and each lord led the
io existing monarchy, ownem set up iheir own
time of feudalism is known as the dark ages. oue rebellion, workers were sweated and
society with different rutes and all o{ them o"p.n&i
onih;i;g rni. rtiitii.rt*n preventeo slaves from

until the industialrevolution.

.Lrru, and inequalities in Europe continued
5. lndustrial Societies
to produce and distnbute goods
to use machines and advanced technologies
with usage of the steam power, human beings started ,nd to the iest of the world, industrial societies
in dritain and tnen spreal trorgh rrrop"
and services. lndustrial revolution process began daveryJlost its significance, economy developed
in farmin;"tech;iffi,
startedto develop. The growth of technologie.'i"J to u&un.., into two
but then societies divided
govemments' aids grew uplFeuoat social classes removed
quickly and understanding of social charity and class and they hold all money and also set
that non-workeo rr" .ornporing capitalist
parts as wcrkers ano non]wo*ers. Karr trrtan exptaineo like lords and religious leaders
thai non-workers are'the same with non-survivors
up rules. considering this explanation, it is,easitiuna""i."a and there is only worker class' Leaming from
brought onrv tne-slveny
in preindustriat socretres. iriur, tn" industrial r1*rution "*tln.tion they gave to the slaves' with changes in
social *"r,inty uno .iro g.;" more rights than
previous mistakes rulers gave more opportunites for their power on citizens'
;;h;; ;ilr";oom! cifizens"and then kingdoms and autocracy lost
sociar inequarities peopre started to want their more important and so' citizens
Democracy seemed more beneficial and necessa"f
*iin i"n.n ana Rmerican Revolutions, nationality became
 7

won their rights and classes existed as just economic differences Politically everyone seemed equal but, of course, inequalities between
money owners and sellers of their own labors to suMve, unstoppably increased. Vrllages lost their significance and towns became places
where occupation opporiunities were supplied.
/
/ 6. Postindustrial Societies
The countries that the industnal revolution began, -Britain, France, the USA and Japan- now became the posttndustrial countries.
These countries are usem of advance technologies like developed computers, satellites, microchips. ln short, those societies are affected by
the technologies at first hand. ln comparison with horticultural societies, it can be easily understood that how technology is important to shape
and characterize a soctety. "lf you want to build new sociology, read about technology. lf you want to build new technology, read about
sociology. There is not rural and urban areas difference as well as people who are economically at the top and middle. According to common
view, in those socreties, there is neither social inequality nor classification. People won their own freedom by working hard, if there are any
differences or discnmination, this is caused by capitalist and global world, not the govemments' mistakes. That is, rather than being dnven by
the {actory production of goods, society is being shaped by the human mind, aided by computer technology. Although factories will always
exist, the key to wealth and power seems to lie in the ability to generate, store, manipulate, and sell information. Sociologists speculate about
the charactenstics of posttndustnal society in the nearfuture. They predict increased levels o{ education and training, consumerism, availability
of goods, and social mobility. While they hope for a decline in inequality as technical skills and "know-hovy'' begins to determine class rather
than the ownership of property, sociologists are also concemed about potentral social divisions based on those who have appropnate
education and those who do not. Sociologists believe society will become more concemed with the weHare of all msnbers of society. They
hope postindustrial society will be less charactenzed by social conflict, as everyone works together to solve societt's problems through
science. (Andersen & Taylor, 2006: 1'18)
To conclude, in history, there have been very different societies in terms of their level of development, levels of inequality, political
organizations and cultural factors but only those six types explain easily which stages we passed. Moreover, in today's world almost all lypes
of societres exist but each of them approaches through postindustrial society even if they are noi. Technology is important tn shaping and
charactenzing society among the economy, socral inequalities and classes.

OUR CULTURE
Definition of Culture

Sociologrsts defined culture as a socialiy tr:ansmitted knorledge shared by some group of people. lt includes everything that peopie
have, think, and do as members of socrety. All cultures are made tp of materialobjects, ideas, values and attitudes and pattemed ways of
behaving. ln other words, it is the cumulalive deposit of knowledge, experience, beliefs, values, attrtudes, meanings, hterarchies, religion
notions of time, roles, spatial relations, concepts of the universe, and matenal objects and possessions acquired by a group of people from
generation to generation.
ln 1873, Ed,vard Tylor, sometimes called the 'Iather of anthropology" introduced the concept of culture as an explanation o{ the
differences among human societies. Tylor de{ined culture as "that complex whole which includes knowiedge, belief, art, law, morals, custom,
and any other capabilities acquired by man as a member of society." He defined anthropology as the study of culture.
Culture is the center of a society. Without culture, no society can even exist. lt is the main difference between human beings and
animals. lt inclu&s all the ways and behaviors in social life. Man is bom in an environment of culture in which he seeks his way cf behaving
and acting in a given society.
Characteristics of culture
1. Culture is learned
Culture is not inhented biologically but it is leamed socially by man in sociology. li is not an inbom tendency but acquired by man from the
association of others. Ex. drinking, eating, walking, etc.
2. Culture is social
It is not an individual phenomena but it is the product of society. lt develops in the society through social interaction. lt is shared by the
man of society. No man can acquire it without the association of others . Man is man only with men. lt helps to develop qualities of human
beings in a social environment. Deprivatron of a man from his company is the depnvation of human qualities.
3. Culture is shared
Culture is something shared by common people in a temtory. For example, customs, traditrons, values, kliefs. These are adopted
equally by all.
4. Culture is transmitted
Culture is being transmitted from one genera{on to the next. Parents pass cultural traits to their children and the children pass them
on to the next generation. lt is not transmitted through genes but thnough language.
5. Culture is continuous
It is like a stream that flows fnrm one oeneration to another throrrohorit centrrries Crrltrrre is the memorv of hriman race