Water quality and purification

1
 Water quality
• Water quality refers to the basic chemical and
physical characteristics of water which
determine its suitability for life or for human
uses.
• The vast majority of surface water on the
planet is neither potable (fit for drinking) nor
toxic .
• Approximately 25% of the world’s
population has no access to potable water .
2
Some of these adjectives describe the quality
of the water
For example
• Clean water, polluted water, hard water,
soft water, Dirty water

While we do get some idea of the quality with most

others too

For example
• Drinking water, Wastewater, Irrigation
water, Drainage water, River water, Lake
water, canal water, Rain water, sea water,
Brackish water, fresh water, Stagnant water
flowing water
 Water Contamination
• Contaminants that may be in untreated water
include:
– microorganisms (viruses and bacteria)
– inorganic contaminants (salts and metals)
– pesticides and herbicides
– sediments
– organic chemical contaminants from industrial
processes and petroleum use
– radioactive contaminants.
• Water quality depends on the local geology
and ecosystem, as well as human uses
(sewage dispersion, industrial pollution, use
of water bodies as a heat sink)
• The descriptions do not give us enough information
about the usability of the water
• Water that appears clean may contain harmful
contaminants
• Water that appears dirty may actually be harmless,
for certain uses
• The required quality of water depends on the use –
water quality objectives differ for different uses
• When we want to compare different water sources
or water bodies, we need to describe the quality in
quantitative terms
• If the quality is not satisfactory, and we have to
improve it, we need to know how much has to be
invested
• We sometimes need to know how much of
wastewater discharge a certain water body can
receive without deteriorating its quality.
Physical characteristics

Chemical characteristics

Biological characteristics

6
Physical Parameters
• Temperature
• Colour
• Odour
• Total suspended solids (TSS)
• Total dissolved solids (TDS)
• Taste
• Turbidity
• pH range

7
Chemical Parameters
• Dissolved Oxygen (DO)
• BOD (Biochemical Oxygen Demand)
• COD (Chemical Oxygen Demand)
• Chloride (as Cl)
• Alkalinity (as CaCO3)
• Ammonia
• Nitrate (as NO3)
• Nitrite (as NO2)
• Fluoride (as F)
• Total phosphates (as PO4)
• Total Hardness (as CaCO3)
• Total iron (as Fe)
• Sulphate (as SO4)
• Metals
• Pesticides
• Surfactants 8
Biological Parameters
• Escherichia coli (E. coli)
• Total Coliform bacteria
• Fecal Coliform bacteria
• Ephemeroptera
• Plecoptera
• Mollusca
• Trichoptera

9
 Color::
Sources
• Natural Organic debris such as leaves, weeds or wood.
• Industrial wastes from textile and dyeing operations,
pulp and paper production, food processing, chemical
production, and mining, refining and slaughterhouse
operations.
• Municipal wastewaters and solid waste.
• Iron-oxides cause reddish color, and manganese
oxides cause brown or brackish water.

10
 Color: Impacts:
• Color affects acceptability of water as both domestic
and industrial product.

• Highly colored water is unsuitable for laundering,

dyeing, papermaking, beverage manufacturing, dairy
production and other food processing, and textile and
plastic production.

• Colored water is not aesthetically acceptable to the

general public.
11
Color
Measurement:
• Often measured by comparison with standardized colored
materials.

• Color-comparison tubes containing a series of standards

(different colors) may be used for direct comparison with the
water sample.

• Results are expressed as True Color Units (TCU) where one

unit is equivalent to the color produced by 1 mg/L of platinum
in the form of chlorplatinate ions.

• Special spectrophotometric techniques are normally used for

colored water originating from industrial waste effluents.

• Calibrated colored disks are used in field work. 12

Taste and Odor
Sources:
• Many natural or artificial substances impart taste and odor including:
- Minerals, metals and salts from the soil
- End products from biological reactions
- Constituents of wastewater
• Inorganic substances are more likely to produce tastes
unaccompanied by odors.
• Organic materials are likely to produce both taste and odor.
• Alkaline materials impart bitter taste; metallic salts may give a salty or
bitter taste.
• Petroleum-based products are the primary taste- and odor-producing
organic chemicals.
• Biological decomposition of organics may also result in taste- and
odor-producing liquids and gases. (e.g. ‘rotten egg’ taste and odor of
sulfur).
• Certain species of algae secrete taste- and odor-producing oily
substance.
• Sometimes the combination of two or more substances, neither of
which would individually produce taste or odor, may cause taste and
odor problems.
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Taste and Odor
Impacts:
• Displeasing to the consumers for obvious reasons.
• Some odor-producing organic substances are found to be
carcinogenic.

Measurement:
Quantitative tests sometimes employ human senses of taste and smell.
The Threshold Odor Number (TON) test uses varying volumes of the
sample diluted to 200mL with distilled water. 5 to 10 people determine
the mixture in which the smell is just barely detectable. The TON is
given by,
A B
TON 
A

where A = the volume of odorous water (mL), and B = the volume (mL) of
odor-free water required to produce a 200-mL mixture.
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Solids
Sources:
• May consist of inorganic or organic particles, or immiscible liquids:
- Inorganic solids: clay, silt or other soil constituents;
- Organic solids: plant fibers and biological solids (algal cells,
bacteria, etc.);
- Immiscible liquids: oils and greases.
• Common constituents of surface waters.
• Often result from erosive action of water over surfaces.
• Very rarely found in groundwater because of the natural filtering
capacity of soil.
• May also result from human use:
- Domestic wastewater usually contains large quantities of
organic solids;
- Industrial wastewater contains both inorganic and organic
solids.

15
Solids
Impacts:
 Aesthetically displeasing;
 Provides adsorption sites (surfaces) for chemical and
biological agents;
 Biological degradation of organic solids may produce
objectionable by-products;
 Biologically active solids may include disease-
causing organisms and toxin-producing algae.

Measurement:
 Total Solids Test
 Suspended Solids Test
 Dissolved Solids

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Solids
Measurement:
 Total Solids Test
- measures all solids (suspended and dissolved, inorganic and organic):
- Water sample is heated to a temperature slightly above boiling (104oC)
[drives off liquids and the water adsorbed to the particle surfaces; a
temperature of about 180oC is required to evaporate the occluded water];
- The residue is weighed and expressed as milligrams per liter (mg/L)
[‘dry-mass’ weight of residue (in mg) per liter volume of sample].

 Suspended Solids Test

- measures the mass of residue retained on a filter (paper).
- The water sample is filtered, and the filter and residue is dried to a
constant weight at 104oC (+/- 1oC).
- The difference between weights of the filter before and after filtration
gives the weight of residue (suspended solids).
- Residue (dry-mass) is expressed as mg/L.

17
The Dissolved Solids passing through the filters is the difference
between the total-solids and suspended-solids contents of the
sample.

Filtration apparatus
18
Solids
Notes:
1. Some solids (e.g. colloids) may pass through the filter and add to the
dissolved-solids contents (filterable residues) while some dissolved solids may
adsorb to the filter material and add to the suspended-solids content
(nonfilterable residues). [extent depends on the size and nature of the solids,
and the pore opening and nature of the filter material].
2. Organic content of both total and suspended solids can be removed by firing
(burning in oven) the residues at 600oC for 1 hour. [organic fraction converts
into carbon dioxide, water vapor and other gases; a filter made of glass fiber or
other high-temperature resistant material is used].

Use:
An important parameter of wastewater:
• to indicate the quality of influent and effluent.
• to monitor treatment processes.

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Turbidity
Turbidity in a slow sand filter (Tropocal River
waters)

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What is Turbidity?

 A measure of water clarity

 The murkier the water, the higher the turbidity.
 Turbidity reduces the transmission of light into
water.
 Turbidity increases as a result of suspended
solids in the water.

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Sources of Turbidity
• Phytoplankton blooms
• Urban runoff
• Erosion of colloidal materials such as clay, silt and
metal oxides from the soil.
• Vegetable fibers and microorganisms.
• Domestic and industrial wastewaters (soaps,
detergents and emulsifying agents produce stable
colloids).
• Discharges of wastewaters may increase the
turbidity of natural water bodies.

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Why is Turbidity Important?
 Suspended particles diffuse sunlight and absorb heat.

 As temperature increases, DO decreases.

 Suspended solids can clog fish gills

 Less light is available for photosynthesis.

 As sediment settles, gravel beds become fouled.

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How is Turbidity Measured?

Secchi disk

– Measures water
transparency

– Measures depth at which

disk is no longer visible

– Useful for deep water

25
26
27
Turbidity in the lab and field

Turbidimeter
– optical device that
measures scattering
of light (most
accurate)

– Measure in NTU
(nephelometric
turbidity units) or
JTU (Jackson
turbidity units)

28
 Measurement of Turbidity
Turbid meter can be used to measure turbidity in the units of
NTU or JTU.
 A turbidimeter is an optical device that measures the scattering of
light, and provides a relative measure of turbidity in Nephelometer
Turbidity Units (NTUs)

 The smaller the value

obtained from this
method, the less turbid
the water

 In general, a turbidity
value of > 40 NTU for at
least twenty-four hours
indicates a problem
29
Turbidimeter:

30
Turbidity Standard

Sri Lanka Standard (SLS) - 2 NTU

WHO Standard - 5 NTU
EU Standard - 1 NTU
Canadian Standard - 1 NTU

31
High Turbidity
 Degrades drinking water quality. .
 Aesthetically displeasing opaqueness (‘milky’ coloration).
 Turbidity-producing colloidal materials provide adsorption
sites for taste- and odor-producing chemicals, and harmful
organisms.
 Disinfection of turbid waters is difficult because of the
adsorptive characteristics of the colloids and since the
solids may partially shield the organisms and hence Water
treatment cost may increase.
 Turbid waters interfere with light penetration and
photosynthetic reactions in streams and lakes.
 Turbidity-causing fine particles may deposit on porous
streambed and adversely affect the flora and fauna and
clogging gills of fish.
 Suspended materials absorb heat from sunlight and raise the
water temperature.
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Conductivity
What is Conductivity?
• Conductivity is the measure of water’s ability to conduct an
electric current.
• Conductivity is a good way to determine the ionic strength of
water because the ability of water to conduct a current is
proportional to the number of ions in the water

34
Conductivity in water
• Dissolved salts (ions) conduct electrical current in
water.
• Absolutely pure water is a poor electrical conductor.

35
Conductivity is not a pollutant itself, but serves as an
indicator of the presence of pollutants. The conductivity
of water is affected by the presence of dissolved
substances in the water, including salts and heavy
metals. Some of these substances are harmful to aquatic
life and to humans, especially at high concentrations.

36
How do we measure Conductivity?

• Test with a Conductivity

meter

• Conductivity is measured in
microsiemens per
centimeter (symbolized as:
μS/cm).

37
Conductivity in water
• Freshwater generally has low conductivity
measured in microSiemens (uS)

• Estuarine and marine systems have much higher

conductivity measured in milliSiemens (mS) which
can easily be converted to salinity

• Ground water typically has higher levels of

conductivity than surface water

38
 Chemical characteristics
 pH
 Dissolved Oxygen (DO)
 Hardness
 Alkalinity
 Nutrients
 Metals

39
Chemical characteristics Contd: Representative pH values
Substance pH
 pH Hydrochloric Acid, 10M -1.0
Lead-acid battery 0.5

• Potential of Hydrogen – Gastric acid 1.5 – 2.0

measures hydrogen Lemon juice

Cola
2.4
2.5
concentration in water Vinegar 2.9

• 7.0 is neutral on scale of Orange or apple juice 3.5

Tomato Juice 4.0
0 – 14 Beer 4.5

• Can affect how chemicals Acid Rain <5.0

Coffee 5.0
dissolve in water Tea or healthy skin 5.5
Urine 6.0
Milk 6.5
Pure Water 7.0
Healthy human saliva 6.5 – 7.4
Blood 7.34 – 7.45
Seawater 7.7 – 8.3
Hand soap 9.0 – 10.0
Household ammonia 11.5
Bleach 12.5
Household lye 13.5
 Dissolved Oxygen
• Measure of the amount of oxygen dissolved in
water
• Oxygen gets into water by diffusion from the
surrounding air, by aeration (rapid movement),
and as a waste product of photosynthesis
• Measurement for outdoor bodies of water
– More DO generally relates to “healthier” water
(oxygen necessary for most aquatic species to
breath)
• Related to Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)
– how fast biological organisms use up oxygen in a
body of water
Important to note that the oxygen in H2O is not dissolved oxygen.

42
 Aquatic plants and phytoplankton
(single cell floating plants) release
oxygen into the water as a product
of photosynthesis

Happy Rays
of Sunshine

CO2 O2

43
44
Biological Production and Consumption of Oxygen
Heat
Energy

Solar Energy Chemical

Energy (ATP)
CO2

Photosynthesis Respiration

C6H12O6
O2

Biomass (g/m2/yr)
45
 Daily Aquatic Oxygen Cycle

Moonshine Sunshine Moonshine

4
Dissolved Oxygen

Midnight Sunrise Noon Sunset Midnight

46
Abiotic Factors That Affect DO Concentration

• Temperature
• Salt Concentration
• Pressure
• Water Clarity
• Current Velocity (Flow)
• Wind
• Cloud Cover

47
 Temperature
• The warmer water is, the less DO it can hold
– Think about opening a coke bottle after it sat a few hours
on the dash of your car in August.

20 100% DO Saturation
18
100% Saturation Lavel

16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Temperature (C)

48
 Measuring DO
• Winkler method – a titration method
– Not very practical in the field
– Great to calibrate probes

• Electronic Probes – easy to use, but needs to

be calibrated on a regular basis
– Usually accurate to 0.2 mg/L

YSI 550A DO Meter w/12'

cable
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 Hardness
We experience “hardness” of water directly
in several ways:
1. A “slimy” feel to our body when
bathing.
2. Reduced lather or foaming in soaps.
3. Formation of scale in pipes and near
drains.
 Can we offer hard
water for drinking?

Scaling of pipes
Impacts:
Sodium-based soaps react with the hardness
cations to form a precipitate, thereby losing their
surfactant properties. Soap consumption by hard
water incurs economic loss to the water user.
Precipitates formed by hardness and soap adhere to
appurtenance surfaces and may stain clothing and
utensils. Use of hard water may result in rough,
uncomfortable skin. Certain soaps do not react with
hardness.

52
 Hardness Contd:

Chemical Identity of Hardness

Hardness is caused by dissolved metal ions.

These ions can form precipitates (with

things like soap) which result in water-
insoluble scale.
 Hardness Contd:
Causes
Cations causing Anions
hardness
Ca2+ HCO3-
Mg2+ SO42-
Sr2+ Cl-
Fe2+ NO-
Mn2+ SiO32-
Table : Principle cations causing hardness in water and
the major anions associated with them
54
 Hardness Contd:

Metal cations Most common anion

Ca2+ (calcium) HCO3- (bicarbonate)
calcium bicarbonate - Ca(HCO3)2
Mg2+ (magnesium) SO42- (sulfate)
magnesium sulfate – MgSO4
Sr2+ (strontium) Cl- (chloride)
strontium chloride – SrCl2
Fe2+ (iron) NO3- (nitrate)
iron nitrate – Fe(NO3)2
Mn2+ (manganese) SiO32- (silicate)
manganese silicate – MnSiO3

55
 Hardness Contd:
• The total hardness as CaCO3 is the sum of
each individual hardness (=Ca+2 + Mg+2).
• Water Hardness Rating

56
Total permanent water hardness is calculated with the following formula:

TOTAL PERMANENT HARDNESS = Ca HARDNESS + Mg HARDNESS

The calcium and magnesium hardness is the concentration of calcium and

magnesium ions expressed as equivalent of calcium carbonate. The molar
mass of CaCO3, Ca2+ and Mg2+ are respectively 100,1 g/mol, 40,1 g/mol and
24,3 g/mol.

The ratio of the molar masses are:

So total permanent water hardness expressed as equivalent of CaCO3 can be
calculated with the following formula:

57
 Chemical characteristics Contd:
 Alkalinity
• The alkalinity of water is a measure of its capacity to
neutralize acids.
• In other words it is a measure of the water’s ability to absorb
hydrogen ions without significant pH change. That is
alkalinity is a measure of the buffering capacity of water.
Alkalinity (mol/L) = [HCO3-] + 2[CO3-2] + [OH-1] -[H+]

Notice that the concentrations of carbonate [CO3-2] is

multiplied by 2 since each ion can neutralize two H+ ions.
This assumes that the concentrations are being measured in
molarity units (mol/L). More often, the concentrations are
measured in terms of equivalents, or in mg/L as CaCO3, in
which case ‘2’ is already accounted for in the conversions
and concentrations are added directly. 58
Alkalinity
• The ability of a water body
to resist acidification is
called alkalinity
• Alkalinity is thus a measure
of the ability of water to
neutralize acids
• Alkalinity is generally
attributable to the amount of
carbonate (CO3-2) and
bicarbonate (HCO3-) in the
water
• Alkalinity is generally
measured in units of mg/L
as CaCO3

59
Alkalinity
Sources:
• Commonly found in natural water systems: carbonate (CO32-),
bicarbonate (HCO3-), hydroxide (OH-), silicate (HSiO3-), bromate
(H2BO3-), phosphates (HPO42-, H2PO4-), sulfide (HS-), and ammonia
(NH30). These result from dissolution of mineral substances in soil
and atmosphere.
• Phosphates may also originate from detergents in wastewaters and
from fertilizers and insecticides from agricultural land. Hydrogen
sulfide and ammonia may be produced from microbial
decomposition of organic material.
• Most common constituents of alkalinity: CO32-, HCO3-, and OH-. In
addition to their mineral origin these constituents may originate from
carbon dioxide (CO2) and microbial decomposition of organic
material.
• The relative quantities of alkalinity species are pH dependent.
• Figure shows variation in concentrations of alkalinity species with
pH.
60
 Nutrients
• Nutrients are elements essential to the growth and
reproduction of plants and animals and aquatic
species Common nutrients, those required in most
abundance by aquatic species are C, N, and P.
• Carbon is readily available from many sources. CO2
from atmosphere, alkalinity and decay products of
organic matter all supply carbon to the aquatic
system.
• In most cases N and P are the nutrients that are
limiting factors in aquatic plant growth.

61
 NITROGEN
• Nitrogen is essential for all living things as
it is a component of protein
• Nitrogen exists in the environment in many
forms and changes forms as it moves
through the nitrogen cycle
• However, excessive concentrations of
nitrate-nitrogen or nitrite-nitrogen in
drinking water can be hazardous to health,
especially for infants and pregnant women

62
• Nitrate in water is undetectable without testing because it is
colorless, odorless, and tasteless.
• A water test for nitrate is highly recommended for households with
infants, pregnant women, nursing mothers, or elderly people.
• These groups are the most susceptible to nitrate or nitrite
contamination.

63
The primary health hazard from drinking water with nitrate-
nitrogen occurs when nitrate is transformed to nitrite in the
digestive system. This creates the condition known as
methemoglobinemia (sometimes referred to as "blue baby
syndrome"), in which blood lacks the ability to carry sufficient
oxygen to the individual body cells causing the veins and skin
to appear blue. 64
 PHOSPHATES

• Phosphorus is an element like hydrogen or

oxygen
• Phosphorus combines with other things to
make phosphates
• Essential for living things
• Usually present in very small amounts
• Too much is bad
65
PHOSPHATES

SOURCES OF PHOSPHATES IN WATER:

• Storm sewer runoff
• Soil erosion
• Fertilizer
• Forest fires
• Volcanic eruptions

66
PHOSPHATES

67
EFFECTS OF PHOSPHATES:
Eutrophication (same as with nitrates)
• Phosporus feeds algae (green stuff)
• Algae grows & grows
• Algae blocks sunlight
• Underwater plants die
• Algae die and decompose
• The decomposition takes up oxygen
• No DO for organisms, so they die

68
 NITROGEN/PHOSPHORUS –
EUTROPHICATION
Lowers dissolved oxygen (DO).
Q: How does Nitrogen/ Phosphorus reduce the amount
of DO?
A: Eutrophication
• Nitrogen feeds algae (green stuff)
• Algae grows & grows
• Algae blocks sunlight
• Underwater plants die
• Algae die and decompose
• The decomposition takes up oxygen
• No DO for organisms, so they die
69
Low Oxygen Levels Cause Die-off
• Rapidly growing bacterial
populations need
exponentially increasing
amounts of oxygen.
• Once dissolved oxygen
levels become too low,
fish and many freshwater
invertebrates die, thus
adding more organic
matter.

70
Algal Bloom in Lake

71
Metals

• All metals are soluble to some extent in water.

• Metals that are harmful in relatively small amounts are
considered toxic.
• Metals in natural waters originate from dissolution of natural
deposits, and discharges of domestic, industrial or
agricultural wastewaters.
• Measurement usually made by atomic absorption
spectrophotometer (AAS), ICP-MS.

72
Metals
Nontoxic Metals:

 Commonly found in water; include sodium, iron, manganese,

aluminum, copper and zinc.
 Sodium is the most common nontoxic metal and highly reactive
to other elements; excessive concentrations of sodium salts
impart a bitter taste, and are hazardous to cardiac and kidney
patients; also corrosive to metal surfaces and toxic to plants.
 Iron and manganese frequently occur together in natural waters
and present no health hazard. May produce color problems and
bacterial growth causing taste and odor.
 Significant quantities of iron are usually found in systems devoid
of oxygen such as groundwater and bottom layers of stratified
lakes.
 Copper and zinc, if both present, may be toxic to many biological
species. 73
Metals
Toxic Metals mainly Heavy Metals:

 Harmful to human and other organisms in small quantities.

 Toxic metals that may be dissolved in water include
arsenic, barium, cadmium, chromium, lead, mercury and
silver. Arsenic, cadmium, lead and mercury are particularly
hazardous.
 These metals are concentrated by the food chain.
 Toxic metals usually originate from natural, industrial, or
agricultural sources.

74
 Minamata disease – Hg poisoning
• Chisco chemical company had been dumping about 27 tons
of Hg into Minamata bayfor more than 30yrs. (1932-68)

• In 1950’s more than 50 people were died & a number of

people were affected in Minamata, Japanby eating fish
contaminated with Hg

• Methylmercuric chloride
• Caused birth defects and affected neutral tissues mainly brain

75
• Itai-Itai disease- JAPAN: Cd poisoning
• Cd pollution in Jinzu river :1912
• victim,s mostly women suffered with pain in the entire
body
• Suffered with broken bones when trying to move

76
Arsenic Pollution

77
 Biological characteristics
• Biological growth that affects water
quality
– taste and odor
– colors
• Growth of microorganisms that cause
disease
– pathogens
– waterborne

78
 Biological characteristics Contd:

Disinfection: Control of pathogenic

microoganisms

Sterilization: Destruction of all

organisms
 Microbiological Parameters
• Bacteria –
Cause many water borne diseases e.g.: Typhoid, Paratyphoid,
Dysentery, Cholera

• Viruses –
Not many in water, but essential parasites, therefore disease
causing e.g.: Gastro enteritis, Infectious hepatitis

• Algae –
phytoplanktons – blue green algae may produce cyanotoxins
in water
 Biological characteristics Contd:

• Coliforms
– Coliform or E. coli: E. coli (fecal coliform
bacteria) can generally cause several intestinal
and extra-intestinal infections
– Indicator organism
– Monitor for pathogens
 Biological characteristics Contd:

Other;
• Algae
• Single celled plants
• Convert CO2into cell biomass and O2in the presence
of sunlight
• Do not consume organic material
• Require adequate supplies of nutrients to grow
effectively

– Taste and odor problems

– Plugs filters and screens
– Some toxic byproducts
– Decomposition
 Biological characteristics Contd:

• Fungi
• Multicellular, non-photosynthetic plants
• Use organic matter as food source
• Metabolic requirements similar to bacteria
• Larger than bacteria
• Poorer settling properties

– Taste and odor problems

– Decomposition

83
 Biological characteristics Contd:

Indicator Organisms
• Organisms normally present in human and
warm-blooded animal faeces used as indicators of
faecal pollution.
• The presence of such organisms - indicate
presence of faecal material, and thus that
pathogens could also be present.
• Conversely, absence of such organisms - indicate
probable absence of faecal material and hence
pathogenic organisms of faecal origin.
 Biological characteristics Contd:

Indicator Organisms used as indicators

of faecal pollution
• Coliform Group
• E. Coli (Faecal Coliforms)
• Faecal streptococci
• Clostridium Perfringens (a spore former)

Out of these, the one nearest the ideal is E. Coli

 Biological characteristics Contd:

Bacteriologic Indicators

Total Coliform

Fecal Coliform

Escherichia

E. Coli

86
 Biological characteristics Contd:

Indicator Organisms Contd:

• Fecal coliform used as indicator organism
– Present in digestive system of warm blooded
animals
– High levels in water/wastewater indicate high
levels of pathogens

87
 Biological characteristics Contd:

Coliform concentration is measured by:

1.MPN multiple tube fermentation

2.Membrane filter technique

88
 Biological characteristics Contd:
Membrane filtration method
• This can be used to find the number of
coliform organisms present in the water.
• A known volume of water sample is passed
through a membrane filter that has a very
small pore size.
• The bacteria retain on the filter paper because
the size of them is larger than the filter pore
size.
• Then these bacteria are contacted with a
suitable medium (M-Endo broth for total
coliforms) that contains necessary nutrients
for the growth of the bacteria.
89
 Biological characteristics Contd:

• After incubation at the appropriate temperature, the

coliform organisms (colored colonies) can be counted
using the ( total coliforms - 37°C for 24 h; fecal
coliforms - 44.5 ± O.2°C for 24± 2h).

• The advantage of this method over the multiple tube

fermentation method is that it is very quick and able
to give the direct count of present bacteria.

• But, the multiple tube method gives the MPN value

(most probable number) of bacteria.

90
 Biological characteristics Contd:

Testing for Coliform Bacteria:

Membrane Filtration
• Membrane filter
– 0.45 μm pores
– 47 mm in diameter
• Filter 100 mL of
water to be tested
through the
membrane filter

91
 Water quality issues
Issue Description
1. Faecal pollution Contamination of water with human or animal faeces;
found in inhabited areas; no color, taste or odor

2. Turbid water Color due to suspended solids; apparent in rainy

seasons; brown color

3. Eutrophication Enriched with nutrients such as N & P; algae &

aquatic vegetation are common; Green color

4. Organic pollution Enriched with complex organic matters fallen leaves,

litter in the water cause this pollution; smelly water

Enriched with commercially available agro-chemicals,

5. Agro-chemical pollution sometimes no colour

6. Nitrate pollution Enriched with fertilizer, faeces or kitchen wastewater

composed of high nitrate loads; no color or taste or
smell
 Issue Description

7. Salinization High levels of chlorides or other halides;

difficult to drink; apparent in coastal area

8. Hardness High levels of Ca & Mg; tasty; soap could

not be used; no color; common in north
of Colombo and down south

9. Heavy metal pollution High levels of trace metals such as iron,

manganese, cyanide; cause health
hazards; sometimes carcinogenic; colors
are sometime apparent; no taste; common
in down south up to Galle

10. Acidification Natural or anthropogenic; sour taste;

corrosive environment

11. Radioactive waste or explosives Health hazards (usually irreparable

losses); protective wearing needed; only
prevention but no cure
 The Hydrological Cycle
(Water Cycle)
The recycling of water between the Earth and the
atmosphere.
It is the movement of water involving
• Evaporation,
• Transpiration,
• Condensation,
• Precipitation,
• Infiltration
• Run-off
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Natural Water (Hydrological) Cycle

Water is being exchanged between the earth and the

atmosphere all the time. This exchange is accomplished with
energy supplied by the heat of the sun and the pull of gravity.
The water on earth, whether as water vapor in the
atmosphere as surface water in rivers, streams, lakes seas
and oceans or as groundwater in the subsurface ground
strata, is for the most part not at rest but in a state of
continuous recycling movement.

The process acts continuously to form dense rain clouds in

the lower atmosphere. After condensation, the rain clouds
precipitate and release water to the surface of earth in the
form of rain, snow, dew, etc.
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This journey of water, from being collected in forested
catchments to returning to the natural water cycle as purified
wastewater, is called the urban water cycle. It is different from
the natural water cycle because of humans, who take water
for drinking, cooking and recreational purposes.

The amount of water involved in water cycle varies from place

to place. But the total amount of water in the world is constant.
Some raw water called juvenile water is added to the system
when water in rocks is released as volcanoes spew out
molten rock. Water molecules are dissociated in the upper
atmosphere, allowing some hydrogen ions to escape to outer
space. Nevertheless, the total amount of water on earth
remains the same.

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Urban
Water
Cycle

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 TREATMENT PLANT
No difference between water and wastewater
except in biodegradable organic matter.

Similar Treatment technologies (Unit

operation and processes ) can be employed.

Selection of Treatment technology depends

on nature of pollutant.

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1. Before water is supplied to community
quality should be enhanced so as to meet
WATER QUALITY STANDARDS.

2. Simultaneously the wastewater quality to

be enhanced since untreated effluent
causes deterioration of water quality
(This is called source protection).

3. Source protection is an effective method

of maintaining high quality resulting in
reduction in water treatment cost.
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102
Typical Engineered system of
Water Treatment

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