Introduction To African Literature

UNIVERSITY OF MAIDUGURI
CENTRE FOR DISTANCE LEARNING
ENG 115: Introduction to Modern African Litreture

(2 Units)
Course Facilitator:
1
ENG 115: INTRODUCTION TO MODERN AFRICAN LITERATURE UNITS: 2
STUDY GUIDE
Course Code/ Title:

Credit Units:
Timing:
Total hours of Study per each course material should be twenty Six hours
(26hrs) at two hours per week within a given semester.
You should plan your time table for study on the basis of two hours per
course throughout the week. This will apply to all course materials you have.
This implies that each course material will be studied for two hours in a
week.
Similarly, each study session should be timed at one hour including all the
activities under it. Do not rush on your time, utilize them adequately. All
activities should be timed from five minutes (5minutes) to ten minutes
(10minutes). Observe the time you spent for each activity, whether you may
need to add or subtract more minutes for the activity. You should also take
note of your speed of completing an activity for the purpose of adjustment.
Meanwhile, you should observe the one hour allocated to a study session.
Find out whether this time is adequate or not. You may need to add or
subtract some minutes depending on your speed.
You may also need to allocate separate time for your self-assessment
questions out of the remaining minutes from the one hour or the one hour
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which was not used out of the two hours that can be utilized for your SAQ.
You must be careful in utilizing your time. Your success depends on good
utilization of the time given; because time is money, do not waste it.
Reading:
When you start reading the study session, you must not read it like a novel.
You should start by having a pen and paper for writing the main points in the
study session. You must also have dictionary for checking terms and
concepts that are not properly explained in the glossary.
Before writing the main points you must use pencil to underline those main
points in the text. Make the underlining neat and clear so that the book is not
spoiled for further usage.
Similarly, you should underline any term that you do not understand its
meaning and check for their meaning in the glossary. If those meanings in
the glossary are not enough for you, you can use your dictionary for further
explanations.
When you reach the box for activity, read the question(s) twice so that you
are sure of what the question ask you to do then you go back to the in-text to
locate the answers to the question. You must be brief in answering those
activities except when the question requires you to be detailed.
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In the same way you read the in-text question and in-text answer carefully,
making sure you understand them and locate them in the main text.
Furthermore before you attempt answering the (SAQ) be sure of what the
question wants you to do, then locate the answers in your in-text carefully
before you provide the answer.
Generally, the reading required you to be very careful, paying attention to
what you are reading, noting the major points and terms and concepts. But
when you are tired, worried and weak do not go into reading, wait until you
are relaxed and strong enough before you engage in reading activities.
Bold Terms:
These are terms that are very important towards
comprehending/understanding the in-text read by you. The terms are bolded
or made darker in the sentence for you to identify them. When you come
across such terms check for the meaning at the back of your book; under the
heading glossary. If the meaning is not clear to you, you can use your
dictionary to get more clarifications about the term/concept. Do not neglect
any of the bold term in your reading because they are essential tools for your
understanding of the in-text.
Practice Exercises
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a. Activity: Activity is provided in all the study sessions. Each activity
is to remind you of the immediate facts, points and major informations
you read in the in-text. In every study session there is one or more
activities provided for you to answer them. You must be very careful
in answering these activities because they provide you with major
facts of the text. You can have a separate note book for the activities
which can serve as summary of the texts. Do not forget to timed
yourself for each activity you answered.
b. In-text Questions and Answers: In-text questions and answers are
provided for you to remind you of major points or facts. To every
question, there is answer. So please note all the questions and their
answers, they will help you towards remembering the major points in
your reading.
c. Self Assessment Question: This part is one of the most essential
components of your study. It is meant to test your understanding of
what you studied so you must give adequate attention in answering
them. The remaining time from the two hours allocated for this study
session can be used in answering the self- assessment question.
Before you start writing answers to any questions under SAQ, you are
expected to write down the major points related to the particular
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question to be answered. Check those points you have written in the
in-text to ascertain that they are correct, after that you can start
explaining each point as your answer to the question.
When you have completed the explanation of each question, you can
now check at the back of your book, compare your answer to the
solutions provided by your course writer. Then try to grade your effort
sincerely and honestly to see your level of performance. This
procedure should be applied to all SAQ activities. Make sure you are
not in a hurry to finish but careful to do the right thing.
e-Tutors: The eTutors are dedicated online teachers that provide services to
students in all their programme of studies. They are expected to be twenty-
four hours online to receive and attend to students Academic and
Administrative questions which are vital to student’s processes of their
studies. For each programme, there will be two or more e-tutors for effective
attention to student’s enquiries.
Therefore, you are expected as a student to always contact your e-tutors
through their email addresses or phone numbers which are there in your
student hand book. Do not hesitate or waste time in contacting your e-tutors
when in doubt about your learning.
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You must learn how to operate email, because e-mailing will give you
opportunity for getting better explanation at no cost.
In addition to your e-tutors, you can also contact your course facilitators
through their phone numbers and e-mails which are also in your handbook
for use. Your course facilitators can also resolve your academic problems.
Please utilize them effectively for your studies.
Continuous assessment
The continuous assessment exercise is limited to 30% of the total marks. The
medium of conducting continuous assessment may be through online testing,
Tutor Marked test or assignment. You may be required to submit your test or
assignment through your email. The continuous assessment may be
conducted more than once. You must make sure you participate in all C.A
processes for without doing your C.A you may not pass your examination,
so take note and be up to date.
Examination
All examinations shall be conducted at the University of Maiduguri Centre
for Distance Learning. Therefore all students must come to the Centre for a
period of one week for their examinations. Your preparation for examination
may require you to look for course mates so that you form a group studies.
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The grouping or Networking studies will facilitate your better understanding
of what you studied.
Group studies can be formed in villages and township as long as you have
partners offering the same programme. Grouping and Social Networking are
better approaches to effective studies. Please find your group.
You must prepare very well before the examination week. You must engage
in comprehensive studies. Revising your previous studies, making brief
summaries of all materials you read or from your first summary on activities,
in-text questions and answers, as well as on self assessment questions that
you provided solutions at first stage of studies. When the examination week
commences you can also go through your brief summarizes each day for
various the courses to remind you of main points. When coming to
examination hall, there are certain materials that are prohibited for you to
carry ( i.e Bags, Cell phone, and any paper etc). You will be checked before
you are allowed to enter the hall. You must also be well behaved throughout
your examination period.
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STUDY SESSION 1: MODERN AFRICAN LITERATURE AND
HISTORICAL EXPERIENCES
1.1 INTRODUCTION
You are welcome to this unit. In it you will learn that African literature as a
discipline and as an object of serious critical comment has come into existence only in the
last forty years or so (Nkosi 1981). The main themes of Modern African Literature are
slavery, colonialism and neo-colonialism. We will elaborate on this in the rest of the unit.
1.2 LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of this topic you should be able to:
i. Define Modern African literature
ii. Identify the relationship between African literature and historical experiences.
1.3 IN-TEXT
1.3.1 MODERN AFRICAN LITERATURE AND HISTORICAL EXPERIENCES
Literature as an expression of a people's consciousness in social situations is as old as
man himself. From this perspective, African literature too can be said to be as old as the
African people themselves. In the African context, this consciousness expressed in
language formerly existed in oral form. Some of the oral texts now exist in written forms.
These written texts and those that still exist in unwritten forms constitute the oral literature
of the African people.
One of the distinctive characteristics of oral literature is that "it is a collective
experience of a people expressed collectively" (Ogude 1983:1). It is a kind of literature the
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composition of which is inspired by situations and to which no single person can claim
authorship.
In the literature created for reading, there is always an author. This can be a novelist or a
poet who "works with a particular literary tradition” and grapples with "the problems of his
society from personal understanding of such problems” (Ibid). Modern African literature,
which belongs to this written tradition of literature, is based on the European model of
literature. It is a kind of literature that is based on book culture and a basically literate
audience. Although there exist some works of African literature in the vernacular, "much of
Modern African Literature is produced in European languages...because the population of
Africans literate in any one of these languages in any African country is by far greater than
those of any one single language” (Ogude 1983:2).
There is a close connection between history of imaginative literature in Africa and
historical events. The history of Africa from the 18th century to date is history of slavery,
colonialism and neo-colonialism. It also follows that history of Modern African literature
is "the story against slavery, colonialism and neo-colonialism “Ogude 1983: 1). African
responses to slavery and colonialism can be divided into two groups: Early responses and
contemporary responses. Examples of early responses are the writings of ex-slaves in exile
such as Phillis Wheatley and Olaudah Equiano. The contemporary response can be found
in the works of Achebe, Ngugi and Armah. The next lesson shall focus on the nature of these
responses.
1.4 SUMMARY OF THE STUDY SESSION 1
The history of African literature goes back to oral tradition. But African Literature is related
to the history of slavery, colonialism and neo-colonialism. Therefore the themes of Modern African
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Literature are informed by the responses to the historical realities of slavery, colonialism and neo-
colonialism. These responses are categorized into modern and contemporary.
ITQ: what is the relationship between African literature and African history?
ITA: there is a close relationship between history of imaginative literature in Africa and historical
events. The history of Africa from 18th C to date, is history of slavery, colonialism and neo-
colonialism. According, the history of modern African literature the story of Africa`s struggle
against slavery, colonialism and neo-colonialism.
1.5 SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
1. List two characteristics of oral literature.
2 List two characteristics of modern African literature.
REFERENCE
Nkosi, Lewis (1981) Tasks and Masks: Themes and Styles of African Literature. Longman.
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STUDY SESSION 2: EARLY RESPONSES TO SLAVERY AND
COLONIALISM (1)
2.1 INTRODUCTION
The relationship between African literature and African historical experiences is
characterized by slavery and colonialism. The nature of responses to the experiences as
contained in black literary works can be grouped into “early” and “contemporary.”
i. Explain the early responses by writers of African origin to slavery and
colonialism.
ii. Describe two writers who are chosen to illustrate the points in this topic.
2.3 IN-TEXT
2.3.1 EARLY RESPONSES TO SLAVERY AND COLONIALISM (1)
Indeed, “the story of the development of black writing in modern European
languages is part of the history of black contact with the modern European world”
(Ogude 1983:3). In other words, earlier writers were of slave origin and their writings
were a response to the history of Slave Trade and the brutalities that went with it.
Although the style in which the blacks wrote was largely imitations of the forms of
literary genres of the eighteenth century, they evolved a unique tradition which has been
regarded as “protest literature.” It was a kind of literature that was related to anti-slavery
movement, which is comparable to the modern protest literature represented by anti-
colonialist and anti-apartheid writings.
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The early writings of slaves appeared in various forms. Some were represented by
“occasional verses”, some by “rhetorical addresses”, others by “pure propaganda”,
“pseudo-realistic voyage tales” and the chit-chat of the epistolary form” (Ogude
1983:20).
Those writers wrote to their white audience who viewed them with astonishment
and sometimes even contempt. Although they cannot be said to have influenced African
writers of the contemporary period, their writings have affinity to the contemporary
writing in their “presentation of themes that have definite African slant”, in their
expression of “a concern for African society, an African way of life”, “for African man”
(Ogude 1983:21). This shows that Modern African Literature is related to early writings
of the black people in exile in content and thought. Practical example can be seen in the
excerpts of works from Phillis Wheatley and Francis Williams, as follows.
2.3.1.1 PHILLIS WHEATLEY
She was the first creative talent that emerged among those of slave origin. She
lived most her life in Boston. She was brought to America in 1761 and bought in a slave
market by John Wheately and his wife. Mary, the daughter of the Wheatley family
became her teacher. She learnt Latin and English literature of that period. Phillis was
known and respected as a poet. Her poems were modeled after poets like Milton, with
religious undertones. Some of her poems however reveal spirit of rebelliousness. One of
such is entitled “To the Right Honourable William, Earl of Dartmouth.” As the following
lines show, the poem suggests attack on the British government of those days:
No more America, in mournful strain
Of wrongs, and grievance unredress’d complain,
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No longer shall thou dread the iron chain
Which wanton Tyranny with lawless hand
Had made, and with it meant t’enslave the land.
In the following stanza Phillis casts her mind back to Africa and reflects the pain
of separation and the cruelty of slavery.
Should you, my lord, while you peruse my song,
Wonder from where my love of Freedom sprung,
Whence flow these wishes for the common good,
By feeling hearts alone best understood
I, young in life, by seeming cruel fate
Was snatched from Afrc’s fancy’d happy seat:
What pangs excruciating must molest,
What sorrows labour in my parent’s breast?
Steel’d was that soul and by no misery mov’d
That from a father seiz’d his babe belov’d:
Such, such my case. And can I then but pray
Others may never feel tyrannic sway?
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2.3.1.2 FRANCIS WILLIAMS
He was well known in both England and the West Indies in the 1750s. He wrote a
long ode, upon which his reputation rests till today. The ode was dedicated to George
Haldane, a leading political figure in the British Imperial Authority. Williams’s poems
constantly refer to the issue of colour and contain emotionally charged words, which are
signs of tension, inferiority complex, the myth of racial superiority and protest. In the
lines below, quoted from the ode, although he confesses his blackness, he also makes
clear the black man’s claim to humanity.
Yet may you deign to accept this humble song
Tho’ wraps in gloom, and from a falt’ring tongue;
Tho’ dark the stream on which the tribute flows
Not from the skin, but from the heart it rose.
To all human kind, benignant heaven
(Science nought forbids) the one common soul has giv’n.
This rule was ‘stablished by th’ Eternal Mind;
Nor virtue self, nor prudence are confin’d
To colour; none imbrues the honest heart;
To science none belongs and none to art.
In this lesson you have learnt that the development of black writing in modern
European languages is part of the history of black contact with the modern European
world, and that the first responses to slavery and colonialism came from ex-slaves living
outside Africa. Furthermore, although the works of these early writers were fashioned
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after the forms of literary genres of the eighteenth century, they evolved a unique
tradition which has been regarded as “protest literature.” It was a kind of literature that
was related to anti-slavery movement, which is comparable to the modern protest
literature represented by anti-colonialist and anti-apartheid writings. The nature of these
responses has been illustrated with excerpts from poems of Phillis Wheatley and Francis
Williams. In the next unit, you will study the nature of the responses to slavery and
colonialism by contemporary African writers.
ITQ who are the early writers and what was the focus of their writings?
ITA the earlier writers were of slave origin and their writings were a response to the history of
slave trade and the brutalities that went with it. Notable among the writers are Phillis Wheatley and
Francis Williams.
2.5 SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
1. Explain the connection between slavery and the literary works by black writers in
Europe and America.
2. What is the main feature of the style of literary works by black writers in Europe
and America.
REFERENCE
Ogude, S.E. (1983) Genius in Bondage. A Study of the Origins of African Literature in
English. Ile-Ife. University of Ife Press.
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STUDY SESSION 3: EARLY RESPONSES TO SLAVERY AND
COLONIALISM (2)
3.1 INTRODUCTION
The early responses to Slavery and Slave Trade in the writings of the black are
reflected in the stories they wrote about their lives and the letters they had written in their
times. Good examples of these are contained in the wrings of Olaudah Equiano and
Ignatius Sancho
i. Discuss more about the early responses by writers of African origin to slavery and
colonialism.
ii. Describe the two more writers chosen for further illustration. They are Olaudah
Equiano and Ignatius Sancho
3.3.1 EARLY RESPONSES TO SLAVERY AND COLONIALISM (2)
3.3.1.1 OLAUDAH EQUIANO OR GUSTAVUS VASSA
Olaudah Equiano was kidnapped by slave raiders along with his younger sister
some time in 1755/56, when he was about ten years old. He was shipped to Britain in
1757 and died there around 1799. Before his death he had traveled widely, journeys that
took him to West Indies, America, Turkey, Portugal and the Mediterranean.
The Ex-slaves in those days felt the ambiguity of their positions as blacks in a
strange world and “expressed this feeling even in the ambiguity of their names” (Ogude
1987:120). Olaudah Equiano’s African name is Gustavus Vassa which he mostly
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displayed alongside Olaudah Equiano. He also added the phrase “The African” to his
name.
In 1789 Equiano’s publication, which has been described as “one long catalogue
of the black man’s misfortune (Ogude 1991:4)” entitled: The Interesting Narrative of the
Life of Olaudah Equiano, or Gustavus Vassa was published. The book appeared in the
heat of the anti-slavery campaign in Britain and it was found to be an interesting narrative
that attacked slavery and Slave Trade. In the popular nineteenth century literary form,
Equiano’s narrative can be categorized as a voyage literature.
Although many people in the eighteenth century considered the book as anti-
slavery propaganda, it also contains literary qualities. For example, an African critic
described it “as a historical fiction” (Ogude 1987:132). The same critic also observed that
Equiano’s “ romantic recollection of African society has its roots deep in the world of
fiction”(ibid). The publication has also fictional characteristics because one can identify
Equiano as narrator and commentator. As Ogude has observed “the narrator tends to be
fictional in his accounts while the commentator shows evidence of the historical man”
(1987: 133). Furthermore, Ogude observes that the story about “his early life in Africa is
an imaginative reorganization of a wide variety of tales about Africa from equally wide
range of sources” (1987: 133).
3.3.1.2 IGNATIUS SANCHO
He was born around 1729 on board a slave ship. He was presented to two sisters
at the age of two. He was baptized in South America, where he was given the name
Ignatius. The two sisters added Sancho to his name, because they thought they saw some
resemblance between him and Sancho Panza, the servant of Don Quixote. In those days it
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was not uncommon to give “names from classical literature and mythology to young
blacks” (Ogude 1987: 87).
Sancho became educated when he entered the service of Duke of Montague. By
1751 Sancho was middle class man in London. In the 18th century, letter writing was a
popular literary activity and Sancho’s literary qualities are in his letters, which he wrote
between 1768 and 1780. In some of the letters he showed, by his direct and indirect
references to classics, that he was conversant with the English literature of the period.
He became “the most distinguished black literary figure in the eighteenth century”
(Ogude 1987).
In this lesson you have learnt about the early responses by writers of African origin
to slavery and colonialism in the writings of Olaudah Equiano and Ignatius Sancho You
have also learnt that the responses were contained in their written narratives and letters.
ITQ how did the early black writers respond to the issue of slavery and slave trade?
ITA the early responses to slave trade in the writings of black are reflected in the stories they wrote
about their lives and the letters they had written in their times. Good examples of these are
contained in the writings of Olaudah Equino and Ignatius Sancho.
1. Explain the nature of Equiano’s story about his early life in Africa.
REFERENCE

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STUDY SESSION 4: RESPONSES TO COLONIALISM BY
CONTEMPORARY WRITERS (1)
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Generally a record of the history of African past and present has characterized the
response by contemporary writers to colonialism. This is done by celebration of the
glories of the African past, ancestor worship, respect for the dead and dramatization of
the consequences of colonialism on the individual and the society. Good examples of the
response can be seen in the writings of Chinua Achebe of Nigeria and Ngugi Wa
‘Thiong’o of Kenya. Chinua Achebe calls himself “ancestor worshipper” and some of his
novels pose the problem of “the man divided between past and present, between Africa
and Europe, who venerates the African past and attempts to reconcile the conflicting
forces in the present (Dathorne 1975: 67).
i. Appreciate the nature of response to colonialism with reference to some novels
of Chinua Achebe.
4.3.1 RESPONSES TO COLONIALISM BY CONTEMPORARY
WRITERS 1
4.3.1.1 CHINUA ACHEBE’S THINGS FALL APART (1958)
Chinua Achebe’s first novel that deals with the problem of culture conflict is
Things Fall Apart. In it, he takes the reader into typical Igbo society before the arrival of
the white man. The story centres on Okonkwo, a man determined to be a successful
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farmer. But his greatness depends on his physical strength, a virtue, which Dathorne
(1975: 67) has described as belonging to “a dying age.”
In the novel, Okonkwo succeeds in his ambition to gain prominence. But the
driving force behind his success is fear of failure. He does not want to be like his father,
who was lazy and owed a lot of debt in cowries to people. This fear also brings his
downfall, because it sometimes makes himself behave irrationally and callously. For
example, against traditional ethics, he beats one of his wives during the “Week of Peace.”
Furthermore, he at one time fires a gun at his second wife, who narrowly escapes death.
Over and above all, “because of fear of being thought weak, he kills a small boy who had
been entrusted to his care” (Dathorne 1975: ibid).
In the first few chapters of the novel the reader is introduced into a well organized
society in which decisions upon matters concerning it were the collective responsibility
of the people. In the other parts of the novel, the reader is shown a picture of the same
society declining. The group spirit which had kept the Igbo society has been undermined
by colonial intervention. Typical example of this decline in group spirit is the helpless
situation in which Okonkwo found himself when he opposed the white man’s rule. At
the end he commits suicide. The suicide has been described by critics as symbolizing “the
death of the traditional Ibo society” (Ogude 1991: 7).
Achebe however, also shows that the decline of the traditional culture must not be
attributed to the arrival of the white man alone. Even before the white man came, he
shows that there were elements of disintegration in the society.
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The novel is remarkable not only because of its documentation of Igbo social
background, but also for its incorporation of proverbs and folktales which, as Dathorne
has noted “help to give a flavor of authenticity to the writing” (1975: 68).
4.3.1.2 CHINUA ACHEBE’S NO LONGER AT EASE (1961)
In this novel Achebe portrays the conflict between traditional and African values.
The conflict is revealed in the life of the main character, Obi Okonkwo. Okonkwo
represents the emergent educated individual who found difficulty in observing “colonial
moral code of service and integrity” and “the traditional demands of group cohesion and
responsibility” (Ogude ibid). The failure of Okonkwo to obey the codes of conduct of
colonial service and integrity by taking bribes foreshadows the failure of the new political
group in sustaining democracy.
4.3.1.3 CHINUA ACHEBE’S A MAN OF THE PEOPLE (1966)
In this novel, Achebe pursues the theme of corruption and failure by creating
characters such as the politician, ‘Chief the Honourable M.A Nanga, M.P and Minister
for Culture’ and Odili Samalu, a teacher. Achebe shows that in a society where the likes
of Chief Nanga are rulers, the idealistic views and actions of Odili do not carry weight.
The novel ends with a change of government from civilian to military. Some critics
have described this as indicative of the fact that “the failure of democratic governments in
Africa may be due to its lack of indigenous roots” (Ogude ibid).
On the whole, this novel has been described as a “satire of the new democratic
institution in Africa”, just as Achebe’s more recent novel Anthills of the Savanna has
been described as “a satirical comment on the military regimes that have become a
feature of the African political experience” (Ogude ibid).
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In this lesson you have learnt the nature and extent of the response to colonialism by
contemporary writers with examples from some novels of Chinua Achebe. In the next
lesson, you shall get more examples on the same topic in the novels of Ngugi.
ITQ How do subsequent African writers respond to the problem of colonialism in their writing.
ITA contemporary African writers condemn colonialism for the disruption it brought to the
African social life. This is done by celebrating the glories of the African past, ancestor worship,
respect for the dead and dramatization of the ugly consequences of colonialism on the individual
and the society.
1. Explain how fear of failure has affected Okonkwo’s life.
2. What does Okonkwo’s suicide symbolize?
REFERENCE
Dathorn, O.R. (1975) African Literature in the Twentieth Centuary. London: Heinemann
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STUDY SESSION 5: RESPONSES BY CONTEMPORARY WRITERS TO
COLONIALISM (2)
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Ngugi Wa Thiango is a Kenyan novelist and playwright. His literary works represent
imaginative recollection of the history of the coming of Europeans to Kenya, the people’s
struggle for independence through the Mau Mau movement. They also reflect the
neocolonialism experienced after independence.
i. Understand the nature of response to colonialism with reference to some novels of
Ngugi wa Thiong’o.
5.3 IN-TEXT
5.3.1 RESPONSES BY CONTEMPORARY WRITERS OF AFRICAN ORIGIN TO
COLONIALISM (2)
5.3.1.1 NGUGI’S NOVELS
5.3.1.1.1 The River Between (1965)
This is Ngugi’s first attempt to document the cultural history of Kenya. Although
Ngugi wrote the novel in 1964, it was not published until 1965. The novel dramatizes the
conflict between two factions of a clan. The conflict is between African tradition and
Western values. The root of the rivalry is traced to promises made to the Gikuyu people
in their Creation Myth. Ngugi examines the influence of the European over the traditional
life of the people and explores ways of reconciling the factions.
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5.3.1.1.2 Weep Not Child (1964)
This novel, which appeared first, deals with a subject matter that belongs to the
period after the Second World War, when nationalist feelings were high in Kenya. The
nationalist sentiments led to the birth of the Mau Mau emergency.
The novel depicts the effect of the emergency on the three families: those of
Ngotho, Howlands (a white settler-farmer) and Jocob (a Kenyan landowner). It tells a
story of family separation, depravation, violence and disillusionment during the Kenyan
struggle for independence. The story is told by Njoroge, Ngotho’s youngest son. The
major themes of the novel are the appropriateness of a young Kenyan acquiring Western
education, the influence of Christianity in Kenya and the struggle for independence by
the people (Killam1980).
5.3.1.1.3 A Grain of Wheat (1967)
This is Ngugi’s most popular novel. It portrays, by the use of flash backs, lives of
different characters who have been influenced by the past. Furthermore, the novel shows
that even the present condition of the people can be interpreted as representative of the
past.
The major characters in the novel is Gikonyo and Mumbi, husband and wife. The
couple is symbolic of African tradition. They are viewed as mythical characters. Their
human counterparts are Karanja and Mugo who use the Mau Mau struggle for
independence as a means for power and prestige. In the end, Mugo and Karanja are found
to be betrayers. Ngugi also includes the post independence ministers as belonging to the
same group of betrayers.
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In spite of all these, the novel “suggests that traditional order can be restored by a
recognition of ancient values” and that the future of Kenya is not hopeless. This is
“symbolically represented by a stool carved by Gikonyo to Mumbi, with a figure of
pregnant woman on it” (Dathorne 1975: 130).
In this lesson you have learnt the nature and extent of the response to colonialism by
contemporary writers with examples from some novels of Ngugi.
ITQ what are the major themes of Ngugi`s novels?
ITA Ngugi`s literary works are imaginative recollection of the history of the coming of Europeans
to Kenya. They treat the themes of independence struggle by Kenyan, race and class discrimination
by the colonialists, and neo-colonial experience after independence.
1. What is the main cause of the conflict between the two clans in The River
Between?
2. Mention three major themes of Weep Not, Child.
REFERENCES
Dathorne, O.R (1975) African Literature in the Twentieth Century. London: Heinemann.
Killam, G.D (1980) Introduction to the Writings of Ngugi. London: Heinemann.
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STUDY SESSION 6: MODERN WEST AFRICAN NOVELS: THE FIRST
AND THE SECOND GENERATIONS
6.1 INTRODUCTION
The novel as a literary form is not indigenous to Africa. What existed in Africa were
poetry and drama, which performed certain functions within the oral tradition. The first
novels were therefore anthropological in nature. In other words, they were characterized
by descriptions of cultural scenes and events. There wasn’t much characterization, nor
were there many themes of protest. Even the few were stereotypes. Examples of first
generation novels are R.E Obeng’s Eighteenpence and Casely-Hayford’s Ethiopia
Unbound. To the second generation belong works like those of Chinua Achebe, T. M.
Aluko, Cyprian Ekwensi, Gabriel Okara and Amos Tutuola.
At end of this topic you should be able to:
i. Understand the subject matter of the first and the second generations of West
African novels.
ii. Appreciate the use of language by the authors of the novels.
iii. Illustrate the topic through: R.E Obeng’s Eighteen pence, Casely-Hayford’s
Ethiopia Unbound, Amos Tutuola’s The Palm-Wine Drinkard and T. M.
Aluko’s One Man, One Wife.
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6.3 IN-TEXT
6.3.1 MODERN WEST AFRICAN NOVELS: THE FIRST AND THE SECOND
GENERATIONS
6.3.1.1 FIRST GENERATION NOVELS
The beginning of the West African novel can be traced to Ghanaian writers.
Examples of their works are R.E Obeng’s Eighteenpence and C.Casely-Hayford’s
Ethiopia Unbound.
6.3.1.1.1 R.E OBENG’S EIGHTEENPENCE
The book was published in 1943. It contains a story about a man called Arofi.
Arofi buys a cutlass on credit from someone for eighteen pence and agrees to work on his
creditor’s farm for free. He soon gets into trouble because the man’s wife accuses him of
attempting to rape her. The book continues detailing procedures of court. Arofi is
portrayed as a symbol of virtue, against whom the novel also features another character
called Konaduwa who is a symbol of opposition to authority.
6.3.1.1.2 CASELY-HAYFORD’S ETHIOPIA UNBOUND
This novel was written in 1911. The writer takes the reader to several places
including the underworld. The main character is called Kwamankra. The novel is a
documentation of uncertainties surrounding the author and his generation. It has been
described as “a literary expression of a wide variety of ideas” such as Christianity,
traditional belief, education, love and death (Dathorne 1975:54).
6.3.1.2 SECOND GENERATION NOVELS
6.3.1.2.1 AMOS TUTUOLA’S THE PALM-WINE DRINKARD (1952)
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The Palm-Wine Drinkard was the first published novel in Nigeria. It is also the
first novel to incorporate African mythology into modern art form. Tutuola used
imagination to modernize African folklore into written literature.
The story is about a man addicted to palm wine drinking, whose palm wine tapper
has died. The man goes in search of the tapper in the world of the dead. The setting of the
novel is in the town and the bush.
The main character undergoes a number of adventures, including capturing “Death”,
overcoming “the Skull”, bringing back a woman held by “the Skull” and marrying the
woman. In the long run the man and his wife came to the “Death’s Town” where they
meet the tapper. However they are not able to go with him. Instead he gave them a magic
egg, which was later used to save the people of their town from famine.
The language of the novel is unique. This is because it is a mixture of what can be
called broken English (not pidgin) with Standard English. This made it easy for readers in
Europe to understand and appreciate the story. In Africa, however, this style was
vehemently attacked. The novel is also unique in the sense that the characters, as
Dathorne (1975) has observed, are fully involved in the events of the story and are not
on the brink of cultural dilemma, as seen in other novels of the same generation.
6.3.1.2.2 T. M. ALUKO’S ONE MAN, ONE WIFE (1959)
The novel is a collection of amusing episodes. The subject matter is struggle
between Christianity and traditional religion. The setting is in a village. The chief
characters in the novel are Reverends David and Royasin, through whom priests are
satirized. Royasin gets dismissed from the church because he is accused of being
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responsible for the pregnancy of the wife of a convert, Jocob. He changes his name to
Royanson and attempts to make himself a public letter writer.
The novel is full of humour and satirizes not only the priests but also the villagers
are depicted as fond of assembling “to drink palm-wine no matter what the occasion”
(Dathorne 1975:77).
R.E Obeng’s Eighteenpence and Casely-Hayford’s Ethiopia Unbound belong to the
first generation of novels in West Africa. R.E Obeng’s Eighteenpence was published in
1943. The book contains a story about a man called Arofi. Arofi buys a cutlass on credit
from someone for eighteen pence and agrees to work on his creditor’s farm for free. Arofi
is portrayed as a symbol of virtue, against whom the novel also features another character
called Konaduwa who is a symbol of opposition to authority.
Casely-Hayford’s Ethiopia Unbound takes the reader to several places including
the underworld. The main character is called Kwamankra. The novel is a documentation
of uncertainties surrounding the author and his generation.
Amos Tutuola’s The Palm-Wine Drinkard and T. M. Aluko’s One Man, One Wife
are examples of second generation novels. The Palm-Wine Drink is also the first novel to
incorporate African mythology into modern art form. Tutuola used imagination to
modernize African folklore into written literature.
The story is about a man addicted to palm wine drinking, whose palm wine tapper
has died. The man goes in search of the tapper in the world of the dead. The setting of the
novel is in the town and the bush.
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The language of the novel is unique. This is because it is a mixture of what can be
called broken English (not pidgin) with Standard English and the characters do not
exhibit cultural uncertainty, as seen in other novels of the same generation.
M. Aluko’s One Man, One Wife is a collection of amusing episodes. The subject
matter of the book is struggle between Christianity and traditional religion. The novel is
full of humour, satirizing the priests and the villagers.
ITQ how would you describe the early novel in Africa?
ITA the early novels written in Africa can be described as anthropological in nature. In other
words, they were characterized by description of cultural scenes and events. There wasn’t much
characterization, nor were there many political themes.
1. Explain the root of the conflict in R.E Obeng’s Eighteenpence.
2. Summarize the content of any other West African novel of the first
generation.
3. Explain the root of the conflict in Amos Tutuola’s The Palm-Wine
Drinkard.
REFERENCE
Dathorne, O.R (1975) African Literature in the Twentieth Century. London: Heinemann
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STUDY SESSION 7: THEMES AND STYLES OF SOUTH AND EAST
AFRICAN NOVELS
7.1 INTRODUCTION
As in the West African novels, the novels of South, East and even Central Africa
have similar themes. For example, the earlier novels present a record of the African past,
characterized by descriptions of landscapes and cultural activities. The novels of latter
generation are often concerned with social and political issues. In South Africa, for
example, the novelists concerned themselves with freedom from the former apartheid
regime.
At the end of this topic you should be able to
i. Understand the main themes and styles of the novels of South and East
Africa.
ii. Appreciate the main themes and styles of the novels of South and East
Africa.
7.3 IN-TEXT
7.3.1 THEMES AND STYLES OF SOUTH AND EAST AFRICAN NOVELS
7.3.1.1 LEGSON KAYIRA’S THE LOOMING SHADOW (1968)
Legson Kayira was born in a village in the former Nyasaland (now Malawi). In
addition to the The Looming Shadow he has also published another novel entitled Jingala
(1970). The Looming Shadow is about village life, which was described as “changing
while the shadow of the past lingers” (Zell and Silver 1972: 146). The novel, whose
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main theme is the conflict between the new and the old, also contains descriptions of
rural cultural activities. The landscape of the village is also fully described.
7.3.1.2 TABAN LO LIYONG’S EATING CHIEFS (1970)
This writer is Ugandan. The Eating Chiefs is part of a cultural research he
undertook in the University College Nairobi. In writing the book the writer used African
cultural heritage. The writer believes in the use of European language to describe
African experience. He is not therefore among the writers who show total rejection to the
use of foreign language.
7.3.1.3 PETER ABRAHAM’S MINE BOY (1946)
Peter Henri Abraham was born in Johannesburg to an Ethiopian father and a
‘Coloured’ mother. His novel Mine Boy is a story of a boy called Xuma. Xuma comes to
the city from a village and ends up a vagabond. He finds a job as a mine worker, where
he and others worked hard for little pay. At a point in time, he revolts, refusing to enter
the mine and persuading his colleagues to act the same way, and they did.
The novel depicts the suffering of the people, amidst moral and physical scholar.
Nevertheless, the writer shows that beneath the suffering and squalor there is “a warm,
thick, dark blanket of life” (Dathorne 1975: 146).
7.3.1.4 ALEX LAGUMA’S THE STONE COUNTRY (1967)
Alex Laguma’s father, Jimmy Laguma, was a politician. Alex also became a
politician with communist ideology. He was arrested several times and The Stone
Country describes prison experiences and the apartheid life of violence and
dehumanization. The prison is presented as a microcosm of the larger apartheid society.
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Part of the dehumanization is portrayed in the condition of the prison inmates, some
of whom were viewed as animals. For example, Butcherboy Williams, one of the
characters is variously addressed as Jackal, Hyena and Ape.
The main themes of the novels of South and East Africa were those of cultural
heritage and conflict between the new and the old societal values, or between traditional
African values and imported Western values. In South African novels, however, the
predominant theme is that of freedom from the former apartheid system of government.
ITQ what are the main themes of the novels of South and East Africa?
ITA The novels of South, East and even Central Africa have similar themes. Their early
novelists were concerned with the documentation of the African past, characterized by
descriptions of landscapes and cultural activities, while the novels of the later generation
are often concerned with social and political issues.
- Summarize in one sentence, the main themes of the South or East African novel studied
in this unit.
REFERENCES
Nkosi, Lewis (1981) Tasks and Masks: Themes and Styles of African Literature. London:
Longman.
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STUDY SESSION 8: MODERN AFRICAN POETRY: INTRODUCTION
8.1 INTRODUCTION
Modern African poetry refers to the poems by Africans composed in European
languages. The poems varied in their content, theme and style. The variation was dictated
by the social and historical circumstances of the artists and the societies in which they
lived.
By the end of this topic you should be able to:
i. Get some ideas about the development, themes and styles of modern
African poetry.
8.3 IN-TEXT
8.3.1 MODERN AFRICAN POETRY: INTRODUCTION
Unlike the tradition of novel writing, which was largely imported to Africa from
outside, the tradition of poetic composition has been existing in Africa since time
immemorial. In other words, many forms of poetry had existed and still exist in oral or
unwritten forms in Africa. Nevertheless, like the African novel, the development of
modern African poetry can be traced to Africans who lived in exile in Europe and ex-
slaves in the New World.
The content, themes and styles of modern African poetry varied. The first forms
of poetry, like the novels, were largely imitations of European tradition. Their subject
matter and tone varied from those who accepted European values and those who showed
some form of protest.
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The development of modern African poetry in Africa was encouraged by the
introduction of western education and the written script. The introduction of the printing
press was also a major factor. In other words, when some Africans acquired western
education and learnt the history of slavery and colonialism, they started to compose
poems about their experiences and those of their ancestors. The introduction of the
printing press also encouraged the practice of composing poems.
Most of the earlier poets became interested in expressing African identity and
dignity. Generally, they used imageries of unity and homecoming to express social and
political solidarity among Africans. In some cases, even European images were used to
express African experience. Examples of this kind of technique can be found in Wole
Soyinka’s poems.
Modern African poetry is simple in style. It avoids the use of difficult language
and metrical composition. It does not also focus much on international models. It largely
focuses on local, national and Pan-African models. Furthermore, the simplicity of style
and richness of content of modern African poetry make it similar to the indigenous poems
of oral tradition.
Modern African poetry, like the novel, originated outside. But tradition of poetic
composition has existed in Africa since time immemorial. The content, themes and styles
of modern African poetry varied. The first forms of poetry, like the novels, were largely
imitations of European tradition. Their subject matter and tone however varied from
those who accepted European values and those who showed some form of protest.
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Western education and the printing press encouraged the development of modern
African poetry. Most of the earlier poets expressed African identity and dignity. Later the
poets also used imageries of unity and homecoming to express social economic and
political issues.
In terms of style, modern African poetry is simple, rich in content and similar to the
indigenous poems of oral tradition.
ITQ Define the term “modern African Poetry”
ITA Modern African poetry refers to the poems by African artist written in European
languages, reflecting the cultural beliefs, social experiences and historical circumstances
of the African people.
1. Mention two factors that encouraged the development of Modern African poetry.
REFERENCE
Goodwin, Ken (1982) Understanding African Poetry. A Study of Ten Poets. London:
Heinemann.
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STUDY SESSION 9: THEMES AND STYLES OF MODERN
AFRICAN POETRY: THE PIONEERS
9.1 INTRODUCTION
Modern African poetry is a broad field covering poems written in English, French
and Portuguese. Different social, cultural and political pressures influenced the poetry.
The themes and styles reveal the diversity and unity of the African condition.
The study of Modern African Poetry can be divided into two: The Pioneers and
the Moderns. The themes and styles of poets of the two groups vary. Some imitated
European styles while others portray originality of style and relevance of theme to their
background and experience.
The prominent features of the pioneer poets are: imitation of European styles of
composition, lack of regard for their African background and glorification of Western
values.
By the end of this topic you should be able to:
i. Understand the major themes and styles of Modern African Poetry of the
first generation.
9.3.1 THEMES AND STYLES OF MODERN AFRICAN POETRY: THE PIONEERS
9.3.1.1 THE PIONEERS
The beginning can be traced to “African exiles in Europe and slaves and ex-
slaves in the New World” (Nkosi 1981: 108). Slavery initiated a new consciousness
among Africans. Slaves became educated and tried their hands in the arts of their masters.
Some of these were Juan Latino, Philis Wheateley, Olaudah Equianao, Ignatius Sancho
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and Ottalah Cuguanao. Some Africans also produced poems, notable examples are B.W.
Vilakazi and H.I.E. Dhlomo of South Africa and Dennis Chukude Osadebay of Nigeria.
9.3.1.1.1 JUAN LATINO
Juan Latino was brought with his mother to Spain in the 16th century at the age of
twelve. He studied poetry, music and medicine. Married to a daughter of Spanish noble
man, he wrote poems in standard Latin praising important personalities, including clergy
men and aristocrats. His praise poetry reveals a connection with African style of
panegyrics. But it can also be connected to the widespread practice in those days of
writing laudatory poems on powerful personalities. Although he seemed to have
integrated into the Spanish society, his poems portray his sense of identity as African.
In a poem addressed to the Pope, Latino portrays awareness of racial identity as follows:
For if the Blackness of our king offends your official ministers
Your whiteness does not delight the men of Ethiopia
There, whoever in his whiteness visits the East is scorned,
And there are black leaders; the king too is black
Queen Candace and her race of black ministers
Had sent her son in a chariot to Christ (Nkosi 1981: 109).
His works reveal unconditional acceptance of Christianity and Spanish patriotism.
For example, in one of his poems he said: “Famous Philip, you are my protector against
the Turks/ Reigning as a catholic, you have been accustomed to defend our countries, and
in a more holy way to cherish the Faith” (Nkosi 1981: 110).
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9.3.1.1.2 PHILIS WHEATELEY
She was brought to Boston from Senegal in 1761. She became well educated
through her master, John Wheately and excelled as one of the best known poets of
African origin. She wrote in Latin and admired the great European classical writers
Most of her poems were addressed to eminent people and contain little about her
African background. Her works often reveal her hostility to Africa and an anxious desire
to serve and flatter her masters. They also reveal her unquestioning acceptance of
Christianity. The following lines from one her poems testify to this observation:
It was mercy brought me from pagan land
Taught my benighted soul to understand
That there’s God and there’s Saviour;
Once I redemption neither sought nor knew (Nkosi 1981: 110).
With the coming of missionaries into Africa and the subsequent attainment of
some appreciable levels of education by some Africans, translations of European
narratives and religious texts began to appear. For example, in the 1820s the Scottish
Missionary had settled in some parts of South Africa. This laid the foundation for
literary activities in the area. These activities gave rise to protest literature, notable
among which were works of B.W. Vilakazi and H.I.E. Dhlomo. Vilakazi is chosen to
illustrate some points in this lecture.
9.3.1.1.3 B.W. VILAKAZI
One of B.W. Vilakazi’s poems entitled ‘Because’ focused on the theme of
exploitation of workers in cities. The poem represents the voice of a protesting
commoner. His style of composition varies. In most cases he observed the rules of
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English prosody, although he did not apply exact imagery and terminology of the West.
Part of Vilakazi’s ‘Because’ goes as follows:
Because when night approaches,
You see me loosening the chains
Of daily drudgery,
And, meeting people black like me,
Dance with new-born energy
While chanting tribal songs
That roused our stifled zest
And banish weariness:
You think me but an animal
Who, should it die, is soon replaced. (Nkosi 1981: 112).
The beginning of Modern African poetry can be traced to “African exiles in Europe
and slaves and ex-slaves in the New World” (Nkosi 1981: 108). Slavery initiated a new
consciousness among Africans. Slaves became educated and tried their hands in the arts
of their masters. With the coming of Christianity in Africa, some Africans acquired
education and started writing poems. Poems of people like Juan Latino, Philis Wheateley
and B.W. Vilakazi are good examples of the first generation of Modern African Poetry.
The poems of the ex-salves were largely imitations of the West. Some revealed their
African identity and contain some form of protest. Others revealed acceptance of
Christianity and glorified their white masters. Some of the poems from Africa also reveal
some elements of imitation. The poems also contain some protest against colonialism and
exploitation of the people.

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ITQ: what are the major weaknesses of the pioneer poets?
ITA: The pioneer poets lack originality in their style of composition, they lack regard for
African culture, and instead, glorify western culture and values.
1. List the main features of African poetry of the pioneers.
REFERENCE
Dathorne, O.R (1975) African Literature in the Twentieth Century. London: Heinemann.
Longman.
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STUDY SESSION 10: THEMES AND STYLES OF AFRICAN
POETRY: THE MODERNS
10.1 INTRODUCTION
African poets of the second generation were more aware of the poetic techniques of the
modern European literature. However, unlike the pioneers who were largely imitators of
techniques, dealing largely with social themes, the contemporary poet, as Dothorne has
observed, "is the hero and it is his tensions, his world, his solutions that are emphasized” (1975:
172-175). Furthermore, as Goodwin has noted, the poetry of this generation, which began to
flourish in the 1950s, was characterized by "application of individual sensibility to African
material and experimentation with, rather than imitation of style" (1982: 142). The poets belong
to two camps. In one group are poets from former British colonies. In the second are poets from
former French and Portuguese colonies. The earlier poets of the second group are often called
Negritude poets.
i. Understand the major themes and styles of contemporary African poetry,
with examples from poems of Gabriel Okara of Nigeria and Leopold Sedar
Senghor of Senegal.
10.3 IN-TEXT
10.3.1 THEMES AND STYLES OF AFRICAN POETRY: THE MODERNS
Contemporary poets are concerned with social, economic and political developments of
modern Africa. Poets from the French Speaking countries wrote in the tradition of
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Negritude, which was based on the assertion of black identity. On the other hand, poets from the
English Speaking countries advocated Pan-Africanism. Nevertheless, both groups displayed
the ability to invent myth, using popular beliefs. And as Dathorne has pointed out, they were
not content with the “mere deployment of Biblical injunctions but distort them into new
unlikely contexts" (1975: 173).
10.3.1.1 LEOPOLD SEDAR SENGHOR
Senghor was born in 1906 at Joal in Senegal. He was the President of Senegal for many
years. He was described as "the greatest of the African poets to write in a European
language" (Zell and Silver 1972:184). Senghor met in Paris poets of African origin like Aime
Cesaire and Leon Damus of the Negritude movement. Negritude was a movement that arose
among French West Indian colonials as a result of their desire to create their past imaginatively.
The pioneers of the movement were born and bred in alien lands and had experienced no
indigenous culture. The movement attempted to express "the sum total of the cultural values
of the Negro world" (Dathorne 1975: 218). The movement "expressed concern for the
predicament of their race and the legacy of a colonial bondage." The uniqueness of the movement
was that it was not concerned with individual tribal themes, but expresses "a conscious effort to
look back at wide array of traditional values" with a new "approach to semantics, rhythm
and subject-matter" (Dathorne 1975: 218-219).
Senghor’s poetry is dominated by ancestor image. By this his poems are similar to other
African poems. However, the style of some of his poems are also like European poetry. In his
poem entitled "Woman" he uses the word 'woman' to refer to both his country as much as to a
real woman. The imagery of "nakedness, blackness" is used in positive terms. Senghor’s images
describe the objects and evoke "emotions and spiritual realities about the object of praise"
(Nwoga 1983:223).
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10.3.1.2 GABRIEL OKARA
He was born in 1921. His poetic ideas were similar to those of negritude poets. He used
African ideas, philosophy, folklore and imagery. He translated these from his native
language almost literarily into English. This technique, as one critic has observed, coincides with
a definition of negritude as "an assertion of the good things in Negro culture" (Dathorne 1975: 173).
Some of his poems castigate the Europeans, while showing respect to the past and the
unspoilt nature of things native to Africa. It has been observed that at the centre of every poem he
wrote there "is a protagonist and the poem charts the history of his attitudes by subtly
juxtaposing dissimilar images that help to emphasize his quandary" (Dathorne 19975: 174).
Okara achieved fame with the publication of his poem "The Call of the River Nun."
With this poem, he won the best prize in 1953 at the Nigerian National Festival of Arts. The
poem, as pointed out by a critic "expresses Romantic sense of religious interaction between the
human soul and the soul of nature" (Goodwin 1982: 143). The first part of the poem which
begins with the line "I hear your call!" depicts "the poet in nature." The second part, which begins
with "My river's calling too!" applies "the experience to his sense of himself in relation to the
eternal" (ibid). The poem contains imagery of life as a river flowing to the sea. Although this
imagery is not new, the imagery of his canoe "found'ring" and "eventually upturned and
splitting to release the poet's soul" has been described as "both original and memorable" and
provides "an identification with the Delta country" " (ibid).
His poem "Piano and Drums" depict contrasting images of Africa and Europe. The
piano represents Western culture, while the drum represents African culture. The drum is a
symbol of simple life without worries and in sympathy with nature, with human warmth and
purpose. The sound of the drum rejuvenates and the poem contains symbolism of the
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primal youth of Africa before its invasion by Europeans. The sound of the piano is "ambiguous,
complex.. .menacing.” In this poem, as observed by Dathorne, Okara:
introduces technical terms at appropriate points to emphasize the
cerebral nature of western culture, and it is a measure of stylistic
exactitude that the harsh images associated with piano culture in the word
"counterpoint" which later on the poet associates with daggerpoint"
(1975:174).
As noted by Goodwin, in this poem, Okara appreciates both the speaking drums and the
wailing piano, though he writes more passionately and at greater length about the drums than about
the ....piano" (1982:145).
Contemporary poets are concerned with social, economic and political developments of
modern Africa. Poets from the French Speaking countries wrote in the tradition of
Negritude, which was based on the assertion of black identity. On the other hand, poets from
the English Speaking countries advocated Pan-Africanism. Nevertheless, both groups
displayed the ability to invent myth, using popular beliefs and as Dathorne has pointed out
they "were not content with the mere deployment of Biblical injunctions but distort them
into new unlikely contexts" (1975: 173).
Gabriel Okara's poems castigate the Europeans, while showing respect to the past and
the unspoilt nature of things native to Africa. It has been observed that at the center of every
poem he wrote there "is a protagonist and the poem charts the history of his attitudes by
subtly juxtaposing dissimilar images that help to emphasize his quandary" (Dathorne 19975:
174).
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Okara achieved fame with publication of his poem "The Call of the River Nun." With this
poem, he won the best prize in 1953 at the Nigerian National Festival of Arts. The poem, as pointed
out by a critic "expresses Romantic sense of religious interaction between the human soul and the
soul of nature" (Goodwin 1982: 143). The first part of the poem which begins with the line "I hear
your call!", depicts "the poet in nature." The second part, which begins with "My river's calling
too!" applies "the experience to his sense of himself in relation to the eternal" (ibid). The poem
contains imagery of life as a river flowing to the sea. Although this imagery is not new, the imagery
of his canoe "found'ring" and "eventually upturned and splitting to release the poet's soul" has been
described as "both original and memorable" and provides "an identification with the Delta country"
" (ibid).
Senghor’s poetry is dominated by ancestor image. By this his poems are similar to other
African poems. However, some of his poems are like European poetry. In his poem entitled
"Woman" he uses the word 'woman' to refer to both his country as much as to a real woman. The
imagery "nakedness, blackness" are used in positive terms. Senghor’s images describe the objects
and evoke "emotions and spiritual realities about the object of praise" (Nwoga 1983:223).
ITQ: who are the modern poets? Mention their themes and style.
ITA: modern poets belong to two camps: (i) poets from British colonies known as
Anglophones, and (ii) those from French and Portuguese colonies known as Francophone
and Lusophones respectively. The major themes of Anglophone poets are culture conflict
and politics, while the Francophone poets are concerned with Negritude and self identity.
They are original in their style and poetic technique.
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1. define the term Negritude.
2. Who are the Negritude poets?
REFERENCES
Zell, Hans and Helene Silver (eds.) A Reader's Guide to African Literature. London: Heinemann.
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STUDY SESSION 11: FEATURES OF TRADITIONAL AND MODERN
AFRICAN DRAMA
11.1 INTRODUCTION
To understand Modern African drama one should begin by identifying its main
features. And to understand its main features, one should also know the main features of
the traditional forms of African drama and its relationship to the modern forms.
By the end of this topic you should be able to
i. Know the main features of modern African drama and traditional African
drama.
ii. Determine the major influences at work between the traditional and
modern art forms.
11.3 IN-TEXT
11.3.1 FEATURES OF TRADITIONAL AND MODERN AFRICAN DRAMA
What is Modern African drama? Answering this question presents problems. It
raises other questions such as ‘Where does it begin?’ ‘At which historical point in time
does it begin?’ and “what are its perimeters?’ These questions arise because of the
academic tradition that requires scholars to discover the outlines of art forms such as
myth, legend, poetry etc and their rules of operation (Nkosi: 1981).
One way of defining this Western-oriented literary form is identifying its
relationship to the traditional dramatic forms. To do that, one can start by listing the main
features of the two art forms as follows:
Traditional African drama has the following features:
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1. It is a communal use of symbolic language to express fears, hopes and
wishes of organic society; it speaks for the community, expressing its
shared beliefs.
2. It functions within the framework of rituals, festivals, harvests, births,
initiation ceremonies etc.
3. It has no single author.
2. It is characterized by lack of prepared script.
4. The audience is fluid. In other words it can merge with the performers.
On the other hand, Modern African drama has the following features:
1. The script is the initial aspect of its creation.
2. It uses theatre buildings.
3. It has a network of relations between the author, producer and director.
4. The audience is viewed as the ‘Other.’ This means there is a division
between the audience and the performers, which is often linked to class
formations and group conflict.
Drama can then be projections, in ideological forms, of the social frustrations of
the new middle class to which the playwrights belong.
Having identified the differences between the forms of drama, another question that
arises is: is modern African drama an extension of the traditional forms? Or does it
represent a break with the traditional forms?
The answer is that the traditional drama, which are not absolute, exist side by side
with the new drama. The fact that the two exist side by side is not accidental. Rather, this
simultaneity of existence is a reflection of the conditions of the contemporary African
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society in its transitional stage of development. Furthermore, this coexistence of the art
forms makes the field of African drama richer.
However, this richness has its problem. It breeds confusion and bias manifested by
ideological factors. For instance, some scholars maintain antipathy for and hatred of
political drama, while some favour writings characterized by fetish priests and tribal
gods.
Traditional African drama has the following features:
shared beliefs.
4. It is characterized by lack of a prepared script.
5. The audience is fluid. In other words it can merge with the performers.
Modern African drama has the following features:
4. The audience is viewed as the ‘Other.’ This means there is a division
between the audience and the performers, which is often linked to class
formations and group conflict.
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Drama can then be projections, in ideological forms, of the social frustrations of the
new middle class to which the playwrights belong.
ITQ: What are the major features of modern African Drama?
ITA: Modern African drama, as opposed to traditional African drama, is in a written
form (scripted). It uses theatre building and has a network of relations between the
playwright, the producer and director. There is also a description between the audience
and the performance.
1. List three main features of traditional African drama.
2. List three main features of Modern African drama.
REFERENCE
Longman.
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STUDY SESSION 12: THEMES AND STYLES OF MODERN
AFRICAN DRAMA: A STUDY OF SOYINKA’S
DEATH AND THE KING’S HORSEMAN
12.1 INTRODUCTION
African drama, like the African novel and poetry has diverse themes and styles,
although some general uniformity in both can be noted. As in the novel and poetry, a
comprehensive study of African drama should cut across plays from different parts of
Africa. Since this course is a general introduction to Modern African Literature, only one
play is used as an example. The play is Wole Soyinka’s Death and the King’s Horseman.
By the end of this topic you will be able to:
i. Identify the major themes and styles of African drama, with example from
Wole Soyinka’s Death and the King’s Horseman.
12.3 IN-TEXT
12.3.1 THEMES AND STYLES OF MODERN AFRICAN DRAMA: A STUDY
OF SOYINKA’S DEATH AND THE KING’S HORSEMAN
Soyinka was born in Abeokuta in 1934. He was educated at Ibadan. In 1954 he went to the
University of Leeds, England. After graduating in 1957, he moved to London and was
affiliated with the Royal Court Theatre. His first plays were produced there. Soyinka
produces and acts in his own plays. He is also novelist and a poet.
His play, Death and the King's Horseman, is set in Oyo, which had been a center of Yoruba
civilization from 15th to 18th century. Oyo was a constitutional monarchy with the king
(alafin) elected from several candidates within the ruling dynasty. The hierarchical structure
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of Yoruba life allowed various occupations to be inherited within a social class or family -
thus the son of the king's horseman becomes the next king's horseman.
The conflict in the play is largely metaphysical, contained in the human vehicle
which is Elesin and the cosmos of the Yoruba mind - the world of the living, the dead, and
the unborn, and the passage which links all transition.
The play is divided into five structures as follows:
SCENE 1
The scene begins in the marketplace. It is firmly anchored in traditional Yoruba
culture, with no mention of whites at all. In this scene Soyinka has employed more
traditional forms of knowledge and symbolic expressions than in any of the other scenes.
The scene also shows the status of Elesin in the society. The scene through the story
of the Not-I bird, conveys the spirit with which Elesin contemplates his own death. The
story of the Not-I bird becomes Elesin's story later in the play. Like him, the various "Not-1
Birds make use of perfectly acceptable excuses to absent themselves from confrontation with
death.
SCENE 2
This scene establishes the British district officer's unconsciousness to Elesin's
position. The British sees the masks of the dead cult as simply fancy costumes for a ball.
Even the Moslem Amusa is horrified by the sacrilege, but Pilkings does not care. Pilkings is
even lacking in Western spiritual character, as can be noted in his calling the baptism
"nonsense." He treats the Yoruba tradition as unimportant, but both he and his wife are
anxious about the prospect of the British prince visiting their ball.
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SCENE 3
It is in the marketplace. In Yoruba cosmology, "The world is a market, heaven is
home." In other words, the marketplace here stands as a symbol for the world at large. In the
marketplace, Amusa behaves like a stranger who does not understand the sexual act of
Elesin Oba. His participation in the white man's government has made h i m so - as it saps the
will of Elesin himself. Amusa consistently speaks pidgin. The girls are more proficient in
Yoruba language, because they are at home with their culture and are more equipped for the
English world.
In this scene, we see the beginning of Elesin's transformation, following
consummation of the sexual act. Consider the significance of his union with the bride.
Despite this, talking of the marketplace (the world) reminds him of all the pleasures he has
had: "This is where I have known love and laughter --in the .market, nothing ever cloys" he
says.
SCENE 4
It is at the Residency. The Pilkings' costume has reduced a sacred ritual to the level
of party entertainment. A very important passage is the exchange between Jane Pilkings and
Olunde, which emphasizes the Pilkings' insensitivity to the sacrilege they have committed.
The episode of the English captain who destroyed himself to save others demonstrates that
the problem is different individual viewpoints on life and death, not a cultural distinction -
both English and Yoruba are capable of sacrificing themselves for others, and both are
capable of losing their nerve for the sacrifice. Jane Pilkings says, "Life should never be
thrown deliberately away," but Olunde disputes the point. From where does Olunde derive
his beliefs?
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SCENE 5
It is in Elesin's cell. Elesin begins by trying to blame Pilkings: "The night is not at
peace ghostly one. The world is not at peace. You have shattered the peace of the world
for ever." He describes the process that was happening; the moment is already past when
he should have died. Pilkings' response to his charge is lame: "You don't really believe
that." Next Elesin has a "metaphysical" confrontation with his bride, whom he blames for
sapping his will - she has contributed "a weight of longing on my earth-held limbs" that
made him susceptible to the white man's intervention.
Iyaloja castigates him for being an eater of leftovers - he could have had the best of
everything, if only he had remained true to his culture; but he betrayed them by accepting a
secondary position vis-a-vis the colonial governors. He submitted himself to colonial power
when he allowed himself to be taken - his will was polluted by the aliens, so that he
committed the "blasphemy of thought - that there might be the hand of the gods in a
stranger's intervention."
When he finally does die, it is too late, and the passage that he should have gone
through first has been blocked, so he remains an eater of leftovers. His being so completely
in the power of the foreigners that he cannot even perform the secondary task of sending a
message through his son, the courier, shows this also.
The Praise-Singer tells him, just before his death, "our world is tumbling in the void of
strangers!, Elesin' The damage is irreparable, because Olunde has no children, and Elesin
and Olunde carry the secrets of their hereditary task with them into death.
The play can be interpreted at several levels. First there is the theme of conflict
between political activity and religious one. There is also the theme of greedy leadership
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shown by Elesin. At the stylistic level, Soyinka uses Yoruba mythology and cultural
elements such as dances and songs in this and other plays of his. He also uses oral
narratives, proverbs and symbols. He does all these by using English, which is universal
and able to convey African experiences.
In this unit, you have been introduced to themes and styles of Modern African drama,
with examples from Wole Soyinka’s Death and the King's Horseman. The play is set in
Oyo, which had been a center of Yoruba civilization from 15th to 18th century.
The conflict in the play is largely metaphysical, contained in the human vehicle which is
Elesin and the cosmos of the Yoruba mind - the world of the living, the dead, and the
unborn, and the passage which links all transition.
The play is divided into five scenes. The first scene begins in the marketplace. It is firmly
anchored in traditional Yoruba culture, with no mention of whites at all.
Scene two establishes the British district officer's unconsciousness to Elesin's position. The
British sees the masks of the dead cult as simply fancy costumes for a ball.
Scene three is also in the marketplace. In Yoruba cosmology, "The world is a market,
heaven is home." In other words, the marketplace here stands as a symbol for the world at
large. In this scene, we see the beginning of Elesin's transformation, following
consummation of the sexual act.
Scene four is at the Residency. A very important passage is the exchange between Jane
Pilkings and Olunde, which emphasizes the Pilkings' insensitivity to the sacrilege they have
committed.
Scene five is in Elesin's cell. Elesin begins by trying to blame Pilkings: Iyaloja castigates
him for being an eater of leftovers - he could have had the best of everything, if only he had
Page 57 of 63
remained true to his culture; but he betrayed them by accepting a secondary position vis-a-
vis the colonial governors. He submitted himself to colonial power when he allowed
himself to be taken - his will was polluted by the aliens, so that he committed the
"blasphemy of thought - that there might be the hand of the gods in a stranger's
intervention."
The play can be interpreted at several levels. First there is the theme of conflict between
political activity and religious one. There is also the theme of greedy leadership shown by
Elesin. At the stylistic level, Soyinka uses Yoruba mythology and cultural elements such
as dances and songs in this and other plays of his. He also uses oral narratives, proverbs
and symbols. He does all these by using English, which is universal and able to able to
convey African experiences.
ITQ: How would you describe the conflict in Death and the King`s Horseman?
ITA: The conflict in the play is largely metaphysical, contained in the human vehicle
which is Elesin and the universe of the Yoruba mind- the world of the living, the dead,
and the unborn, and the passage which links all transition.
1. Mention two themes in the Death and the King’s Horseman.
2. Mention three stylistic features in the Death and the King’s Horseman.
REFERENCE
Longman.
Page 58 of 63
SOLUTIONS TO EXERCISES
TOPIC 1
1. Two characteristics of oral literature are (1) It is a collective experience of a
people expressed collectively. (2) It has no single author.
2. Two characteristics of modern African literature are (1) It is largely based on
written European literature. (2) It is mostly produced in European languages.
TOPIC 2
1. Black writing in modern European languages originated from slave trade
and the brutalities that went with it.
2. The main feature of the style of black writers was their imitation of
European form.
TOPIC 3
1. Equiano’s story about his early life in Africa is an imaginative
reorganization of a wide variety of tales about Africa from a wide range of
sources.
TOPIC 4
1. Fear of failure makes Okonkwo work hard and become prosperous
because he does not like to be like his father who was lazy and always in
debt. It also brings his downfall because it sometimes makes him behave
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irrationally and casually. For example, he beats his wife during the “Week
of Peace” and fires a gun at his wife who narrowly escapes death.
2. It symbolizes death of the traditional Igbo society.
TOPIC 5
1. The root of the rivalry exists in the promises made the Gikuyu people in
their Creation Myth.
2. The themes are: (1) Education of young Kenyans. (2) The influence of
Christianity in the Kenyan context. (3) Independence struggle.
TOPIC 6
1. The accusation labelled on Arofi by his creditor.
2. The death of the palm wine tapper.
TOPIC 7
1. Themes of cultural conflict, suffering and violence.
TOPIC 8
Factors that encouraged the development of Modern African Poetry were (1) Western
education (2) Introduction of printing press.
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TOPIC 9
The prominent features of the pioneer poets are: imitation of European styles of
composition, lack of regard for their African background and glorification of
Western values.
TOPIC 10
1. Negritude was a movement among black French Speaking Writers who asserted
black identity.
2. Pan-Africanism was a similar movement among English Speaking African
intellectuals who emphasized unity among Africans.
TOPIC 11
Three main features of traditional African drama are:
shared beliefs.
Three main features of Modern African drama are:
Page 61 of 63
TOPIC 12
Two themes are (1) Theme of conflict between political activity and religious one.
(2.) Theme of greedy leadership.
Three stylistic features are (1) Use of Yoruba mythology. (2) the use of dances
and songs. (3) Use of narratives, proverbs and symbols.
Page 62 of 63
TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
1. Explain the connection between historical events and imaginative writing in Africa.
2. Identify the nature of the responses by black writers to historical events.
3. Taking examples from Things Fall Apart, explain how Chinua Achebe has
succeeded in using the novel to educate his readers.
4. Compare and contrast the major themes of the poetry of Okara and Senghor.
5. With examples from any African tradition, explain the frameworks in which at least
three forms of African drama operate and comment on their functions within the
frameworks.
Page 63 of 63

Introduction To African Literature

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UNIVERSITY OF MAIDUGURI

CENTRE FOR DISTANCE LEARNING

ENG 115: Introduction to Modern African Litreture

Course Code/ Title:

(26hrs) at two hours per week within a given semester.

activities should be timed from five minutes (5minutes) to ten minutes

note of your speed of completing an activity for the purpose of adjustment.

subtract some minutes depending on your speed.

concepts that are not properly explained in the glossary.

spoiled for further usage.

activities except when the question requires you to be detailed.

before you provide the answer.

Generally, the reading required you to be very careful, paying attention to

These are terms that are very important towards

comprehending/understanding the in-text read by you. The terms are bolded

dictionary to get more clarifications about the term/concept. Do not neglect

understanding of the in-text.

a. Activity: Activity is provided in all the study sessions. Each activity

is to remind you of the immediate facts, points and major informations

in answering these activities because they provide you with major

which can serve as summary of the texts. Do not forget to timed

yourself for each activity you answered.

b. In-text Questions and Answers: In-text questions and answers are

provided for you to remind you of major points or facts. To every

c. Self Assessment Question: This part is one of the most essential

components of your study. It is meant to test your understanding of

what you studied so you must give adequate attention in answering

session can be used in answering the self- assessment question.

expected to write down the major points related to the particular

question to be answered. Check those points you have written in the

explaining each point as your answer to the question.

sincerely and honestly to see your level of performance. This

not in a hurry to finish but careful to do the right thing.

students in all their programme of studies. They are expected to be twenty-

four hours online to receive and attend to students Academic and

Administrative questions which are vital to student’s processes of their

attention to student’s enquiries.

Therefore, you are expected as a student to always contact your e-tutors

when in doubt about your learning.

opportunity for getting better explanation at no cost.

Please utilize them effectively for your studies.

medium of conducting continuous assessment may be through online testing,

assignment through your email. The continuous assessment may be

so take note and be up to date.

All examinations shall be conducted at the University of Maiduguri Centre

The grouping or Networking studies will facilitate your better understanding

of what you studied.

better approaches to effective studies. Please find your group.

in comprehensive studies. Revising your previous studies, making brief

in-text questions and answers, as well as on self assessment questions that

various the courses to remind you of main points. When coming to

your examination period.

STUDY SESSION 1: MODERN AFRICAN LITERATURE AND

1.2 LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of this topic you should be able to:

i. Define Modern African literature

1.3.1 MODERN AFRICAN LITERATURE AND HISTORICAL EXPERIENCES

Literature as an expression of a people's consciousness in social situations is as old as

African people themselves. In the African context, this consciousness expressed in

of the African people.

One of the distinctive characteristics of oral literature is that "it is a collective

experience of a people expressed collectively" (Ogude 1983:1). It is a kind of literature the