Guyton & Hall – Figure 45.

2
Fundamentals of Nervous System

General Design of Nervous System:

Analogy = Computer

Processing = Integrative System

Input = Sensory System • 99% of sensory information Output = Motor System
discarded
Receptors: Effectors:
• Synapses determine pathway
Tactile of signals Skeletal muscle
Visual • Information stored for future use Smooth muscle
Auditor Glandular secretion
Memory:
Olfactory
Highly facilitated synaptic pathways
(sensory input not required to excite pathway)

Fundamentals of Nervous System Fundamentals of Nervous System

Organization of Nervous System: Histology of Nervous System:

A. Neuroglia (supporting cells – “nerve glue”)
Nervous system
Central Nervous System (CNS) ciliated
(most common)
Integration
Central nervous system Peripheral nervous system
(CNS) (PNS)
Motor Sensory
output input

Brain Spinal cord Motor division Sensory division Astrocytes: Microglia: Ependymal cells:
(efferent) (afferent) • anchor neurons to capillaries • macrophages; engulf invaders • line canals / ventricles of brain
• repair damaged neural tissue • produce cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
• maintain “blood / brain barrier”

Autonomic nervous system Somatic nervous system Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
(involuntary; smooth & cardiac muscle) (voluntary; skeletal muscle)
Schwann cells:
• Insulate neurons (myelin sheath)

Sympathetic division Parasympathetic division Oligodendrocytes: Satellite cells:

• Insulate neurons (myelin sheath) • Function similar to astrocytes

Fundamentals of Nervous System Fundamentals of Nervous System

Histology of Nervous System: • Long-lived (~ 100 years) Histology of Nervous System: • Long-lived (~ 100 years)
• High metabolic rate • High metabolic rate
B. Neurons B. Neurons
• Specialized “excitable” cells • Specialized “excitable” cells
• Allow for communication throughout body (via electrical impulses) • Allow for communication throughout body (via electrical impulses)

Neuron Anatomy: Functional Classification of Neurons:

1) Dendrites: Receive information (environment / other neurons) 1) Sensory (Afferent) neurons:

2) Cell body (soma): Integrates information / initiate response • Carry information from sensory receptors to CNS
3) Axon: Conducts action potential (AP – electrical impulse) 2) Motor (Efferent) neurons:
4) Synaptic terminals: Transmit signal (other neurons / effector organs) • Carry information from CNS to effector organs
3) Association neurons (Interneurons):
Axon hillock (AP generation)
• Interconnects neurons in brain / spinal cord
Axon
Dendrites Synaptic
terminals
Schwann Cells (PNS)

Centrioles

(Can not divide) Cell body

1
 Fundamentals of Nervous System

Histology of Nervous System: • Long-lived (~ 100 years)

• High metabolic rate
Central Nervous System
B. Neurons
• Specialized “excitable” cells
• Allow for communication throughout body (via electrical impulses)

Structural Classification of Neurons (# of processes) :

Multipolar Bipolar Unipolar

( 3 processes) (2 processes) (1 process)

Axon Axon
Axon

Dendrites
Trigger zone Trigger zone
Dendrites
Trigger zone

Dendrites

• Motor neurons • Sensory neurons • Sensory neurons

• Interneurons (e.g., special sense organs) (PNS)

Central Nervous System Central Nervous System

Organization of Nervous System: Brain: No correlation exists between brain

size and intelligence…
• ~ 3.5 lbs (35 billion neurons)
Nervous system
• ♂ brain ~ 10% larger than ♀ brain

Integration
Cerebrum
Central nervous system Peripheral nervous system Gross Anatomy: (forebrain)
(CNS) (PNS)
Motor Sensory
output input

Brain Spinal cord Motor division Sensory division

(efferent) (afferent)
Diencephalon
(midbrain)

Autonomic nervous system Somatic nervous system

(involuntary; smooth & cardiac muscle) (voluntary; skeletal muscle)

Brainstem Cerebellum
(hindbrain)

Sympathetic division Parasympathetic division

Marieb & Hoehn – Figure 12.1 Marieb & Hoehn – Figure 12.2
Central Nervous System Central Nervous System

How we will consider

Embryonic Development of Brain: Embryonic Development of Brain: brain anatomy

3 week old embryo 5 week old embryo

Neural Primary brain vesicles Secondary brain vesicles Adult brain structures
tube
Neural crest

Neural plate Step 3: Telencephalon

Cerebrum
(endbrain)
Neural fold cells migrate; form neural crest
Step 1: • Neural crest gives rise to PNS Anterior Proencephalon Diencephalon
Neural plate forms from surface ectoderm Diencephalon
(forebrain) (interbrain)

4 week old embryo Mesencephalon

Mesencephalon Brain stem (midbrain)
Neural fold (midbrain) (midbrain)

Metencephalon Brain stem (pons)

Rhombencephalon (afterbrain)
(hindbrain) Cerebellum
Myelencephalon
(spinalbrain) Brain stem (medulla)
Posterior
Neural groove Neural tube Spinal cord
Step 2: Step 4:
Neural plate invaginates; forms neural groove Neural groove becomes neural tube; sinks deep
• Neural folds flank neural groove • Neural tube gives rise to CNS

2
 Central Nervous System Central Nervous System Nuclei:
Space restriction greatly affects Groups of cell bodies located in
Embryonic Development of Brain: brain development Basic Layout of Neurons: the central nervous system
(analogous to ganglia in PNS)
Brain stem (pons)
Brain stem (midbrain) White matter: Regions of myelinated axons in CNS
Cerebellum
Midbrain Gray matter: Regions of unmyelinated axons / cell bodies in CNS
flexure
Diencephalon Brain stem (medulla)
Cortex
White White Gray
Cerebrum matter matter matter
Cervical
Gray
flexure matter
5 week old embryo 13 week old embryo
• Flexures develop to fit rapidly growing
brain into membranous skull
• Cerebrum forced to
grow posterior and
lateral (‘horseshoe’)
Nucleus

Spinal cord Cerebrum

• Convolutions develop to • Basic pattern observed in CNS • Cortex formed by migration of neurons
Newborn increase surface area 26 week old embryo • Cerebellum similar to cerebrum in its external cortex
of brain
Marieb & Hoehn – Figure 12.3 Marieb & Hoehn – Figure 12.4

Marieb & Hoehn – Figure 12.5

Central Nervous System Central Nervous System

Brain Anatomy: CSF Circulation:

Presence of CSF in subarachnoid space
A. Ventricles: Hollow chambers enclosed within brain (continuous with each other…) Arachnoid villus gives buoyancy to brain (97% weight reduction)

Lateral ventricle Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)

1) CSF produced by choroid plexus in
• Provide constant, controlled environment ventricles
for brain cells
2) CSF flows through ventricles and into
• Protect brain from toxins
subarachnoid space via lateral and
Third ventricle • Prevent escape of local neurotransmitters median apertures
Choroid plexus: 3) CSF exits subarachnoid space via
Cerebral aqueduct arachnoid villi
Vascular network; produces CSF

Fourth ventricle • Similar ion composition

to blood plasma Lateral aperture
Central canal
•  protein content Median aperture

Ventricles lined with ependymal cells

(circulate CSF)
 Lumbar puncture
• Gasses cross freely (spinal tap)
• 0.5 L / day produced Hydrocephalus
(‘water on the brain”)
Costanzo – Figure 3.36 Marieb & Hoehn – Figure 12.26

Central Nervous System Central Nervous System

~ 85% of brain mass

Brain Anatomy:
B. Cerebrum (cerebral hemispheres): Central
sulcus
Cerebrum Parietal
(forebrain)
Frontal lobe
lobe
Parieto-occipital
sulcus

Diencephalon
(midbrain)

Gyrus Sulcus Occipital

(ridge) (groove)
lobe
Insula
Brainstem Cerebellum
(hindbrain)

Temporal
lobe
Lateral
Fissure sulcus
(deep groove)
Marieb & Hoehn – Figure 12.6

3
 Central Nervous System Central Nervous System

Brain Anatomy: Brain Anatomy:

The cerebral
B. Cerebrum (cerebral hemispheres): B. Cerebrum (cerebral hemispheres): cortex is the
1) Cerebral cortex: seat of conscious
behavior
Basic regions: Cerebral cortex Cerebral • Contains 3 types of functional areas:
(superficial to deep) white matter Only 2 - 4 mm thick
1) Motor areas (send output)
but comprises 40%
1) Cerebral cortex (gray matter) 2) Sensory areas (receive input) of the brain’s mass
2) Cerebral white matter 3) Association areas (interpret data)
2.5 ft2 of surface area
3) Basal nuclei

Corpus callosum: Functional MRI scan

White tract connecting (measure blood flow)
cerebral hemispheres

Basal nuclei Neural cartography

(electrostimulation)

Marieb & Hoehn – Figure 12.8

Central Nervous System Central Nervous System

Brain Anatomy: Homunculus (“little man”):

Primary motor
B. Cerebrum (cerebral hemispheres): cortex
Note:
One-to-one correspondence between
1) Cerebral cortex: Conscious control of skeletal cortical neurons and muscles misleading;
muscle movements map really “fuzzy”
• Motor areas:

Somatotopic mapping:
The entire body is spatially
represented in the cerebral cortex Pyramidal cells extend long axons
to the spinal cord, forming pyramidal
tracts, or corticospinal tracts Marieb & Hoehn – Figure 12.9

Marieb & Hoehn – Figure 12.8 Marieb & Hoehn – Figure 12.8
Central Nervous System Central Nervous System

Brain Anatomy: Brain Anatomy: Primary somatorsensory

Primary motor cortex
B. Cerebrum (cerebral hemispheres): cortex B. Cerebrum (cerebral hemispheres): Receives information from
Spatial
1) Cerebral cortex: Conscious control of skeletal 1) Cerebral cortex: sensory receptors in skin &
communicates discrimination
muscle movements proprioreceptors in joints
directly with
• Motor areas: primary motor cortex • Sensory areas:
Somatosensory
Frontal eye field association
Premotor cortex Gustatory cortex cortex
Controls voluntary
movement of eyes Receives / interprets
Controls learned motor Integrates / interprets
sensations of taste
skills of repetitious somatosensory inputs
or patterned nature (e.g., temp. / pressure)
(e.g., typing)
Primary visual
Primary auditory cortex
cortex
Receives visual
Receives auditory information
information
Broca’s area Medial (retinotopic mapping)
(tonotopic mapping)
Controls muscles involved
in speech production Visual
Auditory association
(often more pronounced in
one hemisphere of brain)
Association area area
Olfactory cortex
Integrates / interprets Integrates / interprets
auditory inputs Receives olfactory
visual inputs
(e.g., music / thunder) information
(e.g., color / form)
• Part of rhinencephalon (‘nose brain’)

4
 Marieb & Hoehn – Figure 12.8
Central Nervous System Central Nervous System

Phrenology:
Brain Anatomy: Phineus Gage (1823 – 1860) The brain is the organ of the mind;
Locations where sensations, thoughts, contains localized, specific modules
B. Cerebrum (cerebral hemispheres):
and emotions become conscious Franz Gall
1) Cerebral cortex: (makes us who we are…) (1758 – 1828)

• Association areas (multimodal):

The American Crowbar Case
(matures slowly)
Anterior association
area Introduction
(Prefrontal cortex)
• Intelligence
• Complex learning
• Recall
• Personality

Marieb & Hoehn – Figure 12.8

Central Nervous System Central Nervous System

Brain Anatomy: Brain Anatomy:

Locations where sensations, thoughts,
The cerebral
B. Cerebrum (cerebral hemispheres): B. Cerebrum (cerebral hemispheres): cortex is the
and emotions become conscious
1) Cerebral cortex: (makes us who we are…) 1) Cerebral cortex: seat of conscious
behavior
• Association areas (multimodal): • Contains 3 types of functional areas
• Contralateral control (e.g., left hemisphere controls right body) Only 2 - 4 mm thick
but comprises 40%
Anterior association Posterior association of the brain’s mass
area Decussation:
area
Location where neural pathways cross 2.5 ft2 of surface area
• Pattern recognition
• Spatial recognition • Occur at different locations in CNS
• Sensory grouping
• Language centers • Lateralization (i.e., hemisphere specialization)
(Wernicke’s area)

Limbic association
area
Processes emotions related
to personal / social interactions

Central Nervous System Central Nervous System

Brain Anatomy:
B. Cerebrum (cerebral hemispheres):

Basic regions: Cerebral cortex Cerebral

(superficial to deep) white matter
1) Cerebral cortex (gray matter)
2) Cerebral white matter
3) Basal nuclei

Basal nuclei
Categorical Representational

5
 Central Nervous System Central Nervous System

Brain Anatomy: Brain Anatomy:

B. Cerebrum (cerebral hemispheres): Commissural B. Cerebrum (cerebral hemispheres):
Association
fibers
2) Cerebral white matter: fibers

Basic regions: Cerebral cortex Cerebral

Fiber tracts responsible for communication (superficial to deep) white matter
between cerebral areas and lower CNS
1) Cerebral cortex (gray matter)
A) Commissural Fibers (form commissures) : 2) Cerebral white matter
• Interconnect cerebral hemispheres 3) Basal nuclei

B) Association Fibers:
• Interconnect areas of neural cortex
within a single hemisphere

C) Projection Fibers:
• Interconnect cerebral hemispheres
with other regions of the brain
Corona radiata: Projection Internal capsule:
Point where projection fibers radiate fan-like fibers Compact band of projection Basal nuclei
through cerebral white matter fibers near diencephalon
Marieb & Hoehn – Figure 12.10

Central Nervous System Central Nervous System

Brain Anatomy:
B. Cerebrum (cerebral hemispheres):
3) Basal nuclei:
Cerebrum
• Composed of gray matter (neuron cell bodies) (forebrain)

• Function: 1) Subconscious control of skeletal muscle tone

2) Control stereotypical motor movements (e.g., arm swing)
• Regulate intensity / inhibit unnecessary movements

Diencephalon
(midbrain)
Caudate
nucleus

Putamen Corpus
striatum Brainstem Cerebellum
Lentiform (hindbrain)
Striped appearance
nucleus due to passage of
Globus internal capsule fibers
pallidus

Central Nervous System Central Nervous System

“Emotional brain”
Brain Anatomy: Brain Anatomy:
Diencephalon structures:
C. Diencephalon: Thalamus Limbic system (functional brain system): • Thalamus (anterior thalamic nuclei)
“Gateway to the
cerebral cortex”
• Hypothalamus
Thalamus:
Cerebral cortex structures:
• Composes 80% of diencephalon • Cingulate gyrus
• Relay station for all information • Parahippocampal gyrus
entering / exiting the cerebral cortex • Hippocampus
• Amygdala
Fornix:
Hypothalamus:
Fiber tract linking
• Autonomic control center regions together
• Center for emotional response
• Body temperature regulation
• Regulation of food / water intake
• Regulation of sleep-wake cycles
• Control of endocrine system Hypothalamus
 Alzheimer’s Disease:

• Control emotional states (e.g., fear) / behavioral drives (e.g., sex drive) Progressive degenerative
Epithalamus:
disease of the brain
Epithalamus • Link conscious (cerebral cortex) with unconscious function (brain stem)
• Houses pineal gland (melatonin) • Memory loss
and choroid plexus (forms CSF) • Psychosomatic illnesses = emotion-induced illness • Disorientation
“Control center • Long-term memory storage / retrieval • Moodiness / confusion
of body” Marieb & Hoehn – Figure 12.12 / 12.13

6
 Central Nervous System Central Nervous System

Brain Anatomy:
D. Brain stem:
• Deep gray matter; superficial white matter
Cerebrum
(forebrain) • Produce rigidly programmed, autonomic
behaviors necessary for survival
• Conduction pathways between higher Thalamus

and lower brain centers

Midbrain: Midbrain
Diencephalon
(midbrain)
• Visual / auditory reflex centers

Pons:
• Regulate respiration rate / depth

Medulla oblongata: Pons

Brainstem Cerebellum • Location where fiber tracts from
(hindbrain) Medulla
spinal cord cross over (decussation) oblongata
• Autonomic reflex center
• Heart rate / blood pressure
• Respiratory rhythm
• Vomiting / hiccupping / etc. Marieb & Hoehn – Figure 12.15

Marieb & Hoehn – Figure 12.19

Central Nervous System Central Nervous System

Brain Anatomy:
Aggregation of loosely
Reticular Activating System (RAS - functional brain system): clustered neurons:

Cerebrum
(forebrain)

Lateral
group
Medial
group
Raphe
nucleus
• Raphe nuclei (midline) Diencephalon
(midbrain)
• Medial (large cell) group
visual
• Lateral (small cell) group
Twisting of brain stem can
stimuli
lead to irreversible coma

auditory
stimuli
LSD
Brainstem Cerebellum
(hindbrain)
general
stimuli

• Maintains cerebral cortical alertness (e.g., on / off switch)

• Filters out repetitive stimuli (~ 99% of stimuli filtered…)

Central Nervous System Central Nervous System

Meningitis:
Brain Anatomy: Protection of the Brain: Inflammation of the meninges
E. Cerebellum: 1) Bone (Skull – cranium portion)
“Small brain” 2) Meninges (specialized connective tissue membranes)
• Gray matter superficial; white matter deep (11% TBM)
• Precise timing of muscle coordination A) Dura mater (“tough mother”) C) Pia mater (“gentle mother”)
(balance, posture, repeated movements)
Folia • Fibrous outer coating (2 layers) • Thin inner membrane
• All activity subconscious Arbor vitae
• Protects CNS • Contains blood vessels
B) Arachnoid mater (“spider mother”)
Cerebellar Processing: Two layers enclose
• Delicate middle layer dural venous sinuses

Cerebral cortex • Nourishes CNS

sends signal to move

Bone
Dura mater
(periosteal layer)
Sensory information Dura mater
Maintain from body (meningeal layer)
body
coordination
Subarachnoid
Arachnoid mater space
(filled with CSF)

Pia mater
Commands to motor
neurons of spinal cord
Marieb & Hoehn – Figure 12.17 Marieb & Hoehn – Figure 12.24

7
 Central Nervous System Central Nervous System

Protection of the Brain: Constant internal environment necessary Homeostatic Imbalances of the Brain: Leading cause of accidental
for proper neuronal functioning in brain death in North America
1) Bone (Skull – cranium portion) 1) Traumatic brain injury
2) Meninges (specialized connective tissue membranes)
3) Blood-brain barrier: Astrocyte-maintained barrier lining blood capillaries

Three layers of protection:

A. Capillary endothelium
B. Thick basal lamina
C. Bulbous ‘feet’ of astrocytes
• Signal tight junction formation Concussion Subdural hemorrhage Cerebral edema
Alteration in brain function Bleeding into subarachnoid Swelling of the brain
Tightly regulate substances following blow to head space via ruptured vessels
bathing brain:
In: glucose, amino acids, 2) Cerebrovascular accident
selected electrolytes Third leading cause of
death in North America
Out: metabolic waste (urea), 3) Degenerative brain disorders
proteins, toxins, drugs Ischemic stroke
• Alzheimer’s disease Blockage of blood supply
• Parkinson’s disease to brain due to blood clot
• Displays differentially permeable (e.g., vomit center  brain stem)
• Huntington’s disease • May be transient

Marieb & Hoehn – Figure 11.3

Central Nervous System Central Nervous System Protected by

vertebral column / meninges
Organization of Nervous System: Spinal Cord:
• Provides conduction pathway to / from brain
Nervous system
• Contains major reflex centers Cervical
region
• Independently initiates patterns of motor (8)
(8)
Integration
activity (e.g., walking)
Central nervous system Peripheral nervous system Cervical
(CNS) (PNS) enlargement

Motor Sensory
Gross Anatomy: Thoracic
Lumbar
output input • ~ 18 inches long (via vertebral foramen) enlargement region
(12)
Brain Spinal cord Motor division Sensory division • Two enlargements (cervical / lumbar) (12)
Cornus
(efferent) (afferent) • Innervation of limbs medullaris
• Cord proper ends at L1
Cauda
Lumbar
• Cauda equina (“horse’s tail”) equina
region
Autonomic nervous system Somatic nervous system • Spinal nerves (31 pairs) (5)
(involuntary; smooth & cardiac muscle) (voluntary; skeletal muscle)
(5)
Sacral
region
(5)
(5)
Sympathetic division Parasympathetic division
(1)
(1)
Marieb & Hoehn – Figure 12.29

Central Nervous System Central Nervous System

Ascending tracts:
Carry information to brain
Spinal Cord: Spinal Cord:
Descending tracts:
Cross-sectional Anatomy: Carry information from brain Cross-sectional Anatomy:
Posterior median sulcus
Transverse tracts:
Posterior Carry information across cord
funiculus
White
matter

Central canal
Lateral
Gray
funiculus matter

Characteristics:
1) Decussation present
Anterior
funiculus 2) Multi-neuron pathways
Anterior median fissure 3) Somatotopy exhibited
4) Symmetrical arrangement Marieb & Hoehn – Figure 12.33

8
 Central Nervous System Central Nervous System

Spinal Cord: Spinal Cord:

Cross-sectional Anatomy: Cross-sectional Anatomy:
Posterior median sulcus
Posterior Posterior Dorsal Root
funiculus horn
White (interneurons) Dorsal root
matter ganglion

Sensory
neuron
Central canal
Lateral Lateral Interneuron
Gray
funiculus matter horn
(visceral motor neurons) Motor
neuron
Gray Spinal
commissure nerve

Anterior Anterior Ventral Root

funiculus horn
Anterior median fissure (somatic motor neurons)

Central Nervous System Central Nervous System

Spinal Cord: Homeostatic Imbalances of the Spinal Cord:

Organization of Gray Matter: 1) Spinal cord trauma

Paralysis / Paresthesias Paraplegia Quadriplegia

Damage to spinal cord leading Transection of spinal cord Transection of spinal cord
leading to functional / sensory loss between T1 and L1 between C4 and C7

2) Poliomyelitis 3) Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS)

Lou Gehrig’s
disease

Destruction of ventral horn Progressive destruction of ventral

motor neurons by poliovirus horn motor neurons (autoimmune?)