The concept of DFM (Design for Manufacture) is not new, it dates back as early as 1788 when LeBlanc,

a Frenchman, devised the concept of inter-changeable parts in the manufacture of muskets which
previously were individually hand made. DFM is the practice of designing products keeping
manufacturing in mind. “Designfor manufacture” means the design for ease of manufacture for
the collection of parts that will form the product after assembly. Similarly DFA is called Design for
Assembly.DFA is the practice of designing product with assembly in mind. “Design for assembly” means
the design of the product for ease of assembly. So design for Manufacture and assembly is the
combination of DFM and DFA as shown in Figure M1.1.1

DfMA principles

In a similar approach to lean construction, applying DfMA

enables the identification, quantification and elimination of
waste or inefficiency in product manufacture and assembly. It
can also be used as a benchmarking tool to study the products
of competitors.

The main principles of DfMA are:

 Minimize the number of components: Thereby reducing assembly and ordering costs, reducing work-in-process, and
simplifying automation.
 Design for ease of part-fabrication: The geometry of parts is simplified and unnecessary features are avoided.
 Tolerances of parts: Part should be designed to be within process capability.
 Clarity: Components should be designed so they can only be assembled one way.
 Minimise the use of flexible components: Parts made of rubber, gaskets, cables and so on, should be limited as
handling and assembly is generally more difficult.
 Design for ease of assembly: For example, the use of snap-fits and adhesive bonding rather than threaded fasteners
such as nuts and bolts. Where possible a product should be designed with a base component for locating other
components quickly and accurately.
 Eliminate or reduce required adjustments: Designing adjustments into a product means there are more opportunities
for out-of-adjustment conditions to arise.

Advantages of DfMA

Some of the main advantages of DfMA include:

Speed One of the primary advantages of DfMA in construction is the significantly reduced programme on-site through the
use of prefabricated elements.

Lower assembly cost By using fewer parts, decreasing the amount of labour required, and reducing the number of unique
parts, DfMA can significantly lower the cost of assembly.

Higher quality and sustainability A highly automated approach can enhance quality and efficiency at each stage. There
may be less waste generation in the construction phase, greater efficiency in site logistics, and a reduction in vehicle
movements transporting materials to site.

Shorter assembly time DFMA shortens assembly time by utilizing standard assembly practices such as vertical assembly
and self-aligning parts. DFMA also ensures that the transition from the design phase to the production phase is as smooth
and rapid as possible.

Increased reliability DfMA increases reliability by lowering the number of parts, thereby decreasing the chance of failure.

Safety By removing construction activities from the site and placing them in a controlled factory environment there is the
possibility of a significant positive impact on safety.
Following are the case studies and can be shown as examples.

https://www.dfma.com/resources/studies.asp

11 Principles and Guidelines in Design for Manufacturing and Assembly

Here are 11 Principles and Guidelines in Design for Manufacturing and Assembly:

1. Minimize number of components. Assembly costs are reduced. The final product is more reliable because there are
fewer connections. Disassembly for maintenance and field service is easier. Reduced part count usually means automation
is easier to implement. Work-in-process is reduced, and there are fewer inventory control problems. Fewer parts need to
be purchased, which reduces ordering costs.
2. Use standard commercially available components. Design time and effort are reduced. Design of custom-engineered
components is avoided. There are fewer part numbers. Inventory control is facilitated. Quantity discounts may be possible.
3. Use common parts across product lines. There is an opportunity to apply group technology. Implementation of
manufacturing cells may be possible. Quantity discounts may be possible.
4. Design for ease of part fabrication. Net shape and near net shape processes may be feasible. Part geometry is
simplified, and unnecessary features are avoided. Unnecessary surface finish requirements should be avoided; otherwise,
additional processing may be needed.
5. Design parts with tolerances that are within process capability. Tolerances tighter than the process capability should
be avoided; otherwise, additional processing or sortation will be required. Bilateral tolerances should be specified.
6. Design the product to be foolproof during assembly. Assembly should be unambiguous. Components should be
designed so they can be assembled only one way. Special geometric features must sometimes be added to components
to achieve foolproof assembly.
7. Minimize use of flexible components. Flexible components include parts made of rubber, belts, gaskets, cables, etc.
Flexible components are generally more difficult to handle and assemble.
8. Design for ease of assembly. Part features such as chamfers and tapers should be designed on mating parts. Design
the assembly using base parts to which other components are added. The assembly should be designed so that
components are added from one direction, usually vertically. Threaded fasteners (screws, bolts, nuts) should be avoided
where possible, especially when automated assembly is used; instead, fast assembly techniques such as snap fits and
adhesive bonding should be employed. The number of distinct fasteners should be minimized.
9. Use modular design. Each subassembly should consist of five to fifteen parts. Maintenance and repair are facilitated.
Automated and manual assembly are implemented more readily. Inventory requirements are reduced. Final assembly time
is minimized.
10. Shape parts and products for ease of packaging. The product should be designed so that standard packaging
cartons can be used, which are compatible with automated packaging equipment. Shipment to customer is facilitated.
11. Eliminate or reduce adjustment required. Adjustments are time-consuming in assembly. Designing adjustments into
the product means more opportunities for out-of-adjustment conditions to arise.

History of DFMA

1.Eli Whitney is an inventor from America used some DFM techniques in earlier times before the term DFM came
in to existence. Whitney incorporated the concept of interchangeable parts for manufacturing musket for U.S.
government. Prior to this innovation, each craftsman was responsible to manufacture the complete product by using
saw and files to shape each part and fit them together.

2. Henry Ford an American industrialist was renowned for his advanced and extensive use of assembly lines. The manual
assembly operation was broken down into small chunks of repetitive work that could be carried out at high efficiency.
Ford in his book “My Life and Work” described about the successful model T car that includes simplicity in
operation, absolute reliability and high quality in materials that used in that model. The concept used at that time by
Ford is now referred as DFM.

3.General Electric used value analysis techniques in the late 1940s. With the help of value

analysis techniques , it is possible to find the cost of a product and obtaining the design alternatives for the product
at the lowest cost. The philosophical approach of value analysis is through questioning and comparing the value and
cost of each features and
each element of a product design.

4.The book “Metal Engineering Processes” edited by Roger W. Boltz is one of the books from a series of handbook
published by ASME in 1941. This book provides a series of guidelines to designer in enhancing the manufacturability
of metal components made with a number of manufacturing processes such as casting, forging, extrusion, machining,
joining, finishing etc. Though Boltz used the word DFM, he is the first person arrange and plan DFM methodology.

5. In the year 1960, people started to use the terms producibility and manufacturability and about 1985, design for
manufacturability and its short form DFM were widely used.

6. Geoffrey Boothroyd and A.H. Redford studied automatic assembly and provided various design guidelines to make the
assembly process easier .

7. In the recent years various trade association and vendors of parts are issuing booklets to the product designers providing
a series of guidelines and tolerance and materials

recommendations for parts. These kinds of publications have provided valuable and authorative assistance to product
designers.

Ultrasonic Machining (USM) Working Principles In this process the material of the workpiece is removed by
the repetitive impact actions of abrasive particles. The erosion takes place by the abrasive particles which are
carried by a liquid medium in the from of a slurry . A shaped vibrating tool is used to produce the impact. The
term shaped is used to explain that the process is capable enough to create 3D profiles in correspondence to the
tool shape which is not possible in AJM. The tool gets the vibrating motion from the vibrating mechanical horn. Here is a
schematic diagram of the basic system.
Ultrasonic Machining (USM) Principles

Working principle of Ultrasonic Machining or Ultrasonic Impact Grinding

is described with the help of a schematic diagram. The shaped tool under
the actions of mechanical vibration causes the abrasive particles dipped
in slurry to be hammered on the stationary workpiece. This causes micro-
indentation fracture on the material.

Small abraded particles are removed along the surface which is

perpendicular to the direction of the tool vibration. When the material is
removed a cavity of the same profile of the tool face is formed. The
abrasive particles gradually erodes as the machining process continues.
As a result fresh abrasive particles are needed to be supplied in the
machining zone. Abrasive particles associated with the liquid is fed to the m/c zone and it ensures the removal of the worn out grains
and material.

Machining Time
The machining time of the ultrasonic grinding depends on the frequency of the vibration, material properties and grain size. The
amplitude of the vibration may vary from 5 to 75 µm and frequency may vary from 19~25 kHz. Ample static force is also required to hold
the job against the machining tool . A continues flow of abrasives
suspension is also mandatory.

Advantages of USM:
1. It can be used to drill circular or non-circular holes on very hard
materials like stones, carbides, ceramics and other brittle materials.
2. Non-conducting materials like glass, ceramics and semi precious
stones can also be machined.

Disadvantages of Ultrasonic Machining :

1. It can be proved slower than the conventional machining processes.
2. Creating deep holes is difficult because of the restricted movement of
the suspension.
3. It is arduous to select the perfect tool geometry for creating hole of
certain dimension. The holes created may be of larger sizes because of
side cutting.
4. High tool wear because of continues flow of abrasive slurry.

Applications:

1. Hard and brittle materials can be machined like tungsten carbide, diamond and glass. These are difficult to machine in
conventional m/c-ing process.
2. Wire drawing dies of tungsten carbide can be drilled by this process.
3. Circular as well as non-circular holes can be done with straight or curved axes.
4. It has been proved successful in machining geranium, silicon quartz and synthetic ruby etc.

Ultrasonic Machining:

Principle:

It works on the same principle of ultrasonic welding. This machining uses ultrasonic waves to produce high frequency force of low
amplitude, which act as driving force of abrasive. Ultrasonic machine generates high frequency vibrating wave of frequency about 20000
to 30000 Hz and amplitude about 25-50 micron. This high frequency vibration transfer to abrasive particle contains in abrasive slurry. This
leads indentation of abrasive particle to brittle work piece and removes metal from the contact surface.

Equipment’s:

Power Source:
As we know, this machining process requires high frequency ultrasonic
wave. So a high frequency high voltage power supply require for this
process. This unit converts low frequency electric voltage (60 Hz) into high
frequency electric voltage (20k Hz).

Magnetostrictive transducer:
As we know, transducer is a device which converts electric single into
mechanical vibration. In ultrasonic machining magnetostrictive type
transducer is used to generate mechanical vibration. This transducer is
made by nickel or nickel alloy.

Booster:
The mechanical vibration generated by transducer is passes through
booster which amplify it and supply to the horn.

Tool:
The tool used in ultrasonic machining should be such that indentation by abrasive particle, does not leads to brittle fracture of it. Thus the
tool is made by tough, strong and ductile materials like steel, stainless steel etc.

Tool holder or Horn:

As the name implies this unit connects the tool to the transducer. It transfers amplified vibration from booster to the tool. It should have
high endurance limit.

Abrasive Slurry:
A water based slurry of abrasive particle used as abrasive slurry in ultrasonic machining. Silicon carbide, aluminum oxide, boron carbide
are used as abrasive particle in this slurry. A slurry delivery and return mechanism is also used in USM.

Working process:

Now we know about basic part and idea of ultrasonic machining. In this machining material is removed by indentation of abrasive particle
on work-piece. It works as follow.
 Diagram of Ultrasonic Machinie

 First the low frequency electric current passes through electric

supply. This low frequency current converts into high frequency current
through some electrical equipment.
 This high frequency current passes through transducer. The
transducer converts this high frequency electric single into high
frequency mechanical vibration.
 This mechanical vibration passes through booster. The booster
amplify this high frequency vibration and send to horn.
 Horn which is also known as tool holder, transfer this amplified
vibration to tool which makes tool vibrate at ultrasonic frequency.
 As the tool vibrates, it makes abrasive particle to vibrate at this
high frequency. This abrasive particle strikes to the work piece and
remove metal form it.

This is the whole working process of ultrasonic machining.

Application:

 This machining is used to machine hard and brittle material like carbide, ceramic, glass etc.
 This is used in machining of die and tool of drill, wire drawing machine etc.
 Used in fabrication of silicon nitrite turbine blade.
 It is used to cut diamond in desire shape.
 It is used machining of machining non-conductive hard material which cannot be machined by ECM or EDM due to poor
conductivity.

Advantages and Disadvantages:

Advantages:

 Hard material can be easily machined by this method.

 No heat generated in work so there is no problem of work hardening or change in structure of work piece.
 Non-conductive metals or non-metals, which cannot be machined by ECM of EDM can be machined by it.
 It does not form chips of significant size.

Disadvantages:

 It is quite slower than other mechanical process.

 Tool wear is high because abrasive particle affect both work-piece and tool.
 It can machine only hard material. Ductile metal cannot be machine by this method.
 It cannot be used to drill deep hole.

This is all about ultrasonic machining principle, working, equipment’s, application, advantages and disadvantages. If you have any query
regarding this article, ask by commenting. If you like this article, don’t forget to share it on your social networks. Subscribe our website for
more interesting articles. Thanks for reading it.

Electrical Discharge Machining : Principle, Working, Equipment’s, Advantages and Disadvantages with
Diagram

March 25, 2017 Admin 1 Comment machining, Non -traditional Process

This machining process uses electric spark to remove metal form work piece. This machining is same as removal of metal burr in presence
of electric spark. An electric spark used as the cutting tool to cut the work piece and produce desire shape. This process is done by applying
high frequency current through the electrode to work piece. The spark produce removes metal in form of very small chips. This process is
done in a dielectric fluid.
Electrical discharge Machining:

Principle:

Electrical discharge machining process works on the basic principle of spark generation and metal removed by spark erosion. EDM spark
erosion is same as electric spark which burn a small hole in a piece of metal through witch it contacts. The spark generated by this process
produces heat, which remove metal by erosion and evaporation. In this machining process both the work piece and tool must be made by
conductive material.

Diagram of Electrical Discharge Machining

Equipment’s:

The EDM process contains following equipment’s.

Power Supply:
In a EDM process a high frequency current used to generate spark between electrode and work piece. This spark generates heat and
remove metal form work piece.

Dielectric fluid supply and flushing system:

The dielectric fluid acts as a vehicle to drive away the chips and thus preventing them from sticking to the surface. This fluid acts as flushing
system for chips. It also helps in increasing the metal removal rate by promoting spark between tool and work. This fluid also works as
coolant medium.

Tool and tool holding devices:

In EDM process, tool also erodes due to spark hence the selection of tool depends on wear ratio, ease to tool fabrication and cost of
material. The most commonly used electrode material are Cu, Tungsten alloy, Cast Iron, Steel, Silver tungsten alloy, graphite.

Work piece and work holding devices:

In this process only good conductors of electricity can be machined. So the work piece should have good electric conductivity. This process
does not depend on hardness of work piece so there is no criteria of hardness.

Working:

In this process, work piece should be well electric conductive. Only electric conductive material can be machined by this method. The
working of EDM is as follow.

 First both work piece and tool are submerged into dielectric fluid. The dielectric fluid help to control the arc discharge. This also
removes suspended particles of work piece material and tool from the work cavity.
 A servomechanism is used which maintains a very small gap between the work piece and the tool. This gap is desirable for proper
arc formation. It is about the thickness of human hair.
 The tool is made as the opposite shape of work piece.
 A high frequency current supplied to electrode, which produces a spark between the tool and work piece. This spark generates
high in work cavity.
 The metal removed from the work piece due to erosion and evaporate ion.
 The chips or suspended particle between tool and work pieceshould be removed to prevent them to form bridge that causes short
circuit. This is done by continuous supply of dielectric fluid.
 The EDM produce a cavity slightly larger than the electrode because of overcut.
For better understanding of EDM working process, watch the following video.

Advantages and Disadvantages:

Advantages:

 Every conductive material can be cut by this process.

 It is independent on hardness of workpiece so hardened work piece can be machined easily.
 Complex die section and complex shapes can be produce accurately.
 This process is burr free.
 Thin section can be easily machined without deforming the part.

Disadvantages:

 In this machining process high tool wear occurs.

 Tool wears limits accuracy and surface finish of metal.
 Only good conductors of electricity can be machined by EDM.

Electrical Discharge Machining (EDM) Principles

EDM is a non-conventional machining technique uniquely used for cutting metals which are not possible to cut with traditional methods.
EDM only works with materials which are electrically conductive. Delicate cavities and intricate contours which are difficult to produce
with a grinder or other machines can be done with Electrical Discharge Machining or EDM. The cutting tool for EDM may be made of
hardened too steel, titanium carbide or inconel or kovar.

EDM is also known as "Spark Machining" . Such name has been given for the fact that it removes the metal by applying a rapid series of
repetitive electrical discharges. An electrode and the work piece is used for the conducting path of these electrical discharges. A
continuously flowing fluid is always flowing to flush away the little amount of material that are removed. Repetitive discharge gives the
workpiece a desired shape.

Two primary EDM methods are

Ram EDM and Wire EDM.

Between this two methods the main difference is found in the electrodes. In ram EDM graphite electrodes are used. These electrodes
are machined in traditional tools and a special shape is given which is connected to the power source. The electrodes are also
connected to a ram. When all the arrangements are ready the electrodes are fed into the workpiece. The entire process is performed
under a submerged fluid bath. In Wire EDM the electrode it self is a thin wire. Specially processed brass wires are used for feeding into
the material. Electrical discharges cut the w/p according to desired shape. Wire EDM is generally done while submerged in a bath of
water.

Ram Electro-Discharge Machining (EDM) Process:

Rapid recurrence of spark produced between the two electrodes (tool & w/p) controls the metal erosion. It is to be noted that the
workpiece must be an electrically conducting metal. An appropriate gap is necessary which is usually approximately 0.025 to 0.075 mm
known as spark gap. The gap must be maintained between the w/p and the tool by a servo motor which runs by the difference between
a reference and gap breakdown voltage. The tool moves upwards and downwards by this operating motor.
The rate of metal removal depends on the spark gap. If both the electrodes are made of same materials then the highest erosion is
found on the positive electrode or the anode. So logically to get a high metal removal rate and a greater tool life the tool is made as
cathode and workpiece works as anode, The two electrodes are kept apart and are separated by a dielectric fluid. A transient electric
discharge is found across the gap between the two electrodes in the form of spark. When the potential difference between the electrodes
is sufficient, the dielectric fluid is ionized and break down which in terms produces an conductive spark channel. The current is
discharged across the channel by the condensers as spark. If the potential difference is less than or equal to 12 volts the dielectric fluid
is deionized. The process is repeat itself as the condensers start to recharge. The spark interval is generally 10 to 30 microseconds and
the current density ranges from 15-500 am/mm2. The energy is released from the sparks in the form of local heat and eventually local
temperature found is in the order of 12000°C. Such high temperature and pressure melts and erodes some metals some of which is
vaporized and other fine material particles are carried by the fluid circulating around the electrodes which creates a crater on the w/p. As
the time interval of the sparks is very low the heat doesn't get time to conducted between the tool & workpiece. Fig below shows a
schematic diagram of the whole process.

How to choose the Tool Material

Many factors are needed to be taken into consideration while selecting
the tool material.

 Low erosion rate and decent work to tool wear ratio

 good electrical conductivity
 good machinability
 low electrical resistance
 high melting point .
 high rate of electron emission

EDM has one major drawback and it is the wear ratio of the tool. Different
material has different wear ratio. For Brass it is 1:1 . For metallic electrodes it is found 3:1 or 4:1 . For high melting point electrode
graphite it ranges from 5:1 to 50 :1 .

Tool Wear

While applying EDM the tool or cathode also erodes which is not desirable. It is unavoidable but remains in tolerable limit as the wear of
the cathode is much less than the anode. This occurs because -

 Positive ions from the dielectric fluid hit the cathode but electrons strikes the anode. Though electrons are much lighter than the
positive ions it possesses more energy as it moves it greater velocity. So anode gets more eroded.
 At the time of spark a compressive force is created at the cathode which reduces the cathode erosion.
 Fluid medium is generally hydrocarbon. Due to pyrolysis gases are produced which produces carbon particle and these
particles create a thin layer of protection on the cathode. Thus the cathode is much safer than anode.

Purpose of Dielectric Fluid

 Effective Coolant for the workpiece and the tool .

 It works as an insulating material during the charging of the condenser as a result perfect condition for efficacious spark
discharge and its conduction when ionized is obtained.
 The eroded materials are carried away by this medium.
 It is a coolant in quenching the spark and prevents the arcing.

Essential Requirements for dielectric fluid

 Optimum Viscosity is necessary . If the viscosity is low then the fluid will not be able to carry the metal particles. On the other
hand if the viscosity is high then it will restrict the flow of the liquid.
 It should be non-reactive with the work piece, container or the tool material.
 Non-expensive, easily available and inflammable.
 It should not produce toxic gases or vapors during the operation.
 It should be a hydrocarbon compound.

Different dielectric fluids are : transformer oil, spirit (white), oil and kerosene etc. If some conducting power like aluminum or light
graphite is added to the fluid then the metal removal rate increases.

Advantages of EDM

 Metal having any hardness or brittleness and toughness can be machined.

 Harder materials such as steel alloys or tungsten carbides which are used for molding and other non-conventional machining
like forging and press tools can be reproduced.
  Dies can be machined at hardened condition.
 Complicated shapes can be reproduced.
 Very fine holes can be done very accurately .
 The accuracy is very high. Tolerance of 0.005 mm can be achieved.
 Wear resistance surface can be made because workpieces produced with EDM have micro-craters which can contain
lubricants effectively.
 The physical contact between the tool and w/p is avoided. No cutting force other than blasting pressure is exerted. So fragile
jobs and cylinders can be machined without causing any damage.
 Harder metals can be machined very quickly in comparison to the conventional machining process.

Disadvantages Electrical Discharge Machining

 The power required for machining is much higher compared to the conventional machining. (120J/mm2)
 There are chances of surface cracking when the materials become brittle at room temperature.

 A thin layer usually ranging from 0.01 mm to 0,10 mm containing 4 % carbon may be deposited on the workpieces made of
steel
 The Material Removal Rate (MRR) is comparatively low (75 mm3/sec)
 Reproducing sharp corners is difficult in EDM.
 Sometimes the micro-structures are distorted and subsequently etching occurs.

Applications of EDM

Generally EDM is hugely used for machining burr free intricate shapes as well as narrow slots and blind cavities. Sinking of dies , plastic
molding, die casting compacting, cold heading, extrusion, press tools, wire drawings are some of the examples of its application.
Negative tool geometry can also be generated on a w/p if suitable tool can be made. EDM is very useful for machining small holes. It is
also used to cut slot in diesel fuel injection nozzles. It is also used in air crfat engines and brake valves etc.

Wire Electrical Discharge Machining

A very thin wire of diameter ranging from 0.02 to 0.3 mm is used as an electrode in wire cut EDM. It cuts the workpiece with electrical
discharge just like a band saw. In this process either workpiece or the wire is moved. The spark discharge phenomenon is used for
eroding the metal which is same as the conventional EDM. In wire cut EDM the wire acts as an electrode as a result complicated shapes
can be cut easily without forming electrode. Basically the wire-cut EDM consists of a machine which has a workpiece contour movement
control unit ( NC tension : a power supply which supplies electrical energy to the wire and has a unit ) . It also has workpiece mounting
table and a wire driver section. The wire driver section is use for moving the wire accurately at a constant tension. Another important part
is the dielectric fluid (distilled water) supplier having constant specific resistance. Wire EDM has the following features -

 No forming electrode is necessary.

 electrode wear is very negligible.
 Smooth machined surface.
 Tight geometrical and dimensional tolerances .
 Extremely high tolerances between punch and die. Extended die life.
 Straight holes are possible to produce.
 Machine can be operated without any regular supervision for long time at high operating rates.
 No skill is needed to run the machine.

Advantages

 Because of the absense of the split lines in the die, savings of

the stages in the sequential tools occurs. It permits more punch
opening per stage.
 There will no flashes on the molded parts because the molds
with draught can be arranged without vertical divisions.
 To necessity for tool manufacturing and storing.
  Workpieces are hardened before cutting . So no heat treatment distortion is not present.
 Whole work is done in one machine . So die manufacturing cycle time is short.
 Lesser inspection time because of single piece construction of dies with high accuracy.
 Time is utilized perfectly as the wire cut EDM can cut throughout the day.
 Very economical even for small batch production.
 low thermally affected zone. High surface finish.
 Number of rejected workpieces are very small.

EDM Electrode Materials Information

EDM electrodes consist of highly conductive and/or arc erosion-resistant materials such as
graphite or copper. EDM is an acronym for electrical discharge machining, a process that uses a
controlled electrical spark to erode metal. EDM electrodes include components made from
brass, copper and copper alloys, graphite, molybdenum, silver, and tungsten.

Electrical discharge machining (EDM) makes it possible to work with metal for which traditional
machining techniques are ineffective. It only works (except by specific design) with materials
that are electrically conductive. Using recurring electric discharge, it is possible to cut small,
odd-shaped angles and detailed contours or cavities in hardened steel as well as exotic metals
such as titanium and carbide.

Types

EDM electrode materials need to have properties that easily allow charge and yet resist the erosion that the EDM process
encourages and stimulates in the metals it machines. Alloys have properties which provide different advantages based on
the needs of the application.

Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc. Brass materials are used to form EDM wire and small tubular electrodes. Brass does
not resist wear as well as copper or tungsten, but is much easier to machine and can be die-cast or extruded for
specialized applications. EDM wire does not need to provide wear or arc erosion resistance since new wire is fed
continuously during the EDM wiring cutting process.

Copper and copper alloys have better EDM wear resistance than brass, but are more difficult to machine than either brass
or graphite. It is also more expensive than graphite. Copper is, however, a common base material because it is highly
conductive and strong. It is useful in the EDM machining of tungsten carbide, or in applications requiring a fine finish.

Copper tungsten materials are composites of tungsten and copper. They are produced using powder metallurgy
processes. Copper tungsten is very expensive compared to other electrode materials, but is useful for making deep slots
under poor flushing conditions and in the EDM machining of tungsten carbide. Copper tungsten materials are also used in
resistance welding electrodes and some circuit breaker applications.

Graphite provides a cleaning action at low speeds. Carbon graphite was one of the first brush material grades developed
and is found in many older motors and generators. It has an amorphous structure.

Molybdenum is used for making EDM wire. It is the wire of choice for small slot work and for applications requiring
exceptionally small corner radii. Molybdenum exhibits high tensile strength and good conductivity, making it ideal where
small diameter wire is needed for demanding applications.

Silver tungsten material is tungsten carbide particles dispersed in a matrix of silver. Silver offers high electrical
conductivity and tungsten provides excellent erosion resistance and good anti-welding characteristics in high-power
applications. This composite is thus the perfect choice for EDM electrode applications where maximizing conductivity is
crucial.

Tellurium copper is useful in EDM machining applications requiring a fine finish. Tellurium copper has a machinability that
is similar to brass and better than pure copper.
Specifications

When selecting EDM electrodes, the most important considerations alongside its form and function are the material’s
conductivity (or resistivity) and it’s erosion resistance.

Conductivity promotes cutting efficiency, since electric current is the “cutting tool”.

Erosion resistance (a factor of melting point, hardness, and structural integrity) gives the electrode a longer service life
and lowers the frequency of replacement. These properties, which vary almost exclusively by the type of alloy or material
used, must be the deciding factors when selecting an electrode.

EDM Design Considerations:

 Relax the surface-finish for the part, if feasible. This allows the manufacturer to produce the part with
fewer passes, at a higher current level and a higher metal-removal rate.
 Design or prepare the part such that the amount of stock removed by EDM is relatively small. Use
traditional machining techniques to remove the bulk of the stock with the finishing operations performed
by EDM. This significantly reduces the amount of time and cost for each part.
 The EDM manufacturer should consider fixtures such that several parts can be stacked and machined
simultaneously or a single part can have several EDM operations performed simultaneously.
 When existing holes are to be enlarged or reshaped by EDM, through holes are preferred to blind holes as
they permit easier flow of dielectric fluid past the area being machined
 There will be some degree of materials exchange between the EDM wire / probe and the base material.
Specify a cleaning procedure is galvanic corrosion is a concern.
 The minimum internal corner radius of cut feature will dictate the maximum wire diameter that can be
used. Obviously, the wire diameter needs to be at less than double the minimum inside corner radius.
However, one also has to account for the amount of final over cut, plus a small amount of "maneuvering"
room, so that the CNC can generate the corner. This is analogous to CNC contour milling, in which
accurate internal corner radii are generated by machine motion, rather than just plunging an end mill into
a corner and accepting the result. Usually, "the bigger, the better" for wire diameters up to .010". It is
important to note that the new "twin wire" machines can employ a different strategy for these conditions,
however, most of us do not have this luxury. Recommendations for small diameter wires include:
o High Tensile Brass wire for .006" diameter
o Steel Core wire from .002" to .004" diameter
o Moly wire from .002" to .004"
o Tungsten wire from .0008" to .002"

CHEMICAL MACHINING PROCESSES (CHM)

Chemical machining is one of the non-conventional machining processes where material is removed by bringing it in contact
of a strong chemical enchant. There are different chemical machining methods base on this like chemical milling, chemical
blanking, photochemical machining, etc. Working Principle of CHM The main working principle of chemical machining is
chemical etching. The part of the workpiece whose material is to be removed, is brought into the contact of chemical called
enchant. The metal is removed by the chemical attack of enchant. The method of making contact of metal with the enchant
is masking. The portion of workpiece where no material is to be removed, is mashed before chemical etching.

Process Details of CHM

Following steps are normally followed in the process of CHM :
Cleaning
The first step of the process is a cleaning of workpiece, this is required to ensure that material will be removed uniformly from
the surfaces to be processed.
Masking
Masking is similar to masking action is any machining operation. This is the action of selecting material that is to be removed
and another that is not to be removed. The material which is not to be removed is applied with a protective
coating called maskant. This is made of a materials are neoprene, polyvinylchloride, polyethylene or any other polymer.
Thinkers of maskent is maintained upto 0.125 mm. The portion of workpiece having no application of maskent is etched
during the process of etching.
Etching
In this step the material is finally removed. The workpiece is immersed in the enchant where the material of workpiece having
no protective coating is removed by the chemical action of enchant. Enchant is selected depending on the work
piece material and rate of material removal; and surface finish required. There is a necessity to ensure that maskant and
enchant should be chemically in active. Common enchants are H2SO4, FeCL3, HNO3. Selection of enchant also affects
MRR. As in CHM process, MRR is indicated as penetration rates (mm/min).
Demasking
After the process is completed demasking is done. Demasking is an act of removing maskent after machining.

Application of CHM
The application and working of CHM process are indicated in Figure 5.4, various applications of CHM are discussed below.
Chemical Milling. It is widely used in aircraft industry. It is the preparation of complicated geometry on the workpiece using
CHM process.
Modern Machining Method

Figure 5.4 : Application and Working of CHM

Chemical Blanking
In this application cutting is done on sheet metal workpieces. Metal blanks can be cut from very thin sheet metal, this cutting
may not be possible by conventional methods.
Photochemical Machining
It is used in metal working when close (tight) tolerances and intricate patterns are to be made. This is used to produce
intricate circuit designs on semiconductor wafers.

Advantages of CHM
Advantages of CHM process are listed below :
(a)Low tooling cost.
(b)Multiple machining can be done on a workpiece simultaneously.
(c)No application of force so on risk of damage to delicate or low strength workpiece.
(d)Complicated shapes/patterns can be machined.
(e)Machining of hard and brittle material is possible. Disadvantages and Limitations of CHM
(a)Slower process, very low MRR so high cost of operation.
(b)Small thickness of metal can be removed.
(c)Sharp corners cannot be prepared.
(d)Requires skilled operators.

LASER BEAM MACHINING (LBM)

Laser beam have wide industrial applications including some of the machining processes. A laser is an optical transducer
that converts electrical energy into a highly coherent light beak. One must know the full name of laser, it stands for “light
amplification of stimulated emission of radiation”. Laser being coherent in nature has a specific property, if it is focused by
conventional optical lenses can generate high power density.

Working Principle of LBM

LBM uses the light energy of a laser beam to remove material by vaporization and ablation. The working principle and the
process details (setup) are indicated in Figure
5.6. In this process the energy of coherent light beam is focused optically for predecided longer period of time. The beam is
pulsed so that the released energy results in an impulse against the work surface that does melting and evaporation.
Here the way of metal removing is same as that of EDM process but method of generation of heat is different. The
application of heat is very finely focused in case of LBM as compared to EDM.

Process details of LBM are shown in line diagram shown description

of the details is given below.

Figure 5.6 : Working Principle and Process Details of LBM

Laser Tube and Lamp Assembly. This is the main part of LBM setup.
It consists of a laser tube, a pair of reflectors, one at each end of the
tube, a flash tube or lamp, an amplification source, a power supply
unit and a cooling system. This whole setup is fitted inside a
enclosure, which carries good quality reflecting surfaces inside. In this
setup the flash lamp goes to laser tube, that excites the atoms of the
inside media, which absorb the radiation of incoming light energy.
This enables the light to travel to and fro between two reflecting
mirrors. The partial reflecting mirror does not reflect the total light
back and apart of it goes out in the form of a coherent stream of
monochromatic light. This highly amplified stream of light is focused
on the workpiece with the help of converging lens. The converging
lens is also the part of this assembly.

Workpiece The range of workpiece material that can be machined by LBM includes high hardness and strength materials
like ceramics, glass to softer materials like plastics, rubber wood, etc. A good workpiece material high light energy absorption
power, poor reflectivity, poor thermal conductivity, low specific heat, low melting point and low lotent heat.

Cooling Mechanism. A cooling mechanism circulates coolant in the laser tube assembly to avoid its over heating in long
continuous operation.

Tool Feed Mechanism. There is no tool used in the LBM process. Focusing laser beam at a pre-decided point in the
workpiece serve the purpose of tool. As the requirement of being focused shifts during the operation, its focus point can also
be shifted gradually and accordingly by moving the converging lens in a controlled manner. This movement of the converging
lens is the tool feed mechanism in LBM process.

Applications of LBM.
LBM is used to perform different machining operations like drilling, slitting, slotting, scribing operations. It is used for drilling
holes of small diameter of the order of 0.025 mm. It is used for very thin stocks. Other applications are listed below:
(a)Making complex profiles in thin and hard materials like integrated circuits and printed circuit boards (PCBS).
(b)Machining of mechanical components of watches.
(c)Smaller machining of very hard material parts.

Advantages of LBM
(a)Materials which cannot be machined by conventional methods are machined by LBM.
(b)There is no tool so no tool wear.
(c)Application of heat is very much focused so rest of the workpiece is least affected by the heat.
(d)Drills very find and precise holes and cavities.

Disadvantages of LBM
Major disadvantages of LBM process are given below:
(a)High capital investment is involved. Operating cost is also high.
(b)Recommended for some specific operations only as production rate is very slow.
(c)Cannot be used comfortably for high heat conductivity materials light reflecting materials.
(d)Skilled operators are required.