Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
1 Network Theorems
Network theorems are analytical method used to convert a complex circuit into a simple equivalent circuit.
R1 · R2 R3 · R4
Rth = + (2)
R1 + R2 R3 + R4
A
4
R
1
R
+
REGULATED POWER SUPPLY
D B
PSfrag replacements _
3
R
2
R
Rth
C
RL
vth
1
R1 R3
B A C D
R2 R4
Rth
+
PSfrag replacements RL
Vth
_
Thevenin equivalent circuit is shown in the figure 3 and VL can be written written as,
VL = Vth − IL · Rth (3)
If a graph is plotted with IL as abscissa and VL as ordinate, must be a straight line having slope −Rth and the
intercept on ordinate is Thevenin voltage, Vth as shown in the figure 4. Note that this is open-circuit voltage,
i.e. RL = ∞ or IL = 0.
∴ From figure 4 ,
Vth
vL
IL
Figure 4: VL -IL graph. Intercept of the extrapolated st. line is denoted by dot on the VL axis and it is the the
open circuit volatge(IL = 0), i.e. Vth .
PM
Rth = and Vth = OQ (4)
MN
Thus from equation 1 and 2 we get theoretical values of Rth and Vth respectively and comparing these values
with the experimentally obtained values from equation 4, Thevenin’s theorem can be verified.
Rn = Rth (5)
i.e. same as Thevenin resistance. Short-circuit current between the terminals B and D is In given by
Vth
In = (6)
Rth
2
Therefore Norton’s equivalent circuit of the circuit 1 is depicted in the figure 5
In
IL
VL
Figure 6: IL - VL Graph.
From figure 6
∴
MN
Rn = ; In = OQ (8)
PM
From IL − VL graph, by equation 8, Rn and In can be obtained experimentally.
Thus from equation 1 and 2 we get theoretical values of Rth (=Rn ) and Vth respectively and from 6, In may be
computed theoretically.
In and Rn can also be measured directly. Remove RL and insert an ammeter across B and D terminal gives
the short-circuit current,i.e. Norton current. To measure Rn , the power supply is removed and A, C terminals
are short circuited by a conducting wire. Now RL is also removed and place an multimeter (dial in the Ohm)
across B,D terminals gives Rn .
Thus by comparing directly measured, from VL −IL graph and from theoretical values of Rn and In , Norton’s
theorem may be verified.
3
Apparatus:
1. A Breadboard
3. Four carbon resistors(may be R1 =100Ω, R2 =220Ω, R3 =330Ω ,R4 =470Ω) / PO box and a resistance box.
6. Resistance box / Few discrete carbon resistance as a RL . It depends on value of Rth , i.e. choices of R1 ,
R2 , R3 , R4 . (It may be 50Ω, 100Ω, 220Ω, 330Ω, 470Ω, 560Ω, 1kΩ, 1.5kΩ, 2kΩ.)
2. Compute the values of Rth , Vth and In theoretically by using equations 1, 2 and 6
3. Remove RL from the circuit. Now voltmeter gives the open circuit voltage, i.e. Thevenin voltage, Vth .
Hereafter, disconnect voltmeter and ammeter and power supply from the circuit. Short-circuit the ter-
minals by a conducting wire between the terminals A,C. Now measure the resistance by a multimeter
between the terminals B, D. This resistance corresponds to Rth = Rn . These set of values are directly
measured.
4. Re-connect the power supply, ammeter, voltmeter and RL . Now gradually change the values of RL from
highest value to lowest value including RL = Rth . Vi must be constant and checked before each reading.
5. Plot VL − IL graph (like fig 4), calculate Rth and Vth by using equation 4
6. Plot IL − VL graph (like fig 6), calculate Rth and Vth by using equation 8.
1.3.3 Observations
Verification of Thevenin’s and Norton’s theorem
Table 1
Table 2
4
Table 3
RL VL IL
No. of Obs.
in Ω in V in mA
1
2
3
...
...
Figure 7: (a) Circuit diagram for verification of superposition theorem. (b) Load voltage VL1 due to voltage
source V1 (c) Load voltage VL2 due to voltage source V2
1.4.3 Apparatus:
1. Two regulated power supply(0-10V).
2. Four carbon resistance.
3. A Breadboard.
4. Multimeter/ Digital Voltmeter/ Analog Voltmeter.
5. Connecting wire.
5
1.4.4 Experimental Procedure:
1. Construct the circuit 7(a) on the breadboard. Note the load voltage VL across RL .
2. Replace voltage source V2 by a short circuit, i.e. insert a conducting wire as shown in the figure 7(b).
Measure the load voltage VL1 due to V1 .
3. In the similar way, replace voltage source V1 by a short circuit, i.e. insert a conducting wire as shown in
the figure 7(c). Measure the load voltage VL2 due to V2 .
1.4.5 Observation:
Verification of superposition theorem.
V1 V2 VL VL1 VL2
in Volt in Volt in Volt in Volt in Volt
ON(...) ON(...) ... =C X X
ON(...) OFF(Shorted) X ...=A X
OFF(Shorted) ON(...) X X ...=B
VL2
P = (9)
RL
The maximum power will be supplied by the network to load resistance RL only when RL = Rth .
Therefore for the different values of RL note the corresponding values of VL and IL . Plot P (=VL · IL ) as a
ordinate and RL as abscissa as shown in the figure 9. P − RL graph will show, power reaches maximum value
only when RL = Rth . Thus maximum power transfer theorem is verified.
6
0.04
’max_power’
0.035
0.03
P in mW
0.025
0.02
0.015
0.01
0.005
PSfrag replacements
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
RL in Ohm
1.5.1 Observation
VL IL P = VL · I L
No. of Obs.
in Volt in mA in mW
1
2
3
...
...
1. Internal resistance of the power supply is very small and usually neglected.
2. Large current should not pass through the circuit because it generates joulian heat(i2 Rt) in the resistance
which in turn makes them nonlinear. Network theorems are not valid in nonlinear regime.
3. Constancy of the input voltage Vin must be checked before each reading.
4. While measuring directly open circuit voltage, voltmeter should have been chosen of high internal resis-
tance. Usually electronic voltmeter should be taken for direct measurement.
5. Circuit is being shorted by the ammeter while taking short-circuit current, i.e. Norton’s current. But
ammeter has finite internal resistance which is usually neglected in student’s laboratory practice. If it is
not ignorable, then its effect should be included in the Norton’s current in the following manner:
Let Ra be the internal resistance of the ammeter used in the circuit.
∴
Vth
In,measured =
Rth + Ra
Vth
Rth In,true
→ In,measured = =
1 + RRth
a
1 + RRth
a
Ra
∴ In,true = 1+ In,measured
Rth
7
1.5.2 Viva-Voce Questions: