Running head: MUSIC AS A SOCIAL MOBILIZER 1

Music as a Social Mobilizer: An In-Depth Analysis of Protest Music

Reina Bocchichio

Queens University of Charlotte

Author Note

Reina Bocchichio, Department of Communications, Queens University of Charlotte.

Correspondence concerning this literature review paper should be addressed to Laura Knudson,

Department of Communications, Queens University of Charlotte, 1900 Selwyn Avenue,

Charlotte, NC 28207.

Contact: bocchichior@queens.edu
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Abstract

Music as a form of activism has been documented for years. With recent technological

advancements and new media, the production of socially conscious and activist influenced

music, dubbed as “protest music” has declined. Challenges within the industry, as well as a

shrinking audience makes it more difficult for artists to make music that goes against the grain to

call attention to social issues. However, the purpose of protest music to draw upon the emotional

responses within individuals and generate discussion amongst society is still something that is

relevant to today’s social environment. The psychological effects that it has on an individual and

common identity that it fosters within thousands of people can translate into social action and

start a movement. Examples of these protest music fueled and supported movements are found

throughout the world in all time-periods, including present day.

Key words: protest music, purpose, decline, effects, activism

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Music as a Social Mobilizer: An In-Depth Analysis of Protest Music

Music has been a common pastime for people all across the world for thousands of years.

Each culture has its own form of relevant music with various genres that may break geographical

and cultural borders and spread beyond the area of origination. The impact that music has on

society is one that is unmatched by any other form of art or media. It’s appeal to an individual’s

emotion and moral values make it a powerful tool to spread a message and influence people to

think an act in accordance with a specific mindset. Also, the rapid development of new

technology and media outlets provide a bigger platform for artists to stand upon and reach

broader audiences than ever before. With so many assets to be utilized, it’s not a surprise to find

a musical soundtrack to a variety of different social movements in history. Music with a purpose

is something that was once common and gave millions of people a common sense of identity that

they would rally around in cases where change was being called for. Some effects of this music

have been identified and lead to a better understanding of the role protest music has played in

society up through present day. However, in a changing world, music with a purpose seems to be

slipping out of the spotlight.

Decline of Protest Music:

In the past, music that was utilized as a form of protest was quite common and had a high

involvement in some major social movements. Many people believe that the music produced

during the 1960s could be considered the peak for protest music, with artists such as Bob Dylan,

Woody Guthrie, and Pete Seeger. After that, protest music took a different form in the punk

music produced in the 70s and 80s, but it was still present and influential on society (Maleney,

2014). While this socially conscious music may still linger in the wake of these artists and

movements, it is no secret that the commonality of protest music has greatly declined. Radio
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stations are typically full of pop music that has recently been dominated by boy-bands, female

solo artists, and dance-based hip hop (Kates, 2012). For many, the absence of this music is not

even noticeable, nor something to worry about. However, in a time where social unrest is far

from ancient history, the need for this art form is still as great as ever, and leads to the inquiry of

why it vanished so quietly.

The main reasons as to why protest music has declined in today’s time are a change in

audience and industry. Both Sean Kates and Ian Maleney agree that the industry has become

more monopolized, stating that there are less independent labels because they are being absorbed

into multinational corporations or suffocated by them, and many radio stations are controlled by

“big fish” companies which lead to high levels of standardization (Kates, 2012). Also, the music

industry’s focus is profit. It’s a business, and that’s the goal of all radio stations and music labels;

to create revenue. Because of this, all parts of the industry are “conservative and often outright

oppressive” (Maleney, 2014). Beyond the oppression in the industry, there is also social backlash

that often follows an artist if they involve politics. Kates mentions the example of Dixie Chicks,

who was ostracized from the country music community after she made a stance against George

W. Bush and the war in Iraq.

On top of the changes in the industry, the audience has also broadened, and heavily

supports the music that does not conform to specific groups or ideas. According to Kates,

“Audiences have become ‘target demographics’ with a lowest common denominator fit for mass

appeal.” This is the best way to create the most profit for all parts of the industry, because it has

the highest chance of reaching a large percentage of consumers. Anything with a political

message will split the audience which ultimately leads to a much too narrow market (Kates,

2012). Also, audiences are now becoming younger, which has lead to a music industry
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dominated by generic pop music that is more “safe” and attractive to the younger generation.

They are more likely to support entertainment outlets such as television shows, music albums,

and tours, making them a key target audience to maximize revenue (Kates, 2012).

New media and technology has also negatively impacted the production of protest music.

Kates and Maleney both emphasize the impact that the vast options of new media outlets have

had on the effectiveness of music being used as a channel for a message. Maleney sums it up

well simply by stating “The pace at which the mainstream media operates now leaves no time or

space for ideas generated there to make a real impact on the wider culture,” (2014). Kates makes

a similar claim and expands on it, discussing the various competing forms of media, such as

twitter, endless blogs, facebook, 24 hour news stations, and other forms of social media. With the

ease in which news and controversy is spread and discussed today, the art of protest music

begins to lose its luster. For many, they want to escape from the constant talk of political and

social issues when they listen to music. Others prefer the easy access to information and debates

that they can get online without having to decode the poetry of song lyrics.

Through the work of both Kates and Maleney, the decline of protest music is outlined,

with multiple reasons offered to explain why it’s happening. The priorities of the industry and

incorporation of new media in society are highlighted consistently by both authors, giving a clear

understanding of the situation. Beyond their description of the downfall of this music genre, both

of them also agree on its importance in society. While Kates doesn’t focus much on why, he does

end his article by stating that protest music has a purpose in today’s world. Maleney, however,

does delve into this aspect of the subject matter.

Purpose of Protest Music:

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Any song with lyrics is sending some sort of message or telling a story. However, protest

music’s message goes much deeper than simple entertainment and breakup songs. Jeneve Brooks

cites research which states that music elicits deep emotional responses from the listeners based

on the analysis of activity in the emotive parts of the brain (2015). She goes on to add that “lyrics

can potentially affect behaviors and attitudes in ways that elicit more compassionate actions and

egalitarian values, respectively,” (Brooks, 2015). Therefore, protest songs are often built,

musically but especially lyrically, with words that will spark the biggest emotional response that

will translate to behavioral changes and actions.

William Chaloupka builds off the ideas that Brooks lays out by dividing the music’s

purpose into more specific categories. According to his research, there are confrontational,

deliberative, and pragmatic functions of the music (Chaloupka 2000). The pragmatic function of

music implies that it makes people think in more sensible, practical, and realistic fashion about

current events and their social environment. The confrontational function is as it sounds. It

represents the motive of the music to spark an argument or movement in a more angry and

hostile way. The last function is the one that seems to be the most prominent and important

amongst all the literature written on the topic of protest music, and that’s the deliberative

function. This represents the music’s ability to create discussion amongst society. Numerous

other authors mention this as the main purpose of protest music.

Maleney dedicates an entire section of his work to stating the importance of protest

music’s “ability to generate ‘discussion’,” (2014). Music provides more content on a given

subject matter and when it reaches a mass audience it sparks thoughts and opinions, which leads

people to take sides and begin to talk about the issues mentioned in the songs. John Haycock

agrees with this notion of discussion, and takes it a step further. Haycock doesn’t believe that
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pure goal is to bring social change directly, but rather “It is intended to raise awareness and

consciousness on social issues” through their lyrics and the discussion surrounding them (2015).

John Haycock’s article focuses around the idea that protest music is a form of public pedagogy.

Not many authors use this term; however, the concept of it is strongly supported through

Haycock’s writing and the emphasis by him and others on importance of the discussion created.

He even states that “There is a crucial dialogue between music makers and audiences, on and

around the production of protest music,” (2015). He then goes on to say that, as a result of the

dialogue, it is also pedagogical. It is a conversation that is mass mediated and creates and

encourages adult learning on a large scale (Haycock 2015).

Through the analysis of the works from various authors, the purpose of protest music is

outlined clearly. Brooks lays the groundwork by explaining some of the science behind the

music and how it is effective on individuals. This sets up the overall goal that produces of protest

music hope to achieve, by using evidence that supports that it can spark eventually a change.

However, Chaloupka dives deeper, with the description of the three functions of the music that

tell exactly how the music can be purposeful. Multiple authors, including Chaloupka, Maleney,

and Haycock then emphasize the deliberative function, or the ability for the music to create a

dialogue and raise awareness about social issues. Through the repetitiveness of this concept in

multiple works, it can fairly be identified as the main purpose of protest music. With the

intentions clear, we can take a look at how Brooks and other authors measure and analyze the

effects of protest music on the individual and society as a whole.

Effects of Protests Music:

As mentioned in the previous section, music in general has been noted to stimulate deep

emotional responses from individuals when they listen to it. Because of this knowledge, artists
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will write protest songs to appeal to these emotional drives and elicit a strong response. Brooks is

one of the few authors that discusses in detail on the effects that the music has on individuals.

Brooks uses the EMM-framing theory (Emotive, Moral, Mnemonic-framing), to analyze the

research she gathers and draw conclusions on the effect that this music has on society in terms of

social change (Brooks, 2015). She cites a few different sources that discuss the emotional effects

and how the lyrics are influential on both behavior and attitude, but then goes further and

discusses music’s link to memory. She states that music is known to trigger “autobiographical

memories that were often deeply receded” from one’s long-term memory, as well as have the

“ear-worm” effect on the short-term memory, which translates to having a song stuck in your

head (Brooks, 2015). The effect that music has on memory only emphasize the influence that it

has on one’s attitudes and behavior.

Brooks also cites research that explains how the influence of music on the individual

could lead one to support social movements or take part in political action. Because music has

such strong links to emotions and moral values, social movement scholars have stated a

connection between music and social mobilization (Brooks, 2015). “Our cognitive beliefs,

emotional responses, and moral evaluations of the world… motivate, rationalize, and channel

political action,” (Brooks, 2015). In Dina ElDin’s article, the role of protest music in middle

eastern nations is discussed, and the social effects are stated. Similar to Brooks’ claim, she states

that the music unifies society and has the potential to start a political movement. According to

her sources, the government tries to silence the music in fear of the message that it could send to

the citizens and how it might make them start to think and act. The vice president of USIP’s

Academy for International Conflict Management and Peacebuilding states that art and music

“Gives strength to institutions and individuals to challenge the status quo and strengthen
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nonviolent solidarity,” (ElDin, 2014). This statement supports the conclusions drawn by Brooks

through her research and the other information that ElDin incorporates in her article as well.

The last important effect of protest music to note isn’t one from the music itself, but

rather who sings the music. The artists and writers of the songs are becoming potential leaders of

their own movement. In his in-depth work, Brooks also mentions the role that the celebrity artists

play themselves aside from the music. Even if the message of the song does not resonate with

someone as much as it is intended to, “Celebrity thought leaders may foster collective identity

with movements amongst people that otherwise would not have exposure to those views,”

(Brooks, 2015). Someone who idolizes a particular artist could be influenced by social

movements that the artist and other fans support or are connected to. George Garner discusses a

good example of celebrity influence in his article about the popular punk rock group Rise

Against, who has been producing albums full of protest songs for twenty years and are still going

strong today. Through an interview with the band, Garner reveals information about the

connection that the band has with their loyal fans. Garner quotes Tim McIlrath, the lead singer of

the group, stating that “We have fans that are going to appreciate what we do and that’s who

we’re playing for… we’re going to play for incredible fans who don’t really pay attention to the

charts.” This quote supports Brooks’ claim about the possibility of fans being influenced more

by the group than the actual message of the music. The group has already built such a strong

following, that it doesn’t necessarily matter what the specific message of a song is. The

collective identity that has rooted itself in the fanbase will lead them to support the band in

whatever social and political endeavor they pursue, both through their music, and separate from

it.
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Brooks does a great job in analyzing all aspects of the effects that protest music has on

people. By first taking a look at how the music influences the individual psychologically, she

then transitioned to discussing the bigger picture of its impact on the general public. With

supporting statements from ElDin, who reports the importance of music uniting a community for

a greater cause, the effects of music on society are recognized by various scholars. Brooks also

notes the celebrity influence, and Garner’s interview with a well-known band that is famous for

their relevant protest music strengthens his claim. The music matters, but the people in the

spotlight have an effect all on their own. The effects previously discussed can be found in works

of literature that record the presence of protest music in movements throughout history.

Movements Influenced by Protest Music:

The effects of protest music have been relevant to various movements in different

societies and cultural backgrounds around the world. Just like events and parties have DJs, social

movements are often accompanied with a soundtrack all its own. Tim Rühlig analyzed part of the

soundtrack to the “Umbrella Movement” in Hong Kong China, which is a recent pro-democratic

uprising amongst the citizens. Through his in-depth analysis of four different music videos made

for the movement on YouTube as well as interviews, he was able to draw upon a few common

characteristics. The first two contrast each other, as all the songs seemed to try to uphold some

traditionalist styles and views about their culture and society, while simultaneously trying

challenge typical beliefs through the use of sarcasm and word-play (Rühlig, 2016). He also noted

the non-violent aspect to all of the songs, rather encouraging a silent change of thought and

mobilization. Rühlig’s writing displays how protest music is a worldwide tool and not just

limited to western nations.

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Richard Flacks takes a different route from Rühlig’s analysis of foreign political

movements, and focuses instead on the presence of protest music in the southern region of the

United States in the early twentieth century. Southern textile workers used music to tell the

stories of their hardships in the industry as well as the evils within the industry itself. Flacks

repeats the same concept of a commonly fostered identity that other authors mention in their

works about the effects of the music and how it influences people to act. He explains how the

workers used the music as a source of relief from the everyday strain of their lives and give them

an outlet to collectively speak out against the evil they were experiencing (Flacks, 2005). He also

emphasizes the role that the radio played in the movement, as its introduction to society gave the

protesters a bigger platform and allowed them to reach a much larger audience than they had

been able to before. According to his research, Flacks states there was “A strong association

between local strike action and the proximity of a radio station to the mill community,” (Flacks,

2005). This shows a direct correlation between the protest music being broadcasted on the radio

and workers striking against the industry. Flacks’ work describes a prime example that publically

broadcasted protest music had an influence on society from the start.

The last example of protest music being utilized in a specific movement is depicted by

Megan O’Byrne in an article focusing on a more recent story in North America. O’Byrne

discusses how Canadian singer Dave Carroll started his own movement after one of his guitars

was broken on a United flight and he was never compensated for the damages. The result was a

three-song retaliation against United that became famous on YouTube. O’Byrne talks about all

three songs and the message each one sends and how his attitude progresses through them. She

also mentions the following he gained throughout his series and how others identified with his

issues and rallied behind him and the songs, joined together by the common experience. After
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describing the specific situation, O’Byrne broadens her article to further investigate both

corporate music and viral protests in the form of music.

In her conclusion, O’Byrne notes the issue of new media that Kates mentioned as a big

contributor to the decline of protest music. However, with the example of Carroll’s issue with

United, the media drew a great deal of attention to his music and made him a headline, helping

him gain support of his protest by spreading his songs to the eyes and ears of millions. She states

that “In Carroll's case, the music does not sustain the movement, it comprises the movement.

Musical form has shifted from decoration or entertainment at rallies to viral deployment,”

(O’Byrne, 2016). This introduces the method of not working against new media, but rather using

it to the advantage of the artist composing the protest music. The music doesn’t have to play a

supporting role to a greater revolution. It can play the lead and sustain a movement all its own,

telling an entirely new story to any curious internet surfer that stumbles upon it.

Conclusion:

The role that protest music has in society is important, as generally agreed upon by the

sources within the literature written on this topic. Every author cites a purpose for it and

discusses a way in which it has impacted society, whether it be through the generation of

discussion of the mobilization of a movement. While protest music is on the decline, it has not

been completely eliminated from society, and still has potential to influence people to make

change to the world they live in. Through the analysis of the various functions that protest music

plays in society, the ability of it to generate discussion is unanimously highlighted by many

authors as the most important purpose it has due to the awareness it spreads and thought process

it triggers. Also, the work written enlightens the reader on the effects that protest music has on

the individual and the general public. An important concept that was expanded on by the
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literature was the impact that the bands and artists had themselves on the listeners. The platform

that artists hold with their celebrity status only gives the music more power to influence the way

the listeners think and respond to a certain topic or issue. Most of the authors also note the

importance of a common identity that music instills into people, making them more likely to

unite under a common ideology. Examples of the effects of protest music and the movements it

played a role in are also outlined in the literature, giving the reader a better understanding of how

deeply rooted this music is in history. Ultimately, the literature highlights the unique ability

music has to convey a message and unite people for a greater cause. Protest music is an ancient

form of art, and one that still has a purpose in the world we live in today.
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References

Brooks, J. (2015). Mass-mediated protest music and mobilization: Synthesizing the civil sphere's

EMM-framing theory. Theory in Action, 8(3), 1-26.

Chaloupka, W. (2000). Acting in concert: Music, community, and political action. The American

Political Science Review, 94(4), 932-933.

ElDin, D. S. (2014). Changing regimes and societies with the power of music. The Washington

Report on Middle East Affairs, 33(6), 66.

Flacks, R. (2005). Music and mobilization. Contemporary Sociology, 34(6), 600-602.

Garner, G. (2017, Jun 05). REVOLUTION RISING. Music Week, , 16-17.

Haycock, J. (2015). Protest music as adult education and learning for social change: A

theorisation of a public pedagogy of protest music. Australian Journal of Adult Learning,

55(3), 423-442. Retrieved from

Kates, S. (2012). The revolution will not be available on iTunes. Kennedy School Review, 12, 50-

52.

Maleney, I. (2014, Sep 12). GET UP STAND UP: Protest music marches on. Irish Times

O'Byrne, M. (2011). "United breaks guitars": Examining in anti-corporate protest music.

MUSICultures, 38, 116-X.

Rühlig, T. (2016). "Do you hear the people sing" "lift your umbrella"?: Understanding hong

kong's pro-democratic umbrella movement through YouTube music videos. China

Perspectives, (4), 59-68.