1

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

Level of involvement is directly related to achievement of a goal. There are different

aspects of judging levels of job involvement in a job. Job satisfaction is of foremost

importance. Job satisfaction is related to the work environment, attitudes of the seniors,

relationship with the junior staff and, of course, salary package that an employee gets

from the organization in which he or she works.

Every person has his own preferences in life. For most of the people, their family has the

most important place in their lives. Some scholars opine that too much preference to the

family adversely affects the level of involvement in job. Sometimes, a person bears

different sorts of pressures from his or her family. This also has an effect on the job

involvement of an employee. But it is also observed that family preference often boosts

up the spirits of an employee and he works with more zeal and zest and involvement in

order to support his family by coming in good books of his seniors through performance.

In Pakistan, nature of job also counts for the involvement of an employee. It is often

observed that level of job involvement of the people working in Public Sector, Semi

Government Organizations is different than that of the people working in Private

Organizations. In Public Sector Organizations, performance of an employee is not

weighted for promotion or increase in salary. It is done according to a routine procedure

that is called “Proper Channel”. As a result, level of involvement in job in employees is

considerably low in Government sector.

As far as Private Organizations are concerned, situation is very much different than

Government Sector. Here an employee has to perform and show positive outcome of his
 2

efforts in order to increase his salary and get promotion. In many cases his survival is

related to his efficiency in his job. As a result, an employee has to make him involved in

his or her job in order to achieve the targets that are given to him. So, the level of job

involvement is considerably high in the people working in Private Sector Organizations.

Another factor that affects the level of involvement in people is their salary package. If a

person thinks that his or her salary is appropriate to the duty he or she is performing, then

his or her job involvement will be increased. In the same way, if an organization is not

giving enough salary according to the employee’s abilities and needs, then it is natural

that he will look for the alternate ways to make both ends meet. This will lower the level

of job involvement.

If we study the job involvement in teachers, we have to consider many factors. As

mentioned above, the level of involvement in teachers also differs among those who work

in Private Sector and those who work in Government sector. The involvement level of the

teachers working in Private Schools is higher than that of the teachers working in

Government Schools. Private Sector schools’ survival is related to their good repute

among the parents as well as students. If they show good results, then everyone is

satisfied. Results are related with the performance of the teachers. So, the teachers have

to perform in order to show the results. Administrators of private schools adopt different

strategies to enhance the performance level of the teachers. Some offer incentives like

increase in salary, extra bonuses, promotion etc to boost the moral of the teachers. Some

administrators pressurize the teachers to get the same outcome from them. The latter

technique is not considered to be a good one among most of the educationists.

 3

As far as Government Sector Schools are concerned, it is observed that the level of

involvement among the teachers is not that high as it is in the Private Sector schools. The

teachers working here have no pressure to show the outcome of their performance. They

only have to go and show their presence during the duty hours. In most cases, their salary

package is also more than that of the Private Sector teachers. As a result, the level of job

involvement in Public Sector teachers is much low.

Another factor that affects level of job involvement in teachers in Pakistan is the social

status that is given to them by the society. It is observed that teachers are not given that

status in our society which their nature of job demands. As a result they suffer from

frustration. This frustration is clearly visible when we analyze job involvement in them.

1.1 Statement of the Problem

The study aimed at to compare the job involvement of teachers working in private and

government schools.

1.2 Objectives

The objectives of the study were as following.

1. To compare the level of job involvement of teachers working in private as

well as government sectors

2. To explore the level of involvement in public sector school teachers

3. To explore the level of involvement in private sector school teachers

4. To study the attitudes of the respondents with regard to job involvement

5. To suggest ways for the improvement of working environment

6. To pin point the flaws regarding working environment of the teachers.

 4

1.3 Hypothesis

There is no difference in the job-involvement of teachers of private and public sector

schools.

1.4 Delimitation of the Study:

The study has been delimited to the schools of Sargodha city for convenience.

1.5 Significance of the Study:

It is need of the hour to explore why our standard of teaching is going down day by day.

If it is due to the lack of involvement among the teachers, then problems must be sorted

out and highlighted. After highlighting the problem areas, some ways must be suggested

to improve the current situation. This will help both the teachers and the administrators.

This research would be useful for the following purposes, departments and people.

i) Employers can utilize the findings of this research to appraise their

employees’ job involvement.

ii) For the administrators and managers to make environment conducive for the

teachers to work without strain and hence enhancing their job involvement.

iii) For the teachers to realize how involvement is necessary for better results and

achievements in a job.
 5

CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

A significant research study in any field of knowledge requires an adequate familiarity

with the work which has already been done in the same area. A summary of the writings

of recognized authorities and of previous research provides evidence that the researcher is

familiar with what is already known and what is still to be known. Since effective

research is based upon past knowledge, this step helps to eliminate the duplication of

what has been done, and provides useful hypothesis and helpful suggestions for

significant investigation.

A review of related literature is important for the further research in the field. It develops

in an investigator an insight he needs to convert his research problem into a specific and

concise one. It helps the researcher identify the possibilities that have been overlooked. It

provides the researcher with an opportunity for understanding the method, measure

subjects and approaches employed by other research workers. This, in turn, will lead to

significant improvement of this research design.

2.1 Job Involvement is an Attitude:

Before reviewing job involvement, factors that produce job involvement, the effects of

greater job involvement generally on workers and particularly on teachers, and the

strategies that have been employed by the organizations; it is appropriate to ponder over
 6

the nature and definition of job involvement. A detailed study of related literature

suggests that job involvement is an attitude.

The working capacity and ability of a worker is judged by the attitudes he or she shows

while working in an organization. First of all we have to define different types of

attitudes.

2.2 What are attitudes?

2.2.1 Definition: Attitudes are evaluative statements or judgments concerning

objects, people, or events.

2.2.2 Different components of an attitude:

The related literature points out the following components of an attitude.

– Cognitive component of an attitude is the opinion or belief segment of an

attitude.

– Affective component is the emotion or feeling segment of an attitude.

– Behavioral component of an attitude is an intention to behave in a certain way

toward someone or something.

The most important types of attitudes that are observed are; Job Satisfaction, Job

Involvement and Organizational Commitment. These attitudes are interrelated and

interdependent. These types of attitudes are defined as under:

2.3 Types of Attitudes

2.3.1 Job Satisfaction

– A collection of positive and/or negative feelings that an individual holds

towards his or her job.

 7

2.3.2 Job Involvement

– Identifying with the job, actively participating in it, and considering

performance important to self-worth.

2.3.3 Organizational Commitment

Identifying with a particular organization and its goals, and wishing to maintain

membership in the organization.

(www.csus.edu/indiv/s)

2.4 Job Involvement:

Hence job involvement is one of the attitudes that are required for the ideal working of an

organization and for the achievement of the desired goals. Interest in the concept of job

involvement has grown in recent years, beyond its value as an index of the quality of

work life (Cherns & Davis, 1975), because of the concept's fundamental importance to

the understanding of work behaviours like turnover, tardiness, and absenteeism (Blau,

1986; Mathieu & Kohler, 1990). Job involvement has been variously conceptualized in

the literature as (a) the degree to which one is actively participating in one's job, (b) the

degree of importance of one's job to one's self-image (Lawler & Hall, 1970), and (c) the

extent to which one's self-esteem is affected by one's perceived level of performance

(Gurin, Veroff, & Feld, 1960). Of the three conceptualizations, Blau (1985) reported that

only the self-image-job involvement conceptualization is empirically independent. Based

on Blau's finding, job involvement is conceptualized here as the degree to which one

psychologically identities with one's job (Kanungo, 1982a, b) and therefore, one's

motivational orientation to the job.

 8

As job involvement is the major concern of this research, hence the researchers have

sorted out other definitions of job involvement also.

2.4.1 Definitions:

(i) The degree to which an employee identifies with his job, actively participates in it, and

considers his job performance important to his self-worth.

(www.crfonline.org/orc/glossary/j)

(ii) Job involvement is also defined as "psychological identification with a job"

(Kanungo, 1982).

(iii) Job involvement is the ability of feeling strong association with the job and its

environment and to improve continuously one’s competence according to one’s worth.

(Self)

2.5 A Brief History of Improving Workers Involvement:

The call for improving greater worker involvement in work itself is not new; it has a long

history (Brannen et al., 1976). Four key features, that influence workers’ involvement,

have been identified; the pattern of industrial relations, the views of the main interested

parties, the importance of personal policy, and the legislative context (Guest, 1968).

In the 1990s, the consensus among employer groups and the Conservative government

can be summarized as follows; employee (job) involvement is desirable, the aim of

employee (job) involvement is to promote workers’ interest in the success of the

organization, and the policies for involvement should be directed at the workforce as a

whole. The legislative context further affects organizational communications and the

nature and extent of the worker involvement.

The 1982 Employment Act requires certain companies to include a statement in the
 9

annual report describing the action taken during the year to introduce, maintain or

develop employee (job) involvement. However, in terms of changing actual practice and

encouraging participation, the law is likely to be marginal (Marchington and Wilding,

1983).

Employee involvement is perceived to be a ‘softer’ form of participation, to imply a

commonality of interest between employees and management, and stresses that

involvement should be directed at the workforce as a whole and not restricted to trade

union channels. As Guest states, involvement is considered to be more flexible and better

geared to the goal of securing commitment and shared interest.

The process of employee involvement should provide employees with the opportunity to

influence and, wherever possible, take part in decision making on matters which affects

their working lives. The most prevalent classification is that which differentiates direct

from indirect participation. The term ‘direct’ is used to refer to those forms of

participation where individual employees, albeit often in a very limited way, are involved

in the decision-making processes that affect their everyday work routines. Direct

participation, such as briefing groups or the creation of new work organization

arrangements (self-managed teams), is viewed as a device to increase labour productivity

and implicitly to improve job involvement.

(Bratton, J. & Gold, J. 1999)

2.5.1 The Effect Of Employment (Job) Involvement On Performance:

Since the 1940s, numerous studies have been conducted to quantify the effects of

Employee Involvement techniques on individual and organizational performance.

Although a majority of studies do show a positive effect, the effects tend to be modest
 10

and some writers remain skeptical. Some researchers question whether the techniques

associated with the ‘new industrial relations’ have made much impact on ‘them and us’

attitudes in industry. To summarize, the results of over fifty research studies on Employee

Involvement and found that ‘What a majority of studies do show a positive impact, the

effects frequently vary, and a number of studies have found no effect.

2.5.2 Obstacles to Employee (Job) Involvement:

A number of impediments to the introduction of Employee Involvement have been

identified in the literature. One has already been discussed, divorcing consultation from

collective bargaining. Two other major obstacles have been recognized; the attitude of

trade unions and the attitude of management to the consultative procedure.

2.5.3 Conclusion by the British Researchers:

Employee Involvement occurs when employees take an active role in the decision

making process in the organization. Employee Involvement may be formal or informal,

direct or indirect, and voluntary or legislated; it may range from a manager exchanging

information with an employee or an employee representation on a specific issue, to

complete participation in a major decision.

(Bratton, J. & Gold, J. 1999)

2.6 Job Involvement and Interrole Conflict:

Because most people have multiple roles, such as parent and worker, interrole conflict is

an important issue. Yet, little is known about interrole conflict and how it might be related

to job characteristics such as involvement.

 11

Interrole conflict is usually defined as the conflicts between the expectations of roles

enacted by one person. However, most surveys only measure it in terms of time pressures

(e.g. Kopelman, Greenhaus, & Conolly, 1983), or the interference of working hours with

other roles (e.g. Hicks & Klimoski, 1981).

The purpose of this study is to investigate the effects of three moderating variables on the

relationship between job involvement and interrole conflict.

2.6.1 Interrole Conflict:

Interrole conflict is usually defined as “incompatibility between the role expectations of

different roles” (Frone & Rice, 1987). For example, Greenhaus and Beutell (1985)

defined interrole conflict as “a form of role conflict in which the sets of opposing

pressures arise from participation in different roles.…when pressures arising in one role

are incompatible with pressures arising in another role.” Sarbin and Allen (1968) wrote

that interrole conflict was “due to simultaneous occupancy of two or more positions

having incompatible role expectations.”

Causes. Using open-ended questions and an innovative measure of interrole conflict,

Peters and Cantrell (1993) found that, among working women, the most common

reported cause of interrole conflict was their parents’ disapproval of their life choices.

Mednick (1987) found significant correlations of interrole conflict with family affect,

family worries, family conflict, age and number of children, and both job and work

involvement, among insurance agents. There were negative correlations between interrole

conflict and family social support, sales, and job tenure (but not age).
 12

Crandall (1992) found that the total hours worked increased interrole conflict. O’Driscoll,

Ilgen, and Hildreth (1992) found that, while time invested in job-related activities was

related to interference between job demands and off-the-job life, off-job time demands

were not.

Correlates. Interrole conflict has been related to lower sales income (1987); work

overload (Cooke & Rousseau, 1984); stress (Barling and MacEwen, 1991); increased

cognitive diffulties (Barling & MacEwen, 1991); impaired martial functioning (Barling,

1986; Blood & Wolfe, 1960); and family conflict (Wiersma & van den Berg, 1991).

Interrole conflict was also related to lower satisfaction with the job (Cooke & Rousseau,

1984; Jackson & Schuler, 1985; Jones & Butler, 1980; Pleck, Staines, & Lang, 1980;

Staines & O’Connor, 1980; Wiersma and van den Berg, 1991); with the family;

(Kopelman, Greenhaus, and Connolly, 1983; Pleck et al., 1980; Staines & O’Connor,

1980); and with the role of working mother (Barling & MacEwen, 1991).

2.6.2 Time and Attention as Moderators:

Frone and Rice (1987) suggested job involvement may increase role pressures and cause

people to spend more time and attention being spent on the role, causing difficulties in

filling the expectations of other roles. Both would increase interrole conflict. Their

research supported the idea that job involvement, by increasing time and attention

devoted to the job, would increase interrole conflict for those with other demanding roles.

Others have also found that job involvement was related to off-work time devoted to the

job (Greenhaus, Parasuraman, Granrose, Rabinowitz, and Beutell, 1989; Wiener &
 13

Gechman, 1977); and that time devoted to the job was related to interrole conflict

(Crandall, 1992).

2.6.3 Segmentation as a Moderator:

Goode (1960) and Merton (1957) wrote that people may reduce their interrole conflict by

using role-segmentation, defined as “assigning each set of role-demands to different

situations” (Merton, 1957) Segmentation can also be described as segregating “roles in

time and space (to avoid having to choose between incompatible demands)” (Thoits,

1987). If a person uses segmentation, roles will not seem to conflict with each other,

because each role is confined to a certain situation. Role segregation (Sarbin & Allen,

1968) is a similar construct.

Job involvement is defined as a state of identification with work (Kanungo, 1982).

Therefore, if one has high job involvement, the job becomes part of one’s identity. If

identity crosses situational boundaries, the job role of a person with high job involvement

will also cross situational boundaries. If this is the case, then job involvement reduces

segmentation of the job role. Therefore, as job involvement increases, the potential for

segmentation may decrease; and as segmentation decreases, interrole conflict may rise.

The assumptions of this explanation are that most people use segmentation; that no

replacement for segmentation will be used; and that identifying with a role will cause it to

generalize across situations.

Based on this, one may test two questions: whether job involvement is negatively related

to segmentation, and whether segmentation is negatively related to interrole conflict.

 14

Segmentation and attention devoted to the job are conceptually related. Segmentation is,

essentially, the ability to pay attention to roles only when appropriate or necessary.

Therefore, a further question may be asked: whether attention to the job has a unique

contribution to the variance in interrole conflict when segmentation is in the equation.

2.6.4 A Direct Relationship:

Job involvement may directly affect interrole conflict. Although interrole conflict may

normally be avoided by withdrawing from one of the roles, high levels of job

involvement might prevent withdrawal from the job role, and other roles (such as parent)

may be non-negotiable. Job involvement may also be a direct factor if the question is not

merely how much time there is, but who has priority over it: e.g., the job or the family.

Thus, a further question is whether job involvement explains any variance in interrole

conflict, after time, attention, and segmentation have been considered.

2.6.5 Applications:

One final question is which factor contributes the most unique variance to interrole

conflict. The answer has implications for those who wish to lower the amount of interrole

conflict in their (or others’) lives. For example, if time contributes the most unique

variance, people could reduce their conflict by cutting back on their hours or honing their

time management skills. If segmentation contributes the most unique variance, people

could try to separate their roles further.

 15

2.7 Relationship between Burnout and Job Involvement:

Burnout is a severe psychological and physical syndrome that occurs in response to

prolonged stress at work. It commonly occurs among employees who are unable to cope

with extensive demands on their energy, time, and resources and among employees

whose work requires contact with people. Researchers have found that burnout brings

enormous costs to both organizations and individuals because it negatively impacts

employees' job attitudes and leads to undesirable behaviors, such as lower job

involvement, reduced task performance, and increased turnover intentions.

A growing literature has demonstrated the link between burnout and task performance.

Cordes and Dougherty proposed that burnout would lead to negative employee attitudes

or behavior toward customers, work, and the organization (e.g., diminished service

quality, reduced degree of job involvement, or increased absenteeism, turnover, and

decreased task performance).

2.8 Turnover is Linked to Job involvement:

Past research on voluntary turnover has produced very extensive and sophisticated

models; however, a recent and more parsimonious model of turnover utilizes only two

employee work attitudes to predict turnover propensity.(1) These two attitudes are job

involvement and organizational commitment. The premise discussed here is that job

involvement and organizational commitment interact jointly to affect turnover. For

 16

example, the job employees do helps them meet their intrinsic needs, such as

satisfactorily performing a challenging job, which, in turn, increases their sense of

competence. This leads to increasing employees' job involvement attitude. Likewise, the

organization helps employees meet their social and other extrinsic reward needs, such as

pay, fringe benefits and promotions. This leads to increasing employees' organizational

commitment attitude.

In order to reduce the turnover propensity of employees, a manager's goals should be to

get employees to identify with and care about their jobs. The greater the success at this,

the more the job becomes important to each employee's self-image, which reflects the

basic definition of job involvement.(2) It is important to get employees feeling positively

about the organization that employs them so they identify with particular organizational

goals, values, and culture, and want to maintain membership in it. This is defined as

organizational commitment.(3) Employees with both high job involvement and

organizational commitment should, therefore, have the most positive attitudes and the

lowest propensity to quit because they are attracted by both the job and the organization.

These employees feel they have a relationship with the company; the employee and

company are part of the same whole.

(Martin Thomas, N. & Hafer, John C 1995)

 17

2.9 Job involvement As Interactive Predictor of Absenteeism:

Exploring simple correlation between work attitudes such as job involvement and

absenteeism of employees has been disappointing because only week relationships have

been found in previous research. Therefore, in this study, we tested a hypothesis

formulated by Sagie (1998) that a comprehensive account of the influence of such work

attitudes on absence behaviour has to consider not only simple correlations but also

potential interactions between attitudes.

2.9.1 Taking a “Sickie Attitude”:

“Taking a sickie” is a very common phenomenon in organizations. Recent evidence from

the UK, for example, shows that sickness absence accounts for 4% of working time and

costs the UK economy £ 10-12 billion annually (CBI, 2004). It is little wonder, therefore,

that absence is cited as one of the top 3 concerns of HR professionals. In a recent survey

of management policy and practice linked with absence from work (CIPD, 2004), most

employees (84%) reported that they seek to reduce these figures by interventions that

improve work related employees attitudes such as job involvement.

Job involvement is a much stronger predictor of absence behaviour if job satisfaction of

employees is simultaneously low. There are only few studies that have examined the

importance of these interactions in predicting absence behaviour in organization and we

briefly summarize this research below.

 18

2.9.2 Blau and Boal’s Research on Absenteeism and Job Involvement:

Blau and Boal (1987) presented a conceptual model of how job involvement might

interact with organizational commitment to affect absence behaviour. They assume that

different forms and levels of absenteeism result from a combination of both variables. For

example, absenteeism for individuals high on both variables is expected to be a rare event

and mainly due to genuine illness. Absence behaviour for individuals low on both job

involvement and organizational commitment, however, is likely to be of much greater

volume. These employees are absent from work mainly for calculative reasons in the

sense that they utilize every chance to withdraw from work wherever this is not penalize

by organizational policies.

2.9.3 Mathieu and Kohler’s Study on Job Involvement:

Mathieu and Kohler (1990) tried to replicate this result in a study with 192 bus drivers.

They also found a sufficient interaction between both work attitudes for an indicator of

voluntary absence. Contrary to expectations, this interaction was disordinal. As

hypothesized, lowest absence rates were found among bus drivers who expressed both

high job involvement and high organizational commitment. However, drivers with low

commitment and high involvement (these are described as “lone wolves” in the

framework of Blau & Boal, 1987) exhibited the highest absence rates. The “lone wolf” is

a person who takes absence mainly for career enhancing purposes and Mathieu and

Kohler speculate that personal absence assessed in their study served exactly this

purpose.
 19

2.10 Job Involvement of Innovative Workers May Arise Conflict:

Organizations cannot depend solely on rules and standard operating procedures to ensure

effective employee work behaviour. Clearly, there is always some need for discretionary

innovative actions to adapt to new situations and unusual circumstances. While taking

innovative initiatives is widely claimed to contribute to organizational effectiveness, the

price that an individual worker may have to pay for taking an innovative approach has

hardly been examined. The present study makes an initial attempt to fill this void by

proposing and testing an innovation-job involvement-conflict model.

2.10.1 The Nature of Job Involvement of Innovative Workers:

As will be outlined below, a worker pushing new ideas for change challenges the

established framework of theories and practices shared by co-workers. Therefore, a

worker's innovative behaviour is likely to be obstructed by resisting co-workers who have

an interest in safeguarding the existing paradigm or who want to avoid the uncertainty

and insecurity surrounding change. According to the model proposed, innovative

behaviour interacts with job involvement in providing conflict with co-workers who want

to prevent innovative change. In its turn, this interpersonal conflict hinders the innovative

worker in developing or maintaining satisfactory relations with those co-workers.

Literature on resistance to change and identity theory are combined to develop the

theoretical logic for the hypothesis that workers are more likely to pay this price for

performing innovative activities when they consider their job performance as a central
 20

aspect of their self-concept or sense of identity (high job involvement). When job

performance is not identity-relevant (low job involvement), innovative workers

experience lower levels of conflict and more satisfactory relations with co-workers.

2.10.2 Job Involvement of Innovative Worker Verses Working Environment:

Besides conflict with co-workers, a worker's innovative behaviour might also be resisted

by other actors in the work environment, such as supervisors, subordinates or other

stakeholders of the organization. However, this study focuses on interpersonal conflict

with co-workers as a result of a worker's innovative behaviour and leaves conflict with

other actors in the work environment out of further consideration. Since innovation

processes often cross departmental boundaries, the innovative worker can get caught up

in conflict with co-workers ranging across different work groups or departments of the

organization.

2.10.3 The Price of Innovative Behaviour:

Innovative behaviour can be defined as the intentional generation, promotion and

realization of new ideas within a work role, work group or organization, in order to

benefit role performance, the group or the organization. The scope of innovations ranges

from the development and implementation of new ideas that have an impact on theories,

practices or products across the whole organization, to smaller scale ideas that are related

to improvements in daily work processes and work designs. This study focuses on lower
 21

level employees who are primarily able to contribute to smaller scale innovations in the

domain of their own work roles and work groups, even though these innovations often

cross group boundaries and may therefore have repercussions for intersecting territories.

2.10.4 Job Involvement of Innovative Workers is a Risk of Falling into Conflict with

Coworkers:

There are good reasons to suggest that a worker who is performing innovative behaviours

runs the risk of falling into conflict with co-workers. A worker is in conflict with a co-

worker when the former is obstructed or irritated by the latter. A worker's innovative

ideas for change are likely to challenge the established framework of task relationships,

informal norms and expectations that co-workers have of one another. As such,

innovative change implies that new sets of tasks, role relationships and informal norms

have to be developed or adapted to the needs of the new situation. Co-workers may tend

to resist those changes because of the insecurity, uncertainty and stress they may bring.

Moreover, habits and preferences for familiar practices and actions are hard to break

because people have a built-in tendency to return to their original behaviours, a tendency

that prevents change.

Additionally, cognitive biases may also affect the way co-workers process and react to a

worker's innovative ideas. According to cognitive dissonance theory, a person tries to

maintain consistency between his or her beliefs and actions. Therefore, people tend to

seek or interpret information that reinforces their established cognitive position. When a

worker's innovative ideas for change challenge the viability of the framework of theories
 22

and practices that exists in a work group, the desire to avoid cognitive dissonance may

push co-workers to discount the novel ideas and generate information that confirm the

shared and established beliefs and work practices.

Finally, escalation of commitment is another powerful bias that may lead co-workers to

remain committed to their established courses of action even though they may result in

detrimental outcomes. Due to prior investment and cognitive mechanisms of ego-

defensiveness and illusion of control, people tend to persist in the same practices and

actions instead of using their abilities and energy to explore new, more effective, ways.

Consequently, a worker promoting new ideas will find little support from co-workers

who are committed to their established courses of action.

Taken together, on the basis of literature on resistance to change, co-workers are likely to

resist a worker's innovative ideas for change because of their desire to avoid the

insecurity and stress surrounding change, their habits and preferences for familiar

practices and actions, their wish to reduce cognitive dissonance, and their commitment to

the established framework of theories and practices. This resistance to change can be

conceived as interpersonal conflict in the sense that the innovative worker who is pushing

forward ideas for change is obstructed or irritated by the resisting co-workers who

prevent this change.

Thus, an innovative worker is assumed to typically run the risk of falling into conflict

with resisting co-workers, an assumption that has a long history in organizational studies.
 23

However, it would be an over-stated assumption to assert that all co-workers always

obstruct innovative workers under all circumstances. It is clear that useful novel ideas

promoted by an innovative worker might be welcomed by co-workers, especially when

they are seeking new ways to adapt to emerging problems or new situations. But even

creative ideas initially welcomed by co-workers might provide disagreement in the next

stages of the innovation process. Innovation implies that new ideas promoted have to be

further elaborated and ultimately worked out into definite changes in, for example, tasks,

role relationships, working methods, procedures, informal norms or habits. For the

reasons given above, the process of developing and implementing these structural and

cultural changes is likely to reveal divergent personal interests and preferences of

employees involved, and is therefore liable to give rise to interpersonal conflict.

(Journal of Occupational Psychology.2003.)

2.11 Job Involvement: An Analysis of its Determinants among Male and Female

Teachers:

Uptill now job involvement has been discussed in general. But the main concern of this

research is job involvement among the teachers. In this regard, the research of Aryee

Samuel under the title cited above will be highlighted in detail.

 24

2.11.1 Three Classes of Antecendents of Job Invovement:

Interest in the concept of job involvement has been focused on identifying the

determinants of the concept (Hollenbeck, Connolly, & Rabinowitz, 1982; Rabinowitz &

Hall, 1977. Three classes of antecedents of job involvement have been identified:

personal characteristics, situational characteristics, and work outcomes. A multivariate

study of the determinants of job involvement, however, indicated that the personal

characteristics class of antecedents could more appropriately be divided into personal-

demographic and personal-psychological (Saal, 1978). Earlier efforts at identifying the

determinants of job involvement led to a universally applicable model for both men and

women, and did not take into consideration variables external to the work environment.

2.11.2 Gender and Job Models

While the gender and job models explain differences in the job commitment of men and

women, they do not provide an integrated picture of the job commitment process. A

theoretical framework of the job commitment process proposed by Chusmir (1982),

integrates the gender and job models. Since men and women may have different

Experiences in their work and family roles, and if--as noted in the literature (Pittman &

Orthner, 1988)--these two role sets fit together in meaningfully different ways for men

and women, then it is intuitively plausible to expect differences in the processes that

underlie the job commitment of men and women. With its emphasis on both work and

nonwork roles, Chusmir's model provides a useful conceptual approach to understanding

 25

the job commitment process. However, if the model is to offer practical suggestions on

how to enhance the job commitment of male and female employees, its generalizability

needs to be established. Following previous studies (Misra, Kanungo, von Rosentiel, &

Stuhler, 1985; Sekaran & Mowday, 1981) that provided a cross-cultural examination of

job commitment, the primary purpose of this study is to provide a cross-cultural test of

the generalizability of Chusmir's model among male and female teachers in Singapore.

2.11.3 Family Support

Family support, which includes spouse support, has been reported to have a significant

effect on the job commitment of a sample of military personnel (Orthner & Pittman,

1986). Family pressure, conceptually similar to work-family conflict, has been shown to

have no relationship to job commitment (Chusmir, 1986) as previously theorized

(Chusmir, 1982). Work-family conflict is, however, included here, as it is intuitively

plausible that difficulty in balancing the demands of work and family life will negatively

affect one's job commitment. Parental demands or number and ages of children has been

shown to affect job commitment negatively for women but not for men (Chusmir, 1986).

Household coping mechanisms have been previously reported to moderate role conflicts

of women holding multiple roles (Beutell & Greenhaus, 1983). Household coping

mechanisms are coping behaviors or tactical actions taken by employees to manage

multiple role demands. Following Steffy and Jones (1988), coping behaviors used in this

study focused primarily on altering structural expectations and personal attitudes of

household responsibilities. Steffy and Jones (1988) reported a positive relationship

 26

between household coping mechanisms and career commitment, and may probably

influence job commitment as well.

2.11.4 Job Circumstances

Job circumstances comprise the second part of the external moderating influences on the

job commitment process proposed by Chusmir (1982). Variables in this antecedent set are

work challenge, leader behavior, job satisfaction, organizational support, and role

ambiguity. Work challenge has been reported to correlate significantly with job

commitment (Buchanan, 1974; Sekaran & Mowday, 1981). Although leader behavior has

been shown to have a nonsignificant relationship with job involvement (McKelvey &

Sekaran, 1977), Hollenbeck et al. (1982) contend that because leader behavior has been

shown to affect variables related to job involvement directly, this line of research should

not be abandoned. Job satisfaction has been consistently reported to be strongly related to

job commitment (Chusmir, 1986; Mortimer & Lorence, 1989), though the relationship

may be reciprocal (Hollenbeck et al., 1982). Organizational support has not been

specifically investigated as a determinant of job commitment. However, previous studies

have reported a significant positive relationship between conceptually similar terms like

career facilitation (Dean, Ferris, & Konstans, 1988), training and development (Gaertiner

& Nollen, 1989), and organizational commitment. Role ambiguity-job involvement

relationship has not been extensively examined. Blau (1985), reported a nonsignificant

negative relationship between role ambiguity and job involvement. Role ambiguity is

included here because of the paucity of studies on the role ambiguity-job involvement

relationship.
 27

2.11.5 The Impact of Moderated Perceptions on Job Involvement

The final step in Chusmir's (1982) model examines the impact of moderated

perceptions on job involvement. He contends that personal influences shape the

personality profile of employees, which is in turn affected by family and job

characteristics. This results in a set of moderated perceptions, such as perceived role

behavior and attitudes (e.g., need satisfaction), posited as a direct or immediate

antecedent of job commitment. Following this line of reasoning, Kanungo's (1982b) need

saliency model of the job commitment process can be integrated with Chusmir's model.

As a motivational process, Kanungo posits that job involvement stems from one's need

salience. To the extent that the job context provides an opportunity to satisfy these needs,

one develops beliefs concerning the job context's potential for satisfying one's salient

needs in the future. Based on these beliefs, one then develops a sense of identification

with the job. None of the variables included in this step (need satisfaction, work

commitment, and sex-role conflict) were examined in this study.

2.11.6 The Growth in the Labor Force Participation of Women

The growth in the labor force participation of women has led to a steady stream of

research on gender differences in the processes through which men and women become

committed to work in general. A model proposed by Chusmir (1982) purports to provide

an integrative framework of the job commitment process of men and women. Based on

data from male and female high school teachers in Singapore, the principal objective of
 28

this study has been to test the generalizability of Chusmir's model in a cross-cultural

context.

The finding that men reported significantly more job involvement than women is

consistent with previous findings (Lambert, 1991; Sekaran, 1982). This finding may be

explained in terms of sex-role socialization which prescribes an economic provider role

for men. Male teachers' identification with the job and the primacy of work in their lives

may be seen as a means to perform their provider role satisfactorily.

2.11.7 Personality Characteristics and Job Circumstances

The pattern of antecedents of job involvement for male and female teachers revealed that

demographic and family variables had the least effect as determinants. On the other hand,

personality characteristics and job circumstances had the most effect. Within these classes

of antecedents, work role salience, need for achievement, and job satisfaction were

significant predictors for both male and female teachers, while work challenge was

significant for male teachers and organizational support for female teachers. Work role

salience, which is conceptually similar to Protestant work ethic, has been consistently

shown to be a significant positive predictor of job involvement (Hollenbeck et.al., 1982).

Regarding need for achievement, Kassner (1981), for example, reported a significant

positive correlation between need for achievement and job involvement. Hollenbeck et al.

(1982) noted that instead of generalized higher order need strength being related to job

involvement, it is specifically need for achievement which positively influences the level

of job involvement. As a common significant predictor, the job satisfaction-job

involvement relationship, is consistent with previous findings (Chusmir, 1986; Mortimer

 29

& Lorence, 1989), though the relationship is said to be reciprocal (Hollenbeck et al.,

1982). Mortimer and Lorence (1989) explained that job satisfaction enhances job

involvement because job satisfaction stimulates greater involvement with the job, in that

satisfaction with the job enhances the importance of the work identity. The negative

impact of initiating structure on job involvement implies that our sample of female

teachers prefer some autonomy in the discharge of their responsibilities and that enhances

their job involvement. The significance of work challenge as a predictor of job

involvement for male teachers is consistent with previous studies that have shown that

job/work challenge correlates highly with job involvement, even after controlling for

other variance (Buchanan, 1974; Sekaran & Mowday, 1981). Perhaps a challenging job

not only provides an opportunity to use one's skills, but also satisfies one's need for

achievement, which in turn translates into a higher level of job involvement. The finding

that together, personality characteristics and job circumstances had the most effect on job

involvement provides support for Kanungo's (1982b) finding, that job involvement is

affected more by proximal than distal antecedents like demographic variables.

2.11.8 Family and Job Involvement of Males

The nonsignificance of family variables for women's job involvement clearly contradicts

Pleck's (1977) suggestion that the boundaries between work and family are

asymmetrically permeable and that women are affected more by family responsibilities

and men by work responsibilities. As Lambert (1991) has suggested, it may well be that

this asymmetry holds when examining how men and women respond to family life.
 30

Within the family antecedent set, the findings revealed household coping mechanism as a

significant predictor of job involvement for male teachers. Although parental demands

had a nonsignificant effect on the job involvement of both male and female teachers

(Lambert, 1991), it may have operated through household coping mechanisms to affect

the job involvement of male teachers indirectly . As is the case in most countries, men in

Singapore marry later than women. Hence it could well be that the male teachers were in

the early stage of the family life cycle. However, considering that there was no significant

mean difference in parental demands between male and female teachers, the effect of

household coping mechanisms on the job involvement of male teachers may be attributed

to the personality characteristics of men who enter into feminized occupations (Lemkau,

1984).

2.11.9 Family and Job Involvement of Females

Family characteristics may not have been significant predictors of the job involvement of

women, perhaps because of their higher perceived internality. which may enable them to

be resilient in the face of family pressures. A more plausible explanation, in the author's

view, is that women may have chosen a career in teaching because it accommodates

family demands. Shann (1983), made this point succinctly in her remark that "women in

feminine career fields may be choosing to pursue slower advancement in less lucrative,

less prestigious fields because they feel that that choice enables them to accommodate

and accumulate several roles in their life plans" (pp. 353-354).

(Samuel, A. 1994)
 31

2.12 The Effect of Teacher Empowerment on their Job Involvement:

Teacher empowerment in many schools has expanded the role and involvement of

teachers in planning and decision making regarding school goals and policies (Blase and

Blase 1994; Blase et al. 1995; Glickman 1993; Sprague 1992). This form of

empowerment is what Conger and Kanungo (1988) refer to as relational power. In this

context, power involves the formal authority or control over organizational resources, and

empowerment is the process of sharing that power. Among educators, the belief is widely

held that the more teachers share in decision making the greater their job satisfaction.

2.12.1 Negative Impact of Empowerment on Job Involvement:

Some research, however, reports that shared decision making can have serious negative

outcomes on the lives of both principals and teachers. For example, Short and Rinehart

found that as teacher "involvement in school decision making increases the opportunities

for conflict increase due to disclosure of ideolog ies and perceptions that usually are not

disclosed in the traditional school structure" (11). As teachers are more involved in

critical decisions concerning the direction of the school and as they have more autonomy

and input, their communication becomes more complex and may be a source of

demotivation and job stress. In this sense, empowerment efforts that are based on shared

power may have a negative influence on the lives of teachers.

2.12.2 The effect of Personal Power and Motivation on Job Involvement:

Another form of empowerment discussed in the literature centers on an individual's sense

of personal power and motivation. An expert described teacher empowerment from this

perspective. He viewed teacher empowerment as a major way "to make [teachers] more
 32

professional and to improve their performance". The power is "the power to exercise

one's craft with confidence and to help shape the way that the job is to be done". It is

proposed that personal power needs are met when individuals "perceive that they have

power or when they believe they can adequately cope with events, situations, and/or

people they confront". Personal power, according to, emerges from choices one gets to

make and from events in the environment. A research has shown this sort of

empowerment to be correlated positively with job satisfaction and negatively with job

stress. In this sense, a high level of intrinsic empowerment is associated in a positive way

with the lives of employees in the workplace.

2.12.3 Empowerment of Teachers Enhances Job Involvement of Teachers Having

Leadership Qualities:

Several authors have theorized that leadership plays an important role in creating an

empowering environment, one that is positive and motivating, one that promotes self-

determination and self-efficacy. According to Vogt and Murrell, leaders can nurture

intrinsic empowerment in the workplace by encouraging and establishing positive,

collaborative relationships and by facilitating decision making that enhances both

personal and organizational growth. Nurturing intrinsic empowerment in the school

setting may minimize negative outcomes associated with shared decision making.
 33

2.13 How to Make Teacher Involve in Their Job:

Teachers can be made involved by adopting the following strategies. Teachers and

education support staff can:

i) be involved in the school policy development and planning.

ii) help school leadership choose an organization structure that meets the needs

of the students – school-within a school, scheduling changes, and smaller

teaching units.

iii) work with the local Association to bargain or lobby for policies that

decentralize power and create more flexibility.

iv) work with the local Association to bargain or lobby for policies that ensure

addtitional planning and collaboration time.

v) help school leadership develop a systemic program to ensure safety and order.

vi) help school leadership and the local Association identify qualified staff.
 34

CHAPTER 3

METHOD AND PROCEDURE

This chapter deals with methodology and procedure of the study. It includes the

illustration of population, sample, and construction of the instrument and administration

of the instrument as well. The details are as given below:

3.1 Population

All the teachers working in Private and Public Sector Schools in Sargodha City.

3.2 Sample

Teachers working in four private schools Iqra Grammar School, Allama Iqbal Grammar

School, Divisional Public School and Zia-ul-Quran Grammar School and three public

sector schools Govt. Junior Model School, Govt. Girls School, Chack No.47 and Govt.

Girls Elementary School Shamsher Town have been selected as a sample of the study.

3.3 Construction of Instrument

After reviewing the previous and current researches and prevailing conditions a

structured questionnaire has been followed. This instrument is distributed to ninety six

teachers to check the validity and reliability. It is a four point scale having twenty items.

The respondents will be asked to mark the answer according to their opinion.
 35

3.4 Data Collection

The researchers will make personal visits to the schools mentioned above for the data

collection. The questionnaires will be filled by the teachers for data collection.

3.5 Data Analysis

Responses of the teachers are to be tabulated category wise and analyzed in correlation

form.
 36

CHAPTER 4

ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA

This chapter will throw light on analysis and interpretation of data that was collected

through the procedure of questionnaire. The purpose of data collection was to explore the

relationships between selected Personality Traits of the teachers working at the schools

taken as sample.

Table: 1 Job involvement of teachers working in private as well as government sectors

Job Critical ratio Significance

involvement Mean N Std. Deviation
Public 58.0256 39 4.20831 Not significant
Private 57.0357 56 4.36917 1.10
Total 57.4421 95 4.30911

The table shows that the critical ratio of difference between means of job involvement of

public and private sector teachers is 1.10, which is not significant. Hence there is no

significant difference between job involvements of teachers of public and private sectors.

Repor

Table 2: Finishing job even without payment

 37

Std. Critical Significance

Mean N Deviation ratio
Private 3.19 56 .86 Not significant
Public 3.05 39 .64 1
Total 3.13 95 .780

The table shows that the critical ratio of difference between means of ‘Finishing job even

without payment’ of public and private sector teachers is-1, which is not significant.

Hence there is no significant difference between ‘Finishing job even without payment’ of

teachers of public and private sectors. Moreover the mean of total is 3.13 (range 1 to 4)

which shows that the both public and private sector teachers finish their job even if they

are not paid for that extra duty..

Table 3 Measurement of a person according to job

T value Significance
Mean N Std. Deviation
Public 3.48 39 .50 Not significant
Private 3.48 56 .63 0
Total 3.48 95 .58

The table shows that the critical ratio of difference between means of ‘Measurement of a

Person according to job’ of public and private sector teachers is zero, which is not

significant. Hence there is no significant difference between ‘Measurement of a person

according to job’ of teachers of public and private sectors

 38

Table 4 Satisfaction of life in job

Std. T value Significance

Mean N Deviation
Public 2.97 39 .77 0.71 Not significant
Private 2.87 56 .76
Total 2.91 95 .76

The table shows that the critical ratio of difference between means of ‘Satisfaction of life

in job’ of public and private sector teachers is 0.71, which is not significant. Hence there

is no significant difference between ‘Satisfaction of life in job’ of teachers of public and

private sectors

Table 5 Mornings at work

Mean N Std. Deviation T value Significance

Public 3.02 39 .74 -0.021 Not
Private 3.08 56 .66 significant
Total 3.06 95 .69

The table shows that the critical ratio of difference between means of ‘Mornings at work’

of public and private sector teachers is 0.71, which is not significant. Hence there is no

significant difference between ‘Mornings at work’ of teachers of public and private

sectors

Table 6 Reaching at work early

Mean N Std. Deviation T value Significance

Public 3.25 39 .677 0 Not significant
Private 3.23 56 .660
Total 3.24 95 .663

The table shows that the critical ratio of difference between means of ‘Reaching at work

early’ of public and private sector teachers is zero, which is not significant. Hence there is
 39

no significant difference between ‘Reaching at work early’ of teachers of public and

private sectors

Table 7 Most important things involve work

Std. T value Significance

Mean N Deviation
Private 3.07 56 .78 6.6 Not
Public 2.41 39 .59 significant
Total 2.80 95 .78

The table shows that the critical ratio of difference between means of ‘Most important

things involve work’ of public and private sector teachers is -6.6, which is significant.

Hence there is difference between ‘Most important things involve work’ of teachers of

public and private sectors favoring public sector.

Table 8 Lying awake at night thinking about next day’s work

Std. T value Significance

Mean N Deviation
Public 2.97 39 .77 -0.5 Not significant
Private 3.05 56 .77
Total 3.02 95 .77

The table shows that the critical ratio of difference between means of ‘Lying awake at

night thinking about next day’s work’ of public and private sector teachers is -0.5, which

is not significant. Hence there is no significant difference between ‘Lying awake at night

thinking about next day’s work’ of teachers of public and private sectors
 40

Table 9 Perfectionism about job

Mean N Std. Deviation T value Significance

Public 3.43 39 .50 0.02 Not significant
Private 3.32 56 .71
Total 3.36 95 .63

The table shows that the critical ratio of difference between means of ‘Perfectionism

about job’ of public and private sector teachers is 0.02, which is not significant. Hence

there is no significant difference between ‘Perfectionism about job’ of teachers of public

and private sectors

Table 10 Feeling depressed when failed at job

Mean N Std. Deviation T value Significance

Public 3.51 39 .68 1.2 Not significant
Private 3.39 56 .73
Total 3.44 95 .71
The table shows that the critical ratio of difference between means of ‘Feeling depressed

when failed at job’ of public and private sector teachers is 1.2, which is not significant.

Hence there is no significant difference between ‘Feeling depressed when failed at job’ of

teachers of public and private sectors

Table 11 Other activities more important than work

Mean N Std. Deviation T value Significance

Public 2.20 39 .80 0.07 Not significant
Private 2.19 56 .77
Total 2.20 95 .78

The table shows that the critical ratio of difference between means of ‘Other activities

more important than work’ of public and private sector teachers is 0.07, which is not
 41

significant. Hence there is no significant difference between ‘Other activities more

important than work’ of teachers of public and private sectors

Table 12 Living, eating and breathing job

Std. T value Significance

Mean N Deviation
Public 2.56 39 .71 2.35 Not significant The table
Private 2.23 56 .83
Total 2.36 95 .79 shows that

the critical ratio of difference between means of ‘Living, eating and breathing job’ of

public and private sector teachers is 2.35, which is not significant. Hence there is no

significant difference between ‘Living, eating and breathing job’ of teachers of public and

private sectors

Table 13 Keep on working even without the need of money

Std. T value Significance

Mean N Deviation
Public 2.69 39 .52 3.14 Significant
Private 2.78 56 .94 Difference
Total 2.74 95 .79

The table shows that the critical ratio of difference between means of ‘Keep on working

even without the need of money’ of public and private sector teachers is 3.14, which

shows significant difference. Hence majority of the private sector teachers says that they

will keep on working even without the need of money.

 42

Table 14 Feeling like staying home from work instead of coming in

Std. T value Significance

Mean N Deviation
Public 2.48 39 .75 1.64 Not significant
Private 2.25 56 .87
Total 2.34 95 .83

The table shows that the critical ratio of difference between means of ‘Feeling like

staying home from work instead of coming in’ of public and private sector teachers is

1.64, which is not significant. Hence there is no significant difference between ‘Feeling

like staying home from work instead of coming in’ of teachers of public and private

sectors

Table 15 Work a small part of personality

Mean N Std. Deviation T value Significance

Public 3.07 39 .42 0.13 Not
Private 2.78 56 .86 significant
Total 2.90 95 .73

The table shows that the critical ratio of difference between means of ‘Work a small part

of personality’ of public and private sector teachers is 0.13, which is not significant.

Hence there is no significant difference between ‘Work a small part of personality’ of

teachers of public and private sectors

Table 16 Personal involvement in work

Std. T value Significance

Mean N Deviation
Public 3.46 39 .55 -0.01 Not
Private 3.51 56 .60 significant
Total 3.49 95 .58
 43

The table shows that the critical ratio of difference between means of ‘Personal

involvement in work’ of public and private sector teachers is -0.01, which is not

significant. Hence there is no significant difference between ‘Personal involvement in

work’ of teachers of public and private sectors

Table 17 Avoiding extra duties and work

Std. T value Significance

Mean N Deviation
Public 1.89 39 .75 0.78 Not significant
Private 1.78 56 .80
Total 1.83 95 .78

The table shows that the critical ratio of difference between means of ‘Avoiding extra

duties and work’ of public and private sector teachers is 0.78, which is not significant.

Hence there is no significant difference between ‘Avoiding extra duties and work’ of

teachers of public and private sectors

Table 18 To be more ambitious in job in the past than present

Std. T value Significanc

Mean N Deviation e
Public 2.87 39 .65 1.5 Not
Private 2.66 56 .95 significant
Total 2.74 95 .85

The table shows that the critical ratio of difference between means of ‘To be more

ambitious in job in the past than present’ of public and private sector teachers is 1.5,

which is not significant. Hence there is no significant difference between ‘To be more

ambitious in job in the past than present’ of teachers of public and private sectors
 44

Table 19 Other things are more important in life than work

Std. T value Significance

Mean N Deviation
Public 2.74 39 .54 0.01 Not significant
Private 2.71 56 .77
Total 2.72 95 .69

The table shows that the critical ratio of difference between means of ‘Other things are

more important in life than work’ of public and private sector teachers is 0.01, which is

not significant. Hence there is no significant difference between ‘Other things are more

important in life than work’ of teachers of public and private sectors

Table 20 Change in priority from job in the past to other things in present

Std. T value Significance

Mean N Deviation
Public 2.53 39 .55 0 Not significant
Private 2.53 56 .74
Total 2.43 95 .67

The table shows that the critical ratio of difference between means of ‘Change in priority

from job in the past to other things in present’ of public and private sector teachers is 0,

which is not significant. Hence there is no significant difference between ‘Change in

priority from job in the past to other things in present’ of teachers of public and private

sectors

Table 21 Feeling depressed after making mistake.

Std. T value Significa

Mean N Deviation nce
Public 3.35 39 .58 0.10 Not
Private 3.03 56 .76 significa
Total 3.16 95 .70 nt
 45

The table shows that the critical ratio of difference between means of ‘Feeling depressed

after making mistake’ of public and private sector teachers is 0.10, which is not

significant. Hence there is no significant difference between ‘Feeling depressed after

making mistake’ of teachers of public and private sectors

 46

CHAPTER 5

SUMMARY, FINDINGS, DISCUSSION AND

RECOMMENDATIONS

SUMMARY

The underlying study was designed to compare job involvement in teachers working in

private and public sector schools. A questionnaire was developed in lines of (Lodahl and

Kejner. 1965) as tool to carry out the study. The teachers were asked to respond by rating

themselves on a four point scale (strongly agree, agree, disagree and strongly disagree).

All the teachers of public and private schools of Sargodha city were the population of the

study. Fifty six private school teachers and thirty nine public school teachers were

selected by cluster sampling. The questionnaire was bilingual for the purpose of

convenience.

The researchers personally visited the schools included in the sample. The data collected

were analyzed in the light of objectives of the study. It was found that there was no

significant difference between teachers of private and public sectors on different aspects

of job involvement. It was also observed that most of the respondents tried to conceal

their true feelings as most of the respondents projected their positive attitudes on different

aspects of job involvement. It was observed during the research that other parts of

educational institutions such as administration and non teaching staff should also be

considered for research regarding job involvement.

Anyhow, it is advised to the future researchers that they should replicate the study on

large and on different samples to explore detailed and comprehensive aspects of job

involvement.
 47

5.1 Findings:

The following points summarize the findings of this study with regard to statistical

analysis of the data.

1) There is no difference between overall job involvement of teachers of private

and public sector teachers.

2) Both the teachers of private and public sector like to stay overtime to finish a

job even if they are not paid for it.

3) The teachers of both the sectors agree that a person can be measured pretty well

by how good a job he or she does.

4) The teachers working in private and public sectors agree that their job is a

source of satisfaction for them.

5) The teachers working in both the sectors agree that the morning at work really

fly by for them.

6) The teachers of both the sectors say that they try to reach at work a little early,

to get things ready.

 48

7) The majority of the teachers working in private sector say that the most

important things that happen to their life does not involve their work. Whereas

majority of the public sector teachers are of the view that the most important

things that happen in their life involve their work.

8) The teachers of both the sectors agree that they sometime lie awake at night

ahead to the next day’s work which shows positive attitude towards job

involvement.

9) The teachers of both the sectors claim that they are perfectionist about their job.

10) The teachers of private and public sectors say that they feel depressed when

they fail at something connected with their job. This is also a positive tendency

towards job involvement.

11) The teachers of both the sectors agree that their work is more important than

other activities.

12) The majority of private sector teachers is of the opinion that they live, eat and

breathe their job. Whereas the majority of public sector teacher does not think

so.
 49

13) The private sector teachers say that they would keep on working even without

the need of money. But the public sector teachers disagree with it.

14) The teachers working in both private and public sector disagree with the view

that they quite often feel like staying home instead of come in.

15) The teachers working in both the sectors disagree that their work is only a small

part of their personality.

16) The teachers working in private and public sector claim that they are personally

involved in their work.

17) The teachers of both the sectors agree that they avoid taking extra duties and

responsibilities.

18) The teachers working in both the sectors disagree that they were more

ambitious about their job in the past than present.

19) The teachers of both private and public sector disagree that other things in life

are more important for them than their work.

20) The teachers of both the sectors disagree that they used to care about their work

in the past. But now their priority has been shifted to other things in life.
 50

21) The teachers of both the sectors disagree that they feel highly depressed after

making mistake.

5.2 Conclusion:

1) It has been proved from the findings that the level of job involvement of teachers

working in private as well as public sectors is almost the same.

2) The level of job involvement was explored through data collection and analysis.

The overall response of the teachers of public sector was positive. They agreed

with all the positive questions and disagreed with all the negative questions. In

this way, they showed a high level of job involvement.

3) The level of job involvement in private sector was explored in the same way as

was done with the public sector teachers. They also showed a high level of job

involvement by agreeing with the positive questions and disagreeing with the

negative questions.

4) To study the attitudes of the respondents, different questions were included in the

questionnaire. Although it is felt that some respondents have tried to conceal their

opinions in order to make their response positive, it is found that the attitude of

the respondents towards their involvement in job is positive. Concealment might

be a result of some kind of reservations on the side of the teachers towards their

respective administration.
 51

5) After data analysis and findings, it is suggested that a congenial and democratic

environment is necessary to make the teachers involved in their job. If the

teachers work under authoritative and stubborn administration, they will not

perform according to the requirement of their job. If the teachers are encouraged

to participate in the decision making process, they feel themselves important. This

positively affects their working capacity. In this way, their job involvement is

increased.

6) The atmosphere in most of our schools is not as congenial as it should be. Most of

the administrators of private schools have authoritative attitude which results in

adverse pressure on the teachers. The administrators in the public sector schools

are not independent in decision making. They have to carry on the policies of the

government. Private sector teachers lack job security. This also increases

psychological pressure on them. In this way, their job involvement is adversely

affected.

5.3 Discussion:
The purpose of the research was to compare job involvement in teachers working in private and public sectors. A developed
questionnaire (Lodahl and Kejner. 1965) was adopted by the researchers as tool to collect data. As job involvement is one of the
attitudes that are related with the working of an individual in an organization, it was needed to explore and analyze the responses of
the respondents regarding job involvement. The responses also showed negative or positive attitude towards their jobs.
After the collection and analysis of data, it was found that there is no difference between level of level of job involvement in teachers
working in private and public sector schools. the respondents gave psoitive responses regarding their job involvement. It was felt that
some teachers had concealed their true responses and gave positive responses. Their may be more than one reasons for it. Some
teachers do not take these questionnaires seroiusly. They do not give much time to thoughts. They just take it and fill it. Some
teachers, especially those who work in private sector, have no job security. So, they always work under pressure. They think that by
giving negative responses, they might come under bad books of the administration. In this way, they try to give psitive responses. To
tackle this issue, a note was written in the end which indicated that this questionnaire was only for research purposes. It was also
observed that other departments of school organization, such as, administration and non teaching staff should also be included for
research in job involvement.
 52

5.4 Recommendations:

Following are the recommendations of this study.

For Researchers:

1) The difference between level of job involvement in teachers working in private

and public sector schools is not significant. It is also observed that most of the

respondents tried to conceal their true feelings as most of the respondents

projected their positive attitudes on different aspects of job involvement. It is

recommended that future researchers must convince them to give true responses

and to give them more assurance that the data collected would be only used to

inculcate positive attitudes in our teaching environment.

2) It is further recommended that the future researchers should replicate the study on

larger and different but very carefully selected more responsible samples.

3) It is further recommended that the future researcher should not mention the

identification of the respondents if they desire to do so.

4) It is recommended that the opinions of the heads of the institutions should also be

included on the matter of job involvement of their subordinates especially

teachers. In this regard comprehensive and meaningful interviews of the heads of

the institutions and renowned educationists should also be included.

5) It is recommended that in future this study may be conducted on limited levels of

education. It must be delimited to primary level, elementary level, secondary level

and so on.

6) It is further recommended that future research should be delimited to Urdu

medium or English medium schools.

 53

7) It is also recommended that future research should be delimited gender wise.

8) It is also recommended that future research should explore detailed aspects of job

involvement such as future research may be delimited to the impact of

interpersonal role of an individual on his or her job involvement or the impact of

burnout on the level of job involvement on an individual.

9) It is very important that co-relational research should be conducted to explore the

relation of other attitudes such as job satisfaction or organizational commitment

and job involvement.

For Practitioners:

10) The administration should provide a congenial atmosphere so that teachers can

work in relaxed environment.

11) It is recommended to the private school administration that they should provide

job security to their teachers in order to enhance the level of job involvement.

12) Salaries of the teachers are not sufficient to meet day to day needs. The increase

in salaries will have positive impact on the job involvement.

13) The performance of private sector teachers is related to the out come of their

work. But public sector teachers face no such challenge. It is recommended to the

administration that they should give target to the teachers regarding results of

their classes. The public sector teachers will try their best to achieve the target

given. This will have positive affect on the job involvement of the public sector

teachers.
 54

14) The overall administration of public sector schools is corrupt. In order to get

bribes, the concerned authorities usually dislocate the teachers from their station

of duty. Then they get huge favours form the teachers to reverse the transfers.

15) If a teacher is living in city and transferred to a village, his salary is reduced. If a

teacher is living in a village and transferred to city, his salary is increased. It is

recommended to the public sector administrators to fix salary of the teachers

according to their place of residence.

 55

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CONTENT LIST
Sr. # Topic Page No.

CHAPTER – 1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Statement of the Problem 3
1.2 Objectives 3
1.3 Hypothesis 4
1.4 Delimitation of the study 4
1.5 Significance of the Study 4

CHAPTER – 2 REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

2.1 Job Involvement is an Attitude 5
2.2 What are Attitudes? 6
2.2.1 Definition 6
2.2.2 Different Components of an Attitude 6
 62

2.3 Types of Attitudes 6

2.3.1 Job Satisfaction 6
2.3.2 Job Involvement 7
2.3.3 Organizational Commitment 7
2.4 Job Involvement 7
2.4.1 Definitions 8
2.5 A Brief History of Improving Workers Involvement 8
2.5.1 The Effect of Employment (Job) Involvement on Performance 9
2.5.2 Obstacles to Employee (Job) Involvement 10
2.5.3 Conclusion by the British Researchers 10
2.6 Job Involvement and Interrole Conflict 10
2.6.1 Interrole Conflict 10
2.6.2 Time and Attention as Moderators 12
2.6.3 Segmentation as a Moderator 13
2.6.4 A Direct Relationship 14
2.6.5 Applications 14
2.7 Relationship between Burnout and Job Involvement 15
2.8 Turnover is Linked to Job Involvement 15

2.9 Job Involvement as Interactive Predictor of Absenteeism 17

2.9.1 Taking a Sickie Attitude” 17
2.9.2 Blau and Boal’s Research on Absenteeism and Job Involvement 18
2.9.3 Mathieu and Kohler’s Study on Job Involvement 18
2.10 Job Involvement of Innovative Workers May Arise Conflict 19
2.10.1 The Nature of Job Involvement of Innovative Workers 19
2.10.2 Job Involvement of Innovative Worker verses Working
Environment 20
2.10.3 The Price of Innovative Behaviour 20
2.10.4 Job Involvement of Innovative Workers is a Risk of Falling
into Conflict with coworkers
21
 63

2.11 Job Involvement: An Analysis of its Determinants among Male

and Female Teachers 23
2.11.1 Three Classes of Antecedents of Job Involvement 24
2.11.2 Gender and Job Models 24
2.11.3 Family Support 25
2.11.4 Job Circumstances 26
2.11.5 The Impact of Moderated Perceptions on Job Involvement 27
2.11.6 The Growth in the Labour Force Participation of Women 27
2.11.7 Personality Characteristics and Job Circumstances 28
2.11.8 Family and Job Involvement of Males 29
2.11.9 Family and Job Involvement of Females 30
2.12 The Effect of Teacher Empowerment on their Job Involvement 31
2.12.1 Negative Impact of Empowerment on Job Involvement 31
2.12.2 The Effect of Personal Power and Motivation on Job Involvement 31
2.12.3 Empowerment of Teachers Enhances Job Involvement of
Teachers Having Leadership Qualities 32
2.13 How to Make Teachers Involve in their Job 32

CHAPTER – 3 METHOD AND PROCEDURE

3.1 Population 34
3.2 Sample
34
3.3 Construction of Instrument 34
3.4 Data Collection 35
3.5 Data Analysis 35

CHAPTER – 4 ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA 36

CHAPTER – 5 SUMMARY, FINDINGS, DISCUSSION AND

RECOMMENDATIONS
 64

5.1 Findings 47
5.2 Conclusion 50
5.3 Discussion 51
5.4 Recommendations 52

REFERENCES 55

APPENDIX – A
APPENDIX – B
 65

APPENDIX-A

Questionnaire
Name: ___________________________________

Gender: ___________________________________

Designation: __________________________________

School: ______________________________________________

Nature of School (Government/Private): __________________

1) S.A: Strongly Agree 2) A: Agree 3) D: Disagree 4) S.D.A: Strongly Disagree

Sr Statement S.A A D.A S.D.A

No
1. I ll stay overtime to finish a
job, even if I’m not paid for
it.
2. Yoy can measure a person
pretty well by how good a
job he does.
3. The major satisfaction in my
life comes from my job.
4. For me, mornings at work
really fly by.
5. I usually show up for work a
little early, to get things
ready.
6. The most important things
that happen to me involves
my work.
7. Sometimes I lie awake at
night thinking ahead to the
next day’s work.
8. I’m rally a perfectionist
about my work.
9. I feel depressed when I fail
at something connected with
my job.
10 I have other activities more
. important than my work.
 66

11. I live, eat, and breathe my

job.

12 I would probably keep

. working even if I didn’t
need the money.
13 Quite often I feel like
. staying home from work
instead of coming in.
14 To me, my work is only a
. small part of who I am.
15 I am very much involved
. personally in my work.
16 I avoid taking on extra
. duties and responsibilities in
my work.
17 I used to be more ambitious
. about my work than I am
now.
18 Most things in life are more
. important than work.
19 I used to care more about my
. work, but now other things
are more important to me.
20 Sometimes I’d like to kick
. myself for the mistake I
make in my work.

Note: This questionnaire is only for research purposes. Your cooperation will highly be
appreciated.
67