Van Allen radiation belt - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.

org/wiki/Van_Allen_radiation_belt

Van Allen radiation belt

A Van Allen radiation belt is a zone of energetic
charged particles, most of which originate from the solar
wind, that are captured by and held around a planet by
that planet's magnetic field. Earth has two such belts and
sometimes others may be temporarily created. The
discovery of the belts is credited to James Van Allen, and
as a result, Earth's belts are known as the Van Allen
belts. Earth's two main belts extend from an altitude of
about 640 to 58,000 km (400 to 36,040 mi)[1] above the
surface in which region radiation levels vary. Most of the This video illustrates changes in the shape and
particles that form the belts are thought to come from intensity of a cross section of the Van Allen belts.
solar wind and other particles by cosmic rays.[2] By
trapping the solar wind, the magnetic field deflects those
energetic particles and protects the atmosphere from
destruction.

The belts are located in the inner region of Earth's

magnetosphere. The belts trap energetic electrons and
protons. Other nuclei, such as alpha particles, are less
prevalent. The belts endanger satellites, which must have
their sensitive components protected with adequate
shielding if they spend significant time near that zone. In
A cross section of Van Allen radiation belts
2013, NASA reported that the Van Allen Probes had
discovered a transient, third radiation belt, which was
observed for four weeks until it was destroyed by a powerful, interplanetary shock wave from the Sun.[3]

Contents
Discovery
Research
Inner belt
Outer belt
Flux values
Antimatter confinement
Implications for space travel
Causes
Proposed removal
See also

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Notes
References
Additional sources
External links

Discovery
Kristian Birkeland, Carl Størmer, and Nicholas Christofilos had investigated the possibility of trapped charged
particles before the Space Age.[4] Explorer 1 and Explorer 3 confirmed the existence of the belt in early 1958 under
James Van Allen at the University of Iowa. The trapped radiation was first mapped by Explorer 4, Pioneer 3 and Luna
1.

The term Van Allen belts refers specifically to the radiation belts surrounding Earth; however, similar radiation belts
have been discovered around other planets. The Sun does not support long-term radiation belts, as it lacks a stable,
global, dipole field. The Earth's atmosphere limits the belts' particles to regions above 200–1,000 km,[5] (124–620
miles) while the belts do not extend past 8 Earth radii RE.[5] The belts are confined to a volume which extends about
65°[5] on either side of the celestial equator.

Research
The NASA Van Allen Probes mission aims at understanding (to the point of
predictability) how populations of relativistic electrons and ions in space
form or change in response to changes in solar activity and the solar wind.
NASA Institute for Advanced Concepts–funded studies have proposed
magnetic scoops to collect antimatter that naturally occurs in the Van Allen
belts of Earth, although only about 10 micrograms of antiprotons are
estimated to exist in the entire belt.[6]

The Van Allen Probes mission successfully launched on August 30, 2012.[7]
The primary mission is scheduled to last two years with expendables
expected to last four. NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center manages the
Living With a Star program of which the Van Allen Probes is a project,
along with Solar Dynamics Observatory (SDO). The Applied Physics
Laboratory is responsible for the implementation and instrument
management for the Van Allen Probes.[8]
Jupiter's variable radiation belts
Radiation belts exist around other planets and moons in the solar system
that have magnetic fields powerful enough to sustain them. To date, most of
these radiation belts have been poorly mapped. The Voyager Program (namely Voyager 2) only nominally confirmed
the existence of similar belts around Uranus and Neptune.

Inner belt
The inner Van Allen Belt extends typically from an altitude of 0.2 to 2 Earth radii (L values of 1 to 3) or 1,000 km
(620 mi) to 6,000 km (3,700 mi) above the Earth.[2][9] In certain cases when solar activity is stronger or in

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geographical areas such as the South Atlantic Anomaly, the inner boundary
may decline to roughly 200 kilometers[10] above the Earth's surface. The
inner belt contains high concentrations of electrons in the range of
hundreds of keV and energetic protons with energies exceeding 100 MeV,
trapped by the strong (relative to the outer belts) magnetic fields in the
region.[11]

It is believed that proton energies exceeding 50 MeV in the lower belts at

lower altitudes are the result of the beta decay of neutrons created by
cosmic ray collisions with nuclei of the upper atmosphere. The source of Cutaway drawing of two radiation
belts around Earth: the inner belt
lower energy protons is believed to be proton diffusion due to changes in
(red) dominated by protons and the
the magnetic field during geomagnetic storms.[12]
outer one (blue) by electrons. Image
Credit: NASA
Due to the slight offset of the belts from Earth's geometric center, the inner
Van Allen belt makes its closest approach to the surface at the South
Atlantic Anomaly.[13] [14]

On March 2014, a pattern resembling 'zebra stripes' was observed in the radiation belts by the Radiation Belt Storm
Probes Ion Composition Experiment (RBSPICE) onboard Van Allen Probes. The reason reported was that due to the
tilt in Earth's magnetic field axis, the planet’s rotation generated an oscillating, weak electric field that permeates
through the entire inner radiation belt.[15] It was later demonstrated that the zebra stripes were in fact an imprint of
ionospheric winds on radiation belts.[16]

Outer belt
The outer belt consists mainly of high energy (0.1–10 MeV)
electrons trapped by the Earth's magnetosphere. It is more
variable than the inner belt as it is more easily influenced by
solar activity. It is almost toroidal in shape, beginning at an
altitude of three and extending to ten Earth radii (RE) 13,000
to 60,000 kilometres (8,100 to 37,300 mi) above the Earth's
surface. Its greatest intensity is usually around 4–5 RE. The
outer electron radiation belt is mostly produced by the inward
radial diffusion[17][18] and local acceleration[19] due to
transfer of energy from whistler-mode plasma waves to
radiation belt electrons. Radiation belt electrons are also
constantly removed by collisions with Earth's atmosphere,[19]
Laboratory simulation of the Van Allen belt's
losses to the magnetopause, and their outward radial
influence on the Solar Wind; these aurora-like
diffusion. The gyroradii of energetic protons would be large
Birkeland currents were created by the scientist
enough to bring them into contact with the Earth's Kristian Birkeland in his terrella, a magnetized
atmosphere. Within this belt, the electrons have a high flux anode globe in an evacuated chamber
and at the outer edge (close to the magnetopause), where
geomagnetic field lines open into the geomagnetic "tail", the
flux of energetic electrons can drop to the low interplanetary levels within about 100 km (62 mi), a decrease by a factor
of 1,000.

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In 2014 it was discovered that the inner edge of the outer belt is characterized by a very sharp transition, below which
highly relativistic electrons (> 5MeV) cannot penetrate.[20] The reason for this shield-like behavior is not well
understood.

The trapped particle population of the outer belt is varied, containing electrons and various ions. Most of the ions are
in the form of energetic protons, but a certain percentage are alpha particles and O+ oxygen ions, similar to those in the
ionosphere but are much more energetic. This mixture of ions suggests that ring current particles probably come from
more than one source.

The outer belt is larger than the inner belt and its particle population fluctuates widely. Energetic (radiation) particle
fluxes can increase and decrease dramatically in response to geomagnetic storms, which are themselves triggered by
magnetic field and plasma disturbances produced by the Sun. The increases are due to storm-related injections and
acceleration of particles from the tail of the magnetosphere.

On February 28, 2013, a third radiation belt, consisting of high-energy ultrarelativistic charged particles, was reported
to be discovered. In a news conference by NASA's Van Allen Probe team, it was stated that this third belt is a product of
coronal mass ejection from the Sun. It has been represented as a separate creation which splits the Outer Belt, like a
knife, on its outer side, and exists separately as a storage container of particles for a month's time, before merging once
again with the Outer Belt.[21]

The unusual stability of this third, transient belt has been explained as due to a 'trapping' by the Earth's magnetic field
of ultrarelativistic particles as they are lost from the second, traditional outer belt. While the outer zone, which forms
and disappears over a day, is highly variable due to interactions with the atmosphere, the ultrarelativistic particles of
the third belt are thought to not scatter into the atmosphere, as they are too energetic to interact with atmospheric
waves at low latitudes.[22] This absence of scattering and the trapping allows them to persist for a long time, finally
only being destroyed by an unusual event, such as the shock wave from the Sun.

Flux values
In the belts, at a given point, the flux of particles of a given energy decreases sharply with energy.

At the magnetic equator, electrons of energies exceeding 500 keV (resp. 5 MeV) have omnidirectional fluxes ranging
from 1.2×106 (resp. 3.7×104) up to 9.4×109 (resp. 2×107) particles per square centimeter per second.

The proton belts contain protons with kinetic energies ranging from about 100 keV (which can penetrate 0.6 µm of
lead) to over 400 MeV (which can penetrate 143 mm of lead).[23]

Most published flux values for the inner and outer belts may not show the maximum probable flux densities that are
possible in the belts. There is a reason for this discrepancy: the flux density and the location of the peak flux is variable
(depending primarily on solar activity), and the number of spacecraft with instruments observing the belt in real time
has been limited. The Earth has not experienced a solar storm of Carrington event intensity and duration while
spacecraft with the proper instruments have been available to observe the event.

Regardless of the differences of the flux levels in the Inner and Outer Van Allen belts, the beta radiation levels would be
dangerous to humans if they were exposed for an extended period of time. The Apollo missions minimised hazards for
astronauts by sending spacecraft at high speeds through the thinner areas of the upper belts, bypassing inner belts
completely.[13][24][25]

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Flux values, normal solar conditions

AP8 MIN omnidirectional proton flux ≥ 100 keV

AP8 MIN omnidirectional proton flux ≥ 1 MeV

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AP8 MIN omnidirectional proton flux ≥ 400 MeV

Antimatter confinement
In 2011, a study confirmed earlier speculation that the Van Allen belt could confine antiparticles. The PAMELA
experiment detected orders of magnitude higher levels of antiprotons than are expected from normal particle decays
while passing through the South Atlantic Anomaly. This suggests the Van Allen belts confine a significant flux of
antiprotons produced by the interaction of the Earth's upper atmosphere with cosmic rays.[26] The energy of the
antiprotons has been measured in the range from 60–750 MeV.

Research funded by the NASA Institute for Advanced Concepts concluded that harnessing these antiprotons for
spacecraft propulsion would be feasible. Researchers believed that this approach would have advantages over
antiproton generation at CERN because collecting the particles in situ eliminates transportation losses and costs.
Jupiter and Saturn are also possible sources but the Earth belt is the most productive. Jupiter is less productive than
might be expected due to magnetic shielding from cosmic rays of much of its atmosphere.[27]

Implications for space travel

Spacecraft travelling beyond low Earth orbit enter the zone of radiation of the Van Allen belts. Beyond the belts, they
face additional hazards from cosmic rays and solar particle events. A region between the inner and outer Van Allen
belts lies at two to four Earth radii and is sometimes referred to as the "safe zone".[28][29]

Solar cells, integrated circuits, and sensors can be damaged by radiation. Geomagnetic storms occasionally damage
electronic components on spacecraft. Miniaturization and digitization of electronics and logic circuits have made
satellites more vulnerable to radiation, as the total electric charge in these circuits is now small enough so as to be
comparable with the charge of incoming ions. Electronics on satellites must be hardened against radiation to operate
reliably. The Hubble Space Telescope, among other satellites, often has its sensors turned off when passing through
regions of intense radiation.[30] A satellite shielded by 3 mm of aluminium in an elliptic orbit (200 by 20,000 miles
(320 by 32,190 km)) passing the radiation belts will receive about 2,500 rem (25 Sv) per year (for comparison, a full-
body dose of 5 Sv is deadly). Almost all radiation will be received while passing the inner belt.[31]

The Apollo missions marked the first event where humans traveled through the Van Allen belts, which was one of

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several radiation hazards known by mission planners.[32] The

astronauts had low exposure in the Van Allen belts due to the short
period of time spent flying through them. Apollo flight trajectories
bypassed the inner belts completely, passing through the thinner areas
of the outer belts.[25][33]

Astronauts' overall exposure was actually dominated by solar particles

once outside Earth's magnetic field. The total radiation received by the
astronauts varied from mission to mission but was measured to be
between 0.16 and 1.14 rads (1.6 and 11.4 mGy), much less than the
standard of 5 rem (50 mSv) per year set by the United States Atomic
Energy Commission for people who work with radioactivity.[32]

Comparison of geostationary, GPS,

Causes
It is generally understood that the inner and outer Van Allen belts
result from different processes. The inner belt, consisting mainly of
energetic protons, is the product of the decay of so-called "albedo"
neutrons which are themselves the result of cosmic ray collisions in
the upper atmosphere. The outer belt consists mainly of electrons.
They are injected from the geomagnetic tail following geomagnetic
storms, and are subsequently energized through wave-particle
interactions.
In the inner belt, particles that originate from the Sun are trapped in
the Earth's magnetic field. Particles spiral along the magnetic lines of
flux as they move "longitudinally" along those lines. As particles move
toward the poles, the magnetic field line density increases and their
"longitudinal" velocity is slowed and can be reversed, reflecting the particle and causing them to bounce back and forth
between the Earth's poles.[34] In addition to the spiral about and motion along the flux lines, the electrons move slowly
in an eastward direction, while the ions move westward.
GLONASS, Galileo, Compass (MEO),
International Space Station, Hubble
Space Telescope, Iridium constellation
and graveyard orbits, with the Van Allen
radiation belts and the Earth to scale.[a]
The Moon's orbit is around 9 times larger
than geostationary orbit.[b] (In
the SVG file,
(https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia
/commons
/b/b4/Comparison_satellite_navigation_or
bits.svg) hover over an orbit or its label to
highlight it; click to load its article.)

A gap between the inner and outer Van Allen belts, sometimes called safe zone or safe slot, is caused by the Very Low
Frequency (VLF) waves which scatter particles in pitch angle which results in the gain of particles to the atmosphere.
Solar outbursts can pump particles into the gap but they drain again in a matter of days. The radio waves were
originally thought to be generated by turbulence in the radiation belts, but recent work by James L. Green of the
Goddard Space Flight Center comparing maps of lightning activity collected by the Microlab 1 spacecraft with data on
radio waves in the radiation-belt gap from the IMAGE spacecraft suggests that they are actually generated by lightning
within Earth's atmosphere. The radio waves that generate strike the ionosphere at the correct angle to pass through
only at high latitudes, where the lower ends of the gap approach the upper atmosphere. These results are still under
scientific debate.

Proposed removal
High Voltage Orbiting Long Tether, or HiVOLT, is a concept proposed by Russian physicist V. V. Danilov and
further refined by Robert P. Hoyt and Robert L. Forward for draining and removing the radiation fields of the Van

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Allen radiation belts[35] that surround the Earth.[36] A proposed configuration consists of a system of five 100 km long
conducting tethers deployed from satellites, and charged to a large voltage. This would cause charged particles that
encounter the tethers to have their pitch angle changed; thus, over time, dissolving the inner belts. Hoyt and Forward's
company, Tethers Unlimited, performed a preliminary analysis simulation in 2011, and produced a chart depicting a
theoretical radiation flux reduction,[37] to less than 1% of current levels within two months for the inner belts that
threaten LEO objects.[38]

See also
Dipole model of the Earth's magnetic field
L-shell
List of artificial radiation belts
List of plasma (physics) articles
Space weather

Notes
a. Orbital periods and speeds are calculated using the relations 4π²R³ = T²GM and V²R = GM, where R = radius of
orbit in metres, T = orbital period in seconds, V = orbital speed in m/s, G = gravitational constant ≈
6.673 × 10−11 Nm²/kg², M = mass of Earth ≈ 5.98 × 1024 kg.
b. Approximately 8.6 times (in radius and length) when the moon is nearest (363 104 km ÷ 42 164 km) to 9.6 times
when the moon is farthest (405 696 km ÷ 42 164 km).

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36. Mirnov, Vladimir; Üçer, Defne; Danilov, Valentin (November 10–15, 1996). High-Voltage Tethers For Enhanced
Particle Scattering In Van Allen Belts. 38. College Park, MD: American Physical Society, Division of Plasma
Physics Meeting. p. 7. Bibcode:1996APS..DPP..7E06M (http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1996APS..DPP..7E06M).
OCLC 205379064 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/205379064). Abstract #7E.06.
37. "HiVOLT_Results.jpg" (http://www.tethers.com/WebImages/HiVOLT_Results.jpg). Tethers Unlimited. Retrieved
2013-09-27. Chart depicting radiation flux reduction.
38. "High-Voltage Orbiting Long Tether (HiVOLT): A System for Remediation of the Van Allen Radiation Belts"
(http://www.tethers.com/HiVOLT.html). Tethers Unlimited. Retrieved 2011-06-18.

Additional sources
1. Adams, L.; Daly, E. J.; Harboe-Sorensen, R.; Holmes-Siedle, A. G.; Ward, A. K.; Bull, R. A. (December 1991).
"Measurement of SEU and total dose in geostationary orbit under normal and solar flare conditions". IEEE
Transactions on Nuclear Science. 38 (6): 1686–1692. Bibcode:1991ITNS...38.1686A (http://adsabs.harvard.edu
/abs/1991ITNS...38.1686A). doi:10.1109/23.124163 (https://doi.org/10.1109%2F23.124163). OCLC 4632198117
(https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/4632198117).

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Van Allen radiation belt - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Van_Allen_radiation_belt

2. Holmes-Siedle, Andrew; Adams, Len (2002). Handbook of Radiation Effects (2nd ed.). Oxford; New York: Oxford
University Press. ISBN 0-19-850733-X. LCCN 2001053096 (https://lccn.loc.gov/2001053096). OCLC 47930537
(https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/47930537).
3. Shprits, Yuri Y.; Elkington, Scott R.; Meredith, Nigel P.; Subbotin, Dmitriy A. (November 2008). "Review of
modeling of losses and sources of relativistic electrons in the outer radiation belt". Journal of Atmospheric and
Solar-Terrestrial Physics. 70 (14). Part I: Radial transport, pp. 1679–1693, doi:10.1016/j.jastp.2008.06.008
(https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jastp.2008.06.008); Part II: Local acceleration and loss, pp. 1694–1713,
doi:10.1016/j.jastp.2008.06.014 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jastp.2008.06.014).

External links
An explanation of the belts (http://www.phy6.org/Education/Iradbelt.html) by David P. Stern and Mauricio Peredo
Background: Trapped particle radiation models (http://www.spenvis.oma.be/help/background/traprad/traprad.html)
– Introduction to the trapped radiation belts by SPENVIS
SPENVIS – Space Environment, Effects, and Education System (http://www.spenvis.oma.be/) – Gateway to the
SPENVIS orbital dose calculation software
The Van Allen Probes Web Site (http://vanallenprobes.jhuapl.edu) Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics
Laboratory

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