Work Hardening and

Annealing

J. Ernesto Indacochea
University of Illinois at Chicago
 Strain Hardening (Work Hardening)
ƒ process whereby a metal is plastically deformed, making it harder and
stronger. Stress-strain diagram & strain hardening.

∆σ

∆ε

J. Ernesto Indacochea UIC 2

 Strain Hardening (Work Hardening)
‰Cold Work:
„ Mechanical deformation of a metal at relatively low temperatures.
„ % C.W. is defined relative to the reduction in cross sectional area
of the metal.

⎛ Ao − Ad ⎞
%CW= ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ×100
⎝ A0 ⎠

J. Ernesto Indacochea UIC 3

 Strain Hardening (Cold Work)
Plastic deformation @ T < Tm/2.
Energy spent in C.W. = heat + strain energy.
Stored energy increases with severity of cold work.
It usually represents ~ 10% of spent energy. The
fraction of stored energy decreases.
Increase in total # of dislocations with C.W:
„ Soft annealed metal: 106 – 108 cm-2.
„ Heavily cold worked metals: 1012 cm-2.
Points defects created with C.W. (other evidence of
the retained energy);
„ Strain energy per vacancy is smaller than that associated
with an interstitial Ö more vacancies produced.

J. Ernesto Indacochea UIC 4

 Strain Hardening (Cold Work)
‰ Cold Work:
„ effect of %CW on mechanical properties of metals.

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 Strain Hardening (Cold Work)
‰ Cold Work:
„ strain hardening phenomena: dislocation multiplication and strain field
interactions Î dislocation motion is hindered by the presence of other
dislocations.
„ As the ρdislocation increases, the dislocation motion resistance by other
dislocations becomes more pronounced.
„ The free energy of the deformed metal is greater than the annealed by an
amount approximately equal to the stored strain energy.
„ While C.W. increases the entropy of a metal, the effect is small compared
to the increase in the internal energy.
„ C.W’ed metals may soften spontaneously due to their larger internal
energy.
„ Metal does not return to to the annealed condition by a single reaction due
to the complexity of the process.

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 Plastic Work & Stored Energy
In case of cold deformation and according to 1st Law of
Thermodynamics Ö ∆E = Q + W.
∆E ≡ the internal energy change; is the stored energy of
cold work.
Q ≡ heat associated with process. It is transferred away
from the deformed materials.
W ≡ energy spent to deform the material.
The stored energy is released as the cold-worked metal
returns to its original state.
There are techniques available to measure this stored
energy:
„ Anisothermal anneal method
„ Isothermally annealing method

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 Plastic Work & Stored Energy
Anisothermal Annealing:
„ Measures difference in power required to heat two
samples (one CW’ed and one not deformed)
„ The same heat rate is used for both.
„ During heating the CW’ed sample undergoes rxs.
Thar release heat and lower the power required to
heat it in comparison with the undeformed specimen.

Anisothermal anneal curve

for electrolytic copper.

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 Plastic Work & Stored Energy
Isothermal Annealing:
„ The stored energy is measured while specimen is
maintained @ Tconst
„ Microcalorimeter measurements are performed.

recovery recrystallization

Isothermal anneal curve for high

purity copper.

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 Plastic Work & Stored Energy

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 Annealing

ƒ When a cold worked

metal is heat treated to
revert it back to the
properties and structure
prior to cold work.
ƒ The process entails three
stages:
„ recovery,
„ recrystallization, &
„ grain growth.

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 Annealing
‰ Recovery:
ƒ dislocation motion relieves some of the stored
internal strain energy (diffusion).
ƒ re-alignment of the dislocations
(polygonization), and decrease in the number of
vacancies.

CW HT

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 Annealing -- Recovery
ƒ no change or maybe even a slight increase in
strength.
ƒ there is a decrease in resistivity. Both, electrical
and thermal conductivities are recovered to their
pre-cold work states.

Anisothermal anneal for CW-Ni

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 Annealing -- Recovery
The complexity of the cold-worked state is related
to the intricacy of the deformation that produces it.
Lattice distortions are simpler in a single crystal
deformed by easy glide than in a single crystal
deformed by multiple glide (simultaneous slip on
several systems).
Lattice distortions may be still more severe in a
polycrystalline metal.
If a single crystal is deformed by easy glide (slip
on a single plane) in a manner that does not bend
the lattice, it is possible to completely recover its
hardness without recrystallization of the specimen.
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 Annealing -- Recovery
In fact, it is generally impossible to recrystallize a
crystal deformed only by easy glide, even if it is
heated to temperatures as high as Tmp.

Schematic of a stress- strain curve

for a zinc single crystal strained in
tension at room temperature where
it deforms by basal slip.

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 Annealing -- Recovery
The rate at which a property recovers isothermally
is a decreasing function of the time.

Recovery of the yield strength of

Zn single crystals at two different
temperatures.

Recovery in Zn crystals deformed by simple glide

can be expressed in terms of an Arrhenius-type
law: 1 −
Q τ = time to recover a fraction of total yield point.
= A⋅e RT Q = activation energy.

τ
R = universal gas constant.
T = absolute temperature

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 Annealing -- Recovery

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 Recovery -- Polygonization
Recovery associated with a simple form of plastic
deformation is probably a matter of annihilating
excess dislocations.
Such annihilation can occur by the coming
together of dislocation segments of opposite sign
(that is, negative edges with positive edges and
left-hand screws with right-hand screws).
Another recovery process is polygonization . In
its simplest form it is associated with crystals that
have been plastically bent.
It is customary to call low-angle boundaries
developed in polygonization, subboundaries, and
the crystals they separate subgrains.

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 Recovery -- Polygonization

Vertical array of
dislocations correspond to
a lower state of strain
energy than does an array
of the same dislocations,
on a single plane

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 Recrystallization
ƒ formation of strain-free &
equiaxed grains with low
dislocation densities.
ƒ significant microstructural
changes.
ƒ the driving force for this
structural change is the
strain energy.

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 Recrystallization
Restoration of mechanical & physical properties is
completed.
There is a change in the preferred orientation that
was developed by cold working.
During heating or holding at high temperature,
individual subgrains grow at expense of neighbors.
If two or more subgrains coalesce to form a single
subgrain while the remaining subgrains maintain
their size, a larger-angle, high-energy boundary is
formed that separates the enlarged subgrain from
the surrounding matrix of finer subgrains

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 Recrystallization
Although the new boundary has a higher energy
than the boundary that existed before, the total
boundary area and the dislocation density ⇓.
The driving force for subgrain growth or
coalescence is the decrease in volume free energy
resulting from the reduction in total boundary area
and dislocation density, minus the increase in
surface free energy that results from the creation
of the larger-angle boundary.

∆Gvol = ∆G
h∠−bdry
surf + ∆G
bdry / disl
↓

(−) (+) (−)

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 Recrystallization
z the objective here is to refine the microstructure.
z after recrystallization the metal becomes softer,
weaker and more ductile.
z It depends on time and temperature Î “diffusion”.
z recrystallization temperature: T where significant
drop in hardness or strength is just detected for a
fixed time (e.g. 1 hour)

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 Recrystallization
z Typically the recrystallization temperature for
metals is about ½ and 1/3 of the absolute melting
temperature.

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 Kinetics of Solid- State Reactions
‰ first step in phase transformations is nucleation.
Formation of a submicroscopic particle or nuclei.
‰ Nucleation sites: crystal imperfections, primarily
grain boundaries.

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 Kinetics of Solid- State Reactions
z second step in phase transformations is growth.
Transformation goes to completion if this stage
proceeds until an equilibrium fraction of the new
phase is reached.

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 Kinetics of Solid- State Reactions
‰ Kinetics is an important parameter in the heat
treatment of materials.
‰ The reaction fraction is measured as a function
of time at constant temperature.

y =1− e − k ⋅t n
Avrami
equation

k and n are time independent

constants

1
‰ The rate of a transformation, r r =
t 0 .5

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 Kinetics of Solid- State Reactions
z Temperature has an important impact on the
kinetics of any solid state transformation.

z Most reactions and over specific temperature

ranges, the rate is temperature dependent:
Q
−
r = A ⋅e RT

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 Kinetics of Solid- State Reactions

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 Kinetics of Solid- State Reactions

1 −
Q

r = = A⋅e RT

t
Q

t = A'⋅e RT

⎛Q⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
ln(t ) = ln A'+⎜ ⎟ ⋅ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ R ⎠ ⎝T ⎠

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 Annealing Variables in
Recrystallization: Initial Grain Size
The grain boundaries of CW’ed metals are
preferred sites for nucleation of new grains during
recrystallization.
A metal alloy with a fine initial grain size before
cold working contains a greater number of grain-
boundary sites for the nucleation of new grains
than does a coarse grained alloy.

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 Annealing Variables in
Recrystallization: Initial Grain Size
A cold worked, fine-grained alloy requires less
time at annealing temperature before nucleation
begins.

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 Annealing Variables in
Recrystallization: Impurities
The majority of recrystallized grains preferentially
nucleate at grain boundaries rather than at
second-phase particles within the CW’ed matrix.
In CW’ed metal that is coarse grained, nucleation
at second-phase particles is more prevalent.

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 Annealing Variables in
Recrystallization: Impurities
Carbides also can serve as nucleation sites for
recrystallized ferrite grains.

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 Annealing Variables in
Recrystallization: Impurities
The growth of nuclei can be retarded by impurities
such as:
„ (a) dissolved elements ,
„ (b) precipitation clusters of solute atoms, or
„ (c) very fine second-phase precipitates.

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 Annealing Variables in
Recrystallization: Impurities
Dissolved elements can affect recrystallization kinetics by
segregating to dislocations, subgrain boundaries, and grain
boundaries, such that the mobilities of the dislocations &
boundaries are decreased by what is termed “impurity
drag”.

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 Kinetics of Recrystallization
Effect of strain on recrystallization.

Temperature-time relationships
for the recrystallization of
zirconium corresponding to two
different amounts of
prior cold work .

Slopes are different Ö Trecryst. = f (C.W.)

Activation energy for recrystallization = f (% C.W.)

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 Recrystallization
z the recrystallization temperature depends on other
factors: amount of prior cold work, purity of alloy.

Effect of impurities on recrystallization

temperature (30’ of annealing) of Al 80% CW.

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 Recrystallization
z Recrystallization time:
time at which a significant drop in hardness or
strength is just detected for a fixed temperature
of recrystallization.
Hardness

tR

Time

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 Grain Growth
z After recrystallization, strain-free grains will
continue to grow if the metal sample is left
at Thigh.
z surface energy is the driving force for grain
growth.
z no need for recovery or recrystallization for
grain growth.

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 Grain Growth

z grain growth occurs by

the movement of grain
boundaries.
z short range diffusion of
atoms across the grain
boundary.

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 Grain Growth
z large grains grow at the expense of small ones.
z the average grain size increases with time and
depends on temperature too.

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 Grain Growth Kinetics
Metallic grain growth:
dD K K’ ≡ const. of proportionality.
= K '⋅ c =
dt D c ≡ curvature of the cell walls

∫ D ⋅ dD = K ∫ dt ⇒ D − D = K ⋅t
2 2
o
Do

Diffusion of atoms across a grain boundary is an

activated process:
Q
−
K = Ko ⋅ e RT

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 Grain Growth Kinetics
Q ⎡ ( D 2 − Do2 ) ⎤ Q
− log ⎢ ⎥=−
D 2 − Do2 = K o ⋅ e RT
⋅t ⎢⎣ t ⎥⎦ 2.3 ⋅ RT

Q
slope = −
2.3 ⋅ R
⎛ D 2 − Do2 ⎞
log ⎜ ⎟
⎝ t ⎠

1
T

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