Mussorgsky Pictures at An Exhibition

Mussorgsky’s Pictures at an Exhibition:
Identifying the Expressive Narrative through Comparisons with Vocal Literature
A document submitted to the
Graduate School
of the University of Cincinnati
in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Musical Arts
in the Keyboard Studies Division
of the College-Conservatory of Music
by
Matthew G. Quick
BM, Vanderbilt University, 2007
MM, University of Cincinnati, 2009
July 2014
Committee Chair: Christopher Segall, Ph.D.
i
Abstract
This document reveals connections between Mussorgsky’s Pictures at an Exhibition and
his vocal literature in order to provide a new perspective on the expressive narrative of the piano
cycle. Scholars often treat Pictures at an Exhibition as an isolated monument apart from
Mussorgsky’s typical endeavors, and this insulated approach has resulted in somewhat dubious
and poorly substantiated assertions about the cycle’s expressive content. In order to craft a more
reliable and penetrating view of the cycle, this document incorporates evidence from
Mussorgsky’s vocal works as well as Russian folk, chant, and choral music in order to clarify
and challenge long-held beliefs about the work while providing new and alternative meanings for
the musical text.
There has yet to be a study which systematically examines the relationships between
Pictures and the composer’s vocal literature. What vocal music provides, however, is an
intrinsically direct correlation between music and text, binding the musical devices with more
concretely descriptive meaning from the composer. This relationship serves as a basis for
identifying the expressive roles associated with specific musical textures, which can then be
connected back to the piano cycle. Through exploring parallels between Pictures and
corresponding textures in vocal repertoire, this document by association reveals and validates
expressive concepts in Pictures that would otherwise not have textual grounding in the piano
cycle alone.
ii
Copyright © 2014
Matthew G. Quick
All Rights Reserved
iii
Acknowledgements
I would like to extend my deepest thanks to those involved in making this document
possible. My advisor Christopher Segall was invaluable to this project. His patience, knowledge,
and insight allowed me to solidify a topic, focus my research, and take it to new heights. I would
also like to thank my readers bruce mcclung and Michael Chertock for their meticulous and
discerning revisions. Credit should be extended to my wonderful piano teachers Eugene and
Elizabeth Pridonoff, who taught me piano performance from a vocal and orchestral perspective,
consequently shaping my perceptions of this topic. Lastly, I would like to acknowledge my
incredibly supportive wife and family. Their unwavering encouragement has kept me going
through the many challenges of my scholastic career.
iv
Table of Contents
Introduction: Mussorgsky’s Pictures at an Exhibition,

Vocal Literature, and the Music/Text Relationship 1
Chapter 1: Youth 7
1.1 “Tuileries (Dispute d’enfants après jeux)”

1.2 “Ballet of the Unhatched Chicks”
Chapter 2: Satire 22
2.1 “Samuel Goldenberg und Schmuÿ l e”

2.2 “Limoges: The Market Square (The Big News)”
Chapter 3: Burden 41
3.1 “Gnomus”
3.2 “Bydło”
Chapter 4: Death 61
4.1 “Il vecchio castello”

4.2 “Catcombae” / “Con mortuis in lingua mortua”
4.3 “The Hut on Hen’s Legs (Baba-Yaga)”
Chapter 5: Transcendence 95
5.1 “Promenade”
5.2 “The Bogatyr Gate (At Kiev, the Ancient Capital)”
Conclusion: Significance of Mussorgsky’s Narrative 113
Bibliography 115
v
List of Musical Examples
Example 1.1.1 Mussorgsky, Pictures at an Exhibition, “Tuileries,” mm. 1–2. p. 9
Example 1.1.2 Mussorgsky, The Nursery, “Evening Prayer,” mm. 1–4. p. 10
Example 1.1.3 Mussorgsky, The Nursery, “Evening Prayer,” mm. 28–29. p. 10
Example 1.1.4 Mussorgsky, The Nursery, “The Beetle,” mm. 1–4. p. 11
Example 1.1.6 Mussorgsky, Pictures at an Exhibition, “Tuileries,” m. 13. p. 12
Example 1.1.7 Mussorgsky, Pictures at an Exhibition, “Tuileries,” m. 26. p. 12
Example 1.1.8 Mussorgsky, Pictures at an Exhibition, “Tuileries,” mm. 14–15. p. 13
Example 1.2.1 Mussorgsky, Pictures at an Exhibition, “Ballet of the Unhatched p. 17

Chicks,” mm. 1–4.
Example 1.2.2 Mussorgsky, The Nursery, “‘Sailor’ the Cat,” mm. 23–24. p. 17

Example 1.2.4 Mussorgsky, The Nursery, “‘Sailor’ the Cat,” mm. 39–45. p. 19

Example 2.1.1 Mussorgsky, Pictures at an Exhibition, “Limoges,” mm. 1–4. p. 23
Example 2.1.2 Mussorgsky, “You Drunken Sot,” mm. 1–6. p. 25
Example 2.1.3 Mussorgsky, “You Drunken Sot,” m. 6. p. 26
Example 2.1.4 Mussorgsky, Pictures at an Exhibition, “Limoges,” m. 3. p. 26
vi
Example 2.1.10 Mussorgsky, Pictures at an Exhibition, “Limoges,” mm. 23–26. p. 30
Example 2.2.1 Mussorgsky, Pictures at an Exhibition, “‘Samuel’ Goldenberg p. 35

und ‘Schmuÿ
l e,’” mm. 1–4.
Example 2.2.2 Mussorgsky, Marriage, Act I, Scene I, mm. 7–14. p. 36

und ‘Schmuÿ
l e,’” mm. 9–10.

und ‘Schmuÿ
l e,’” m. 17.

und ‘Schmuÿ
l e,’” mm. 19–20.

und ‘Schmuÿ
l e,’” mm. 27–29.
Example 3.1.1 Mussorgsky, Boris Godunov, Motive of Guilt. p. 43
Example 3.1.2 Mussorgsky, Pictures at an Exhibition, “Gnomus,” mm. 60–63. p. 43
Example 3.1.3 Mussorgsky, Boris Godunov, Act II, Hallucination Scene, p. 222. p. 44
Example 3.1.5 Mussorgsky, Pictures at an Exhibition, “Gnomus,” Reduction of p. 45

Primary Motive.
vii
Example 3.2.1 Mussorgsky, Pictures at an Exhibition, “Bydło,” mm. 1–10. p. 54
Example 3.2.2 “Song of the Volga Boatmen.” p. 55
Example 3.2.3 Brown’s Reduction of Khovansky’s Dignity Theme. p. 56
Example 3.2.4 Mussorgsky, Khovanshchina, Act I, p. 35. p. 56
Example 3.2.5 Brown’s Excerpt from Mussorgsky, Khovanshchina, Act I. p. 57
Example 3.2.6 Mussorgsky, Khovanshchina, Act V, p. 370. p. 58
Example 3.2.7 Mussorgsky, “On the Dnieper,” mm. 58–65. p. 59
Example 4.1.1 Mussorgsky, Pictures at an Exhibition, “Il vecchio castello,” p. 63

mm. 6–15.
Example 4.1.2 Mussorgsky, Songs and Dances of Death, “Serenade,” mm. 34–41. p. 66

mm. 61–68.

mm. 29–31.

mm. 102–7.
viii
Example 4.2.1 Mussorgsky, Pictures at an Exhibition, “Catacombae,” mm. 1–11. p. 74
Example 4.2.2 Mussorgsky, Sunless, “The Idle, Noisy Day Is Over,” mm. 1–7. p. 75
Example 4.2.3 Mussorgsky, Sunless, “The Idle, Noisy Day is Over,” mm. 12–14. p. 76
Example 4.2.4 Mussorgsky, Sunless, “The Idle, Noisy Day is Over,” mm. 36–40. p. 77
Example 4.2.5 Mussorgsky, Pictures at an Exhibition, “Catacombae,” mm. 21–24. p. 77
Example 4.2.6 Mussorgsky, Pictures at an Exhibition, “Con mortuis in lingua p. 78

mortua,” mm. 1–4.
Example 4.2.7 Mussorgsky, “Softly the Spirit Flew up to Heaven,” mm. 1–3. p. 80
Example 4.2.8 Mussorgsky, Sunless, “Elegy,” mm. 44–48. p. 81
Example 4.2.11 Mussorgsky, Pictures at an Exhibition, “Con mortuis in lingua p. 83

mortua,” mm. 16–20.
Example 4.3.1 Mussorgsky, Pictures at an Exhibition, “Baba Yaga,” mm. 21–28. p. 86
Example 4.3.2 Mussorgsky, Songs and Dances of Death, “Trepak,” mm. 38–54. p. 88
Example 4.3.3 Mussorgsky, Songs and Dances of Death, “Trepak,” mm. 72–73. p. 88
Example 4.3.5 Mussorgsky, Songs and Dances of Death, “The Field Marshal,” p. 90
mm. 10–15.
Example 4.3.7 Mussorgsky, Songs and Dances of Death, “Lullaby,” mm. 28–30. p. 92
Example 5.1.1 Mussorgsky, Pictures at an Exhibition, “Promenade” I, mm. 1–8. p. 97
ix
Example 5.1.2 “Da svaty moi.” p. 98
Example 5.1.3 Russ’s Comparison of “Promenade” and Boris Coronation Scene p. 99

Melodies.
Example 5.1.4 Mussorgsky, Boris Godunov, Prologue, Coronation Scene, p. 37. p. 100
Example 5.1.5 Mussorgsky, Pictures at an Exhibition, “Promenade” I, mm. 9–10. p. 100
Example 5.1.6 Mussorgsky, Boris Godunov, Coronation Scene, p. 42. p. 101
Example 5.2.1 Mussorgsky, Pictures at an Exhibition, “The Bogatyr Gate,” p. 104

mm. 1–6.

mm. 30–46.
Example 5.2.3 “As You Are Baptized in Christ.” p. 105
Example 5.2.4 “Memory Eternal.” p. 107
Example 5.2.5 Morosan’s Excerpt from Mussorgsky, Boris Godunov, Act IV, p. 108
Scene 1A.

mm. 47–50.
Example 5.2.7 Mussorgsky, Boris Godunov, Prologue, pp. 1-2. p. 109

mm. 81–84.
Example 5.2.9 Wagner, Tristan und Isolde, Act I, Prelude, mm. 1–3. p. 110
Example 5.2.10 Mussorgsky, Boris Godunov, Coronation Scene, p. 32. p. 110
Example 5.2.11 Mussorgsky, Boris Godunov, Coronation Scene, p.33. p. 111

mm. 97–102.
x
List of Figures
Figure 1.2.1 Victor Hartmann, Sketch of Theatre Costumes for the Ballet Trilbi. p. 15
Figure 2.2.1 Victor Hartmann, “Head of a Jew.” p. 32
Figure 2.2.2 Victor Hartmann, “Poor Jew.” p. 32
Figure 3.1.1 “Gnomus,” Graphic Representation of the Primary Motive. p. 45
Figure 4.1.1 Victor Hartmann, “Scene in Périgueux.” p. 62
Figure 4.2.1 Victor Hartmann, “Paris Catacombs.” p. 71
Figure 4.3.1 Victor Hartmann, “Baba-Yaga’s Hut on Hen’s Legs.” p. 85
Figure 5.2.1 Victor Hartmann, “Design for Kiev City Gate: Main Façade.” p. 103
xi
Introduction:
Mussorgsky’s Pictures at an Exhibition, Vocal Literature, and the Music/Text Relationship
Compared to Mussorgsky’s operatic and song literature, piano music represents a
relatively small percentage of his compositional output, and Pictures at an Exhibition is his only
extant large-scale solo piano work. As such, the cycle is often treated as an isolated monument
apart from his more typical endeavors, and this insulated approach has resulted in somewhat
dubious and poorly substantiated assertions about the cycle’s expressive content. In order to
craft a more reliable and penetrating view of the cycle, this document incorporates evidence from
Mussorgsky’s vocal music to clarify and challenge long-held beliefs about the work while
providing new and alternative meanings for the musical text.
There are a substantial number of literary sources which discuss various aspects of
Pictures, including examinations of theory,1 performance,2 the relation to the artwork of Victor
Hartmann,3 and its role as an orchestrated work.4 Many other sources provide broad surveys of
Mussorgsky’s background and compositions, but generally do not involve a thorough exploration
1
Gordon D. McQuere, “Analyzing Musorgsky’s Gnome,” Indiana Theory Review 13, no. 1 (1992): 21–40;
Simon Perry, “Mussorgsky’s ‘Gnomus:’ Composer’s Score as Analytical Text.” Context: A Journal of Music
Research, no. 15–16 (1998): 5–20; Derrick Puffett, “A Graphic Analysis of Musorgsky’s ‘Catacombs,’” Music
Analysis 9, no.1 (1990): 67–77.
2
Chen-Tien Lee, “Mussorgsky’s Pictures at an Exhibition: An Analytical and Performance Study” (DMA
thesis, Ohio State University, 1993); David Sutanto, “Pictures at an Exhibition: A Performer’s Guide Comparing
Recorded Performances by Pianists Vladimir Horowitz and Evgeny Kissin” (DMA thesis, University of Cincinnati,
2007).
3
Gerald Abraham, “The Artist of Pictures from an Exhibition,” in Mussorgsky: In Memoriam 1881–1981,
ed. Malcolm Brown (Ann Arbor: UMI Research Press, 1982), 229–36; Alfred Frankenstein, “Victor Hartmann and
Modeste Musorgsky,” Musical Quarterly 25 (1939): 268–91.
4
Jason Klein, “Mussorgsky’s ‘Pictures at an Exhibition’: A Comparative Analysis of Several
Orchestrations” (DMA thesis, Stanford University, 1980).
1
of Pictures.5 The most comprehensive sources dedicated specifically to the cycle are Michael
Russ’s Musorgsky: Pictures at an Exhibition6 and Svetlana Nagachevskaya’s “Pictures at an
Exhibition: A Reconciliation of Divergent Perceptions about Mussorgsky’s Renowned Cycle.”7
Russ covers pertinent background information, provides a summary of each piece in their
respective order, includes chapters on cultural influences and theory analysis, and briefly
mentions some connections to folk, church, and operatic music.8 Nagachevskaya also examines
each movement in order, presenting the various perceptions of Western and Russian scholars on
this work. The concept of examining various interpretations is also utilized in this document, as
I, too, will survey scholarly opinions and research on each movement. My purpose here,
however, is to confirm, clarify, or challenge these perceptions with internal evidence found
through comparison with vocal scores.
There has yet to be a study which systematically examines the relationships between
Pictures and the composer’s vocal literature. What vocal music provides, however, is an
intrinsically direct correlation between music and text, binding the musical devices with more
concretely descriptive meaning from the composer. This relationship serves as a basis for
identifying the expressive roles associated with specific musical textures, which can then be
connected back to the piano cycle. Through exploring parallels between Pictures and
5
David Brown, Musorgsky: His Life and Works (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002); M. D.
Calvocoressi, Musorgsky: The Russian Musical Nationalist, trans. A. Eaglefield Hull (New York: E. P. Dutton &
Co., 1919); M. Montagu-Nathan, M. Moussorgsky (New York: Duffield and Company, 1917); Oskar von
Riesemann, Moussorgsky, trans. Paul England (New York: Tudor Publishing Co., 1935); Victor Seroff, Modeste
Musorgsky (New York: Funk & Wagnalls, 1968).
6
Michael Russ, Musorgsky: Pictures at an Exhibition (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992).
7
Svetlana Nagachevskaya, “Pictures at an Exhibition: A Reconciliation of Divergent Perceptions about
Mussorgsky’s Renowned Cycle” (DMA thesis, University of Arizona, 2009).
8
Russ, Musorgsky, 50–56.
2
corresponding textures in vocal repertoire, this document by association reveals and validates
expressive concepts in Pictures that would otherwise not have textual grounding in the piano
cycle alone.
Mussorgsky composed Pictures in 1874 in memory of his close friend Victor Hartmann,
a talented artist and architect who died suddenly and unexpectedly the year before. Mussorgsky
purportedly drew inspiration for his piano cycle of programmatic miniatures from an exhibition
of Hartmann’s artwork organized by Vladimir Stasov, the Russian critic and ideological advisor
to “The Mighty Handful.” Stasov was also instrumental in the initial publication of Pictures in
1886, five years after the composer’s death. Since Mussorgsky left behind little more than the
titles and a few notes in the holograph of Pictures, Stasov notated his own thoughts in the score
about its programmatic content. He also included scattered comments in letters to Rimsky-
Korsakov and Arkady Kerzin, as well as in his biography of Mussorgsky.9
Scholars often rely on these presumptive descriptions, using them as the basis for their
own conjecture about Mussorgsky’s expressive meaning. One of the more controversial
examples of reliance on Stasov can be found with the opening “Promenade” movement, which is
commonly interpreted as a manifestation of Mussorgsky physically walking through Hartmann’s
gallery.10 According to Stasov, it is Mussorgsky “himself there as he strolled through the
exhibition; joyfully or sadly recalling the talented deceased artist.”11 The scholar Michael Russ
writes that it is “a portrait of Musorgsky, now of considerable bulk, shambling through the
gallery.”12 The biographer David Brown provides even more detail explaining that “there is an
9
Ibid., 29.
10
Seroff, Modeste Musorgsky, 143; Riesemann, Moussorgsky, 291.
11
Russ, Musorgsky, 35.
12
Ibid.
3
ebb and flow in the phrasing that indicates his gait is subject to constant slight irregularities.”13
As I will establish in this study, there are potent influences from Russian choral heterophony and
folk song which inform the texture, as well as strong ties to his operatic repertoire such as the
Coronation Scene in Boris Godunov. Moreover, I will examine how the relationship with the
following movement “Gnomus” exemplified by the attacca in the holograph allows for further
comparison with Boris, ultimately reflecting the descent from celebration into anxiety and fear.
There are also assertions from Stasov and subsequent scholars that may indeed prove
suitable, but the problem lies with a lack of substantial evidence for these interpretations. A
good example can be seen with the movement “Tuileries (Dispute d’enfants après jeux).” In line
with Stasov’s description, many agree that “Tuileries” depicts the playful antics of children in a
garden, specifically their taunts of “Nyanya.”14 None of them, however, substantiate this claim
with musical evidence, which is particularly important since Hartmann’s drawing associated with
this movement is no longer extant. This document will contextualize Mussorgsky’s use of
children’s themes and the overall expressive role of “Tuileries” by illustrating specific
correlations with excerpts from his song cycle The Nursery.
While this research serves to clarify key expressive moments in individual movements,
the primary goal is to precisely expose the overarching narrative of Pictures. Each movement of
the cycle embodies very distinct qualities of emotion, ultimately expressing a broad yet
penetrating amalgamation of life experience. Mussorgsky wrote to the painter Ilya Repin about
his expressive ideals while working on Khovanshchina two years prior to composing Pictures:
“Here’s the point: I want to create the people: I sleep and see them, eat and think about them,
13
Brown, Musorgsky, 233.
14
Russ, Musorgsky, 38; Riesemann, Moussorgsky, 291; Brown, Musorgsky, 237.
4
drink and they haunt me—an organic unity, immense, not all painted-up and sugar-coated.”15 In
this light, the inclusion of his song and operatic literature becomes an imperative considering that
so much of it traces this manifold expression of the people. Regarding his song cycles, The
Nursery is an exploration of youth, Sunless deals in loneliness and loss, and Songs and Dances of
Death depicts various situations in which one is confronted by death. His opera Marriage is
based on Gogol’s comedic text, Boris Godunov is inspired by Pushkin’s dramatic story of the
troubled tsar, and Khovanshchina is a nationalist opera about political struggle amidst the
rebellion against Peter the Great. This vocal literature contains a wealth of musical textures,
which exhibit a wide variety of expression and emotion, and allow for ample comparisons with
each of the diverse movements in Pictures in order to clarify their expressive content.
In order to highlight this expressive narrative, the chapters of this document are organized
into descriptive categories rather than in order of the cycle’s movements, classified under
concepts of youth, satire, burden, death, and transcendence. The chapter on youth will focus on
comparisons with The Nursery. Satire refers to the comedic and caricatured elements of adult
life, for which I will examine Marriage and Mussorgsky’s song “You Drunken Sot” from 1866.
Burden will incorporate movements involving a heavy and tortured state of mind, concepts that
permeate the operas Boris Godunov and Khovanshchina. Each movement in the chapter on
death will not necessarily involve the explicit ending of life, but through comparisons with Songs
and Dances of Death and Sunless, I will draw connections to this topic. As the final commentary
on these explorations of human existence, transcendence represents what lies beyond everyday
struggles and trivialities. This chapter will include a variety of comparisons, including the
Coronation Scene of Boris and the Russian Orthodox chant “Memory Eternal.”
15
Vladimir Morosan, “Folk and Chant Elements in Musorgsky’s Choral Writing,” in Mussorgsky: In
Memoriam 1881–1981, ed. Malcolm Hamrick Brown (Ann Arbor: UMI Research Press, 1982), 97.
5
Admittedly, the idea that Mussorgsky’s Pictures is an exploration of life is not an entirely
novel concept. The issue, however, lies in the fact that the details of its expressive content are
often defined solely through Mussorgsky’s titles, Stasov’s descriptions, and the few remaining
sketches from Victor Hartmann where a connection is presumed. This document provides a new
approach to defining this content by cross-relating musical concepts from vocal literature to the
texture of Pictures, grounding the interpretations in Mussorgsky’ own compositional language. I
will shed new light on the musical text of Pictures by systematically exploring and substantiating
the expressive content of the cycle with a more holistic approach than has been previously
afforded to this work.
6
Chapter One
Youth
There are two movements in Pictures that are infused with images of youth, representing
the playful and uninhibited end of Mussorgsky’s expressive spectrum within the cycle.
“Tuileries (Dispute d’enfants après jeux)” is alive with the sounds of spirited children, and
“Ballet of the Unhatched Chicks” expresses the newfound life of baby chickens. As we will see,
the interpretations of these movements have largely been based on the inferred meaning of their
titles, Stasov’s notes, which merely provide his personal thoughts, and the artwork from the 1874
exhibition in commemoration of Hartmann. This is, of course, problematic as the titles provide
limited connotations, Stasov’s notes are inherently unreliable as a source, and there is also debate
over aspects of the original artwork. In order to accurately define the content of “Tuileries” and
“Ballet of the Unhatched Chicks,” I will turn to The Nursery, Mussorgsky’s song cycle
composed prior to Pictures between the years of 1868 and 1872.
Not only is The Nursery an excellent resource for attaining a sense of how Mussorgsky
depicts youth and imitates the sounds of children in his music, but also there are specific ties to
Hartmann. Mussorgsky dedicated the second song from The Nursery, “In the Corner,” to
Hartmann, who was so taken with the composer’s work that he planned a stage setting for the
entire cycle.1 Although this theatrical production did not come to fruition, the cycle itself serves
as a window into Mussorgsky’s varied expressions of youth in music. I will first survey the
information and research on these two movements from Pictures, then examine specific motives
and textures that have garnered debate over their expressive meaning. By exploring similar
1
Alfred Frankenstein, “Victor Hartmann and Modeste Musorgsky,” Musical Quarterly 25 (1939), 277.
7
motives in The Nursery, I will establish their meaning within a texted framework and then infer
analogous meaning in the piano cycle.
1.1 “Tuileries (Dispute d’enfants après jeux)”
In his notes to the 1886 edition of Pictures, Stasov writes that this movement represents
“a walk in the garden of the Tuileries with a group of children and nurses.”2 Alfred Frankenstein
identifies the original drawing in the 1874 exhibition catalogue as No. 33, entitled Jardin des
Tuileries.3 Oskar von Riesemann claims, “Hartmann’s picture shows a walk in the Tuileries
gardens in Paris, crowded with playing children and their nurses.”4 On the other hand, Victor
Seroff describes the picture as “Hartmann’s pencil drawing of one corner of a garden, deserted,
and without children.”5 Michael Russ avoids speculation on the original artwork, simply writing
that the Hartmann picture for this movement is now lost.6
Despite the uncertainty over the source of inspiration for Mussorgsky’s “Tuileries,” most
scholars agree with Stasov that there are indeed lively children depicted in this movement.
Mussorgsky imitates the children’s spirited rollicking through playfully uplifting rhythms and
articulations, appropriately marked capriccioso (see Example 1.1.1).
2
Ibid., 282.
3
Ibid.
4
Oskar von Riesemann, Moussorgsky, trans. Paul England (New York: Tudor Publishing Co., 1935), 291.
5
Victor Seroff, Modeste Musorgsky (New York: Funk & Wagnalls, 1968), 143.
6
Michael Russ, Musorgsky: Pictures at an Exhibition (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), 38.
8
Example 1.1.1 Mussorgsky, Pictures at an Exhibition, “Tuileries,” mm. 1–2.
More specifically, Rosa Newmarch claims that the two-note drooping figures in the melody
represent the children’s taunts of “Nyanya, Nyanya” (“Nanny, Nanny”).7 David Brown writes
that the sixteenth notes that follow in m. 2 mimic competing appeals for Nanny’s support,8 while
Russ believes that they merely “create a generally playful atmosphere.”9 Surprisingly, none of
these interpretations are accompanied by evidence from Hartmann’s original artwork or specific
musical examples from other works. For the most part, these statements rely on presumptive
interpretations of the title, Stasov’s description, and conjecture about the lost painting. Without a
Hartmann picture or compete text from Mussorgsky to describe the scene, we must turn to the
composer’s vocal repertoire for a defensible interpretation.
In the fifth song of The Nursery, “Evening Prayer,” Mussorgsky opens with a piano
accompaniment that utilizes a very similar pattern to the beginning of “Tuileries” (see Example
1.1.2).
7
Quoted in David Brown, Musorgsky: His Life and Works (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002), 237.
8
Ibid.
9
9
Example 1.1.2 Mussorgsky, The Nursery, “Evening Prayer,” mm. 1–4.
Mussorgsky evokes a child-like image in both pieces by constructing their scenes with a similar
texture, range, tempo, and rhythm, while utilizing the same common-time meter and piano
dynamic. As in “Tuileries,” the opening motive of “Evening Prayer” consists of a quarter note
slurred to an eighth note followed by an eighth rest. We also find the same interval of a falling
minor third in the piano accompaniment from A-flat4 to F4, which is subsequently imitated by
the child’s voice descending from D-flat5 to B-flat4, and E-flat5 to C5. This gesture of falling
intervals is found throughout the song, such as in mm. 28 and 29 when the child calls out
“Nyanya” (see Example 1.1.3).
Example 1.1.3 Mussorgsky, The Nursery, “Evening Prayer,” mm. 28–29.
10
Despite the striking musical similarities between “Tuileries” and “Evening Prayer,” the
expressive and narrative setting is admittedly different. The third song of The Nursery, “The
Beetle,” provides an appropriately energetic context, depicting the child’s excitement over
discovering a little black bug while playing outside (see Example 1.1.4).
Example 1.1.4 Mussorgsky, The Nursery, “The Beetle,” mm. 1–4.
The enthusiastic piano part ushers in the child shouting “Nanny, Nanny, guess what happened,
Nanny dearest!”10 We again see a focus on narrow falling intervals to depict the child’s voice,
specifically the calls of “Nyanya.” Additionally, the running eighth-note patterns capture the
child’s impatient excitement to get Nanny’s attention to tell the story, much like Brown had
suggested for the eighth notes in “Tuileries.”
When the child begins to describe the insect, we hear in the piano part a series of two-
note slurs in the right hand combined with chromatic runs in the left hand, some in the form of
rising four-note motives as well as longer runs stretching up and down the octave (see Example
1.1.5).
10
Laurence Richter, Mussorgsky’s Complete Song Texts: Russian Texts of the Complete Songs of Modest
Petrovich Mussorgsky (Geneseo, NY: Leyerle, 2002), 83.
11
In “Tuileries,” we can find similar two-note slurs alongside rising four-note chromatic motives,
as well as longer runs employing chromaticism (see Examples 1.1.6 and 1.1.7).
Example 1.1.6 Mussorgsky, Pictures at an Exhibition, “Tuileries,” m. 13.
Example 1.1.7 Mussorgsky, Pictures at an Exhibition, “Tuileries,” m. 26.
In “The Beetle” (Example 1.1.4), we see expressive markings and hairpins for both the piano and
voice parts, as well as a sforzando in m. 27. Although there are no dynamic shapes or accents
notated in “Tuileries,” the performer may wish to add them to further depict the excitement of
the children.
12
For the B section of “Tuileries,” some scholars propose that the energy of the children
becomes subdued and physical motion is restrained, perhaps because of the change in rhythmic
figuration and compressed range of the left hand (see Example 1.1.8). Russ speculates that “the
children adopt an attitude of mock contrition,”11 and Vladimir Ashkenazy claims that this section
sounds best when performed meno mosso, 12 although neither provide an explanation nor
supporting evidence.
Example 1.1.8 Mussorgsky, Pictures at an Exhibition, “Tuileries,” mm. 14–15.
In “The Beetle,” the musical energy decreases when the child explains, “I hid, Nanny, and sat
very still, afraid to even budge”13 (see Example 1.1.9).
11
12
Vladimir Ashkenazy, Preface to Bilder einer Ausstellung by Modest Mussorgsky (Vienna: Wiener Urtext,
1984), x.
13
Richter, Mussorgsky’s Complete Song Texts, 84.
13
In both examples we find slow rhythmic figuration, chromaticism in the melody and bass, and
harmonic thirds employed as accompaniment. We also can find Ashkenazy’s suggested meno
mosso in the tempo marking of “The Beetle.” Although Russ states that the B section in
“Tuileries” does not inherently provide a strong contrast to the A material,14 the pianist may wish
to infuse this passage with similar elements from “The Beetle” to show a change of energy,
dropping to a lower dynamic, slowing the motion, and perhaps adding similar hairpins to depict
the child’s attempts to contain anxiety before bursting out again later in the piece.
While there is debate over whether or not Hartmann’s drawing actually contained
children, we can see by comparison with The Nursery that in “Tuileries” it is important for the
pianist to create the physical excitement of boisterous children as well as evoke their speech
patterns in order to bring this movement to its fullest realization. Although Mussorgsky marks
the tempo Allegretto non troppo, it is vital to perform this movement with plenty of energy and
excitement in order to communicate the enthusiastic and impish nature of the children. In a letter
to Arkady Kerzin, Stasov lists metronome markings for each of the movements in Pictures.
These were supposedly given to him by Rimsky-Korsakov who had heard Mussorgsky himself
perform the cycle. 15 “Tuileries” is marked at 144 to the quarter note, much faster than one
might presume for Allegretto. A pianist would likely choose a somewhat slower tempo to
maintain clarity and avoid a frantic sound in this movement, but as Ashkenazy writes, “Children
argue when they argue and really run when they run….these passages should be full of energy,
descriptive of running children rather than of a prim Sunday school outing.”16
14
15
Quoted in Frankenstein, “Victor Hartmann and Modeste Musorgsky,” 287.
16
Ashkenazy, Preface to Bilder einer Ausstellung, x.
14
1.2 “Ballet of the Unhatched Chicks”
Stasov writes that “Ballet of the Unhatched Chicks” is based on “a little picture by
Hartmann for the setting of a picturesque scene in the ballet Trilbi.”17 In a 1903 letter to Kerzin,
he further explains that in “1870 Hartman designed the costumes for the staging of the ballet
Trilbi at the Maryinsky Theatre, St Petersburg. In the cast were a number of boy and girl pupils
from the theatre school, arrayed as canaries. Others were dressed up as eggs.”18 Frankenstein
tells us that Hartmann’s sketch was No. 224 in the catalogue, described as “canary-chicks,
enclosed in eggs as in suits of armor. Instead of a head-dress, canary heads, put on like helmets,
down to the neck”19 (see Figure 1.2.1).
Figure 1.2.1 Victor Hartmann, Sketch of Theatre Costumes for the Ballet Trilbi.
Regarding the music for this movement of Pictures, many scholars focus on the
pantomimic and graphic qualities they hear in Mussorgsky’s scene. According to Svetlana
Nagachevskaya, Alfred Schnittke describes the scene as depicting the embryonic life of
17
Frankenstein, “Victor Hartmann and Modeste Musorgsky,” 283.
18
Quoted in Russ, Musorgsky, 41.
19
15
unhatched chicks,20 while Feodor Lopouhov interprets that the chicks do emerge to perform their
ballet dance.21 Brown describes the movement as a “cute scherzino,” displaying musical
similarity to the trio from Chernomor’s March in Glinka’s Ruslan and Lyudmila.22 Riesemann
similarly refers to it as a “‘Scherzino’ of the greatest charm,”23 and Montagu-Nathan describes
the piece as “daintiness itself.”24 In his biography of Mussorgsky, Arsenii Golenishchev-
Kutuzov actually misunderstood this piece to be about kittens, perhaps misled by its “Scherzino”
quality.25
The concept of this movement, however, goes beyond the imitation of generalized
cuteness or even the ballet dancing from Hartmann’s drawing. Mussorgsky transports us directly
into the newfound life of baby chicks with a number of clever devices. One feature is that the
entire movement is written in the treble register for both hands, placing the music in the
appropriate range for tiny birds. In addition, the dynamics are pianissimo and pianississimo
throughout most of the movement, with the una corda pedal requested at the beginning. The
combination of playing so quietly in a high register allows the pianist to create a very light and
playful sound characteristic of squawking newborn chicks. Moreover, Mussorgsky adds to their
character by employing an abundance of grace note appoggiaturas throughout (see Example
1.2.1).
20
Alfred Schnittke, “‘Kartinki s vïstavki’ M. P. Musorgskogo (Opï
t analiza),” Voprosïmuzïkoznaniya 1
(1953–1954), 340; quoted in Svetlana Nagachevskaya, “Pictures at an Exhibition: A Reconciliation of Divergent
Perceptions about Mussorgsky’s Renowned Cycle” (DMA thesis, University of Arizona, 2009), 117.
21
Quoted in Nagachevskaya, “Pictures at an Exhibition,” 117.
22
23
Riesemann, Moussorgsky, 292.
24
M. Montagu-Nathan, Moussorgsky (New York: Duffield and Company, 1917), 80.
25
Alexandra Orlova, Musorgsky Remembered, trans. Véronique Zaytzeff and Frederick Morrison
(Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1991), 92.
16
Example 1.2.1 Mussorgsky, Pictures at an Exhibition, “Ballet of the Unhatched Chicks,”
mm. 1–4.
Russ proposes that the “percussive high piano sounds imitate the chicks tapping to break their
shells,”26 and Nagachevskaya relates the alternations between stable F-major tonic chords and
unstable German augmented sixth chords to the rocking eggs of the chicks.27 In order to obtain a
defensible perspective on the expressive purpose of these musical gestures, we may again turn to
Mussorgsky’s song cycle The Nursery for comparison. “‘Sailor’ the Cat,” the seventh song of
the cycle, depicts a child attempting to prevent the cat “Sailor” from catching the family canary.
When the chirping of the bird is referenced in the lyrics, it is also reflected in the piano
accompaniment with a similar use of grace notes (see Example 1.2.2).
Example 1.2.2 Mussorgsky, The Nursery, “‘Sailor’ the Cat,” mm. 23–24.
26
27
Nagachevskaya, “Pictures at an Exhibition,” 118.
17
In “‘Sailor’ the Cat” we find the same type of grace note in the same range, articulated
downward from a step above the principal note. It follows that the grace notes in “Ballet of the
Unhatched Chicks” represent the chirping of the birds after they have come into life, rather than
the tapping against their shells before emerging.
In mm. 13–22 of “Chicks,” Mussorgsky employs a running eighth-note passage in the left
hand with grace notes interjected by the right hand, crescendoing toward a martellato accent (see
Example 1.2.3).
mm. 13–22.
Nagachevskaya conjectures that the ascending left-hand passages depict a mother hen hurrying
to help her hatching chicks.28 Consistent with this image, Ashkenazy suggests that a small
accelerando in these measures can work well for performance.29 To clarify this, we can find a
similar texture in “‘Sailor’ the Cat” as the narrative also builds to its climax. Mussorgsky depicts
the child’s defense of the bird by dropping to a pianissimo dynamic, employing steady eighth
28
Ibid.
29
Ashkenazy, Preface to Bilder einer Ausstellung, xii.
18
notes in the left hand with grace-note appoggiaturas in the right hand, and gradually
crescendoing into a martellato accent, all of which is scored in the treble register (see Example
1.2.4).
Example 1.2.4 Mussorgsky, The Nursery, “‘Sailor’ the Cat,” mm. 39–45.
In this light, the idea of a protective hen seems plausible for “Ballet of the Unhatched Chicks,”
and it would be appropriate to include Ashkenazy’s suggested accelerando as we find in this
passage of “‘Sailor’ the Cat.”
In addition to the copious use of grace notes throughout “Ballet of the Unhatched Chicks,”
Mussorgsky also notates trills in the upper voice of the trio section, a gesture of characterization
not found in “‘Sailor’ the Cat” (see Example 1.2.5).
19
mm. 23–26.
The trills could be interpreted physically from a dance perspective as the shuffling feet of the
baby chicks, or as Russ suggests, “their tiny fluffy feathers as they totter around.” 30 As we have
identified with the grace notes, however, it is possible that the trills also represent the vocal
characteristics of the birds rather than just their physical motions. When approached from a
vocal standpoint, the pianist can exploit this device to create a realistic tweeting sound.
Although Mussorgsky deems this piece a “ballet,” the expression extends well beyond
the dance-like character of his music. In this movement, the pianist must take advantage of
Mussorgsky’s various compositional tools and his specific score markings, not merely to recreate
cute dancing or attempt to render Hartmann’s image, but to bring the chicks to life by giving
them a voice in their exciting moment of birth.
As we find in The Nursery, Mussorgsky’s music in both “Tuileries” and “Ballet of the
Unhatched Chicks” is not merely atmospheric but contains the visceral elements of youth. We
hear the children’s voices, feel their playfulness, and sense their emotions of joy, worry,
happiness, and sadness. These are the elements that must also be brought to the instrumental
music of Pictures in order for the pianist to communicate the whole story. Mussorgsky not only
30
20
utilizes this vibrant compositional style to illustrate the early stages of life, but we also see him
including amusing textures and spirited rhythms to depict satirical scenes from adulthood. When
viewing the movements in this order, we see a transition from youth into the rather comical side
of later life, as if the adults are still merely grown-up children. I will again examine similarities
with Mussorgsky’s vocal literature to gain perspective on correlate musical textures.
21
Chapter Two
Satire
The first satirical movement in Pictures I will examine is “Limoges: The Market Place
(The Big News),” which portrays a cacophonous scene of ridiculous gossip and chatter. The
other movement is “‘Samuel’ Goldenberg und ‘Schmuÿ

l e,’” representing a caricature of the
interaction between the rich and poor (the figurative bully on the playground pushing around the
wimp). To define the specific qualities of satire within these movements, I will draw
comparisons with two of Mussorgsky’s comedic vocal works: his song “You Drunken Sot” from
1866 and his unfinished opera The Marriage.
On one hand, it is commonly accepted that the musical texture of “Limoges” chiefly
portrays the laughing and shouting of women. As I will show through comparisons to “You
Drunken Sot,” this understanding of the narrative elements in “Limoges” is, in fact, appropriate.
But in addition to substantiating the suggested program, my comparison will aid in defining
specific moments in the musical text. “‘Samuel’ Goldenberg und ‘Schmuÿ

l e,’” on the other
hand, is surrounded by different schools of commentary. There are those who feel that this
movement is a sincere drama, and others who view it as a comedy, either positively or negatively.
By drawing connections to Mussorgsky’s comedic opera The Marriage, I will highlight the
satirical aspects and begin to clarify its content.
22
2.1 “Limoges: The Market Place (The Big News)”
According to Stasov, “Limoges: The Market Place (The Big News)” depicts “French
women furiously disputing in the market place.”1 Stasov also writes: “Hartmann spent a fairly
long time in the French town [Limoges] in 1866, executing many architectural sketches and
genre pictures. The musical version of this sketch [illustrates] the crowd shrieking, disputing,
chattering and quarrelling in the market place.”2 Reflecting this quarrelsome atmosphere,
“Limoges” is one of the more pianistically exciting movements of the cycle, full of bustling
staccatos, sforzandos, and subito dynamic shifts, all framed within an unrelenting sixteenth-note
motor rhythm (see Example 2.1.1).
Example 2.1.1 Mussorgsky, Pictures at an Exhibition, “Limoges,” mm. 1–4.
“Limoges” is also one of the rare movements where Mussorgsky notated some of his
thoughts in the holograph. He invented two stories about “The Big News” of Limoges, one
depicting conversational chatter about a lost cow and the other describing shallow gossip over
disparate topics including the same cow, the women of Limoges, false teeth, and an evidently
1
2
23
inebriated man. Mussorgsky ultimately rejected these stories and crossed them out, but they are
a valuable insight into the expressive inclinations of this piece:
The Big News: Monsieur Pimpant from Panta-Pantaléon has just recovered his cow—the
one that ran away. “Yes, Madame, that was yesterday.—No, Madame, it was the day
before yesterday.—Well, Madame, the cow was astray in the neighbourhood.—No,
Madame, the cow was not astray at all….”
The Big News: Monsieur de Puissangeout has found his cow “Runaway.” But the good
women of Limoges will have nothing whatsoever to do with this incident because Mme de
Remboursac has acquired very fine porcelain dentures, while on the other hand Mr de
Panta-Pantaléon’s obtrusive nose obstinately remains as red as a peony.3
Frankenstein questions Stasov’s original program notes for this movement, writing that
Mussorgsky’s stories about the women “hardly suggest their ‘furiously disputing.’”4
Furthermore, he claims that none of the catalogue’s seventy-five drawings from Limoges
actually involve a market place or women in the market place.5 Brown writes that “such a
precise scenario was meaningless in what is manifestly a crowd picture of lively but generalized
busy-ness,”6 and Russ similarly claims that “the story itself is of no consequence….we still
depend utterly on the title to understand it.”7 Montagu-Nathan criticizes the music itself, writing
that it is one of the movements that are “somewhat too formal for their purpose.”8 Further
confusion comes from Seroff, who asserts that Mussorgsky himself wrote to Stasov that this
3
Vladimir Ashkenazy, Preface to Bilder einer Ausstellung by Modest Mussorgsky (Vienna: Wiener Urtext,
1984), xvii.
4
5
Ibid.
6
David Brown, Musorgsky: His Life and Works (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002), 238.
7
8
24
movement depicts “gossips at the market,”9 but this letter was in fact from Stasov to Rimsky-
Korsakov.10
Admittedly, it would be difficult, if not impossible, to integrate the literal production of
Mussorgsky’s detailed stories into the pianistic delivery of “Limoges.” We can, however, defend
Mussorgsky’s musical text and clarify certain expressive moments by turning again to his song
literature. In light of his reference to the red-nosed Monseiur de Panta-Pantaléon, it seems
appropriate to draw a comparison with Mussorgsky’s song “You Drunken Sot” from 1866.
Through the use of turbulent rhythms, chaotic harmonies, and wild dynamic shifts and
articulations, the song depicts a peasant woman in a tirade against her drunken husband11 (see
Example 2.1.2).
Example 2.1.2 Mussorgsky, “You Drunken Sot,” mm. 1–6.
9
10
Jay Leyda and Sergei Bertensson, The Musorgsky Reader: A Life of Modeste Petrovich Musorgsky in
Letters and Documents (New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 1947), 274.
11
25
The major prevailing characteristic shared by both “Limoges” and “You Drunken Sot” is the
driving motor rhythm to establish the relentless commotion of their scenes. Both introductions
consist of repeated chords, beginning in a loud dynamic as if to demand attention and then
dropping down as the characters attempt to contain their impatience.
In addition, the texture of “You Drunken Sot” frequently involves broken phrasing and
discordant harmonies layered with sforzandi, such as the descending intervals in m. 6 as the wife
reprimands her husband. We can hear a comparable texture in m. 3 of “Limoges,” creating a
similar nagging effect (compare Examples 2.1.3 and 2.1.4).
Example 2.1.3 Mussorgsky, “You Drunken Sot,” m. 6.
Example 2.1.4 Mussorgsky, Pictures at an Exhibition, “Limoges,” m. 3.
In comparing the melodies, we also hear that the strong beats outline appoggiaturas resolving by
step. In this light, it appears that “Limoges” does, in fact, contain elements of people “furiously
disputing,” and we may view these sforzandi as the shouts of the chattering women from
Mussorgsky’s story. Nagachevskaya claims that this passage is actually representative of
26
laughter, although she does not provide any evidence.12 For a defensible assessment, there is a
passage of laughter in “You Drunken Sot” with which we can draw a parallel to “Limoges”
(compare Examples 2.1.5 and 2.1.6).
Example 2.1.6 Mussorgsky, Pictures at an Exhibition, “Limoges,” mm. 13.
Mussorgsky creates the woman’s laughter in “You Drunken Sot” through a persistent use of
driving repetition and the interjection of sforzandi chords. More specifically, the right-hand
piano part begins with a repeating harmonic major second and subsequently opens to a minor
third. In “Limoges,” we likewise find a repeating major second in the right-hand part opening to
a repeating minor third, interrupted by sforzandi chords. It is therefore more likely that this
particular passagework in “Limoges” is representative of women’s laughter, than the sforzandi
found in m. 3 as Nagachevskaya suggests.
12
Mussorgsky’s Renowned Cycle” (DMA thesis, University of Arizona, 2009), 142.
27
We find additional oddly placed sforzandi throughout both pieces, such as the descending
vocal part in “You Drunken Sot” when the wife demands: “Well, what are you ogling at? Why
do you just stand there a like a stump?”13 (see Example 2.1.7).
There is a passage in “Limoges” with very similar characteristics, perhaps also exhibiting the
women’s impatience for a response (see Example 2.1.8).
Both excerpts contain two sforzandi on strong beats and two that are placed on weak beats.
Additionally, their melodic contours descend in small phrases, including turnarounds, which
interrupt the downward motion.
Another striking similarity between “Limoges” and “You Drunken Sot” can be heard in
their climaxes. In “You Drunken Sot,” the energy peaks as the wife promises to get the truth out:
13
28
“Your wifey will untie your tongue! ...it will tell us all about shameless you, about you, the
shameless husband, the old good-for-nothing!”14 (see Example 2.1.9).
Here we find an emphasis on repeated notes and syncopated chords, peaking on a fortissimo
dynamic, and then dropping away with repeated notes in the right hand as the wife cools down
and prepares for another bout. The climax of “Limoges” also involves syncopated chords and
accents, crescendoing into fortissimo and pulling back down as the right hand executes repeating
notes (see Example 2.1.10).
14
Ibid, 41.
29
Example 2.1.10 Mussorgsky, Pictures at an Exhibition, “Limoges,” mm. 23–26.
As in “You Drunken Sot,” the climax in “Limoges” may, in fact, represent the women’s
exasperation in trying to reveal all the juicy details of their gossip.
The ending of “Limoges” is more ambiguous, taking the form of a coda and transitioning
with a subito attacca into the next movement. To draw on some interpretive ideas, it is helpful
to examine the end of “You Drunken Sot,” where the wife is completely fed up and exclaims:
“You’re sinful, miserable, disgraceful, ridiculous! Get out of my sight, damn you!”15 (see
Example 2.1.11).
15
Ibid., 43.
30
Here Mussorgsky employs cacophonous alternations between the hands of the piano part to
create the intensity of the scene. In “Limoges,” he uses a very similar effect of a raucous
alternating of hands in the finale, also within a fortissimo dynamic (see Example 2.1.12).
Instead of viewing the coda of “Limoges” as merely a transition, the pianist may wish to
evoke an exasperated effect, using the final attacca into the following movement as a way of
“slamming the door” on everything that has previously transpired in the movement.
Although “Limoges” is one of the most technically challenging movements of the set,
there is no empty virtuosity. Every note propels the scene forward with a variety of articulations
and accent placement that illuminates the story. One can hear the rising figures as the women
bubble with excitement to break “the big news,” biting sforzandi as they interrupt one another
and quibble, and vigorous repeated figures as they laugh at each other’s tales. After establishing
these elements of characterization, the pianist will be liberated from approaching this movement
as a rapid toccata or show piece and can instead recreate an amusing scene of daily life.
31
2.2 “‘Samuel’ Goldenberg und ‘Schmuÿ
l e’”
Stasov’s notes tell us that “‘Samuel’ Goldenberg und ‘Schmuÿ

l e’” depicts “two Polish
Jews, one rich, the other poor.”16 Frankenstein writes that the music was inspired by two of
Hartmann’s pencil drawings, listed in the exhibition as No. 176 (“A rich Jew wearing a fur hat:
Sandomir”) and No. 177 (“A poor Sandomir Jew”).17 According to the catalogue, these
drawings were property of Mussorgsky. They were evidently given as a gift from Hartmann, but
the drawings are now lost.18 There are, however, two surviving Hartmann watercolors of Jewish
figures, which are often substituted for the missing originals that inspired Mussorgsky (see
Figures 2.2.1 and 2.2.2).
Figure 2.2.1 Victor Hartmann, “Head of a Jew.” Figure 2.2.2 Victor Hartmann, “Poor Jew.”
Regarding the music for this movement, there is significant debate over the expressive
purpose of Mussorgsky’s scene. Nagachevskaya writes: “Western and Russian scholars could be
divided in two groups: one group claims that this piece is a caricature or a grotesquerie. The
other, rather merciful, group states that this piece is about a personal tragedy that reveals a deep
16
17
Ibid.
18
Ibid.
32
social drama.”19 Richard Taruskin has offered one of the more controversial statements,
claiming that it is a blatant example of Mussorgsky’s extreme anti-Semitism. Taruskin describes
this movement as a “distasteful portrayal of two loathsome Jewish mugs.”20 He writes that
Mussorgsky distinguished between the proud biblical yevrei Jews and the contemptible zhid in
his music, “who embodied nothing more than petulance, rootlessness, and greed.”21 He
emphasizes that the correct transcription of the title contains quotation marks around “Samuel”
and “Schmuÿle:”
The use of the quotation marks points up the fact that the two zhidy have the same first
name: one Germanized and the other Yiddish. They are in fact one zhid, not two. The
portrayal is a brazen insult: no matter how dignified or sophisticated or Europeanized a
zhid’s exterior, on the inside he is a jabbering, pestering little ‘Schmuÿle.’22
David Brown responds to Taruskin’s analysis, arguing that this interpretation is
implausible. He notes that Mussorgsky maintained very distinct musical identities for these
characters throughout the movement, and that there is no reason to believe the composer would
suddenly take a contemptuous angle when he “so often presented specimens of humanity in its
less attractive forms without ever hinting at a moral posture.”23 Brown maintains that the
quotations were used merely for “clarifying the very different socio-cultural statuses of his
personae.”24
19
20
Richard Taruskin, Musorgsky: Eight Essays and an Epilogue (Princeton: Princeton University Press,
1993), 382.
21
Ibid., 380.
22
Ibid., 382.
23
24
Ibid.
33
There are indeed instances where one can find anti-Semitism in Mussorgsky’s letters as
Taruskin cites,25 but there is also evidence of his genuine interest and respect for the Jewish
people. In a letter to Stasov, Mussorgsky writes about his interaction with Jewish music and
culture, both the biblical and the everyday: “On the steamer from Odessa to Sevastopol…I wrote
down Greek and Jewish songs, as sung by some women, and I sang the latter with them
myself.…In Odessa, I went to holy services at two synagogues, and was in raptures.…I shall
never forget these!”26 In another letter to Stasov regarding the composition of Pictures,
Mussorgsky makes special note of the Sandomir drawings for this movement: “I should like to
add Vityushka’s [Hartmann’s] Jews.”27 According to Stasov, “Mussorgsky was most delighted
with the expressiveness of these pictures.”28 Mussorgsky’s respect for these drawings, as well as
his intention to incorporate more than one Jewish portrait into the music, falls in line with
Brown’s argument for the integrity of two separate characters rather than a demeaning conflation
of one “loathsome zhid.”
The texture of the opening passage in this movement, commonly understood as a
depiction of the rich Goldenberg lecturing the deprived Schmuÿle, exemplifies the distinctive
qualities of an operatic recitative. Rather than balanced lyricism, we find a very speech-like
texture that is doubled in both parts without accompaniment. It is full of assertive rhythm and
abundant rests in a declamatory style, laden with a wide variety of articulations. Already in these
first four measures we find numerous tenutos, staccatos, sforzandos, and irregular slurs, all of
25
Taruskin, Musorgsky, 380.
26
Leyda and Bertensson, The Musorgsky Reader, 394.
27
Ibid., 272.
28
Alexandra Orlova, Musorgsky’s Days and Works: A Biography in Documents, trans. Roy Guenther (Ann
Arbor, MI: UMI Research Press, 1983), 181.
34
which provide an ample palette for emulating Goldenberg’s bold speech patterns (see Example
2.2.1).
Example 2.2.1 Mussorgsky, Pictures at an Exhibition, “‘Samuel’ Goldenberg und ‘Schmuÿ

l e,’”
mm. 1–4.
We can better establish these qualities of speech imitation by turning to Mussorgsky’s
unfinished opera Marriage, a comedy begun in 1868, six years prior to Pictures. Mussorgsky
writes that his work on Marriage is “the exercise of a musician, or rather a nonmusician,
desirous of studying and mastering the flexes of human speech.”29 In the opening of the opera,
the main character Podkolyosin is lying on a divan, smoking his pipe, and delivering a
hypocritical monologue about the importance of getting married30 (see Example 2.2.2).
29
30
Ibid., 82.
35
Example 2.2.2 Mussorgsky, Marriage, Act I, Scene I, mm. 7–14.
Podkolyosin is wealthy and presumptuous like Goldenberg, and his recitative employs numerous
compositional devices that are also utilized in Goldenberg’s speech. In both examples we find
abundant rests, reflecting the breath and dramatic pauses of the characters as they take time to
clearly articulate their arrogant moralizing. Like Goldenberg, Podkolyosin speaks with crisp
dotted rhythms in mm. 8 and 11, infusing an air of assertiveness into the text. Both speakers
even conclude their phrases with the same interval of a falling major third. From this
comparison, it seems plausible that in Pictures an overconfident Goldenberg is indeed lecturing
Schmuÿle, and there is an element of the comical involved.
We also find numerous augmented seconds in Goldenberg’s theme, which Taruskin
argues is Mussorgsky’s way of representing the unbecoming qualities of the “zhidy.”31
Schmuÿle’s main theme, however, contains no augmented seconds that would identify him in
this way (see Example 2.2.3).
31
Ibid., 382.
36
l e,’”
mm. 9–10.
Although this character supposedly represents the true “loathsome” nature of Goldenberg, the
essence of the theme is a slow and simple harmonic rhythm sinking downward. The right-hand
pattern does create a shaking effect in the sound, which Taruskin describes as “jabbering” and
“pestering,”32 but this could also be interpreted as the genuine discomfort of the dejected
l e. Russ interprets this motive as “his teeth chattering or his body trembling,”33 and
Schmuÿ
likewise Ashkenazy refers to it as “the poor man’s trembling.”34 Nagachevskaya takes a more
figurative approach, hearing it as “his nervousness and severe emotional discomfort.”35
Pierre d’Alheim writes that Schmuÿle “moves quaintly, tries to catch the other’s eye,
begs,”36 and Riesemann explains that he does this “without making the slightest impression on
32
Ibid., 382.
33
34
Ashkenazy, Preface to Bilder einer Ausstellung, xii.
35
36
Quoted in M. D. Calvocoressi, Musorgsky: The Russian Musical Nationalist, trans. A. Eaglefield Hull
(New York: E. P. Dutton & Co., 1919), 83.
37
his partner.”37 There is, however, a passage from Schmuÿle which hints at the bolder qualities of
Goldenberg (see Example 2.2.4).

l e,’”
m. 17.
At first glance, this may appear to be a sign of conflation of the two characters as Schmuÿ
l e
assimilates some of Goldenberg’s brash nature, showing two sides of the same coin as in
Taruskin’s analysis. It could, however, be a candid moment of frustration for Schmuÿle as
Goldenberg continues to ignore his appeals. Indeed, we can find a similar outburst in Marriage
when Podkolyosin’s servant Stepan becomes irritated with his master (see Example 2.2.5).
After Schmuÿle’s resistant outcry, Goldenberg engages him in a heated argument,
represented by the juxtaposition of their themes (see Example 2.2.6).
37
38
l e,’”
mm. 19–20.
The agitation is not only evident in the intensity of the octaves, but the sense of pulse as well.
When Goldenberg was speaking by himself, his theme embodied a confident and patient
demeanor. When placed alongside against Schmuÿle’s theme, we feel the intensity of every beat,
and Goldenberg begins to display additional accents that were not present in the beginning. We
find a similar development in the beginning of Marriage. When Podkolyosin begins to feel “the
anxiety that the thought of marriage has aroused in the confirmed old bachelor,”38 the accents
become more active compared to the beginning, shifting from larger phrases around half-note
beats to emphasizing more of the quarter beats (see Example 2.2.7).
38
39
By the end of “‘Samuel’ Goldenberg und ‘Schmuÿ
l e,’” the two characters are given
separate melodies once again. Schmuÿle gives his final pleas, and Goldenberg rejects him with
sforzandi interruptions and a haughty fortissimo ending (see Example 2.2.8).

l e,’”
mm. 27–29.
As we can hear from Mussorgsky’s exaggeration of various musical elements, as well as
comparisons with the comedic setting of Marriage, this movement indeed contains elements of
satire. Although there is disagreement as to the intent of this caricature, an enduring view of the
movement involves one character hectoring the other. In Marriage the wealthy and entitled
Podkolyosin speaks with an arrogant tone about how one should live life, and based on the
similarities to Goldenberg’s musical characteristics, we can infer that Goldenberg is, in fact, a
figure of ridiculous pomp. Although Schmuÿle is the poor man on the receiving end of this rant,
we hear that he is not simply a pathetic and weak figure, but he exposes his daring side much like
Stepan. It is important that the pianist convey these theatrical elements of the scene, bringing the
characters to life by recreating their melodramatic dialogue, expressive interaction, and
exaggerated demeanor.
40
Chapter Three
Burden
After surveying the more lighthearted sides of life with themes of youth and satire, I will
move into the movements of Pictures that reflect the hardships of life, embodying heavy struggle
and emotional discomfort. With the theme of burden, Mussorgsky shows us that adversities are
unavoidable and life can become severe. There are two movements in particular from Pictures
that are saturated with anxiety, encumbrance, and struggle. This chapter will challenge the
commonplace assumptions about these movements by probing into their underlying psychology
through comparisons with Mussorgsky’s operatic and song literature. The first movement is
“Gnomus,” traditionally understood as a representation of a disfigured dwarf, but I will question
this assessment through comparisons with Mussorgsky’s opera Boris Godunov. The other
movement is “Bydło,” which is commonly translated as “Cattle,” but again I will challenge this
interpretation by relating it to his opera Khovanshchina and his song “On the Dnieper.”
3.1 “Gnomus”
In his notes Stasov writes, “A drawing representing a little gnome walking awkwardly on
deformed legs.”1 In one of his letters, he further explains, “This gnome is a child’s plaything,
fashioned after Hartman’s design [for a nutcracker] in wood, for the Christmas tree at the Artists’
Club.”2 Frankenstein writes that the design was No. 239 in the catalogue, but both the
1
2
41
nutcracker and the drawing have disappeared.3 Without these items, Stasov’s description has
been the primary basis for interpreting this movement. Riesemann concurs that it is a
representation of “a dwarf who waddles with awkward steps on his short, bandy legs; the
grotesque jumps of the music, and the clumsy, crawling movements with which these are
interspersed, are forcibly suggestive.”4 Russ also views the music as “depicting the awkward
gait and the frequent stumbles of the gnome,”5 and Montagu-Nathan concludes that “the
grotesque little goblin’s awkward movements are wonderfully suggested.”6
Emelia Fried, in her notes to the holograph facsimile, probes deeper into the character of
the gnome. She writes: “Mussorgsky’s piece is grotesque, with a touch of tragedy, a convincing
example of the humanization of a ridiculous prototype.…The gnome is related to other
characters in Mussorgsky’s works where behind an ugly outward appearance one senses a living
and suffering soul.”7 Nagachevskaya takes this idea a step further, suggesting that because
Pictures was begun soon after the premiere of Boris Godunov, “some of Boris’ dramatic facility
and intention is extended to the Pictures.…Consequently, Mussorgsky was perhaps not so much
interested in literally drawing a caricature of the Gnome in music, but rather in sharing the
emotional suffering and pain of this wretched creature.”8 Neither Fried nor Nagachevskaya
provides detailed examples of influence from these other works, but I will look to Boris to find
many striking parallels.

3
4
5
6
7
8
42
Caryl Emerson and Robert Oldani have identified specific keys and motives throughout
Boris that signify certain characters and emotional states. They have identified the key of e-flat
minor, the same key of “Gnomus,” as emphasizing a state of guilt.9 More specifically, they have
associated the use of chromaticism as a representation of Boris’s heavy conscience over killing
the child Dmitry (see Example 3.1.1).
Example 3.1.1 Mussorgsky, Boris Godunov, Motive of Guilt.10
We need only look at m. 60 of “Gnomus” to find a strong connection with Boris’s guilt
motive. In Example 3.1.2 we find a similarly constructed passage in the same key, beginning
with a low E-flat pedal tone and followed by a two-voice texture where the lower part descends
chromatically under dissonant intervals created by the upper part:
Example 3.1.2 Mussorgsky, Pictures at an Exhibition, “Gnomus,” mm. 60–63.
In his article on Mussorgsky’s song cycle Sunless, Simon Perry offers a more explicit
description of Mussorgsky’s use of chromaticism. He discusses the Russian tradition of using
9
Caryl Emerson and Robert Oldani, Modest Musorgsky and ‘Boris Godunov’ (Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 1994), 240.
10
Ibid., 233.
43
symmetrical or “synthetic” chromaticism “to signify the world of magic and fairy tale (evil or
benign), opposed to the worldly and human.”11 Furthermore, he mentions its use in Boris
Godunov, where “the signification of evil remained a vital component in the drama, and
synthetic chromaticism plays an important role in connoting the complex of ideas of murder,
guilt, paranoia, and so on.”12 We find chromaticism potently utilized in the final scene of Act II
when Boris begins to hallucinate and is haunted by the appearance Dmitry’s ghost. Before the
beginning of Boris’s monologue, Mussorgsky utilizes sets of chromaticism splitting
symmetrically away from a central note (see Example 3.1.3). Variations of this motive frequently
recur as Boris is tortured by his own conscience.
Example 3.1.3 Mussorgsky, Boris Godunov, Act II, Hallucination Scene, p. 222.13
Throughout “Gnomus,” we also find symmetrical tendencies in the use of chromaticism.
In the very opening motive, Mussorgsky employs chromaticism balanced around a central point
(see Example 3.1.4).
11
Simon Perry, “A Voice Unknown: Undercurrents in Mussorgsky’s Sunless,” 19th-Century Music 28,
no. 1 (2004): 21.
12
Ibid.
13
Because of the complications involved with various editions and edits to both Boris Godunov and
Khovanshchina, I will refer to the page numbers for these works in the Kalmus editions of the vocal scores edited by
Paul Lamm.
44
When reduced, we can see the symmetry which converges onto a single note (see Example 3.1.5).
Example 3.1.5 Mussorgsky, Pictures at an Exhibition, “Gnomus,” Reduction of Primary Motive.
Nagachevskaya provides a graph of this motive, showing a spiral that pulls back in on itself, as if
the gnome cannot escape from his own fears14 (see Figure 3.1.1).
Figure 3.1.1 “Gnomus,” graphic representation of the primary motive.
Russ describes this motive as the stumbling of the gnome,15 but in light of its structure, one
might view this as a representation of the main character’s tortured psyche.
14
15
45
Regarding Boris, Perry emphasizes the use of tritones in the opera since they were
integral to Mussorgsky’s thinking in symmetrical structures.16 Emerson and Oldani discuss a
more specific use of tritones, particularly evident in the Hallucination Scene. They propose that
the pitch center of E-flat represents Dmitry, while the pitch center of A signifies the release from
Dmitry.17 This tritone opposition creates a powerful struggle in Boris’s mind throughout the
opera, something that demands resolution but is only resolved with Boris’s death.18 In the
Hallucination Scene, this tritone appears most overtly when Boris begins to question the integrity
of his soul: “Now I know if you are stained, but once are stained, then nothing can preserve you
from damnation; your soul will burn”19 (see Example 3.1.6) .
Example 3.1.6 Mussorgsky, Boris Godunov, Act II, Hallucination Scene, p. 223.
In this excerpt, the bass alternates between A3 and the enharmonic equivalent of E-flat3, while
the upper notes create a wedge gesture splitting outward amidst a swirling chromatic violin
figuration.
In “Gnomus,” there are also numerous instances of an E-flat/A tritone. The first
implication of this interval can be seen in the opening motive of “Gnomus” which is centered on
16
Perry, “A Voice Unknown,” 22.
17
Emerson and Oldani, Modest Musorgsky and ‘Boris Godunov,’ 242.
18
Ibid., 245.
19
Nicholas John, Boris Godunov (New York: Riverrun Press, 1982), 80.
46
G-flat, the midpoint between E-flat and A. Shortly thereafter, these two notes appear together in
the left-hand part beginning in m. 19 (see Example 3.1.7).
Particularly similar to Example 3.1.6 from Boris is the ending section of “Gnomus,” where the
left-hand part consists of ostinato shifts between E-flat2 and A2, connected with chromatic runs
(see Example 3.1.8).
This ostinato in “Gnomus” eventually spirals out of control and abruptly ends with both hands
playing jarring chords (see Example 3.1.9).
47
We find a comparable moment in the opera when Boris shouts, “Oh conscience of my soul, how
savagely you punish!”20 (see Example 3.1.10).
Here we also have chromaticism launching abruptly into accented chords, with the upper part
rising a half-step like the chords in “Gnomus.” Schnittke suggests that the Gnome’s chords are
representative of his screams, 21 which seems plausible given this comparison.
In addition to the general angst shared by the two characters, it is also possible that the
Gnome, like Boris, is facing a second dark presence which haunts him. In the Boris
Hallucination Scene, precisely when Boris begins to see Dmitry’s ghost in the corner, a low E-
flat pedal appears which underlines his frightened pleas to the apparition22 (see Example 3.1.11).
20
Ibid.
21
Alfred Schnittke, “‘Kartinki s vïstavki’ M. P. Musorgskogo (Opït analiza),” Voprosïmuzï
koznaniya 1
(1953–1954), 330–32; quoted in Nagachevskaya, “Pictures at an Exhibition,” 77.
22
48
It is possible that the low E-flat pedals in “Gnomus” also signify an ominous presence from
which the Gnome is trying to escape. This interpretation would coincide with Mussorgsky’s
change of tempo and character marking to Poco meno mosso, pesante (see Example 3.1.12).
Emerson and Oldani recount Boris’s powerful underlying emotions: “Fears and agonies
are half-formed and then abandoned as he races ahead to another thought, perhaps unrelated to
its predecessor. Even sleep escapes him, he says, and in the darkness of the night the child
Dmitry rises up before him. This devastating image will not leave him; it possesses him,
exhausts him, and leaves him crying to God.”23 We can infer similar emotional content in
“Gnomus” by examining the numerous musical parallels with Boris, particularly the sensations
of fear, anxiety, and burden. Like Boris, the Gnome may be running away from his own mind,
either a tortured conscience from a past evil, or merely his own insecurities brought about by his
inherently outcast nature. Whichever the case, we can conclude that “Gnomus” embodies
qualities far beyond portraying the physical encumbrances of a dwarf.
It is still possible, however, that Hartmann’s nutcracker design did play an important role
in Mussorgsky’s composition as Stasov asserts. Previously in Act II of Boris, a chiming clock is
introduced that delights the children. In the Hallucination Scene, it is this clock that sets Boris’s
23
Ibid., 52.
49
mind on a downward spiral. Perhaps Stasov was accurate in saying that the Gnome is based on
“a child’s plaything” since in Boris, “it is a child’s toy, after all, that unhinges his mind so
completely at the scene’s end.”24
The pianist is challenged with distinguishing between the hunter and the hunted, creating
sharp contrasts, biting sforzandos, and an accelerando that should sound terrifying. One must
understand these elements of the score for a successful performance, but also bear in mind
Mussorgky’s concern with the suffering of the individual as well as his own personal struggles
and demons.25 The pianist must ultimately delve into the raw emotions of pain, fear, and tragedy
in order to bring to life the larger purpose of this piece.
3.2 “Bydło”
Stasov notated the title of “Bydło” as “Polish Cart” in the 1886 edition of Pictures,26
writing that it depicts “a Polish wagon on enormous wheels drawn by oxen.”27 Frankenstein tells
us that the exhibition catalogue did not contain a picture of a wagon or oxen,28 but Seroff
speculates that Mussorgsky probably saw this drawing at Hartmann’s home.29 Although no
Hartmann original has been identified to link “Bydło” to a Polish wagon, many still concur with
Stasov’s assertion. Arsenii Golenishchev-Kutuzov describes the piece as a representation of
24
25
26
27
28
Ibid.
29
50
“rattling carts,”30 while Riesemann provides more detail, explaining that “‘Bydło’ is a big Polish
dray, drawn by a team of oxen on its high, rumbling wheels.”31 Russ agrees that “a huge Polish
cart arrives on the scene” with “thick, ponderous, left-hand chords, representing the rumbling of
the wheels and the tread of the hooves.”32
Riesemann believes that “the reproduction of this would not be very musical had not
Moussorgsky introduced a swinging folk-song in the Aeolian mode, evidently sung by the
driver.”33 Russ also proposes that the bass “is set against a folk-like melody sung by the cart
drivers.”34 Calvocoressi mentions the worker’s song as well, providing a rather mundane
description of its qualities:
The heavy basses which come lumbering along are in themselves characteristic: beneath
them comes a theme of a labour song which becomes brighter towards the middle of the
piece; and that is all; but it is moving. Here the emotion results more from the
description, and one sees that the mere description of the subject has sufficed for
Musorgsky without giving rein to a single moment’s effusion or amplification of his
piece by a musically emotional commentary.35
Through further examination, however, we will find that there is indeed a level of
“emotional commentary” behind this piece. In a letter to Stasov, Mussorgsky refers to this
movement as “Sandomirzsko bydło (le télégue),”36 often translated as Polish Ox-Cart.
30
Arbor, MI: UMI Research Press, 1983), 92.
31
32
33
Ibid., 292.
34
35
M. D. Calvocoressi, Musorgsky: The Russian Musical Nationalist, trans. A. Eaglefield Hull (New York:
E. P. Dutton & Co., 1919), 86.
36
51
Mussorgsky, however, alludes to a different meaning behind this title when he writes: “it stands
to reason that le télégue [the cart] isn’t named, but this is between us.”37 Brown asserts that
“what Musorgsky’s cryptic remark to Stasov concerning ‘le télégue’ was all about remains a
mystery.”38 Russ, however, offers one theory: “One might speculate that he is acknowledging
some unrecorded discussion with Stasov about the scenario for this piece or even that, given
Mussorgsky’s Russophile tendencies, the Sandomir cattle are the Polish people themselves.”39
(By “Russophile tendencies,” Russ is referring to Russian anti-Semitism, particularly toward
Polish Jews.)40
Nagachevskaya argues for a sympathetic view of Mussorgsky’s intentions. Her first
point is that as a socially progressive composer, Mussorgsky longed to reveal social problems
through his art (a concept frequently termed “populism”)41 and would be unlikely to attack the
peasants of Sandomir in his music.42 Her second point concerns the meaning of the title. In step
with most translations, Frankenstein writes, “the title, as is well known, is a Polish word meaning
‘cattle.’”43 Brown concurs that “the word ‘bydło’ in both Russian and Polish means simply
‘cattle.’”44 Nagachevskaya, however, claims that the word “bydło” can translate from Russian as
37
Ibid.
38
39
40
Ibid., 43.
41
Ibid., 7.
42
43
44
52
“rabble,”45 which according to Feodor Lopouhov is one of the names for the Russian peasantry.46
Perhaps Mussorgsky never intended to scrutinize the Poles but was representing the working
class of his own Russian countrymen. Indeed, the composer never used the word Sandomir in
his manuscript for the final title of this movement. Nagachevskaya also argues that Russ
contradicts his own analysis of “Bydło,” since on the one hand he conjectures about
Mussorgsky’s underhanded representation of Polish Jews, but also writes that this movement is
“one of the most melancholic and Russian pieces.”47 Russ’s argument comes further into
question when he cites Fried’s notes to the holograph facsimile, where she explains that “Bydło”
contains more Ukranian rather than Polish characteristics.48 Nagachevskaya thus asks: “Why
would [Mussorgsky] create such a sorrowful and Russian-sounding Picture to mock the
Poles?”49
As we have seen, “Bydło” is often interpreted solely based on the images of the cattle and
cart. This was partly due to Stasov’s notations, but it was also exacerbated by Rimsky-Korsakov,
the man responsible for editing Pictures for its initial publication. He altered Mussorgsky’s
opening fortissimo dynamic to piano with poco a poco cresc., creating the effect of a cart
gradually approaching from a distance.50 This misconception also found its way into the famous
orchestration by Ravel.
45
46
Quoted in Nagachevskaya, “Pictures at an Exhibition,” 104.
47
48
Ibid.
49
50
53
Mussorgsky, however, wrote to Stasov that he intended this piece to hit “right between
the eyes,”51 and indicated as such with the fortissimo present in his autograph (see Example
3.2.1).
Example 3.2.1 Mussorgsky, Pictures at an Exhibition, “Bydło,” mm. 1–10.
Over the despairing atmosphere of the left-hand part, the right hand melody of “Bydło” is indeed
very characteristic of a Russian laborer’s song, distinguished by the natural minor mode (G-sharp
minor), a lumbering rhythm, and short, disconnected phrases with ample rests. Nagachevskaya
proposes that a possible source of inspiration for this melody is the barge haulers’ “Song of the
Volga Boatmen.”52 This seems plausible, not only because it is a traditional Russian folksong,
but also because it was collected and published by Mily Balakirev, a fellow member of the
“Mighty Five” (see Example 3.2.2).
51
52
54
Example 3.2.2 “Song of the Volga Boatmen.”
As with the melody of “Bydło,” here too we find lumbering rhythms and short phrases broken
apart by rests. Both melodies are in the bass register, straining higher with rising gestures but are
inevitably weighed back down. Additionally, the contour of the melody emphasizes a range of a
minor sixth like the first four measures of “Bydło.” The powerful exclamations in the “Song of
the Volga Boatmen” are reflected in “Bydło” by Mussorgsky’s fortissimo dynamic and abundant
tenutos, effectively conveying a struggle against a heavy burden. Through this texture,
Mussorgsky is able to transcend a mundane portrayal of “cattle” and take us into the lives of
working people, weighed down through oppression, hard labor, and unimaginable effort.
We may also turn to Mussorgsky’s song literature to glean understanding about the role
of the melodies and textures in “Bydło.” Mussorgsky’s opera Khovanshchina reflects the
struggle against the elite during the Moscow Uprising of 1682. It regards the reign of Tsar Peter
the Great and his conflict with several rebellious factions in Russia. According to Brown:
The main characters on stage represent three of the elements Peter must crush if he is to
drag an almost medieval Russia into the modern age. The first is the old nobility with its
entrenched mores and privileges….The second is the Old Believers, a schismatic group
of the Orthodox Church….The third element is the Europeanizing party in Russian
society.53
Themes of burden permeate the opera, with Tsar Peter’s victory coming with the price of
exile, murder, and suicide for the losing parties. Much of the musical content contains
characteristics similar to “Bydło” and the “Song of the Volga Boatmen.” In Brown’s analysis of
53
Brown, Musorgsky, 253–54.
55
the opera, he identifies one melody in particular that relates to the dignity of Prince Ivan
Khovansky, the personification of the old nobility54 (see Example 3.2.3).
Example 3.2.3 Brown’s Reduction of Khovansky’s Dignity Theme.
As in “Bydło” and “Song of the Volga Boatmen,” Khovansky’s theme begins in the lower
register and reaches higher, always returning down again. The rhythms are simple and weighty,
and the harmonization is not complex, containing octave doublings of the melody which add to
the stark intensity. These melodic traits can be found throughout Khovanshchina, with abundant
rising and falling perfect fourths and fifths. We hear another example of this when the boyar
Shaklovity dictates a letter to Peter, informing him of the plot for Ivan Khovansky and his son
Andrey to rebel against the Tsar (see Example 3.2.4).
Example 3.2.4 Mussorgsky, Khovanshchina, Act I, p. 35.
54
Ibid., 280.
56
Like in “Bydło,” here we see the natural minor mode (A minor), square rhythms, stark
accompaniment, and a persistent return to the dominant with a range of a minor sixth. From this
example, it appears that a texture such as this for Mussorgsky connotes not only ideas of struggle,
but a sense of defiance as well.
Regarding “Bydło,” Nagachevskaya proposes that the higher registers in the B section
may be associated with the appearance of female characters, creating the impression of women
crying.55 Indeed in Khovanshchina, women are also given prominent roles with similar melodic
qualities. When Khovansky sets his sights on the German girl Emma, Andrey threatens to kill
her rather than let his father have her. Emma cries out to be saved56 (see Example 3.2.5).
Example 3.2.5 Brown’s Excerpt from Mussorgsky, Khovanshchina, Act I.
Although certainly more agitated than the previous melodies, Emma’s melody exhibits the same
fundamental traits of simple rhythms, upward motion, particularly with the opening perfect
fourth, and an overall stretch of a minor sixth.
Another example occurs at the close of the opera when Andrey’s mistress, Marfa, speaks
of their love, convincing Andrey to accept their fate and die together before the arrival of Peter’s
troops (see Example 3.2.6).
55
56
57
Example 3.2.6 Mussorgsky, Khovanshchina, Act V, p. 370.
Here Mussorgsky returns to a weighty texture, accompanied by octaves and a simple but
effective bass line in a Lamentoso context. Yet again, this melody features lumbering rhythms,
gestures that strain higher, and an emphasis on a minor sixth span in the opening. In light of the
very similar rhythmic, harmonic, and melodic qualities among the melodies, it would be
appropriate that the melody of “Bydło” be interpreted as more than a cart driver’s song. The
pianist should consider imbuing it with a sense of dignity for the people, defiance against
oppression, and perhaps even a nostalgic despair felt by those who can do nothing to help.
Although these are sincere emotions, we should not overlook the possibility that “Bydło”
contains characteristics that do imply negative connotations for the Polish. Mussorgsky’s song
“On the Dnieper” from 1867 is a setting of the poem “Yarema’s Song” from Shevchenko’s
Haydamaki, concerning the subject of the Ukrainian insurrection against the Polish gentry in
1786.57 Although the text is not Mussorgsky’s, he chose to set it with a musical texture to match
Shevchenko’s “heroic vision of a free Ukraine.”58 The song boasts a dark text: “Free to the Sea.
57
Ibid., 84.
58
Ibid.
58
No Polish landowners, no monks! The Dnieper has borne away their bones”59 (see Example
3.2.7).
Example 3.2.7 Mussorgsky, “On the Dnieper,” mm. 58–65.
Again, Mussorgsky’s melody utilizes heavy rhythms in the natural minor mode (D minor), and
the plodding chords of the accompaniment are frequently outlined at the octave and filled in with
a third, fourth, or fifth, creating a sparse but brutally direct texture much like the chords in
“Bydło.” Perhaps this texture is, in fact, representative of dignity for Mussorgsky’s own country
of Russia above all else.
For interpreting “Bydło,” Mussorgsky left us little more than a cryptic note to Stasov and
clues in the score itself. Although it is impossible to conclusively define its “musically
emotional commentary,” we may infer certain expressive qualities with comparisons to the
composer’s vocal literature. Certainly, it is unlikely that “Bydło” is as literal as a Polish wagon
59
Ibid.
59
and cattle passing by with a tuneful driver atop. From “Song of the Volga Boatmen,” we see
that this type of melody is reminiscent of a Russian rather than Polish worker’s song, and with
the comparison to “On the Dnieper,” a Russian sentiment seems even more likely. The
similarities in Khovanshchina suggest that for Mussorgsky, this style of writing connotes ideas of
struggle, burden, defiance, and dignity for those involved. The pianist should convey these
sentiments, infusing an otherwise commonplace worker’s song with the weight and intensity
needed to bring these deep emotions to the surface.
As if on the other side of the coin from satire, both “Gnomus” and “Bydlo” are laden with
the responsibilities of adult life. These pressures are almost unbearable for the characters, and in
the operas Boris Godunov and Khovanshchina, these burdens ultimately lead to death. For Boris,
his troubled path brings about his own demise. By the end of Khovanshchina, death surrounds
all the characters as an inevitable necessity for Tsar Peter and Russia itself to progress forward.
Accordingly, the topic of death is the next category I will explore.
60
Chapter 4: Death
The movements of Pictures that involve death are not all explicitly about murder or
sacrificing one’s life, but each of them does carry elements of loss in their musical text. The first
movement I will examine, “Il vecchio castello,” is often likened to a troubadour’s song of
loneliness or lost love. Although death is not inherent to the subject matter, we will see that
Mussorgsky uses a very similar texture for Death’s “Serenade” in his song cycle Songs and
Dances of Death, from which we can infer certain expressive qualities. “Catacombae
(Sepulcrum romanum)” and “Con mortuis in lingua mortua” are intrinsically about death,
literally based on the image of catacombs. I will explore, however, the more personal expression
for Mussorgsky based on comparisons with songs from his song cycle Sunless. The final
movement containing death is “The Hut on Hen’s Legs (Baba Yaga),” which is based on the
dark Russian fairy-tale of a murderous witch. Although there are no figures of witches in
Mussorgsky’s song literature, we can return to Songs and Dances of Death as a basis for defining
its musical characteristics.
4.1 “Il vecchio castello”
From Stasov’s notes, we have the description of “a mediaeval castle before which stands
a singing troubadour.”1 According to Frankenstein:
The Italian title suggests the locale, but nothing like this is listed in the catalogue. The
picture was obviously one of Hartmann’s architectural watercolors done in Italy. The
closest one can come to it at present is the “Scene in Périgueux,” which typifies
Hartmann’s paintings of architectural monuments during his Wanderjahre. This picture,
unlisted in the catalogue, represents the tower of the cathedral of St. Front at Périgueux,
rising above dwelling houses in the foreground.2 [see Figure 4.1.1]
1
61
Figure 4.1.1 Victor Hartmann, “Scene in Périgueux.”
“Il vecchio castello” is one of the few movements in Pictures where the musical
characteristics tie it directly to Stasov’s description. The piece is often likened to a complex
blend of several forms that reflect the Italian title, a medieval setting, and the singing of a
troubadour. The musical texture mirrors the traits of an Italian siciliana, such as the 6/8 meter,
lilting rhythms, minor key, lyrical melody, slow tempo, and incorporation of Neapolitan
harmonies.3 It is also strongly reminiscent of a medieval ballade due to the repetitive nature of
the melodies as well as its three-part texture—the lower part consisting of a sustained pedal point,
the middle a “lute” accompaniment, and the upper the melody of a troubadour’s song.4 In
addition to these features, there are elements of Russian sound in “Il vecchio castello.” Russ
writes that “this serenade with its guitar accompaniment turns into a Russian ‘song without
words’ strongly influenced by the shapes of Russian folk music.”5 He claims that “‘Castello’
2
Ibid.
3
4
Ibid., 86.
5
62
contains aspects of diatonic melismatic writing, which may reflect the influence of a type of
melismatic peasant song known as the protyazhnaya.”6 Brown also hears these elements of
Russian influence, writing that the musical texture is “a blend of Italian siciliana with Russian
melancholy.”7
As a mixture of vocal genres, “Il vecchio castello” is perhaps the most lyrical of all the
movements in Pictures. Mussorgsky first establishes the scene in the left-hand part, a pattern
that subsequently reveals itself as an accompaniment to the entrance of a melody marked con
espressione. The pedal bass line throughout is comprised solely of a repeated G-sharp2, which is
completely unsubservient to the harmonic changes above, often resulting in tense clashes with
the overlying chords and melody (see Example 4.1.1)
Example 4.1.1 Mussorgsky, Pictures at an Exhibition, “Il vecchio castello,” mm. 6–15.
There seems to be a divide among scholars’ reactions to the compositional quality of “Il
vecchio castello.” Some believe that Mussorgsky’s writing is less than successful, the final
product being ultimately too repetitive and uninventive. Russ describes the movement as beset
6
Ibid., 51.
7
63
with “monotony” and “unremarkable harmony,” writing that “the lack of contrast between
sections is a weakness.”8 Similarly, Brown writes, “‘Il vecchio castello’ seems almost too safe,”9
and Calvocoressi claims that the movement is “no more than mere platitudes.”10 On the other
hand, there are those who appreciate the mysterious and melancholic effects that this movement
evokes. Rather than interpret it as a monotonous rendering of a troubadour song or an ordinary
castle scene, a pianist could explore the penetrating depths of expression made possible by the
austere texture. Riesemann writes that the movement creates “a long-drawn, unspeakably
melancholy melody…from which the beholder apparently cannot tear himself away.”11
Nagachevskaya also believes that it “creates an atmosphere of melancholic solitude,” painting a
picture of “mysterious ruins that silently keep their dark secrets.”12 In the notes to the holograph
facsimile, Emelia Fried probes even deeper into the expressive qualities of this movement,
writing that it reflects Mussorgsky’s “broodings on the perishable nature of our earthly existence
that were tormenting him at the time.”13 Russ evaluates Fried’s statement as “questionable,”
implying that “Il vecchio castello” should be taken more at face value rather than as an
outpouring of inner emotion.14 After all, as Russ claims, “Hartmann added small figures to show
the scale of his architectural illustrations and such is the origin of the troubadour here.”15
8
9
10
M. D. Calvocoressi, Musorgsky: The Russian Musical Nationalist, trans. A. Eaglefield Hull (New York:
E. P. Dutton & Co., 1919), 86.
11
12
13
14
15
Ibid.
64
In order to defend the expressive qualities within this movement, I will turn to
Mussorgsky’s song cycle Songs and Dances of Death, examining in particular the aspects of
longing and loss. Mussorgsky composed the four songs in this cycle in 1775 shortly after
Pictures, setting the poems of Golenishchev-Kutuzov that depict the figure of Death in various
forms and scenarios. The second song, “Serenade,” represents Death wooing a young girl in the
guise of a lover.16 Russ, in fact, does reference this song as having strong musical similarities to
“Il vecchio castello.”17 But rather than drawing expressive correlations, he merely writes that in
the song, “Musorgsky employed the idea of a serenade to more powerful effect.”18 I will,
however, take a closer look at these similarities in order to understand the expressive elements in
“Il vecchio castello,” which might otherwise be overlooked.
The opening of “Serenade” describes the scene of a gravely ill young girl on a magical
spring evening. In the silence of night, Death begins sings a serenade under the dying girl’s
window: “In the gloom of your bleak and oppressive confinement, your youthfulness withers
away. I, a mysterious knight, will free you with my wondrous powers”19 (see Example 4.1.2).
16
17
18
Ibid.
19
65
Example 4.1.2 Mussorgsky, Songs and Dances of Death, “Serenade,” mm. 34–41.
Already, the subject of a mysterious knight amidst withering youth provides an appropriate
thematic complement to “the old castle” from Pictures. As with “Il vecchio castello,” we find a
6/8 siciliana rhythm in the bass and dotted patterns in the melody, providing an appropriate
rhythmic backdrop for Death’s serenade. Additionally, there is a tendency to utilize lower
neighbor tones with the eighth- and sixteenth-note rhythms, which is something also found in “Il
vecchio castello” (see Example 4.1.3).
66
Both of these excerpts also exhibit a texture that frequently outlines an octave filled in with a
single note for harmonization.
As mentioned above in regard to the siciliana style, another important trait to “Il vecchio
castello” is the use of Neapolitan harmony (see Example 4.1.4).
G-sharp minor: N6 N6
In “Serenade,” the use of the Neapolitan seems to reflect Death’s own feelings of being
seduced by the girl’s presence. The first Neapolitan harmony occurs in the melody of m. 74 as
Death professes: “Your breath hotter than the midday sun. You have seduced me totally!”20 (see
Example 4.1.5).
20
Ibid., 126.
67
Example 4.1.5 Mussorgsky, Songs and Dances of Death, “Serenade,” mm.72–74.
F-sharp minor: N6
Additional instances of the lowered G-sharp appear as Death is further enticed: “How lovely
your body, how intoxicating your trembling…”21 (see Example 4.1.6).
Like in “Il vecchio castello,” we hear a pedal tone with the same lilting 6/8 siciliana rhythm
overlaid with harmonies independent from the bass. Perhaps the use of the lowered second is not
merely to satisfy the conditions of a siciliana, resulting in “unremarkable harmony,” but to
signify heightened moments of yearning as it does with Death’s appeals.
Of particular note is the ending to “Serenade,” which is very similar to the conclusion of
“Il vecchio castello” (compare Examples 4.1.7 and 4.1.8).
21
Ibid.
68
In “Serenade” the rests reflect death’s seductive pauses and inflections as he lulls the girl into
complacency and then suddenly claims her in the fortissimo ending: “Hark to my entreaties of
love… Hush now… You are mine!”22
Regarding “Il vecchio castello,” scholars do not agree on the interpretive meaning. Russ
merely addresses the formal aspects, describing the ending as “a coda which typically ends the
piece with fragments of the previously heard ideas which gradually fade away.”23 Schnittke
proposes a more programmatic scenario, suggesting that the gaps at the end represent the
22
Ibid.
23
69
storyteller’s memory loss.24 Nagachevskaya takes an emotional tack, claiming that the
troubadour is possibly overwhelmed by sad memories from the past, cannot sing smoothly, and
must take several short breaks in order to finish his story.25 With this comparison to the ending
of “Serenade,” we can infer that there is indeed a greater emotional weight that certainly
surpasses memory loss and is perhaps accompanied by death itself for the singer or for someone
close to the singer’s heart.
Although we cannot know exactly what sentiment Mussorgsky intended, from the
parallels to “Serenade,” we can see that there is likely a deeper expression behind this music than
the composer abiding by formal requirements. It appears that this texture for Mussorgsky carries
more implications than “mere platitudes” as Calvocoressi suggests and likely connotes ideas of
yearning, aging, and possibly death. Part of the interpretive issues with “Il vecchio castello”
result from the fact that the only dynamic marking in the movement is pianissimo (aside from the
forte outburst at the very end) and there are very few expressive markings throughout, allowing
for relatively bland interpretations. But the pianist must not fall into the trap of rolling through
this piece with a gentle one-dimensional andantino. Mussorgsky does provide a clue in the
tempo marking: molto cantabile e con dolore (very singing and with sorrow). Rather than
recreating a droning atmospheric accompaniment to a castle scene, the pianist is charged with
crafting a story to fill the musical space as an actual singer would. Throughout “Serenade,”
Mussorgsky employs an abundance of hairpins, accents, and dynamic shifts to express Death’s
yearning. It would seem appropriate, then, to utilize more of these expressive tools in “Il
vecchio castello” to convey the sentiment implied by the texture. The “siciliano” rhythm can be
24
Alfred Schnittke, “‘Kartinki s vïstavki’ M. P. Musorgskogo (Opït analiza),” Voprosïmuzï
koznaniya 1
(1953–1954), 336; quoted in Nagachevskaya, “Pictures at an Exhibition,” 88.
25
70
transformed into the heavy heartbeat of the singer, and the pianist should not shy away from the
overlying clashes with the pedal tone, but express their strain to the fullest as an intense yearning.
Whether it is a song of loneliness, seduction, love, or death, it is important to transcend the literal
image of a troubadour at a castle, and bring the lone singer’s emotional world to the foreground.
4.2. “Catacombae (Sepulcrum romanum)” / “Con mortuis in lingua mortua”’
Stasov writes, “Hartmann’s picture [of the “Paris Catacombs”] represented the artist
himself looking at the catacombs in Paris by the light of a lantern.”26 According to Frankenstein,
“the catalogue gives a little more precise information (No. 36): ‘Interior of Paris catacombs with
figures of Hartmann, the architect Kenel, and the guide holding a lamp’”27 (see Figure 4.2.1).
Figure 4.2.1 Victor Hartmann, “Paris Catacombs.”
Brown refers to this movement as “purely atmospheric, stating that “this first part of
‘Catacombae’ is the weirdest piece Musorgsky ever created.”28 Likewise, Derrick Puffett
26
27
Ibid.
28
71
believes that it is the “strangest” of all the movements in Pictures.29 Calvocoressi asserts that
‘Catacombae’ is “only moderately expressive in spite of an evident intention of seeking after
sonority.”30 These comments give the impression that Mussorgsky was attempting to create an
atmospheric ambiguity with this movement, without necessarily succeeding at the same level of
communicative expressivity found in the rest of Pictures. Mussorgsky’s music, however,
certainly embodies a deeper and more personal expression than implied here. This is the only
movement that directly involves Hartmann himself, and the images of catacombs no doubt
stirred Mussorgsky’s emotions over his death as he was composing the movement. Hartmann’s
very sudden and unexpected passing affected Mussorgsky greatly. In a letter to Stasov, the
composer reveals his emotions: “My very dear friend, what a terrible blow! ‘Why should a dog,
a horse, a rat, live on?’—and creatures like Hartmann must die!”31 Also in the same letter,
Mussorgsky expressed his shame for not recognizing Hartmann’s poor health during their last
trip together to St. Petersburg:
“When you’ve got your wind again, old boy, we’ll go on.” That was all I could say,
when I knew that his death-warrant had been signed! What clumsy fools we
are! …When I recall that talk, I feel wretched, because it was fear that made me a
coward….I shall not soon forget what happened, it will haunt me.32
Mussorgsky felt deep remorse for the loss of his friend, as well as sincere regret for not
doing more to help him. These events not only inspired his work on Pictures to memorialize
Hartmann, but he also began work on his song cycle entitled Sunless. Mussorgsky chose to set
poems of Golenishchev-Kutuzov for the cycle, particularly those which express elements of
29
Derrick Puffett, “A Graphic Analysis of Musorgsky’s ‘Catacombs,’” Music Analysis 9, no.1 (1990), 67.
30
Calvocoressi, Musorgsky, 83–84.
31
Quoted in Riesemann, Moussorgsky, 288.
32
Ibid.
72
loneliness, nostalgia, and loss. Instead of portraying real-world images, both the poetry and
musical texture of Sunless are driven by abstract Romantic ideals of conveying one’s inner life
and emotional turmoil.
The third song of the cycle, “The Idle, Noisy Day Is Over,” evokes a number of images
that concern loss and could be paralleled to “Catacombae.” Golenishchev-Kutuzov’s poem is as
follows:
The idle, noisy day is over;

Human life, fallen silent, is slumbering.
All’s quiet. The shadow of a May night
Embraces the sleeping city.
But sleep flies from my eyes.

And, by the dawn of a new day,
My imagination turns over
The pages of years lost.
As if breathing in again the poison

Of spring, of passionate dreams,
In my soul I resurrect a series
Of hopes, impulses, and mistakes…
Alas, they are but ghosts!

I’m bored with their deathly crowd,
And the noise of their old chatter
Has lost its hold on me.
But one shadow, of all the shadows,

Appeared to me, breathing love,
And, faithful friend of days past,
Bent quietly towards the bed.
And bravely I gave to her alone

All my soul in a silent tear,
Visible to no one, full of happiness,
In a tear, I cherished since long ago!33
33
Quoted in Simon Perry, “A Voice Unknown: Undercurrents in Mussorgsky’s Sunless,” 19th-Century
Music 28, no. 1 (2004), 38.
73
The poem describes “slumbering” human life in quiet darkness, reminiscent of the catacombs in
Hartmann’s drawing. The speaker “turns over the pages of years lost” and resurrects “a series of
hopes, impulses, and mistakes,” not unlike Mussorgsky has done with his own regrets
concerning Hartmann. According to Perry, this song was originally to have been titled “Shade”
or “Shadow,” which he writes “may refer to darkness or to beings no longer among the living.”34
Perhaps the “faithful friend of days past” indeed reminded Mussorgsky of his own loss. As we
will see, the musical texture of the song is also comparable to “Catacombae,” which will allow
us to infer emotional qualities of remembrance and nostalgia in the piano piece.
“Catacombae” consists of a sustained chordal texture which emphasizes vertical sonority,
unconventional tonal progressions, and extreme contrast. The numerous fermatas, venturous
harmony without regard to key signature, and the unexpected use of dynamics all create the
sense of something mysterious, ethereal, and void of beginning or end, like eternity itself (see
Example 4.2.1).
Example 4.2.1 Mussorgsky, Pictures at an Exhibition, “Catacombae,” mm. 1–11.
Brown describes the setting as “an experience of irrational terror that subsides with only painful
slowness…dehumanized, disorientated and unpredictable.”35 According to Nagachevskaya,
34
Ibid., 37.
35
Brown, Musorgsky, 239–40.
74
Schnittke feels that the sudden contrasts represent frightening images of destruction, while
Golovinsky and Sabinina suggest that the echoes create an atmosphere of grandeur and space.36
Nagachevskaya herself believes that “these extreme changes may indicate the severe mental and
emotional state of a person who, being affected and disturbed by horrible images, feels
disoriented and lost.”37
In “The Idle, Noisy Day Is Over,” we see that Golenishchev-Kutuzov’s poem, although
replete with poignant emotion, gives a much different impression than experiencing “irrational
terror” or being “disturbed by horrible images.” Rather, the poem speaks of the shadows on a
quiet spring night, and the musical setting Mussorgsky composed for it bears many resemblances
to “Catacombae.” From the opening of the song, we see an emphasis on vertical sonority,
dynamic contrast, unexpected harmony, a slow tempo, and an almost rhythmless sense of
floating through the piece (see Example 4.2.2).
Example 4.2.2 Mussorgsky, Sunless, “The Idle, Noisy Day Is Over,” mm. 1–7.
36
37
Ibid.
75
Another salient aspect of the opening of “Catacombae” is the low octave bassline, which
makes a brooding, stepwise descent. Nagachevskaya proposes that this creates the effect of
literally going underground into the mysterious passageways.38 There is again, however, a
similar passage in the song, which creates a different effect. It is the moment when the speaker’s
“imagination turns over the pages of years lost.” Nagachevskaya’s suggestion for “Catacombae”
seems plausible based on the picture, but perhaps the bassline represents a more figurative
concept. This could be Mussorgsky’s way of recalling the past, creating a mental descent into
precious memories (see Example 4.2.3).
Example 4.2.3 Mussorgsky, Sunless, “The Idle, Noisy Day is Over,” mm. 12–14.
At the close of the song, we find additional extreme contrasts like in “Catacombae,” not
only in dynamics, but also in range. Particularly striking is the sudden move from pianissimo to
forte as the poem speaks of a soul “full of happiness” (see Example 4.2.4).
38
Ibid., 146.
76
Example 4.2.4 Mussorgsky, Sunless, “The Idle, Noisy Day is Over,” mm. 36–40.
We find a similar gesture toward the end of “Catacombae,” with a subito accented chord in the
treble register, followed by piano (see Example 4.2.5).
Example 4.2.5 Mussorgsky, Pictures at an Exhibition, “Catacombae,” mm. 21–24.
As in the song, perhaps the sforzando major chord is Mussorgsky recalling positive instead of
negative emotion, being flooded with a memory of happiness instead of fear or pain.
The next section of this movement, “Con mortuis in lingua mortua,” is unusual in that
Mussorgsky incorporated the “Promenade” theme into the picture instead of being employed as
an interlude between movements. It is in the key of B minor, which Frankenstein writes “is
really an extremely sad restatement of the Promenade theme.”39 Calvocoressi does not offer
39
77
much more, providing a mundane description of this section as “a rhythmless transformation of
the theme of the Promenade, with an ineffective high tremolo”40 (see Example 4.2.6).
Example 4.2.6 Mussorgsky, Pictures at an Exhibition, “Con mortuis in lingua mortua,” mm. 1–4.
As we will see, there is more to this use of the “Promenade” theme than inducing a sad or
rhythmless effect. Many interpret this as Mussorgsky himself becoming part of Hartmann’s
drawing, particularly since the “Promenade” theme is thought to represent the composer. Brown
writes, “by founding the second part of the latter on the main theme of his Promenades,
Musorgsky draws himself into the scene as observer”41 and “now imagines himself their
companion.”42 Russ also believes that “here is the very point where the composer is drawn into
the pictures themselves.”43
For further insight, we can turn to Mussorgsky’s own notations, as he provided a clue to
his expressive intentions with a note he left in the holograph. Above this section in the margin,
40
Calvocoressi, Musorgsky, 84.
41
42
Ibid., 239.
43
78
he wrote: “A Latin text: with the dead in a dead language. It should be a Latin text. The creative
spirit of the departed Hartmann leads me toward the skulls and invokes them—the skulls begin
to glow faintly.”44 This notation seems to set a different scene from Hartmann’s drawing. In the
artwork, Hartmann is alive and well, exploring the catacombs with a friend and a guide, neither
of whom are Mussorgsky. The notation in the holograph, however, implies that Mussorgsky is
taking his own journey into the catacombs rather than becoming an observer or companion in the
drawing, and is, in fact, following the spirit of the already departed Hartmann.
Nagachevskaya suggests that the “Promenade” theme is Mussorgsky speaking to
Hartmann, and the lower octaves represent Hartmann’s ominous replies from deep within the
catacombs.45 Stasov falls in line with this more figurative interpretation from his description in a
letter to Rimsky-Korsakov: “tremolando comes in a minor key the theme of the first
promenades—these are faint lights glimmering in the skulls, and here suddenly is sounded the
magic, poetic appeal of Hartmann to Musorgsky….”46 In Rimsky-Korsakov’s reply to Stasov,
he seems reluctant to agree that Mussorgsky’s texture contains this spiritual dialogue: “The place
from ‘Catacombs’ which you describe is beautiful, but it is taken out of the middle and thus is
not very clear to me; how this appeal happens to be made by Hartmann to Musorgsky—I don’t
understand this at all.”47
On one hand, Russ claims that for Mussorgsky, since “faith and religion featured little in
his life, we can assume that he held little hope for an after-life. Life on earth constituted all that
44
45
46
47
Ibid., 276.
79
was available, early death was simply a waste.”48 He also responds to Mussorgsky’s notation,
writing that “this idea of the skulls glowing probably came to him from the illustration where in
the lamplight the skulls themselves seem to light up.”49 On the other hand, Seroff claims that
“Moussorgsky never lost his interest in spiritualism and quite often attended séances with
Stassov’s brother Dmitri and Kutusov.”50 Although we cannot presume to know the level of
Mussorgsky’s spiritual life, we can glean insight from his vocal writing. The first song for
comparison is titled “Softly the Spirit Flew Up to Heaven,” a suspiciously religious choice of
text for someone who “held little hope for an after-life” (see Example 4.2.7).
Example 4.2.7 Mussorgsky, “Softly the Spirit Flew Up to Heaven,” mm. 1–3.
As with “Con mortuis,” Mussorgsky begins in a 6/4 time signature with sustained tremolos in the
treble register, creating an appropriately spiritual setting. Additionally, after a measure of
introduction, Mussorgsky introduces a Lamentoso melody in quarter notes underneath. From
this comparison, it would seem that Mussorgsky’s delicate tremolos and melodic placement in
“Con Mortuis” reach beyond creating an atmosphere of mystery and into the realm of the divine.
48
49
Ibid.
50
80
For the next comparison we will turn to the fifth song of Sunless, “Elegy.” The title
alone bears certain connotations of remembrance for those who have passed, and although
Hartmann’s death is likely an influence for this music, Mussorgsky was also deeply struck by the
passing of his close friend Nadezhda Opochinina. She died in 1874, shortly after Mussorgsky
completed Pictures but before he returned to composing the last two songs of Sunless.
Mussorgsky had begun a dedication to her entitled “Epitaph” for voice and piano, but he never
finished the project. An excerpt from the text gives a sense of the deep sorrow he felt over her
death:
Cruel death, like a ravenous vulture, thrust her talons into your heart and killed you; this
executioner, cursed throughout the ages, has carried you, too, away. O, if only all those
for whom I know my maddened cry sounds wild, could comprehend the power of grief!
O, if only it could give me tears, bitter and comforting tears—then, perhaps, in a
luminous thought, I could portray for people your shining image, glowing with the love
of truth….51
“Elegy” from Songs and Dances of Death, written around the same time as “Epitaph,”
expresses comparable sentiments in its text. One striking feature in “Elegy” is the “clang of the
bell of death,” which Brown tells us is not only the dynamic height of the song, but indeed the
climax of the entire Sunless cycle52 (see Example 4.2.8).
Example 4.2.8 Mussorgsky, Sunless, “Elegy,” mm. 44–48.
51
Leyda and Bertensson, The Musorgsky Reader, 276–77.
52
81
Immediately following this texture of “Death’s melancholy tolling,”53 there appears a texture in
the piano accompaniment that is very similar to “Con mortuis.” The right-hand part begins with
a pianissimo tremolo, and the left-hand part enters underneath with a lamenting theme (see
Example 4.2.9).
Also like “Con mortuis,” the theme in the treble register is answered with a low bass melody in
octaves, and the piece ends on a sustained tremolo (see Example 4.2.10).
F minor: i6/4 iv6 i
53
82
The poem here gives the impression of a disheartened speaker: “A prescient star, as if overcome
by shame, conceals its bright countenance in a morose haze, not unlike my future, mute and
impenetrable.”54 This despondent conclusion is manifested in the song by Mussorgsky avoiding
any decisive cadence and maintaining the minor harmony to the end. The crucial difference in
“Con mortuis” is that Mussorgsky eventually resolves the gloomy harmonies to B major,
creating a more uplifting close to the piece (see Example 4.2.11).
Example 4.2.11 Mussorgsky, Pictures at an Exhibition, “Con mortuis in lingua mortua,”

mm. 16–20.
B Major: V I V I
In “Elegy,” the speaker seems to have lost hope in a future without this person they care about so
greatly. Perhaps in “Con mortuis,” the rising B-major ending is Mussorgsky’s way of providing
hope in the midst of tragedy, allowing light to penetrate as Hartmann’s spirit ascends to a greater
place after their final exchange.
As we have seen with comparisons to Mussorgsky’s vocal literature, “Catacombae” and
“Con mortuis” are neither merely atmospheric colorations of mystery or fear nor literal
depictions of Mussorgsky joining Hartmann’s entourage underground. From “The Idle Noisy
Day Is Over,” we can infer that there is likely a figurative journey into past memories. “Softly
54
Ibid.
83
the Spirit Flew Up to Heaven” shows us that there are aspects of the spiritual involved, and
“Elegy” confirms a sense of loss and deep remorse after death. The pianist should understand
that the purpose of these movements in Pictures is not to simply recreate the image of travelling
through the catacombs in Hartmann’s drawing, but to take part in Mussorgsky’s spiritual homage
to his close friend.
4.3 “The Hut on Hen’s Legs (Baba Yaga)”
She lives deep in the woods in a hut whose hen’s legs allow it to rotate to face each
unfortunate newcomer. There she lures lost children to eat them, crushing their bones in
the giant mortar in which she rides through the woods propelling herself with the pestle
and covering her tracks with a broomstick.55
Such is Russ’s description of the dark Russian fairytale of Baba Yaga. Hartmann’s
drawing, however, depicts a very different image. Rather than a menacing, ferocious witch, he
drew an ornate clock. It is decorated with many elaborate features, but only the hen’s feet link it
to the fairy tale. Frankenstein tells us that “this is described in the catalogue (No. 247) as ‘Baba
Yaga’s hut on fowl’s legs. Clock, Russian style of the 14th century. Bronze and enamel.’ The
carved gables, cock motives, and elaborate ornamentation after textile and rope patterns, are all
highly typical of Hartmann’s architectural style”56 (see Figure 4.3.1).
55
56
84
Figure 4.3.1 Victor Hartmann, “Baba-Yaga’s Hut on Hen’s Legs.”
Although Hartmann’s clock seems outside the realm of Baba Yaga’s savagery, he
certainly understood the barbaric aspects of the fairytale. The first time Stasov had seen him,
Hartmann evidently made quite a stir at an artist’s ball dressed as the witch. While everyone else
was in costume according to clichéforeign models, Hartmann appeared
there,…along rows of plaster of Paris Greek gods and goddesses, a witch, Baba Yaga,
was running her red braids streaming out behind her. A big fuzzy hat was pulled down
over her eyes, her feet were wrapped in onuchi, bony arms stuck out of the sleeves of her
robe, a sparse beard protruded from her chin, her horrible eyes gleamed maliciously on
her painted face, tusks stuck out of her half opened mouth.57
One can imagine that this story had been told to Mussorgsky, who no doubt thought of
this image when composing “Baba Yaba” in memory of Hartmann. Some scholars, however,
still link Mussorgsky’s movement to aspects of a clock. According to the 1886 edition, the
metronome marking is set at 120 to the quarter note.58 Russ explains that “if the metronome
marking is correct, then the indication [quarter note] = 120 leaves each bar with a duration of
exactly one second; this, and the mechanical rhythm, gives the impression of a giant clock.”59
57
Ibid., 275.
58
59
Ibid., 47.
85
Similarly, Brown claims, “the witch’s pendulum begins the frantic ticking that determines the
pace of her ride.”60 Although a speed of 120 to the quarter note would hinder the necessary
feverish delivery of a performance, the aspect of a relentless pulse is certainly appropriate. But
perhaps the idea of a ticking clock is not so inapt, for as we have seen in the Boris Hallucination
Scene, it can be associated with the supernatural as it was with Dmitry’s ghost, and even has the
power to drive one insane.
The intense outer sections of “Baba Yaga” are often thought to portray the witch’s
frenzied ride through the forest. Stasov tells us that “Musorgsky has added the ride of Baba
Yaga in her mortar,”61 Seroff writes “Moussorgsky’s picture represents one of Baba-Yaga’s rides
on a broomstick,”62 and Riesemann concurs that “Moussorgsky has written for this a wild
scherzo—a sort of witches’ ride.”63 Appropriately, the opening is replete with brutal octaves and
biting chords (see Example 4.3.1).
Example 4.3.1 Mussorgsky, Pictures at an Exhibition, “Baba Yaga,” mm. 21–28.
60
61
Frankenstein, “Victor Hartmann and Modeste Musorgsky,” 286–87.
62
Seroff, Modeste Moussorgsky, 143.
63
86
Mussorgsky utilizes an intense crescendo into fortissimo, sforzando accents, chromaticism, and a
sense of intervallic opposition with symmetrical tendencies in the patterns. Although not
emphasizing tritones, this passage from “Baba Yaga” is reminiscent of the texture in “Gnomus,”
crafting an atmosphere of angst and terror. Nagachevskaya refers to this section as “takeoff
music” for the witch, based on the forcefully rising bassline.64 In the context of the fairy tale,
this would make sense. Unfortunately Mussorgsky did not leave behind a vocal composition
about Baba Yaga in order to suggest the intentions of each musical pattern.
Other than his orchestral work St. John’s Night on Bare Mountain, the closest reference
we have to a terrifying supernatural force like Baba Yaga is Death itself in his Songs and Dances
of Death. In the song “Trepak,” Death traps a wayward peasant in a dreadful snow storm,
feigning to comfort him as his life slips away. There is a passage comparable to “Baba Yaga”
where the poem describes “the storm, like a witch, rose up and pushed you from field to forest,
drowsy, not knowing she snatched you”65 (see Example 4.3.2).
64
65
Peter Barton, “Modeste Mussorgsky’s Songs and Dances of Death” (DMA thesis, University of South
Carolina, 2011), 33.
87
Example 4.3.2 Mussorgsky, Songs and Dances of Death, “Trepak,” mm. 38–54.
Although not bearing the same frantic drive as “Baba Yaga,” “Trepak” has a sense of an
ominous presence from the heavy bass octaves crescendoing upward, answered by descending
chords with grace notes in the right hand. A more agitated texture occurs subsequently in the
song when Death commands: “Spread a fluffy bed my darling storm!”66 (see Example 4.3.3).
Example 4.3.3 Mussorgsky, Songs and Dances of Death, “Trepak,” mm. 72–73.
66
Ibid.
88
The cascading chromatic scales in “Trepak” are comparable to the ending of the A section in
“Baba Yaga,” which also dramatically descends while emphasizing half steps. Much like the
storm that envelops the hapless victim in “Trepak,” this passage in “Baba Yaga” could be
interpreted as the witch swooping down to close in on her prey (see Example 4.3.4).
Another piece in the Songs and Dances of Death cycle, “The Field Marshal,” also utilizes
compositional tools that exhibit many similarities to the A section of “Baba Yaga.” As the poem
describes a vicious battle scene ushering in the appearance of Death, we find sforzando accents,
brooding bass octaves, appoggiaturas in the right hand, and rising and falling chromaticism (see
Example 4.3.5).
89
Example 4.3.5 Mussorgsky, Songs and Dances of Death, “The Field Marshal,” mm. 10–15.
From these similarities to the A section of “Baba Yaga” we can get a sense that
Mussorgsky’s witch is indeed a figure of terror and destruction far removed from Hartmann’s
decorative clock. The B section of “Baba Yaga,” conversely, is a much less active Andante
mosso. Calvocoressi argues that this middle section “gives an example of purely musical
suggestion, perhaps unique in the instrumental works of the composer.…Everyone will feel the
mysterious atmosphere of this episode.”67 Russ explains, “the central section mixes diminished
and augmented harmonies creating tonal ambiguity and an atmosphere of spookiness.”68
67
Calvocoressi, Musorgsky, 83–84.
68
90
Riesemann also believes that “the strange harmonies and halting melodies produce a weird effect
of unreality”69 (see Example 4.3.6).
Although the texture of the B section indeed suggests a magical atmosphere, a more precise
explanation could be that Baba Yaga is actually seducing her victim rather than generating a
vague mysticism. Nagachevskaya points out that the left-hand melody of the B section begins
with the same rhythm as the opening of the piece, indicating that this is likely Baba Yaga
speaking to her victim.70 Additionally, the non legato marking indicates the imitation of speech-
like patterns.71
For comparison, we will again look to Songs and Dances of Death. In the song “Lullaby,”
Death promises to ease the suffering of a mother’s sickly child and give him peaceful sleep.
69
70
71
91
When Death begins to sing, the right hand of the accompaniment slips into a triplet pattern like
the B section of “Baba Yaga” (see Example 4.3.7).
Example 4.3.7 Mussorgsky, Songs and Dances of Death, “Lullaby,” mm. 28–30.
When Death professes “I will quickly quiet him; hush, my little one, my own,”72 we see an
emphasis on falling intervals in the melody, much like the left-hand part in “Baba Yaga”
(compare Examples 4.3.6 and 4.3.8).
These textures serve as a deceitfully seductive entreaty, supporting the interpretation that Baba
Yaga is attempting a similar ruse with her victim.
72
Barton, “Modeste Mussorgsky’s Songs and Dances of Death,” 26.
92
In “Lullaby,” soon after these comforting promises from Death, the left-hand part begins
leaping up as the mother becomes more agitated, her cries accompanied by tremelando. She
implores Death to stop: “Have mercy! Cease your ghastly song, I beg you, if only for a
moment!”73 (see Example 4.3.9).
In the B section of “Baba Yaga,” there are also agitated interjections alongside tremelando
accompaniment. Perhaps these motives are the shouts of the victim as he or she realizes what is
actually happening, that this seduction is a ploy to claim the victim’s life (see Example 4.3.10).
73
93
After the screams subside, Baba Yaga abruptly takes off and resumes her hunt for another
victim. From the musical details as well as the comparisons to Mussorgsky’s Songs and Dances
of Death, we see that the musical realization of “Baba Yaga” takes the listener into a world far
removed from the decorative clock of Hartmann’s design. Hartmann’s sketch provides a subject,
but ultimately does very little for the spirit of Mussorgsky’s music. Far from ornate, the music is
raw and direct, wild and frantic, primal and brutal. Although this piece demands a strong
technique, it is not a Lisztian bravura that drives Mussorgsky’s composition, but a need to cut
straight to the aggression, terror, and deceit of Baba Yaga. The pianist should tear the audience
from their seats onto the ride of her mortar, become the seductress, and communicate a brutality
that comes from a very different spirit than Hartmann’s clock.
With the category of death in Pictures, Mussorgsky has shown us a nuanced variety of
emotions. “Il vecchio castello” embodies qualities of yearning, “Catacombae” and “Con mortuis”
represent grief in a spiritual context, and “Baba Yaga” is driven by terror and seduction. For the
cycle as a whole, death represents the last step in a journey through the stages of life. We have
seen the beginning of life, the lighthearted sides of life, the severe sides of life, and the end of
life. Mussorgsky, however, does not leave us with an exploration of life within only these
boundaries. He also incorporates movements which transcend these worldly concerns. These
are pieces that contextualize the expressive journey of Pictures, providing a measure of triumph
and hope amidst topics of frivolity, struggle, and loss.
94
Chapter Five
Transcendence
The category of transcendence consists of the bookends of the cycle, the opening
“Promenade” and the finale “The Bogatyr Gate.” “Promenade” sets a celebratory tone for the
opening before we are dragged into the turbulent emotional ride of the cycle. I will examine
traits of Russian folk and choral music to better understand the texture, and then draw
comparisons with the Coronation Scene in Boris Godunov in order to illuminate the exultant
qualities in this movement. “The Bogatyr Gate” returns us to a sense of glorious triumph while
incorporating elements of the divine. I will again look to Boris for determining expressive and
textural meaning, as well as examine the Russian Orthodox chant “Memory Eternal” in order to
highlight the connection to spiritual elements.
5.1 “Promenade”
It is commonly accepted that “Promenade” represents Mussorgsky physically walking
through Hartmann’s exhibition. According to Russ, “this is a portrait of Musorgsky, now of
considerable bulk, shambling through the gallery.”1 Also commenting on his bodily weight,
Frankenstein describes this movement as “a kind of musical portrait of Musorgsky himself
walking about in the gallery.…The curious rhythm—measures of 5/4 alternating with measures
of 6/4—creates an awkward waddly effect: Musorgsky was no sylph.”2 Brown provides even
more detail, writing, “Promenade I brilliantly suggests him walking purposefully into the room,
1
2
Alfred Frankenstein, “Victor Hartmann and Modeste Musorgsky,” Musical Quarterly 25 (1939), 281–82.
95
though there is an ebb and flow in the phrasing that indicates that his gait is subject to constant
slight irregularities, perhaps through momentary shifts of direction as he turns to give the
pictures a preliminary survey.”3 Curiously, Stasov’s note for this movement does not provide
any descriptive imagery, writing only that “the introduction bears the title Promenade.”4 In his
biography of Mussorgsky, however, he does offer his thoughts on the “Promenade” interludes:
“The composer has shown himself pacing here and there; sometimes loitering, sometimes
hastening to get nearer to a picture; sometimes the joyful gait slackens—Musorgsky thinking
mournfully of his dead friend.”5
In Mussorgsky’s letter to Stasov regarding Pictures, he writes that his “own
physiognomy peeps out all through the intermezzos.”6 At first glance, it would seem that this
explanation validates the aforementioned interpretations. There are, nonetheless, two
fundamental assumptions that would have to be imposed on Mussorgsky’s letter to arrive at this
conclusion. The first issue concerns the distinction between the “intermezzos” and the
“Promenade.” Although the intermezzos are titled “[Promenade]” and are thematically linked,
they do not have movement numbers and they contain brackets around their headings, whereas
the actual “Promenade” movements are labeled. Mussorgsky distinguished between the
“Promenade” and the subsequent recurrences of its theme, and thus was not necessarily referring
to the opening movement in his letter. The other issue relates to the interpretation of the word
“physiognomy.” Although the term can be defined as a manifestation of bodily features, it may
3
4
5
Quoted in M. D. Calvocoressi, Musorgsky: The Russian Musical Nationalist, trans. A. Eaglefield Hull
(New York: E. P. Dutton & Co., 1919), 81.
6
Quoted in Oskar von Riesemann, Moussorgsky, trans. Paul England (New York: Tudor Publishing Co.,
1935), 291.
96
also be understood as a reflection of one’s character and spirit. Riesemann touches on this more
figurative concept, explaining that “Promenade” reveals “a clever and intelligent face ‘nel modo
russico,’ which reflects the objects seen, but in a form transfigured by art.”7
The musical texture of “Promenade” is comparable to that of a Russian choir, where a
soloist initiates a theme and is then followed by alternating choral responses, creating a pattern of
antiphonal singing.8 There are constant meter fluctuations in the A section between 5/4 and 6/4,
adding to a sense of unrestricted chant-like singing. Mussorgsky creates an atmosphere of
grandeur with the forte dynamic, tenutos on every note of the main theme, and grand chords with
a supportive bassline in octaves (see Example 5.1.1).
Example 5.1.1 Mussorgsky, Pictures at an Exhibition, “Promenade” I, mm. 1–8.
In order to clarify the associations with Russian folk and choral music, we must examine
some of the salient characteristics of these genres. Russ explains, the “folk-influence may be felt
in a variety of ways, most significantly in modal alterations, a narrow range, obsessively
7
8
97
reiterated small diatonic collections, heterophony, parallelism and the use of pedals.”9 He offers
a reproduction of the heterophonic folk song “Da svaty moi” as an example of the Russian choral
style10 (see Example 5.1.2).
Example 5.1.2 “Da svaty moi.”
According to the Russian folk specialist Evgenia Linyova, Russian folk heterophony “usually
begins with a solo or unison which then changes into polyphony, periodically returning to
unison….Both the lead singer (zapevalo) and the supporting singers (podgoloski or
podgolosochniki) sing essentially the same melody, but the supporting voices constantly deviate
from it, changing it at will.”11 As in “Promenade,” “Da svaty moi” indeed opens with a solo
melody answered by polyphony, and the essence of the melody from the opening zapevalo is
reflected in the podgoloski response. In both examples we also find the use of a 6/4 time
signature and a strong bassline in contrary motion. It would thus be appropriate that when
interpreting “Promenade,” the pianist should feel the breath of the soloist and choir, the
9
Ibid., 50.
10
Ibid., 54.
11
Vladimir Morosan, “Folk and Chant Elements in Musorgsky’s Choral Writing,” in Mussorgsky: In
Memoriam 1881–1981, ed. Malcolm Hamrick Brown (Ann Arbor: UMI Research Press, 1982), 104.
98
antiphonal shadings of color and dynamics, and convey the elements of the Russian folk and
choral sound in the music.
Russ also discusses a close similarity between the melody of “Promenade” and the chorus
in the Coronation Scene of Boris Godunov. He explains that the Coronation melody is the
Russian hymn “Glory to God in the Highest” and notes several parallels to “Promenade” that
exemplify the Russian style, including the reiterations of motifs based on diatonic seconds and
fourths, the distinctive eighth- eighth- quarter-note rhythm, and the changing metric contexts.12
Emerson and Oldani write that the Coronation melody is one of the few genuine folk melodies in
Boris.13 Below is Russ’s chart comparing “Promenade” and the Coronation melody of Boris
Godunov14 (see Example 5.1.3).
Example 5.1.3 Russ’ Comparison of “Promenade” and Boris Coronation Scene Melodies.
12
13
Caryl Emerson and Robert Oldani, Modest Musorgsky and ‘Boris Godunov’ (Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 1994), 41.
14
99
Comparing (a)(i) with (b)(i), we see that both melodies are comprised of a collection of five
notes with an octave range between lower and upper dominant scale degrees. There is also the
use of eighth-note dyad patterns, and both openings employ a rising perfect fourth.
These melodic similarities are indeed prominent, but we may also look to their textures
for resemblances as well. When looking at a reduction of the chorus and orchestra in the
Coronation Scene of Boris, we see chords in the treble partnered with octaves in the bass moving
in contrary motion, much like the chordal textures in “Promenade” (see Example 5.1.4).
Example 5.1.4 Mussorgsky, Boris Godunov, Prologue, Coronation Scene, p. 37.
There is yet another aspect of “Promenade” that we can compare with the Coronation
Scene in Boris, which Russ does not mention. These are the sections which begin as a reflection
of the theme, but proceed into steady eighth-note figuration (see Example 5.1.5).
Example 5.1.5 Mussorgsky, Pictures at an Exhibition, “Promenade” I, mm. 9–10.
A similar transition into eighth notes can be identified in the Coronation Scene as bells begin
ringing out over the chorus (see Example 5.1.6).
100
Example 5.1.6 Mussorgsky, Boris Godunov, Coronation Scene, p. 42.
While Russ touches on comparisons to Boris, he does not delve into the implications that
this type of analysis might have for the expressive purpose of “Promenade.” In this scene, the
crowd is singing amidst trumpet fanfares and bellringing in praise of the Tsar: “As the beautiful
sun is above us in heaven, glory, glory, so Tsar Boris is above us in Russia, glory, glory!”15 The
music here is momentously uplifting, reflecting a spirit of nobility, pride, and hope. Undeniably,
the majority of the opera is, in fact, beset with trepidation, but this scene provides a moment of
transcendence beyond the onerous trials that the characters must inevitably face.
The overall layout of Pictures reflects this sentiment as well. At the end of the first
“Promenade,” we come to an issue regarding transitions. When Rimsky-Korsakov edited
Mussorgsky’s manuscript, he removed the attacca markings at the end of several movements,
including the one at the end of “Promenade” I. Consequently, since Ravel created his
orchestration before an edition true to the manuscript was published, his orchestral version is
also plagued by this problem. Without the attacca, we are left with the effect of “Promenade” I
15
101
and “Gnomus” standing apart as nonintegrated and incoherent vignettes. With the attacca
reinstated, these two movements are linked, and we can feel the inevitable pull into the
expressive world of Pictures as we are abruptly transported between emotions. In this context,
“Promenade” I serves as the glorious and hopeful celebration not unlike the Coronation Scene in
Boris, whereas the following “Gnomus” unveils a truly tortured nature as we saw with
comparisons to the Hallucination Scene later in the opera.
Another clue about the function of “Promenade” comes from the tempo marking Allegro
giusto, which is commonly understood as a “true” or “exact” allegro. Within the context of this
comparison, however, we could interpret giusto as embodying a sense of the “just” and
“righteous.” In order to create the arc that Mussorgsky intended for the set, the pianist should
infuse some of this noble spirit into “Promenade” I, establishing the appropriate expressive basis
for initiating the cycle.
5.2 “The Bogatyr Gate (at Kiev, the Ancient Capital)”
In this final movement, we return to the triumphant essence that frames the cycle of
Pictures. “The Bogatyr Gate,” also referred to as “The Great Gate of Kiev,” was inspired by
Hartmann’s design that was part of a competition to commemorate Emperor Alexander II’s
escape from attempted assassination.16 Here we have a more extensive description of
Hartmann’s drawing, no doubt because this sketch was one of his most notorious and respected
pieces:
16
102
Six views and plans of the gate are mentioned in the catalogue (Nos. 263–9), of which
ours is apparently No. 265: ‘Stone city-gates for Kiev, Russian style, with a small church
inside; the city council had planned to build these in 1869, in place of the wooden gates,
to commemorate the event of April 4, 1866. The archway rests on granite pillars, three
quarters sunk in the ground. Its head is decorated with a huge headpiece of Russian
carved designs, with the Russian state eagle above the peak. To the right is a belfry in
three stories with a cupola in the shape of a Slav helmet. The project was never carried
out. A photograph of this drawing may be found in Hartmann’s edition of ‘Illustrations
of Russian Ornament,’ Moscow, 1873.’ The inscription on the arch of the gateway is in
Old Slavonic and says: ‘Blessed is he that cometh in the name of the Lord.’17
Stasov writes that the columns “seem sunk into the earth as though weighted down with old age,
and as though God knows how many centuries ago they had been built. Above, instead of a
copula, is a Slavonic war helmet with a pointed peak. The walls are decorated with a pattern of
coloured brick! How original is this!”18 (see Figure 5.2.1).
Figure 5.2.1 Victor Hartmann, “Design for Kiev City Gate: Main Façade.”
Stasov was obviously quite taken with Hartmann’s work. His comments on
Mussorgsky’s “The Bogatyr Gate,” however, are somewhat underhanded. In a letter to Rimsky-
Korsakov, Stasov describes this movement as “in the manner of a hymn or a finale a la
‘Slavsiya’—of course a million times worse and weaker, but all the same a lovely, mighty and
17
18
103
original thing.”19 Calvocoressi feels that it is “evidently laborious writing” for a “quest after
sonority” that is “perhaps more ambitious than successful.”20 Riesemann describes it as “a
somewhat conventionally designed apotheosis,”21 and Seroff claims that it “has nothing
photographically resembling Hartmann’s design for the great Gate of Kiev.”22 We will see,
however, that there are in fact links to Hartmann’s drawing, as well as a sentiment that reaches
far beyond a “quest after sonority.”
We are reminded of the expressive character of “Promenade” as “The Bogatyr Gate”
opens in a grand and heroic fashion. Like “Promenade,” it has a chordal texture with an opening
melody comprised of similar scale tones involving the first, second, third, and fifth degrees,
ultimately spanning an octave dominant to dominant. Aside from these similarities, the tempo
markings of maestoso and con grandezza alone give insight into the expressive qualities of this
movement (see Example 5.2.1).
Example 5.2.1 Mussorgsky, Pictures at an Exhibition, “The Bogatyr Gate,” mm. 1–6.
19
20
Calvocoressi, Musorgsky, 86.
21
22
Seroff, Modeste Moussorgsky, 143.
104
After this glorious opening, the music suddenly transforms into a texture reminiscent of a
four-part church chorale, as if we are transported from the celebration outside the gate to a
service inside the chapel above (see Example 5.2.2).
A-flat minor: i i i6 iv V/VI VI

(F-flat major: vi V I)
Stasov describes this section to Rimsky-Korsakov as “a particularly lovely church motif: ‘As you
are baptized in Christ’”23 (see Example 5.2.3).
Example 5.2.3 “As You Are Baptized in Christ.”24
23
24
105
Brown agrees that “Musorgsky invented, as human participation, a choir intoning the traditional
chant ‘As you are baptized in Christ.’”25 Russ concurs as well, but questions its use:
Musorgsky’s piece includes a reworking of the Russian hymn identified by Stasov above,
but his setting does not reveal a very deep understanding of what ancient Russian Church
music was like. This hymn has nothing to do with Musorgsky’s faith, or lack of it, it is
there because of associations with Russian history and culture and because of the chapel
in Hartman’s design.26
These statements are problematic for two reasons. First, as we have seen in the
examinations of “Catacombae” and “Con mortuis,” it would be a mistake to assume that
Mussorgsky was not spiritual, lacked faith, or preferred not to express it. Second, the assertion
that Mussorgsky actually based his chorale on “As you are baptized in Christ” is debatable since
the two share little more than the quality of stepwise motion. Not only is the melody quite
different, but also Mussorgsky’s sustained rhythms, piano marking with hairpin dynamics, and
description of senza espressione all point to music that transcends the performance of an
everyday church hymn.
Considering that Mussorgsky composed Pictures in memory of his late friend Victor
Hartmann, a more thematically appropriate Russian chorale for comparison is one that he might
have known from traditional Russian Orthodox memorial services. “Memory Eternal” is an
ancient Russian chant, which was reworked in the Obikhod collections disseminated by the
Imperial Chapel in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries27 and is traditionally chanted at the
end of Russian memorial services to commemorate the dead. The soloist first intones a prayer:
“In a blessed falling asleep, grant, O Lord, eternal rest unto Thy departed servant and make their
25
Brown, Musorgksy, 240.
26
27
Morosan, “Folk and Chant Elements in Musorgsky’s Choral Writing,” 115.
106
memory to be eternal!” The choir humbly responds by echoing the words “memory eternal” (see
Example 5.2.4).
Example 5.2.4 “Memory Eternal.”
C-sharp minor: i V/III III

(E major: vi V I)
The air of reverence in Mussorgsky’s “The Bogatyr Gate” chorale is inherent to the musical
texture and message of “Memory Eternal.” In addition to the sustained four-part writing in both
examples, there is also a similarity in the harmonic progression which frequently utilizes vi-V-I
patterns, in this instance creating shifts between C-sharp minor and E major.
We may also find instances of Mussorgsky utilizing elements of “Memory Eternal” in his
operatic repertoire for funereal connotations. Vladimir Morosan proposes that Mussorgsky
incorporated a derivation of “Memory Eternal” in the fourth act of Boris Godunov,
foreshadowing Boris’ impending death28 (see Example 5.2.5).
28
Ibid., 127–28.
107
Example 5.2.5 Morosan’s Excerpt from Mussorgsky, Boris Godunov, Act IV, Scene 1A.
C-sharp minor: i i i V/III III

(E Major: vi V I)
We again find vi-V-I patterns, creating a sense of shifting between the relative keys of C-sharp
minor and E major. Looking back to “The Bogatyr Gate” choral, if respelled enharmonically, it
also can fit effortlessly into four sharps and promptly shifts into E major. Perhaps there are
deeper spiritual reasons for incorporating this chant-like texture into “The Bogatyr Gate.” When
viewing the chorale in light of “Memory Eternal,” the expressive connotations shift from a
generalized Christian reverence to an appropriate and powerful moment of commemoration and
remembrance.
After this moment of spiritual repose in “The Bogatyr Gate,” the opening theme suddenly
returns in a thundering bass part with rapid octaves cascading from above (see Example 5.2.6).
This texture is comparable to an excerpt from the opening of Boris Godunov, where the melody
is also accompanied by energetic octaves in a forte dynamic (see Example 5.2.7).
108
Example 5.2.7 Mussorgsky, Boris Godunov, Prologue, pp. 1–2.
The sixteenth notes in this instance are played by the violins, giving a sense of sweeping
grandeur to the texture. In the correlate passage from “The Bogatry Gate,” the pianist may
likewise wish to create a warm, rich sound rather than the bell-like stridency to which the piano
more immediately lends itself. After a fortissimo reprise of the chorale, however, Mussorgsky
does give us chords which indeed imitate the ringing of bells (see Example 5.2.8).
Nagachevskaya explains that the sonority of the first “bell chord” in m. 81 forms the sound of the
famous “Tristan chord” of Wagner, setting a tone of doom and hopelessness.29 Indeed, we could
29
109
respell Mussorgsky’s F3, A-flat2, C-flat4, E-flat4 to F3, G-sharp4, B3, D-sharp4 as in the second
measure below (see Example 5.2.9).
Example 5.2.9 Wagner, Tristan und Isolde, Act I, Prelude, mm. 1–3.
The bell texture in “The Bogatyr Gate” also shares many features with the bells in the
Coronation Scene of Boris. In this scene of the opera there are actual theater bells on stage, with
a similar alternation between high and low bells (see Example 5.2.10).
We hear a juxtaposition of two major-minor seventh chords with roots a tritone apart (A-flat and
D), creating an apprehension in the harmony as well.
After these bells are introduced, Mussorgsky employs increasingly energetic rhythmic
patterns, which usher in the uplifting choral celebration (see Example 5.2.11).
110
A similar effect happens in “The Bogatyr Gate” as the bells continue to build on each other and
rhythmic energy also increases. Eventually, the upper bells begin clanging with the resilient
Promenade theme as hope dispels the darkness, preparing for the glorious return of the opening
theme (see Example 5.2.12).
111
“The Bogatyr Gate” culminates in an ending of triumph and exultation as the opening
theme returns and carries us to an overwhelmingly powerful close. Nagachevskaya aptly
describes this as music that “shifts the listeners’ attention from their daily routine to the
eternal”30 in order “to transmit the victorious sentiment of joy and hope into the world.”31 From
the comparisons to Boris Godunov and “Memory Eternal,” we can conclude that this
interpretation of timeless celebration, faith, and hope is indeed appropriate. As Pictures begins
in a glorious context with “Promenade,” “The Bogatyr Gate” is truly a grand finale for the cycle,
both as a reverent homage to Hartmann, and as a powerful affirmation of overcoming and
transcending the trials of life explored previously in the cycle.
30
Ibid., 167.
31
Ibid., 171.
112
Conclusion:
Significance of Mussorgsky’s Narrative
You are quite correct in characterizing Mussorgsky as hopeless….He has a narrow

nature…and a low nature, one which loves all that is coarse, crude, rough….He coquettes
with his illiteracy and takes pride in his ignorance….But, he has a real, even original
talent….Mussorgsky, for all his ugliness, speaks a new language.1
Tchaikovsky’s comments to Nadezhda von Meck in 1878 fall in line with much of the
criticism against Mussorgsky during his lifetime, but they also touch on a greater message to be
found within his music. Through his visceral compositional style, Mussorgsky is able to create a
direct association with the life experiences of the characters portrayed in Pictures. This is
something that the composer brings to his vocal repertoire as well, enhanced by the presence of
the human voice. Like the music in Pictures, his vocal literature comes to the forefront of each
particular emotion expressed, achieving candid snapshots of experiences both within life and
beyond. Because of this compositional relationship, the poetry of his vocal music provides
invaluable tools for solidifying otherwise elusive concepts in his instrumental writing.
As we have seen, there is already a plethora of scholarly opinion regarding the expressive
narrative of Pictures. The problem inherent to these opinions, however, is that they are either
unsubstantiated or rely too heavily on Mussorgsky’s titles, Stasov’s notes, and the presumptions
about Hartmann’s artwork. Since we do not have complete descriptions or texts from
Mussorgsky for the movements in Pictures, the strongest resources we have are Mussorgsky’s
other compositions and the music that his compositions emulate. Through these comparisons,
we can uncover expressive meaning throughout the musical text of Pictures, which has a crucial
effect on the interpretation of the cycle as a whole.
1
Quoted in Caryl Emerson, The Life of Musorgsky (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), 115.
113
Rather than viewing this set of movements as a collage of disparate topics and characters,
the examination of vocal literature allows us to penetrate further into the depths of Mussorgsky’s
varied expressions of life. From these examinations, we can see that his music is not merely a
pantomime of various scenes, but rather contains the intricate stories behind the characters
themselves. In his music about youth, we can hear the children shout and the birds chirp. The
satirical movements contain explicit interactions between caricatured subjects from gossiping
women to temperamental Jews. The movements involving burden range from struggles of the
mind and body to poignant commentary on politics and the nature of man. The movements on
death are not merely an ending to life, but they express heartbreak, nostalgia, spirituality, and
even fairy-tale magic. To show us the complete picture, Mussorgsky provides music to frame
these explorations of life, ultimately transcending them with pride and hope.
Alexandra Orlova states it well, writing that the cycle “is far from being a simple
‘illustration’ of Hartmann’s drawings. It is a profoundly philosophical work, a meditation on life
and death, on history, on the people, and on man in general.”2 Through exploring this
manifestation of the human experience in Mussorgsky’s music, a deeper expression of character
and spirit is unveiled in his writing, further illuminating this powerful and intricate composition.
2
Arbor, MI: UMI Research Press, 1983), 173–74.
114
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Study.” DMA thesis, Ohio State University, 1993.
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116

Mussorgsky Pictures at An Exhibition

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Mussorgsky’s Pictures at an Exhibition:

Identifying the Expressive Narrative through Comparisons with Vocal Literature

A document submitted to the

of the University of Cincinnati

in partial fulfillment of the

requirements for the degree of

Doctor of Musical Arts

in the Keyboard Studies Division

of the College-Conservatory of Music

BM, Vanderbilt University, 2007

MM, University of Cincinnati, 2009

Committee Chair: Christopher Segall, Ph.D.

This document reveals connections between Mussorgsky’s Pictures at an Exhibition and

the musical text.

All Rights Reserved

consequently shaping my perceptions of this topic. Lastly, I would like to acknowledge my

through the many challenges of my scholastic career.

Introduction: Mussorgsky’s Pictures at an Exhibition,

1.1 “Tuileries (Dispute d’enfants après jeux)”

2.1 “Samuel Goldenberg und Schmuÿ l e”

4.1 “Il vecchio castello”

Conclusion: Significance of Mussorgsky’s Narrative 113

Example 1.1.1 Mussorgsky, Pictures at an Exhibition, “Tuileries,” mm. 1–2. p. 9

Example 1.1.2 Mussorgsky, The Nursery, “Evening Prayer,” mm. 1–4. p. 10

Example 1.1.3 Mussorgsky, The Nursery, “Evening Prayer,” mm. 28–29. p. 10

Example 1.1.4 Mussorgsky, The Nursery, “The Beetle,” mm. 1–4. p. 11

Example 1.1.5 Mussorgsky, The Nursery, “The Beetle,” mm. 25–28. p. 12

Example 1.1.6 Mussorgsky, Pictures at an Exhibition, “Tuileries,” m. 13. p. 12

Example 1.1.7 Mussorgsky, Pictures at an Exhibition, “Tuileries,” m. 26. p. 12

Example 1.1.8 Mussorgsky, Pictures at an Exhibition, “Tuileries,” mm. 14–15. p. 13

Example 1.1.9 Mussorgsky, The Nursery, “The Beetle,” mm. 55–57. p. 13

Example 1.2.1 Mussorgsky, Pictures at an Exhibition, “Ballet of the Unhatched p. 17

Example 1.2.3 Mussorgsky, Pictures at an Exhibition, “Ballet of the Unhatched p. 18

Example 1.2.5 Mussorgsky, Pictures at an Exhibition, “Ballet of the Unhatched p. 20

Example 2.1.1 Mussorgsky, Pictures at an Exhibition, “Limoges,” mm. 1–4. p. 23

Example 2.1.2 Mussorgsky, “You Drunken Sot,” mm. 1–6. p. 25

Example 2.1.3 Mussorgsky, “You Drunken Sot,” m. 6. p. 26

Example 2.1.4 Mussorgsky, Pictures at an Exhibition, “Limoges,” m. 3. p. 26

Example 2.1.5 Mussorgsky, “You Drunken Sot,” mm. 16–18. p. 27

Example 2.1.6 Mussorgsky, Pictures at an Exhibition, “Limoges,” m. 13. p. 27

Example 2.1.8 Mussorgsky, Pictures at an Exhibition, “Limoges,” m. 5. p. 28

Example 2.1.9 Mussorgsky, “You Drunken Sot,” mm. 34–39. p. 29

Example 2.1.10 Mussorgsky, Pictures at an Exhibition, “Limoges,” mm. 23–26. p. 30

Example 2.1.11 Mussorgsky, “You Drunken Sot,” mm. 87–88. p. 30

Example 2.1.12 Mussorgsky, Pictures at an Exhibition, “Limoges,” m. 37. p. 31

Example 2.2.1 Mussorgsky, Pictures at an Exhibition, “‘Samuel’ Goldenberg p. 35

Example 2.2.2 Mussorgsky, Marriage, Act I, Scene I, mm. 7–14. p. 36

Example 2.2.3 Mussorgsky, Pictures at an Exhibition, “‘Samuel’ Goldenberg p. 37

Example 2.2.4 Mussorgsky, Pictures at an Exhibition, “‘Samuel’ Goldenberg p. 38

Example 2.2.5 Mussorgsky, Marriage, Act I, Scene I, mm. 172–73. p. 38

Example 2.2.6 Mussorgsky, Pictures at an Exhibition, “‘Samuel’ Goldenberg p. 39

Example 2.2.7 Mussorgsky, Marriage, Act I, Scene I, mm. 22–28. p. 39

Example 2.2.8 Mussorgsky, Pictures at an Exhibition, “‘Samuel’ Goldenberg p. 40

Example 3.1.1 Mussorgsky, Boris Godunov, Motive of Guilt. p. 43

Example 3.1.2 Mussorgsky, Pictures at an Exhibition, “Gnomus,” mm. 60–63. p. 43

Example 3.1.4 Mussorgsky, Pictures at an Exhibition, “Gnomus,” mm. 1–3. p. 45

Example 3.1.5 Mussorgsky, Pictures at an Exhibition, “Gnomus,” Reduction of p. 45

Example 3.1.8 Mussorgsky, Pictures at an Exhibition, “Gnomus,” mm. 72–76. p. 47

Example 3.1.9 Mussorgsky, Pictures at an Exhibition, “Gnomus,” mm. 87–90. p. 47

Example 3.1.12 Mussorgsky, Pictures at an Exhibition, “Gnomus,” mm. 38–41. p. 49

Example 3.2.1 Mussorgsky, Pictures at an Exhibition, “Bydło,” mm. 1–10. p. 54

Example 3.2.2 “Song of the Volga Boatmen.” p. 55

Example 3.2.3 Brown’s Reduction of Khovansky’s Dignity Theme. p. 56