1.

What are the different types of electricity-generating facilities visited and how
do the plants operate?

The different types of electricity-generating facilities visited were geothermal power

plant, diesel power plant, nuclear power plant, and a wind farm.

The geothermal power plant visited was the Mak-ban power plant under the
management of Aboitiz Power. The MakBan Geothermal Power Plant (MGPP) is one of
the two facilities that AP Renewables Inc. acquired from PSALM last May 2009. It is the
only indigenous base load plant in Luzon that has better grid stability and availability.
The Tiwi-MakBan geothermal facilities have a combined generating capacity of 390 MW
of Cleanergy. Makiling-Banahaw geothermal reservation is the source of steam of the 10
units of the MGPP.

Makban Geothermal Power Plant, a geothermal power plant project in Luzon,

generates electricity. The company is based in Laguna, the Philippines. Makban
Geothermal Power Plant operates as a subsidiary of National Power Corporation.
According to a very technical article from the National Geothermal Association of the
Philippines, Mak-Ban harnesses the geothermal energy located in the Bulalo Field,
which is associated with Mt. Bulalo and Mt. Olilia, two smaller peaks located on the
southeast flank of Mt. Makiling.

Mak-Ban all in all has 6 plants: Plants A and B with two 63-MW units each, Plant
C with two 55-MW units, Plants D and E with two 20-MW units each, and a binary plant
with five 3-MW and one 0.73-MW units. Aboitiz is in charge of the power generation,
while the supplied steam generation is under Chevron Geothermal Philippines Holdings,
Inc. Basically, Chevron is in charge of the drilling and the steam while Aboitiz uses that
steam for the turbines that power the electricity generators.

The Mak-ban power plant is a binary cycle power plant in general. The binary cycle
power plant has one major advantage over flash steam and dry steam power plants: The
water-temperature can be as low as 57°C (135°F).

By using a working fluid (binary fluid) with a much lower boiling temperature than
water, thermal energy in the reservoir water flashes the working fluid into steam, which
then is used to generate electricity with the turbine. The water coming from the
geothermal reservoirs through the production wells is never in direct contact with the
working fluid. After the some of its thermal energy is transferred to the working fluid with
a heat exchanger, the water is sent back to the reservoir through the injection wells
where it regains its thermal energy.

These power plants have a thermal efficiency rate of only 10-13%. However,
geothermal binary cycle power plants enable us, through lowering temperature
requirements, to harness geothermal energy from reservoirs that with a dry- or a flash
steam power plant wouldn’t be possible.

These plants use the heat from the hot water to boil a working fluid, usually an
organic compound with a low boiling point. The working fluid is vaporized in a heat
exchanger and used to turn a turbine. The water is then injected back into the ground to
be reheated. The water and the working fluid are kept separated during the whole
process, so there are little or no air emissions.

The diesel power plant visited was the One Subic Power Generation Corporation.
One Subic Power Generation Corporation operates a 116-megawatt diesel power plant
in Subic Bay Freeport Zone. The company is based in Subic, the Philippines. As of May
12, 2014, One Subic Power Generation Corporation operates as a subsidiary of Trans-
Asia Power Generation Corporation. A diesel power generator uses the combination of a
diesel engine and an electric generator for the generation of electricity. Diesel
generators are generally used in cases of emergency when the power supply from the
grid is unavailable and where continuous power supply is important, such as hospitals,
airports, large industries, movie theatres etc. They can also be used at places where the
power grid is not available. A diesel generator set may be enclosed in a sound
attenuated enclosure along with the control circuits and circuit breakers. They are also
referred as a diesel genset (short form for generator set). They are compact in size and,
hence, can be located wherever required. Diesel generators are available in a wide
range of ratings and sizes, from few kVA up to few thousands kVA. Portable diesel
generators may come with ratings between 8 to 30 kVA (single phase) and can be used
in homes, small offices etc. Larger generators up to about 2500 kVA (three phase) are
also available which may be required in industries, airports etc.

A diesel generator set employs a Compression-Ignition (CI) diesel engine as the

prime mover of an electric generator. Obviously, the primary fuel for a diesel generator is
diesel. The shaft of the engine is coupled to the shaft of an electric generator
(alternator). The diesel engine drives the coupled generator which then generates
electrical power. When a conductor moves in a magnetic field, an emf is induced within
the conductor. This principle is used to generate electricity in any electric generator.

In a diesel power station, diesel engine is used as the prime mover. The diesel burns
inside the engine and the products of this combustion act as the working fluid to produce
mechanical energy. The diesel engine drives alternator which converts mechanical
energy into electrical energy. As the generation cost is considerable due to high price of
diesel, therefore, such power stations are only used to produce small power.

The nuclear power plant visited was the Bataan Nuclear Power Plant. Bataan
Nuclear Power Plant is a nuclear power plant, completed but never fueled, on Bataan
Peninsula, 100 kilometres (62 mi) west of Manila in the Philippines. It is located on a
3.57 square kilometre government reservation at Napot Point in Morong, Bataan. It was
the Philippines' only attempt at building a nuclear power plant. BNPP operates with a
Pressurized water reactor. A pressurized water reactor works in a way described as
follows. Nuclear fission produces heat inside the reactor. That heat is transferred to
water circulating around the uranium fuel in the first of three separate water systems.

The water is heated to extremely high temperatures, but doesn’t boil because the
water is under pressure. The water within the primary system passes over the reactor
core to act as a moderator and coolant but does not flow to the turbine. It is contained
in a pressurized piping loop. The hot, pressurized water passes through a series of
tubes inside the steam generator.

These tubes are surrounded by another water system called the secondary or steam
generating system. The heat, but not the water, from the primary coolant is transferred
to the secondary, system which then, turns into steam.

The primary and secondary systems are closed systems. This means the water
flowing through the reactor remains separate and does not mix with water from the other
systems.

The steam is pumped from the containment building into the turbine building to push
the giant blades of the turbine. The turbine is connected to an electrical generator.
 After turning the turbines, the steam is cooled by passing it over tubes carrying a
third water system called the condenser coolant. As the steam is cooled, it condenses
back into water and is returned to the steam generator to be used again and again.

Lastly, the wind farm visited was the Pililla Rizal Wind Energy Service. A wind farm is
a group of wind turbines in the same location used to produce electricity. A large wind
farm may consist of several hundred individual wind turbines and cover an extended
area of hundreds of square miles, but the land between the turbines may be used for
agricultural or other purposes.

Alternergy Wind One Corporation engaged GHD (formerly known as Gutteridge

Haskins & Davey) as Owner’s Engineer for the construction of its 54 MW wind farm in
Pililla, Rizal, Philippines. GHD provided a project management team to oversee the
construction of access roads, shallow and piled foundation, transmission line, and
switchyard as well as the installation of 27 two-megawatt turbine units.

So how do wind turbines make electricity? Simply stated, a wind turbine works the
opposite of a fan. Instead of using electricity to make wind, like a fan, wind turbines use
wind to make electricity. The wind turns the blades, which spin a shaft, which connects
to a generator and makes electricity.

Wind is a form of solar energy and is a result of the uneven heating of the
atmosphere by the sun, the irregularities of the earth's surface, and the rotation of the
earth. Wind flow patterns and speeds vary greatly across the United States and are
modified by bodies of water, vegetation, and differences in terrain. Humans use this wind
flow, or motion energy, for many purposes: sailing, flying a kite, and even generating
electricity.

The terms wind energy or wind power describe the process by which the wind is
used to generate mechanical power or electricity. Wind turbines convert the kinetic
energy in the wind into mechanical power. This mechanical power can be used for
specific tasks (such as grinding grain or pumping water) or a generator can convert this
mechanical power into electricity.
2. Which power plant is more efficient and less expensive to operate than any
other plants?

Nuclear Plants

Although there are some important technical (and social) differences, nuclear
power stations are thermal plants that make electricity in much the same way as fossil-
fuel plants. The difference is that they generate steam by using the heat of atomic fission
rather than by burning coal, oil, or gas. The steam then turns a generator as in other
thermal plants.

Nuclear plants don't use large amounts of fuel and do not refuel often, unlike a
coal plant which must have train-loads of fuel shipped in regularly. The fact that green-
house gasses and air-borne particulates are minimal during normal operation makes
nuclear power attractive to many who are concerned about air-quality. Waste water is
hotter than that from a fossil plant, and large cooling towers are designed to address this
problem.

However, the drive to field nuclear power in the US faltered in the face of public
concerns over safety, environmental, and economic issues. As more safety mechanisms
were specified, construction costs and system complexities grew. Also, plants have
shown some unexpected quirks, such as boiler tubes wearing out prematurely. Nuclear
engineers contend that early problems with nuclear plants are subject to technical fixes,
and are working on new "inherently safe" plant designs. Opponents argue that simply
using uranium and plutonium as fuel creates too many problems and risks, not worth any
benefits the technology might have.

So far, one problem which has not been solved is that of disposing of spent fuel
cores and contaminated accessories which may remain dangerous for thousands of
years. Permanent burial in geologically stable locations is the plan being pursued at this
time, though this is still very controversial.

High-profile accidents at Three Mile Island in 1979 and Chernobyl in 1986 were,
for the nuclear industry, public-relation disasters. Continuing economic problems have
made nuclear plants much less attractive investments. Even though it produced 22% of
America's electricity in 1996, nuclear power's future in this country is uncertain and hotly
debated.
Wind Power

Wind-farms do not need reservoirs and create no air pollution. Small wind-mills
can provide power to individual homes. Air carries much less energy than water,
however, so much more of it is needed to spin rotors. One needs either a few very large
wind-mills or many small ones to operate a commercial wind-farm. In either case,
construction costs can be high.

Like run-of-river hydro-plants, there are a limited number of suitable locations

where the wind blows predictably. Even in such sites, turbines often have to be designed
with special gearing so that the rotor will turn at a constant speed in spite of variable
wind speeds. Some find less technical problems with installations that can turn a scenic
ridge or pass into an ugly steel forest, or that can take a toll on birds.

Geothermal Plants

Pressure, radioactive decay, and underlying molten rock make the deep places in
the Earth's crust hot indeed. A vivid example of the heat available underground is seen
when geysers erupt, sending steam and hot water high in the air. Natural sources of
steam and hot water have attracted the attention of power engineers since early in this
century.

By tapping this naturally-created thermal energy, geothermal plants provide

electricity with low levels of pollution. There are several different varieties of plants, and
the product from a geothermal site is used for heating as well as electricity production.
Finding suitable sites can be difficult, although as technical innovations occur, more sites
are made practical. Tapping geothermal sources can also have the effect of "turning off"
natural geysers, and this possibility must be taken into account during the planning stage

Yet after knowing all these facts, it is believed that a nuclear power plant is the more
efficient and less expensive to operate than any other plants.

The main benefits of nuclear power are that is it more efficient than burning fossil
fuels as the amount of energy released from uranium per gram is much more than that
of fuels such as oil or coal; approximately 8,000 times more efficient in fact. Despite
there being far less uranium reserves in the world compared to fossil fuel reserves, the
potential amount of energy generated is still greater and there are no greenhouse gases
released into the atmosphere. The minimal greenhouse gas emissions is probably the
most appealing benefit of nuclear power as global warming is a very well-known and
discussed issue nowadays. Although nuclear power isn’t renewable, it still will provide a
lot of energy for decades to come and it will have no harmful effect on our fragile
atmosphere.

As hydrogen symphasis is difficult and solar and wind power do not generate
sufficient energy along with other renewable processes; nuclear power is the right way
forward today. Hydrogen is thought to be a very promising renewable fuel by many
scientists and the public, it being the most abundant element in the universe; however
insufficient research and testing has been done. Also it is not economical as hydrogen is
expensive to retrieve as electrolysis of sea water requires a lot of electricity to split the
water into oxygen anions and hydrogen cations.

Nuclear power produces very inexpensive electricity. The cost of the uranium, which
is utilized as a fuel in this process, is low. Also, even though the expense of setting up
nuclear power plants is moderately high, the expense of running them is quite low low.
The normal life of nuclear reactor is anywhere from 40-60 years, depending on how
often it is used and how it is being used. These variables, when consolidated, make the
expense of delivering power low. Even if the cost of uranium goes up, the impact on the
cost of power will be that much lower.

It is estimated that with the current rate of consumption of uranium, we have enough
uranium for another 70-80 years. A nuclear power plant when in the mode of producing
energy can run uninterrupted for even a year. As solar and wind energy are dependent
upon weather conditions, nuclear power plant has no such constraints and can run
without disruption in any climatic condition.

There are sure monetary focal points in setting up nuclear power plants and utilizing
nuclear energy in lieu of traditional energy. It is one of the significant sources of power
all through the country. The best part is that this energy has a persistent supply. It is
broadly accessible, there is a lot in storage, and it is believed that the supply is going to
last much, much longer than that of fossil fuels that are used in the same capacity.

The other primary point of interest of utilizing nuclear energy is that it is more
compelling and more proficient than other energy sources. A number of nuclear energy
innovations have made it a much more feasible choice than others. They have high
energy density as compared to fossil fuels. The amount of fuel required by nuclear
power plant is comparatively less than what is required by other power plants as energy
released by nuclear fission is approximately ten million times greater than the amount of
energy released by fossil fuel atom.

This is one the reason that numerous nations are putting a lot of time and money into
nuclear power. What’s nuclear power’s greatest benefit, above any other benefit that we
may explore? It doesn’t rely on fossil fuels and isn’t influenced by fluctuating oil and gas
costs. Coal and natural gas power plants discharge carbon dioxide into the air, which
causes a number of environmental issues. With nuclear power plants, carbon emissions
are insignificant.

In conclusion, nuclear power, despite its numerous negative factors, is the most
prominent renewable electricity generation method with today’s current technological
era. There are other methods of electric generation which seem to be more plausible
and are currently being researched and tested thoroughly. However nuclear power will
suit our electrical needs better as sufficient research has been completed and the most
efficient nuclear generators have been formulated to ensure maximum amounts of
uranium used in the process and electrical generation. If nuclear power is properly
developed and many more nuclear power stations are built, then countries will rely on it
and fossil fuels will be less regularly used. Fossil fuels however will still be crucial for
transport as nuclear power cannot power vehicles however a lot of money and
greenhouse gas emissions will be saved in the long run.
3. What are the limitations of the power plants visited (in terms of generating
electricity)?

The MakBan Geothermal Power Plant (MGPP) is one of the two facilities that AP
Renewables Inc. acquired from PSALM last May 2009. It is the only indigenous base
load plant in Luzon that has better grid stability and availability. The Tiwi-MakBan
geothermal facilities have a combined generating capacity of 390 MW of Cleanergy.
Makiling-Banahaw geothermal reservation is the source of steam of the 10 units of the
MGPP.

Mak-Ban all in all has 6 plants: Plants A and B with two 63-MW units each, Plant C
with two 55-MW units, Plants D and E with two 20-MW units each, and a binary plant
with five 3-MW and one 0.73-MW units. Aboitiz is in charge of the power generation,
while the supplied steam generation is under Chevron Geothermal Philippines Holdings,
Inc. Basically, Chevron is in charge of the drilling and the steam while Aboitiz uses that
steam for the turbines that power the electricity generators.

One Subic Power Generation Corporation operates a 116-megawatt diesel power

plant in Subic Bay Freeport Zone. The company is based in Subic, the Philippines. As of
May 12, 2014, One Subic Power Generation Corporation operates as a subsidiary of
Trans-Asia Power Generation Corporation. A diesel power generator uses the
combination of a diesel engine and an electric generator for the generation of electricity.
Diesel generators are generally used in cases of emergency when the power supply
from the grid is unavailable and where continuous power supply is important, such as
hospitals, airports, large industries, movie theatres etc. They can also be used at places
where the power grid is not available.

Gifted with pristine white beaches and luscious green forests, the Bataan Nuclear
Power Plant (BNPP) sits at the tip of a 389 hectare protected land at Napot Point,
Morong, Bataan.It is the only erected commercial nuclear power station within the
ASEAN countries.

If the plant had operated, its 623 MW electrical capacity could have provided at least
10% of the present power requirements for the Luzon grid. It could have started the
nuclear regime in the country which can bring the Philippine economy at greater heights,
like Korea or Taiwan, perhaps.
 Pililla Rizal Wind Energy Service is a wind farm - a group of wind turbines in the
same location used to produce electricity. A large wind farm may consist of several
hundred individual wind turbines and cover an extended area of hundreds of square
miles, but the land between the turbines may be used for agricultural or other purposes.

Alternergy Wind One Corporation engaged GHD (formerly known as Gutteridge

Haskins & Davey) as Owner’s Engineer for the construction of its 54 MW wind farm in
Pililla, Rizal, Philippines. GHD provided a project management team to oversee the
construction of access roads, shallow and piled foundation, transmission line, and
switchyard as well as the installation of 27 two-megawatt turbine units. This sums to a
total of 34 megawatt of energy that can be produced.
4. What are the basic parts of a Hydroelectric Plant?

1) Dam

The dam is the most important component of hydroelectric power plant. The dam
is built on a large river that has abundant quantity of water throughout the year. It should
be built at a location where the height of the river is sufficient to get the maximum
possible potential energy from water.

2) Water Reservoir

The water reservoir is the place behind the dam where water is stored. The water
in the reservoir is located higher than the rest of the dam structure. The height of water
in the reservoir decides how much potential energy the water possesses. The higher the
height of water, the more its potential energy. The high position of water in the reservoir
also enables it to move downwards effortlessly.

The height of water in the reservoir is higher than the natural height of water
flowing in the river, so it is considered to have an altered equilibrium. This also helps to
increase the overall potential energy of water, which helps ultimately produce more
electricity in the power generation unit.

3) Intake or Control Gates

These are the gates built on the inside of the dam. The water from reservoir is
released and controlled through these gates. These are called inlet gates because water
enters the power generation unit through these gates. When the control gates are
opened the water flows due to gravity through the penstock and towards the turbines.
The water flowing through the gates possesses potential as well as kinetic energy.

4) The Penstock

The penstock is the long pipe or the shaft that carries the water flowing from the
reservoir towards the power generation unit, comprised of the turbines and generator.
The water in the penstock possesses kinetic energy due to its motion and potential
energy due to its height. The total amount of power generated in the hydroelectric power
plant depends on the height of the water reservoir and the amount of water flowing
through the penstock. The amount of water flowing through the penstock is controlled by
the control gates.
5) Water Turbines

Water flowing from the penstock is allowed to enter the power generation unit,
which houses the turbine and the generator. When water falls on the blades of the
turbine the kinetic and potential energy of water is converted into the rotational motion of
the blades of the turbine. The rotating blades causes the shaft of the turbine to also
rotate. The turbine shaft is enclosed inside the generator. In most hydroelectric power
plants there is more than one power generation unit.

There is large difference in height between the level of turbine and level of water
in the reservoir. This difference in height, also known as the head of water, decides the
total amount of power that can be generated in the hydroelectric power plant.

There are various types of water turbines such as Kaplan turbine, Francis
turbine, Pelton wheels etc. The type of turbine used in the hydroelectric power plant
depends on the height of the reservoir, quantity of water and the total power generation
capacity.

6) Generators

It is in the generator where the electricity is produced. The shaft of the water turbine
rotates in the generator, which produces alternating current in the coils of the generator.
It is the rotation of the shaft inside the generator that produces magnetic field which is
converted into electricity by electromagnetic field induction. Hence the rotation of the
shaft of the turbine is crucial for the production of electricity and this is achieved by the
kinetic and potential energy of water. Thus in hydroelectricity power plants potential
energy of water is converted into electricity.
5. How does hydro power work?

Hydropower plants capture the energy of falling water to generate electricity. A

turbine converts the kinetic energy of falling water into mechanical energy. Then a
generator converts the mechanical energy from the turbine into electrical energy.

Hydroplants range in size from "micro-hydros" that power only a few homes to giant
dams like Hoover Dam that provide electricity for millions of people.

How Much Electricity Can a Hydroelectric Plant Make?

The amount of electricity a hydropower plant produces depends on two factors:

How Far the Water Falls. The farther the water falls, the more power it has. Generally,
the distance that the water falls depends on the size of the dam. The higher the dam, the
farther the water falls and the more power it has. Scientists would say that the power of
falling water is "directly proportional" to the distance it falls. In other words, water falling
twice as far has twice as much energy.

Amount of Water Falling. More water falling through the turbine will produce more
power. The amount of water available depends on the amount of water flowing down the
river. Bigger rivers have more flowing water and can produce more energy. Power is
also "directly proportional" to river flow. A river with twice the amount of flowing water as
another river can produce twice as much energy.

Can I Figure Out How Much Energy a Dam in My Area Can Make?

Let's say that there is a small dam in your area that is not used to produce
electricity. Maybe the dam is used to provide water to irrigate farmlands or maybe it was
built to make a lake for recreation. As we explained above, you need to know two things:

How far the water falls. From talking to the person who operates the dam, we learn that
the dam is 10 feet high, so the water falls 10 feet.

Amount of water flowing in the river. We contact the United States Geological Survey,
the agency in the U.S. that measures river flow, and learn that the average amount of
water flowing in our river is 500 cubic feet per second.

Now all we need to do is a little mathematics. Engineers have found that we can
calculate the power of a dam using the following formula:
Power = (Height of Dam) x (River Flow) x (Efficiency) / 11.8

Power The electric power in kilowatts (one kilowatt equals 1,000 watts).

Height of Dam The distance the water falls measured in feet.

The amount of water flowing in the river measured in cubic feet per
River Flow
second.

How well the turbine and generator convert the power of falling water
into electric power. For older, poorly maintained hydroplants this might
Efficiency
be 60% (0.60) while for newer, well operated plants this might be as
high as 90% (0.90).

11.8 Converts units of feet and seconds into kilowatts.

Hydropower is using water to power machinery or make electricity. Water

constantly moves through a vast global cycle, evaporating from lakes and oceans,
forming clouds, precipitating as rain or snow, then flowing back down to the ocean. The
energy of this water cycle, which is driven by the sun, can be tapped to produce
electricity or for mechanical tasks like grinding grain. Hydropower uses a fuel—water—
that is not reduced or used up in the process. Because the water cycle is an endless,
constantly recharging system, hydropower is considered a renewable energy.

When flowing water is captured and turned into electricity, it is called

hydroelectric power or hydropower. There are several types of hydroelectric facilities;
they are all powered by the kinetic energy of flowing water as it moves downstream.
Turbines and generators convert the energy into electricity, which is then fed into the
electrical grid to be used in homes, businesses, and by industry.

So just how do we get electricity from water? Actually, hydroelectric and coal-
fired power plants produce electricity in a similar way. In both cases a power source is
used to turn a propeller-like piece called a turbine, which then turns a metal shaft in an
electric generator, which is the motor that produces electricity. A coal-fired power plant
uses steam to turn the turbine blades; whereas a hydroelectric plant uses falling water to
turn the turbine. The results are the same.
 The theory is to build a dam on a large river that has a large drop in elevation (there
are not many hydroelectric plants in Kansas or Florida). The dam stores lots of water
behind it in the reservoir. Near the bottom of the dam wall there is the water intake.
Gravity causes it to fall through the penstock inside the dam. At the end of the penstock
there is a turbine propeller, which is turned by the moving water. The shaft from the
turbine goes up into the generator, which produces the power. Power lines are
connected to the generator that carry electricity to your home and mine. The water
continues past the propeller through the tailrace into the river past the dam.

As to how this generator works, the Corps of Engineers explains it this way:
"A hydraulic turbine converts the energy of flowing water into mechanical energy. A
hydroelectric generator converts this mechanical energy into electricity. The operation of
a generator is based on the principles discovered by Faraday. He found that when a
magnet is moved past a conductor, it causes electricity to flow. In a large generator,
electromagnets are made by circulating direct current through loops of wire wound
around stacks of magnetic steel laminations. These are called field poles, and are
mounted on the perimeter of the rotor. The rotor is attached to the turbine shaft, and
rotates at a fixed speed. When the rotor turns, it causes the field poles (the
electromagnets) to move past the conductors mounted in the stator. This, in turn, causes
electricity to flow and a voltage to develop at the generator output terminals."

Demand for electricity is not "flat" and constant. Demand goes up and down
during the day, and overnight there is less need for electricity in homes, businesses, and
other facilities. For example, here in Atlanta, Georgia at 5:00 PM on a hot August
weekend day, you can bet there is a huge demand for electricity to run millions of air
conditioners! But, 12 hours later at 5:00 AM .... not so much. Hydroelectric plants are
more efficient at providing for peak power demands during short periods than are fossil-
fuel and nuclear power plants, and one way of doing that is by using "pumped storage",
which reuses the same water more than once.

Pumped storage is a method of keeping water in reserve for peak period power
demands by pumping water that has already flowed through the turbines back up a
storage pool above the powerplant at a time when customer demand for energy is low,
such as during the middle of the night. The water is then allowed to flow back through
the turbine-generators at times when demand is high and a heavy load is placed on the
system.
 The reservoir acts much like a battery, storing power in the form of water when
demands are low and producing maximum power during daily and seasonal peak
periods. An advantage of pumped storage is that hydroelectric generating units are able
to start up quickly and make rapid adjustments in output. They operate efficiently when
used for one hour or several hours. Because pumped storage reservoirs are relatively
small, construction costs are generally low compared with conventional hydropower
facilities.
6. What is a geothermal power plant? What are the advantages and
disadvantages of using geothermal energy to generate electricity?

Geothermal power is power generated by geothermal energy. Technologies in use

include dry steam power stations, flash steam power stations and binary cycle power
stations. Geothermal electricity generation is currently used in 24 countries, while
geothermal heating is in use in 70 countries.

Geothermal power is considered to be a sustainable, renewable source of energy

because the heat extraction is small compared with the Earth's heat content. The
greenhouse gas emissions of geothermal electric stations are on average 45 grams of
carbon dioxide per kilowatt-hour of electricity, or less than 5 percent of that of
conventional coal-fired plants.

Geothermal power plants use steam produced from reservoirs of hot water found
a few miles or more below the Earth's surface to produce electricity. The steam rotates a
turbine that activates a generator, which produces electricity. There are three types of
geothermal power plants: dry steam, flash steam, and binary cycle.

Dry Steam

Dry steam power plants draw from underground resources of steam. The steam
is piped directly from underground wells to the power plant where it is directed into a
turbine/generator unit. There are only two known underground resources of steam in the
United States: The Geysers in northern California and Yellowstone National Park in
Wyoming, where there's a well-known geyser called Old Faithful. Since Yellowstone is
protected from development, the only dry steam plants in the country are at The
Geysers.

Flash Steam

Flash steam power plants are the most common and use geothermal reservoirs
of water with temperatures greater than 360F (182C). This very hot water flows up
through wells in the ground under its own pressure. As it flows upward, the pressure
decreases and some of the hot water boils into steam. The steam is then separated from
the water and used to power a turbine/generator. Any leftover water and condensed
steam are injected back into the reservoir, making this a sustainable resource.
Binary Steam

Binary cycle power plants operate on water at lower temperatures of about 225-
360F (107-182C). Binary cycle plants use the heat from the hot water to boil a working
fluid, usually an organic compound with a low boiling point. The working fluid is
vaporized in a heat exchanger and used to turn a turbine. The water is then injected
back into the ground to be reheated. The water and the working fluid are kept separated
during the whole process, so there are little or no air emissions.

Currently, two types of geothermal resources can be used in binary cycle power
plants to generate electricity: enhanced geothermal systems (EGS) and low-temperature
or co-produced resources.

Enhanced Geothermal Systems

EGS provide geothermal power by tapping into the Earth's deep geothermal
resources that are otherwise not economical due to lack of water, location, or rock type.
The U.S. Geological Survey estimates that potentially 500,000 megawatts of EGS
resource is available in the western U.S. or about half of the current installed electric
power generating capacity in the United States.

Low-Temperature and Co-Produced Resources

Low-temperature and co-produced geothermal resources are typically found at

temperatures of 300F (150C) or less. Some low-temperature resources can be
harnessed to generate electricity using binary cycle technology. Co-produced hot water
is a byproduct of oil and gas wells in the United States. This hot water is being examined
for its potential to produce electricity, helping to lower greenhouse gas emissions and
extend the life of oil and gas fields.

To produce geothermal-generated electricity, wells, sometimes a mile (1.6

kilometers) deep or more, are drilled into underground reservoirs to tap steam and very
hot water that drive turbines linked to electricity generators. The first geothermally
generated electricity was produced in Larderello, Italy, in 1904.

There are three types of geothermal power plants: dry steam, flash, and binary.
Dry steam, the oldest geothermal technology, takes steam out of fractures in the ground
and uses it to directly drive a turbine. Flash plants pull deep, high-pressure hot water into
cooler, low-pressure water. The steam that results from this process is used to drive the
turbine. In binary plants, the hot water is passed by a secondary fluid with a much lower
boiling point than water. This causes the secondary fluid to turn to vapor, which then
drives a turbine. Most geothermal power plants in the future will be binary plants.

Most power plants need steam to generate electricity. The steam rotates a
turbine that activates a generator, which produces electricity. Many power plants still use
fossil fuels to boil water for steam. Geothermal power plants, however, use steam
produced from reservoirs of hot water found a couple of miles or more below the Earth's
surface. The steam drives the turbines, which then produces the electricity.

The Philippines has several possibilities to get clean and cheap energy. The
tropical climate and the geological circumstances are responsible for three different
energy resources:

solar energy, cheap and inexhaustible

natural gas (enormous mass found on Palawan)

relative cheap "geothermal" energy

In the Philippines geothermal energy already provides 27% of the country's total
electricity production generated in power plants. Geothermal power plants are on the
islands Luzon, Negros, Mindanao and Leyte. The production of the electricity by
geothermal plants is cheaper than the electricity produced in plants by using natural gas
and coal. It is even cheaper than electricity produced by hydro power stations. The
natural heat within the earth is the motor of the 'geothermal energy'. In fact, the earth
serves as a hot water-boiler. The heat of the earth warms up water (fluids) which is
trapped in rock formations thousands of feet (3000 meter) beneath the earth's surface.
The way to make use of this hot water is drilling wells. On the surface there must be
(made by companies) certain facilities to use the natural pressure in order to convert the
hot water in hot steam. The steam can be brought by pipelines to power plants. In these
plants the steam is used to power turbines, which can generate electricity.

The possibility of getting the hot steam is only in weaker parts of the crust of the
earth. The Pacific Rim is such a weak belt. The Philippines is located in the Western part
of the Pacific Rim. In this weak belt deep fractures occur in the earth's crust and the tens
of volcanic centers are the consequences of these fractures. The hot molten material
(magma) inside the inner earth is in this belt close enough to the earth surface to heat
the water reservoirs, from which the hot steam can be generated!

There are many advantages of geothermal energy. It can be extracted without

burning a fossil fuel such as coal, gas, or oil. Geothermal fields produce only about one-
sixth of the carbon dioxide that a relatively clean natural-gas-fueled power plant
produces. Binary plants release essentially no emissions. Unlike solar and wind energy,
geothermal energy is always available, 365 days a year. It’s also relatively inexpensive;
savings from direct use can be as much as 80 percent over fossil fuels.

The advantages can be enumerated as follows:

1. They are relatively environment-friendly

Unlike coal-powered plants, geothermal power plant stations use a renewable

heat source that has a steady supply. In fact, the amount of heat they extract is only a
small portion of the amount of present in the earth’s core. Studies have also shown that
the industry has tapped only 6.5 percent of the overall global potential, meaning there’s
enough energy to power the world for many more years to come. On top of that, the
amount of greenhouse gas produced by geothermal power plant stations are only five
percent of what coal-powered plants emit, meaning the former are much better for the
environment than the latter.

2. They produce large amounts of energy.

One of the biggest advantages of these geothermal power plant stations is that
they have a large power capacity. This means that they can greatly help in meeting
energy demand, which is rising every year both in first-world countries and developing
nations.

3. They result to stable prices.

Conventional power plants are dependent on fuel, so the cost of the electricity
they produce fluctuate according to the market price of fuel. This isn’t the case with
geothermal power plant stations; since they don’t use fuel, they don’t have to rely on fuel
prices and they can offer their consumers stable electricity costs.

But it has some environmental problems. The main concern is the release of
hydrogen sulfide, a gas that smells like rotten egg at low concentrations. Another
concern is the disposal of some geothermal fluids, which may contain low levels of toxic
materials. Although geothermal sites are capable of providing heat for many decades,
eventually specific locations may cool down.

The disadvantages can be enumerated as follows:

1. They can’t be built just anywhere.

Although the earth’s heat is found almost everywhere, prime locations (i.e. those
have all the components needed to support geothermal power plant stations) are only
found in selected areas. These areas are usually far away from urban and industrial
communities, which are the places that have the highest need for electricity. Because of
this, certain infrastructure would have to be built before the electricity that the plants
produce could reach the consumers.

2. They can be expensive to build.

Geothermal power plant stations require specially designed heating and cooling
systems and other equipment that can withstand high temperatures. As mentioned
above, they’re also usually located in isolated areas, and enough money is needed to
build the appropriate infrastructure that would deliver electricity from these far-flung
areas to populated communities.

3. They can cause environmental damage.

Although geothermal power plant stations are more environmentally friendly than
other energy stations, they can still cause some damage. One of these is their high
consumption of freshwater, which is heated to power generator turbines and can make
potable water scarcer for people. The fluids that are drawn from the earth through the
drilling process contain high amounts of toxic chemicals (including arsenic and mercury)
as well as greenhouse gases (like methane and radon). If these are improperly disposed
or handled, they can escape into the atmosphere or seep into the water table and wreak
havoc on the environment and on people’s health.

Geothermal power plant stations are already existing in many countries around the
world. Still, it’s worth considering the advantages and disadvantages above to ensure we
reap the benefits of these stations while minimizing their drawbacks.
7. How does geothermal heat get up to the earth’s surface? Relate it to how it can
produce electricity.

Geothermal power plants use steam produced from reservoirs of hot water found a
few miles or more below the Earth's surface to produce electricity. The steam rotates a
turbine that activates a generator, which produces electricity. There are three types of
geothermal power plants: dry steam, flash steam, and binary cycle.

Dry Steam

Dry steam power plants draw from underground resources of steam. The steam
is piped directly from underground wells to the power plant where it is directed into a
turbine/generator unit. There are only two known underground resources of steam in the
United States: The Geysers in northern California and Yellowstone National Park in
Wyoming, where there's a well-known geyser called Old Faithful. Since Yellowstone is
protected from development, the only dry steam plants in the country are at The
Geysers.

Flash Steam

Flash steam power plants are the most common and use geothermal reservoirs
of water with temperatures greater than 360F (182C). This very hot water flows up
through wells in the ground under its own pressure. As it flows upward, the pressure
decreases and some of the hot water boils into steam. The steam is then separated from
the water and used to power a turbine/generator. Any leftover water and condensed
steam are injected back into the reservoir, making this a sustainable resource.

Binary Steam

Binary cycle power plants operate on water at lower temperatures of about 225-
360F (107-182C). Binary cycle plants use the heat from the hot water to boil a working
fluid, usually an organic compound with a low boiling point. The working fluid is
vaporized in a heat exchanger and used to turn a turbine. The water is then injected
back into the ground to be reheated. The water and the working fluid are kept separated
during the whole process, so there are little or no air emissions.

Currently, two types of geothermal resources can be used in binary cycle power
plants to generate electricity: enhanced geothermal systems (EGS) and low-temperature
or co-produced resources.
Enhanced Geothermal Systems

EGS provide geothermal power by tapping into the Earth's deep geothermal
resources that are otherwise not economical due to lack of water, location, or rock type.
The U.S. Geological Survey estimates that potentially 500,000 megawatts of EGS
resource is available in the western U.S. or about half of the current installed electric
power generating capacity in the United States.

Low-Temperature and Co-Produced Resources

Low-temperature and co-produced geothermal resources are typically found at

temperatures of 300F (150C) or less. Some low-temperature resources can be
harnessed to generate electricity using binary cycle technology. Co-produced hot water
is a byproduct of oil and gas wells in the United States. This hot water is being examined
for its potential to produce electricity, helping to lower greenhouse gas emissions and
extend the life of oil and gas fields.

To produce geothermal-generated electricity, wells, sometimes a mile (1.6

kilometers) deep or more, are drilled into underground reservoirs to tap steam and very
hot water that drive turbines linked to electricity generators. The first geothermally
generated electricity was produced in Larderello, Italy, in 1904.

There are three types of geothermal power plants: dry steam, flash, and binary.
Dry steam, the oldest geothermal technology, takes steam out of fractures in the ground
and uses it to directly drive a turbine. Flash plants pull deep, high-pressure hot water into
cooler, low-pressure water. The steam that results from this process is used to drive the
turbine. In binary plants, the hot water is passed by a secondary fluid with a much lower
boiling point than water. This causes the secondary fluid to turn to vapor, which then
drives a turbine. Most geothermal power plants in the future will be binary plants.

Most power plants need steam to generate electricity. The steam rotates a
turbine that activates a generator, which produces electricity. Many power plants still use
fossil fuels to boil water for steam. Geothermal power plants, however, use steam
produced from reservoirs of hot water found a couple of miles or more below the Earth's
surface. The steam drives the turbines, which then produces the electricity.
 The Philippines has several possibilities to get clean and cheap energy. The
tropical climate and the geological circumstances are responsible for three different
energy resources:

solar energy, cheap and inexhaustible

natural gas (enormous mass found on Palawan)

relative cheap "geothermal" energy

In the Philippines geothermal energy already provides 27% of the country's total
electricity production generated in power plants. Geothermal power plants are on the
islands Luzon, Negros, Mindanao and Leyte. The production of the electricity by
geothermal plants is cheaper than the electricity produced in plants by using natural gas
and coal. It is even cheaper than electricity produced by hydro power stations. The
natural heat within the earth is the motor of the 'geothermal energy'. In fact, the earth
serves as a hot water-boiler. The heat of the earth warms up water (fluids) which is
trapped in rock formations thousands of feet (3000 meter) beneath the earth's surface.
The way to make use of this hot water is drilling wells. On the surface there must be
(made by companies) certain facilities to use the natural pressure in order to convert the
hot water in hot steam. The steam can be brought by pipelines to power plants. In these
plants the steam is used to power turbines, which can generate electricity.

The possibility of getting the hot steam is only in weaker parts of the crust of the
earth. The Pacific Rim is such a weak belt. The Philippines is located in the Western part
of the Pacific Rim. In this weak belt deep fractures occur in the earth's crust and the tens
of volcanic centers are the consequences of these fractures. The hot molten material
(magma) inside the inner earth is in this belt close enough to the earth surface to heat
the water reservoirs, from which the hot steam can be generated!

There are many advantages of geothermal energy. It can be extracted without

burning a fossil fuel such as coal, gas, or oil. Geothermal fields produce only about one-
sixth of the carbon dioxide that a relatively clean natural-gas-fueled power plant
produces. Binary plants release essentially no emissions. Unlike solar and wind energy,
geothermal energy is always available, 365 days a year. It’s also relatively inexpensive;
savings from direct use can be as much as 80 percent over fossil fuels.
8. What are the safety practices that are being implemented in the industry/plant
visited? Enumerate the plant/industries and discuss their safety procedures.

These are some of the safety practices that are being implemented in the industry/plants
visited. But some practices may not apply to other plants.

No filming equipment, including cameras and cellular phones with cameras are
permitted. Do not take video or photo, using mobile phones for taking photo is not
allowed.

Wearing of hard hats in assigned areas. Hard hats are designed to protect the
head against falling objects and the side of the head, eyes, and neck from any impacts,
bumps, scrapes, and electrical exposure.

Wearing of PPEs. Personal protective equipment (PPE) is anything used or worn

by a person to minimize risk to the person’s health or safety and includes a wide range
of clothing and safety equipment.

No crossing the yellow line. Yellow signals caution and marks physical hazards
(including striking against, stumbling, falling, tripping, and “caught in between”).

No crossing the red line. Red identifies fire-related hazards (including fire
protection equipment and containers of flammable liquids), as well as emergency
switches, bars, and buttons on hazardous machines.

No open-toe sandals or high heels are permitted. Wear closed shoes. This is for
cleanliness and safety.

And these are some safety procedure most of the plants/industries use.

Exit routes and Emergency Planning

Emergency action plans

(a) Application. An employer must have an emergency action plan whenever an OSHA
standard in this part requires one. The requirements in this section apply to each such
emergency action plan.

(b) Written and oral emergency action plans. An emergency action plan must be in
writing, kept in the workplace, and available to employees for review. However, an
employer with 10 or fewer employees may communicate the plan orally to employees.
(c) Minimum elements of an emergency action plan. An emergency action plan must
include at a minimum:

(1) Procedures for reporting a fire or other emergency;

(2) Procedures for emergency evacuation, including type of evacuation and exit
route assignments; Procedures to be followed by employees who remain to operate
critical plant operations before they evacuate;

(4) Procedures to account for all employees after evacuation;

(5) Procedures to be followed by employees performing rescue or medical duties;

and

(6) The name or job title of every employee who may be contacted by employees
who need more information about the plan or an explanation of their duties under the
plan.

(d) Employee alarm system. An employer must have and maintain an employee alarm
system. The employee alarm system must use a distinctive signal for each purpose and
comply with the requirements.

(e) Training. An employer must designate and train employees to assist in a safe and
orderly evacuation of other employees.

(f) Review of emergency action plan. An employer must review the emergency action
plan with each employee covered by the plan:

(1)When the plan is developed or the employee is assigned initially to a job;

(2)When the employee’s responsibilities under the plan change; and

(3)When the plan is changed

Fire prevention plans

(a) Application. An employer must have a fire prevention plan when an OSHA standard
in this part requires one. The requirements in this section apply to each such fire
prevention plan.
(b) Written and oral fire prevention plans .A fire prevention plan must be in writing, be
kept in the workplace, and be made available to employees for review. However, an
employer with 10 or fewer employees may communicate the plan orally to employees.

(c) Minimum elements of a fire prevention plan .A fire prevention plan must include:

(1) A list of all major fire hazards, proper handling and storage procedures for
hazardous materials, potential ignition sources and their control, and the type of fire
protection equipment necessary to control each major hazard;

(2) Procedures to control accumulations of flammable and combustible waste

materials;

(3) Procedures for regular maintenance of safeguards installed on heat-

producing equipment to prevent the accidental ignition of combustible materials;

(4) The name or job title of employees responsible for maintaining equipment to
prevent or control sources of ignition or fires; and

(5) The name or job title of employees responsible for the control of fuel source
hazards.

(d) Employee information. An employer must inform employees upon initial assignment
to a job of the fire hazards to which they are exposed. An employer must also review
with each employee those parts of the fire prevention plan necessary for self-protection.

Personal Protective Equipment

General requirements

Training

(1) The employer shall provide training to each employee who is required by this section
to use PPE. Each such employee shall be trained to know at least the following:

(i) When PPE is necessary;

(ii) What PPE is necessary;

(iii) How to properly don, doff, adjust and wear PPE;

(iv) The limitations of the PPE; and,

 (v) The proper care, maintenance, useful life, and disposal of the PPE.

(2) Each affected employee shall demonstrate an understanding of the training specified
in paragraph (f) (1) of this section and the ability to use PPE properly before being
allowed to perform work requiring the use of PPE.

(3) When the employer has reason to believe that any affected employee who has
already been trained does not have the understanding and skill required by paragraph (f)
(2) of this section, the employer shall retrain each such employee. Circumstances where
retraining is required include, but are not limited to, situations where:

(i) Changes in the workplace render previous training obsolete, or

(ii) Changes in the types of PPE to be used render previous training obsolete; or

(iii) Inadequacies in an affected employee’s knowledge or use of assigned PPE

indicate that the employee has not retained the requisite understanding or skill

Respiratory protection

Training and information .This paragraph requires the employer to provide effective
training to employees who are required to use respirators. The training must be
comprehensive, understandable, and recur annually, and more often if necessary. This
paragraph also requires the employer to provide the basic information on respirators in
Appendix D of this section to employees who wear respirators when not required by this
section or by the employer to do so.

(1) The employer shall ensure that each employee can demonstrate knowledge of at
least the following:

(i) Why the respirator is necessary and how improper fit, usage, or maintenance
can compromise the protective effect of the respirator;

(ii) What the limitations and capabilities of the respirator are;

(iii) How to use the respirator effectively in emergency situations, including

situations in which the respirator malfunctions;

(iv) How to inspect, put on and remove, use, and check the seals of the
respirator;

(v) What the procedures are for maintenance and storage of the respirator;
 (vi) How to recognize medical signs and symptoms that may limit or prevent the
effective use of respirators; and

(vii) The general requirements of this section.

(2) Training shall be conducted in a manner that is understandable to the employee.

(3) The employer shall provide the training prior to requiring the employee to use a
respirator in the workplace.

(4) An employer who is able to demonstrate that a new employee has received training
within the last 12 months that addresses the elements specified in paragraph (k)(1)(i)
through (vii) is not required to repeat such training provided that, as required by
paragraph (k)(1), the employee can demonstrate knowledge of those element(s).
Previous training not repeated initially by the employer must be provided no later than 12
months from the date of the previous training

(5) Retraining shall be administered annually and when the following situations occur:

(i) Changes in the workplace or the type of respirator render previous training
obsolete;

(ii) Inadequacies in the employee’s knowledge or use of the respirator indicate

that the employee has not retained the requisite understanding or skill; or

(iii) Any other situation arises in which retraining appears necessary to ensure
safe respirator use.

(6) The basic advisory information on respirators, as presented in Appendix D of this

section, shall be provided by the employer in any written or oral format, to employees
who wear respirators when such use is not required by this section or by the employer.
9. How does the electricity grid operate? What is their role in the electric power
industry?

The “grid” can be broken down in to four main components: Generation,

Transmission, Distribution, and Load.

An electrical power grid is an interconnected network that delivers the generated

power to the consumers. It is, sometimes, also called as an electrical power system. A
power grid consists of generating stations (power plants), transmission system and
distribution system.

Power generating stations are located at feasible places - according to the

availability of the fuel, the dam site or an efficient location for renewable sources. Hence,
they are often located quite away from the populated areas. This is very practical since
the transmission of electrical power over longer distances is a lot much economical than
the relative transmission of any other fuel. Also, a hydroelectric plant must be located
according to an appropriate dam site or a wind power plant may be located off-shore to
harvest additional energy from the wind. Thus, a long distance transmission system is
needed to transmit the generated electricity to the populated areas. And a distribution
system is needed to distribute the power to every consumer at appropriate voltages.

A power grid can be divided into three stages: Power generation, transmission and
distribution. Each of these stages is explained in details below.

Power Generation:

Electricity is generated in power plants which are often located far away from the
populated areas. There are various types of power generating stations such as thermal,
nuclear, hydro, solar, wind etc. A power plant may consist two or more 3-phase
alternators which are operated in parallel. Electricity is generated in power plants at
voltages ranging from 11kV up to 25 kV. Generation voltage cannot be much higher due
to technical limitations.

A variety of facilities generate electricity, including coal- and natural gas-burning

power plants, hydroelectric dams, nuclear power plants, wind turbines, and solar panels.
The location of these electricity generators – and their distance from end users – varies
widely.
 These technologies are also physically different, and are used and manipulated
differently on the power grid as a result. For example, certain types of power plants,
such as coal and nuclear power plants, have little short-term flexibility in adjusting their
electricity output; it takes a long time to ramp up or down their electricity output.

Other plants, such as natural-gas fired plants, can be ramped up very quickly,
and are often used to meet peaks in demand. More variable technologies, such as wind
and solar photovoltaic’s, are generally used whenever they are available, in large part
because their fuel – sunlight and wind – is free.

At any given time, there is also always a “reserve margin,” a specified amount of
backup electricity generating capacity that is available to compensate for potential
forecasting errors or unexpected power plant shutdowns. Electricity demand, supply,
reserve margins, and the mix of electricity generating technologies is constantly
monitored and managed by grid operators to ensure that everything runs smoothly.

Electrical power starts at the power plant. In almost all cases, the power plant
consists of a spinning electrical generator. Something has to spin that generator — it
might be a water wheel in a hydroelectric dam, a large diesel engine or a gas turbine.
But in most cases, the thing spinning the generator is a steam turbine. The steam might
be created by burning coal, oil or natural gas. Or the steam may come from a nuclear
reactor.

Electricity generation is the single largest source of greenhouse gas emissions in

the United States. That's why it's so important to develop more renewable sources of
energy. In 2014, 67 percent of America's electricity came from fossil fuels like coal and
natural gas. Hydroelectric energy was the largest renewable energy source, followed by
solar, wind and geothermal power. In 2014, 6 percent of America's electricity was
produced by hydropower, while solar, wind and thermal energy together comprised
another 5 percent

Transmission:

The three-phase power leaves the generator and enters a transmission

substation at the power plant. This substation uses large transformers to convert or "step
up" the generator's voltage to extremely high voltages for long-distance transmission on
the transmission grid. Typical voltages for long distance transmission are in the range of
155,000 to 765,000 volts. The higher the voltage, the less energy is lost due to
resistance.

A typical maximum transmission distance is about 300 miles (483 kilometers).

High-voltage transmission lines are quite obvious when you see them. They are huge
steel towers strung out in a line that stretches toward the horizon.

For the transmission of power over longer distances, the generated voltages are
stepped up to a much higher level. A step up transformer is used for this purpose, which
increases the voltage level with the corresponding decrease in the current. Stepping up
the voltage is necessary to increase the transmission efficiency by reducing I2R losses
in the transmission lines. Higher the transmission voltage means lesser the current and,
hence, lesser the I2R loss. Transmission voltages are generally 220kV or greater up to
765kV. Transmissions lines are often seen running over tall towers at the outskirts of a
city.

Most commonly 3-phase AC power at very high voltage is used for the power
transmission. But due to the advancements in power electronics, HVDC (High Voltage
DC) has proved many advantages for longer distance transmission. So, HVDC
transmission systems are being employed for very longer distance power transmission.
AC power is converted into HVDC at a converter station for the transmission, and then it
is converted back into AC at the other end. Also, HVDC link is the only option today for
interconnecting grids with different frequencies.

Transmission lines are necessary to carry high-voltage electricity over long

distances and connect electricity generators with electricity consumers.

Transmission lines are either overhead power lines or underground power

cables. Overhead cables are not insulated and are vulnerable to the weather, but can be
less expensive to install than underground power cables. Overhead and underground
transmission lines are made of aluminum alloy and reinforced with steel; underground
lines are typically insulated.

Transmission lines carry high voltages because it reduces the fraction of

electricity that is lost in transit – about 6% on average in the United States. As electricity
flows through the wires, some of it dissipates as heat through a process called
resistance. The higher the voltage is on a transmission line, the less electricity it loses.
(Most of the electric current flows close to the surface of the transmission line; using
thicker wires would have minimal impact on transmission losses.)

Transmission-level voltages are typically at or above 110,000 volts or 110 kV,

with some transmission lines carrying voltages as high as 765 kV. Power generators,
however, produce electricity at low voltages. In order to make high-voltage electricity
transport possible, the electricity must first be converted to higher voltages with a
transformer.

These high voltages are also significantly greater than what you need in your
home, so once the electricity gets close to end users, another transformer converts it
back to a lower voltage before it enters the distribution network.

Distribution:

For power to be useful in a home or business, it comes off the transmission grid
and is stepped-down to the distribution grid. This may happen in several phases. The
place where the conversion from "transmission" to "distribution" occurs is in a power
substation. A power substation typically does two or three things:

It has transformers that "step down" transmission voltages (in the tens or
hundreds of thousands of volts range) down to distribution voltages (typically less than
10,000 volts).

It has a "bus" that can split the distribution power off in multiple directions.

It often has circuit breakers and switches so that the substation can be
disconnected from the transmission grid or separate distribution lines can be
disconnected from the substation when necessary.

At the bus, there may be two separate sets of distribution lines at two different
voltages. Smaller transformers attached to the bus step the power down to standard line
voltage (usually 7,200 volts) for one set of lines, while power leaves in the other direction
at the higher voltage of the main transformer.

The power goes from the transformer to the distribution bus. The bus distributes
power to local distribution lines. The bus has its own transformers that can also step
down or step up voltage according to local energy needs. The distribution network is
simply the system of wires that picks up where the transmission lines leave off. These
networks start at the transformers and end with homes, schools, and businesses.

Distribution substation typically operates at 2.4 – 34.5 kV voltage levels, and

deliver electric energy directly to industrial and residential consumers. Distribution
feeders transport power from the distribution substations to the end consumers’
premises. These feeders serve a large number of premises and usually contain many
branches.

At the consumers’ premises, distribution transformers transform the distribution

voltage to the service level voltage directly used in households and industrial plants,
usually from 110 to 600 V.

Consumer use or “load”:

And finally we are down to the wire that brings power to your house! Past a
typical house runs a set of poles with one phase of power (at 7,200 volts) and a ground
wire (although sometimes there will be two or three phases on the pole, depending on
where the house is located in the distribution grid). At each house, there is a transformer
drum attached to the pole.

In many suburban neighborhoods, the distribution lines are underground and

there are green transformer boxes at every house or two.

The transmission grid comes to an end when electricity finally gets to the
consumer, allowing you to turn on the lights, watch television, or run your dishwasher.
The patterns of our lives add up to a varying demand for electricity by hour, day, and
season, which is why the management of the grid is both complicated and vital for our
everyday lives.

The importance of effective grid transmission

The interconnected and complex nature of the electricity grid delivers several benefits,
including:

Reliability: Since the grid is an enormous network, electricity can be deployed to the
right places across large regions of the country. The large transmission network allows
grid operators to deal with anticipated and unanticipated losses, while still meeting
electricity demand.
Flexibility: The electricity grid allows a power system to use a diversity of resources,
even if they are located far away from where the power is needed. For example, wind
turbines must be built where the wind is the strongest; the grid allows for this electricity
to be transmitted to distant cities.

Economic competition: Because the grid allows multiple generators and power plants
to provide electricity to consumers, different generators compete with each other to
provide electricity at the cheapest price. The grid also serves as a form of insurance–
competition on the grid protects customers against fluctuations in fuel prices.

A historic blackout in 2003 showcased why effective grid transmission is so

important. On August 14, 2003, an Ohio power company set off the largest blackout in
human history simply due to human error. The blackout spread across New York,
Pennsylvania, Connecticut, Massachusetts, New Jersey, Michigan, and even parts of
Canada. Offices had to be evacuated, and thousands of people flooded hospitals
suffering from the heat. Our electricity grid has come a long way since 2003, but many
more opportunities exist for improvement.

How does it produce electricity?

There are several components common to most types of reactors:

Fuel. Uranium is the basic fuel. Usually pellets of uranium oxide (UO2) are arranged in
tubes to form fuel rods. The rods are arranged into fuel assemblies in the reactor core.*
In a 1000 MWe class PWR there might be 51,000 fuel rods with over 18 million pellets.

* In a new reactor with new fuel a neutron source is needed to get the reaction going.
Usually this is beryllium mixed with polonium, radium or other alpha-emitter. Alpha
particles from the decay cause a release of neutrons from the beryllium as it turns to
carbon-12. Restarting a reactor with some used fuel may not require this, as there may
be enough neutrons to achieve criticality when control rods are removed.

Moderator. Material in the core which slows down the neutrons released from fission so
that they cause more fission. It is usually water, but may be heavy water or graphite.

Control rods. These are made with neutron-absorbing material such as cadmium,
hafnium or boron, and are inserted or withdrawn from the core to control the rate of
reaction, or to halt it.
*In some PWR reactors, special control rods are used to enable the core to sustain a low
level of power efficiently. (Secondary control systems involve other neutron absorbers,
usually boron in the coolant – its concentration can be adjusted over time as the fuel
burns up.)

* In fission, most of the neutrons are released promptly, but some are delayed. These
are crucial in enabling a chain reacting system (or reactor) to be controllable and to be
able to be held precisely critical.

Coolant. A fluid circulating through the core so as to transfer the heat from it. In light
water reactors the water moderator functions also as primary coolant. Except in BWRs,
there is secondary coolant circuit where the water becomes steam.

Pressure vessel or pressure tubes. Usually a robust steel vessel containing the
reactor core and moderator/coolant, but it may be a series of tubes holding the fuel and
conveying the coolant through the surrounding moderator.

Steam generator. Part of the cooling system of pressurised water reactors (PWR &
PHWR) where the high-pressure primary coolant bringing heat from the reactor is used
to make steam for the turbine, in a secondary circuit. Essentially a heat exchanger like a
motor car radiator*. Reactors have up to six 'loops', each with a steam generator. Since
1980 over 110 PWR reactors have had their steam generators replaced after 20-30
years’ service, 57 of these in USA.

* These are large heat exchangers for transferring heat from one fluid to another – here
from high-pressure primary circuit in PWR to secondary circuit where water turns to
steam. Each structure weighs up to 800 tonnes and contains from 300 to 16,000 tubes
about 2 cm diameter for the primary coolant, which is radioactive due to nitrogen-16 (N-
16, formed by neutron bombardment of oxygen, with half-life of 7 seconds). The
secondary water must flow through the support structures for the tubes. The whole thing
needs to be designed so that the tubes don't vibrate and fret, operated so that deposits
do not build up to impede the flow, and maintained chemically to avoid corrosion.

Tubes which fail and leak are plugged, and surplus capacity is designed to allow for
this. Leaks can be detected by monitoring N-16 levels in the steam as it leaves the
steam generator containment. The structure around the reactor and associated steam
generators which is designed to protect it from outside intrusion and to protect those
outside from the effects of radiation in case of any serious malfunction inside. It is
typically a metre-thick concrete and steel structure.
10. What are the basic parts of a nuclear power plant? How does it operate? How
does it produce electricity?

A nuclear reactor produces and controls the release of energy from splitting the
atoms of uranium. Uranium-fuelled nuclear power is a clean and efficient way of boiling
water to make steam which drives turbine generators. Except for the reactor itself, a
nuclear power station works like most coal or gas-fired power stations.

The reactor core. Several hundred fuel assemblies containing thousands of small
pellets of ceramic uranium oxide fuel make up the core of a reactor. For a reactor with
an output of 1000 megawatts (MWe), the core would contain about 75 tonnes of
enriched uranium. In the reactor core the uranium-235 isotope fissions or splits,
producing a lot of heat in a continuous process called a chain reaction.

The process depends on the presence of a moderator such as water or graphite,

and is fully controlled. The moderator slows down the neutrons produced by fission of
the uranium nuclei so that they go on to produce more fissions. Some of the uranium-
238 in the reactor core is turned into plutonium and about half of this is also fissioned
similarly, providing about one third of the reactor's energy output.

The fission products remain in the ceramic fuel and undergo radioactive decay,
releasing a bit more heat. They are the main wastes from the process. The reactor core
sits inside a steel pressure vessel, so that water around it remains liquid even at the
operating temperature of over 320°C. Steam is formed either above the reactor core or
in separate pressure vessels, and this drives the turbine to produce electricity. The
steam is then condensed and the water recycled.

Common types of reactor. The main design is the pressurized water reactor
which has water in its primary cooling/heat transfer circuit, and generates steam in a
secondary circuit. The less popular boiling water reactor makes steam in the primary
circuit above the reactor core, though it is still under considerable pressure. Both types
use water as both coolant and moderator, to slow neutrons.

To maintain efficient reactor performance, about one-third or half of the used fuel
is removed every year or two, to be replaced with fresh fuel. The pressure vessel and
any steam generators are housed in a massive containment structure with reinforced
concrete about 1.2 meters thick. This is to protect neighbors if there is a major problem
inside the reactor, and to protect the reactor from external assaults. Because some heat
is generated from radioactive decay even after the reactor is shut down, cooling systems
are provided to remove this heat as well as the main operational heat output.

Fossil fuel (coal, oil and gas) power stations and nuclear (uranium) power
stations all use the same processes to make electricity from heat energy. These are:

Fuel produces heat, which is used to boil water to make steam.

 Steam spins a turbine.

 Turbine drives a generator and the generator makes electricity.

Electricity goes to the transformers to produce the correct voltage.

The only difference between fossil fuel and nuclear power stations is how the
water is heated. Fossil fuel power stations burn a chemical fuel while a nuclear power
station uses the fission of uranium nuclei to generate heat. Fission is another word for
splitting. The process of splitting a nucleus is called nuclear fission.

Uranium is a non-renewable energy resource and, like the fossil fuels, it cannot
be replaced once it has all been used up. Energy is released by nuclear fission.
Radioactive waste is also produced. The fission of uranium can set up a chain reaction
that will keep on releasing energy as long as there are uranium nuclei present. If this
chain reaction is allowed to get out of control, energy is released very quickly and the
result is a nuclear bomb. Nuclear power stations are designed to keep chain reactions
under control.

For fission to happen, the uranium nucleus must be hit by a neutron. When this
happens:

 The nucleus splits into smaller nuclei

 Energy is released
 Two or three neutrons are released.
 The chain reaction happens because each uranium nucleus that splits gives off
more than one neutron. These cause more and more uranium nuclei to split.

A nuclear reactor is designed to allow a controlled chain reaction to take place.

Moveable control rods are placed between the rods of nuclear fuel. These control rods
absorb some of the neutrons, so fewer neutrons are available to split uranium nuclei.
The position of the control rods is adjusted so there are just enough neutrons for the
chain reaction to keep going.

A nuclear reactor is a device for controlled nuclear fission. Since only 0.7 percent of
uranium in natural uranium is uranium-235, this may be augmented or enriched, i.e.
more uranium-235 may be added on fuel of the reactor. Such a reactor may be used
simply for research into the structure of matter and the production of radioactive isotopes
for medicine, agriculture and industry, and is thereby known as research reactor. Heat is
produced in such a reactor, but a coolant is utilized to remove the heat.

In such a reactor also, a moderator is used to slow down the fast neutrons produced
in fission in order that they can bombard other uranium-235 nuclei and cause fission by
chain reactor; i.e. a slowed-down (thermalized neutron is absorbed by a uranium-235
nucleus and the uranium splits into two daughter nuclei with the production of one to
three fast neutrons and radiation, and the fast neutrons are slowed down by the
moderator to cause further fissions with, of course, some neutrons lost due to leakage or
non-fission absorption by other nuclei.

If the heat produced is transformed by a steam generator into steam to run a turbine
that would in turn work an electric generator to produce electric power or to run a motor,
the reactor is called a nuclear power reactor.