Lecture 1 55

Non-Traditional Machining Processes
MI-588
Instructor – Dr. Akshay Dvivedi
2012-2013
Objectives of this course and what is
expected of you
• Fundamentals of Non-Traditional Machining processes
• Selection of appropriate process to meet design

requirements
• Effect of process parameters on the quality characteristics
• Effect of material properties on a given process
• Applications and process capabilities of Non-Traditional

Machining processes
S. Particulars Contact
No. Hours
1 Introduction: Types of advanced manufacturing 02
processes; Evolution, need, and classification of
advanced machining processes (AMPs).
2 Mechanical Type AMPs: USM, AJM, WJM, AWJM 08
processes - process principle and elements; Tool
design; Mechanism of material removal; parametric
analysis; Shape and material applications;
Operational characteristics; Limitations.
3 Advanced Fine Finishing Process: Abrasive Flow 06
Machining (AFM), Magnetic Abrasive Finishing
(MAF), Magneto Rheological Abrasive Finishing
(MRAF) - Process principle; Process equipment;
Analysis and modeling of finishing mechanism;
Parametric analysis; Applications.
No. Hours
4 Chemical Type AMPs: Process principle and details 04
of Chemical Machining (CHM), Photo-Chemical
Machining (PCM), and Bio-Chemical Machining
(BCM) processes.
5 Electro Chemical Type AMPs: ECM - Process 06
principle; Mechanism of material removal;
Kinematics and dynamics of ECM; Tooling design;
Choice and analysis of process parameters; Surface
finish and accuracy.
6 Thermal Type AMPs: EDM, LBM, EBM, IBM, 08
PAM processes - Working principle; Power circuits;
Mechanism of material removal; Process parameters
and characteristics; Surface finish and accuracy,
Shape and materials applications, limitations.
No. Hours
7 Derived and Hybrid AMPs: Introduction of 06
processes like Rotary Ultra Sonic Machining (RUM),
Elctro Stream Drilling (ESD), Shaped Tube Electro
Machining (STEM), Wire Electro Discharge
Machining (WEDM), Electro Chemical Grinding
(ECG), Electro Chemical Honing (ECH), Electro
Chemical Deburring (ECDE): and Electro-Chemical
Spark Machining (ECSM).
8 Misc. Topics: Process selection and process planning 02
for AMPs.
Total 42
What is Manufacturing?
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
Manu Factus : Latin for ‘made by hand’
Definition:
A Well organized method of converting raw material to end
product
End Product: Value and utility added to output.

Manufacturing of a Paper Clip
• What is the function
• How long does it last
• How critical is the part
• Material Metallic - what type
Non metallic – plastic
• Dimension Diameter of clip
Shape of clip
• Method of manufacturing Manual
Automated
• Function based design Stress, Strain
Life of clip
Stiffness
• Style Appearance,Color,Finish
Plating,painting
Manufacturing Processes
 Primary manufacturing processes
• Provide basic shape and size to the material as per
designer’s requirement. Casting, forming, powder
metallurgy
 Secondary manufacturing processes
• Provide the final shape and size with tighter control on
dimension, surface characteristics. Machining is mainly
secondary manufacturing processes.
 Conventional Machining Processes

• Turning, boring, milling, shaping, broaching, slotting,
grinding etc
 Unconventional Machining Processes
• AJM, USM, WJM, AWJM, EDM, LBM, PAM, IBM etc
Conventional Machining Processes
Material removal in the form of chips by applying forces on the work material
with a wedge shaped cutting tool that is harder than the work material under
machining condition. Such forces induce plastic deformation within the work
piece leading to shear deformation along the shear plane and chip formation.
Shear deformation in conventional machining leading to chip formation.

 Material removal may occur with chip formation or even no
chip formation
AJM – microscopic sized chips
ECM - electrochemical dissolution at atomic level
 There may not be a physical tool present

LBM - machining is carried out by laser beam
USM - physical tool that is very much required for machining
 The tool need not be harder than the work piece material
EDM - Copper is used to machine hardened steels.
 Types of Energy
USM, AJM, WJM - mechanical energy
ECM - electrochemical dissolution constitutes material removal
Processes
• Mechanical
• Thermoelectric
• Chemical
• Electrochemical
and HYBRIDS
Classification
Energy Mechanism Transfer Energy Processes
Media Source
Mechanical Erosion High Vel. Pneumatic/Hy AJM, USM,
Particles draulic WJM
Electrochemical Ion Electrolyte High Current ECM, ECG
Displacement
Chemical Ablative Reactive Corrosive CHM
Action Environment Agent
Thermoelectric Fusion Hot Gases Ionized IBM, PAM
Material
Electrons High Voltage EDM
Vaporization Radiation Amplified LBM
Light
Ion Stream Ionized PAM
Material
Situations where conventional processes
are not satisfactory or even possible
• High hardness and the strength of the material

• Work-piece too flexible
• Complex shape
• Surface finish and dimensional tolerances
• Undesirable Temperature rise and dimensional
tolerances
Selection of Process depends on
• Dimensional and surface finish requirements

• Operational Cost
• Design and strength requirements
• Consequences of various methods
The requirements that lead to the development of
nontraditional machining.
• Very high hardness and strength of the material (above 400

HB)
• Work piece is too flexible or slender to support the cutting or
grinding forces.
• Complex shape of the part (internal and external profiles, or
small diameter holes).
• Surface finish or tolerance better than those obtainable
conventional process.
• Temperature rise or residual stress in the work piece are
undesirable.
USM
USM - Products
Piezo-resonators; Material: Piezoceramics,

Machining purpose: Production of sensors, Machining time: 3-5 seconds per unit
USM - Products
Profile drillings in glass and ceramic tubes

Material: Silica glass, Machining purpose: Production of precision drillings
USM - Products
Machining specimens. Material: silica glass, Machining purpose: machining

tests with 3 D tools to determine machining values and tool wear
Mechanical - USM
• Ultrasonic Machining - Cutting action is
accomplished with an abrasive slurry which is driven
by a tool vibrating at high frequency. The tool is the
exact shape of the desired shape to be cut into the
work.
• Applications
– Slots, blind holes, irregular shapes, and through holes.
– Hard and brittle materials
USM
• Material Removal Rate: To calculate
material removal rate (MRR) reduction in
weight of work piece is divided by time of
machining and respective densities of
workpieces i.e.,
Volume of material Removed Wi  Wf

MRR  
Time t mρ
• Tool Wear Rate: Tool wear rate is calculated
by reduction in weight of tool divided by
time of machining and density of respective
tool.
Volume of material Removed Ti  Tf

TWR  
Time t mρ
• Wear Ratio: Wear ratio defines the relative
efficiency of work material with respective
tool with corresponding set of process
parameters. To calculate wear ratio
reduction in volume of work piece is divided
by reduction of volume of tool in same time
& over same depth of cut.
• Surface Roughness: Ra value can be used.
Measured by contact/noncontact profilers
2D/3D Roughness
Hole Oversize: Clearance between the tool and the
work piece.
It is a frequently employed means of assessment of
accuracy.
Diameter of the hole at the entry side can be measured
(Tool Maker's Microscope). The outside diameter of the
tool is then subtracted from the measured diameter to
get the hole oversize.
Oversize of the hole = Diameter of the hole at entry - Tool diameter.
USM
USM
• Material is removed by micro-chipping or erosion with abrasive particles.
• USM utilizes a power supply that converts line voltage to 20KHz electrical
energy.
• The high-frequency electrical energy is provided to a piezoelectric converter
that changes high frequency electrical energy into mechanical motion.
• The ultrasonic motion from the converter is amplified and transmitted to the
horn and cutting tool. This causes the horn and attached cutting tool to vibrate
perpendicularly to the tool face thousands of times per second with no side to
side motion.
• A recirculating pump forces abrasive, suspended in a liquid medium, between
the vibrating tool face and the workpiece. The abrasive particles strike the
workpiece at 150,000 times their own weight. These tiny abrasive particles chip
off microscopic flakes at the workpiece and grind a counterpart of the tool face.
• Small Crater is formed at each impact – associated with negligibly small
abrasion
USM
Equipment:
1. Power Supply – high power sine-wave generator
- converts low frequency (60 Hz) to high frequency (20 kHz)
2. Transducer – piezoelectric and magnetostrictive
- converts electrical energy into mechanical motion
3. Tool Holder – Attach and hold tool to transducer (horn/cone)
4. Tool – Transmits amplified mechanical motion from tool holder to
abrasive particles (silver brazing, soft soldering, screws)
5. Abrasive – Harder the better, size
6. Media – acoustic bond, coolant, energy transfer, flushing
USM
Process Parameters
1. Power
2. Amplitude
3. Particle Size
4. Abrasive Type – Harder the better, Size
5. Flushing Type
6. Flushing Pressure
7. Static Load
8. Slurry Concentration
ABRASIVE TYPE & MATERIAL TYPE MATERIAL
GRAIN SIZE
TYPE
LIQUID MEDIUM HEAT TREATMENT DAMPING CHARACTERISTICS FREQUENCY
MATERIAL TYPE CONCENTRATION GEOMETRY, SIZE & SIZE & AMPLITUDE

SHAPE CONFIGURATION
HARDNESS & FRACTURE PRESSURE, TEMP and FINISH AMPLIFICATION STATIC LOAD
TOUGHNESS FLOW RATE &
ACCURACY
THICKNESS METHOD OF SLURRY MOUNTING METHOD COOLING POWER RATING

FEED
WORKPIECE SLURRY TOOL TRUNK DESIGN MACHINE SETTINGS
PERFORMANCE OF THE PROCESS
MACHINING RATE SURFACE FINISH MACHINING ACCURACY TOOL WEAR
PENETRATION RATE BOUNDARY LAYER OUT OF ROUNDNESS LONGITUDINAL WEAR
SURFACE PROFILE CONICITY LATERAL WEAR
SURFACE ROUGHNESS OVERSIZE CAVITATION WEAR

Conversion of Electrical Energy to
Mechanical Energy
Which transducer is better? Magnetostrictive Piezoelectric
High temperature Low Temperature
generated generated
Stacks of nickel/iron- Quartz, Lead Zirconate
aluminium/iron-cobalt Titanate
wrapped by heavy gauge
wire
Current=>magnetic Respond directly to
response=>change of electrical signal
length (0.005-0.025 mm) (0.005-0.025 mm)
ŋ = 20-35 % , 2400 W ŋ = 96 % , 900 W
(a) Jet Flow (b) Suction
Methods of Slurry Delivery
MECHANISM OF MATERIAL REMOVAL
• Mechanical abrasion by direct hammering of the

abrasive particles on the work piece by the tool.
• Impact of the free moving particles on the work
piece with a certain velocity on the work piece
resulting in micro chipping.
• Erosion of the work surface due to cavitation effects
of the abrasive slurry.
• Chemical action associated with the fluid employed.
USM MATERIAL REMOVAL MECHANISMS
USM MECHANISM
Miller – Plastic deformation, depends on size of chips
Kazantsev – Brittle fracture
Shaw – Ab. Thrown, Ab. Hammering, Erosion, Chemical corrosion
Volume = Frequency of times amount of material removed per cycle
V1 = ½(4/3 ∏r3)
r = (2rh)1/2
V = 2/3 ∏ (2rh) 3/2 = 4/3∏(Rh)3/2 = K1(Rh)3/2
N = No. of Impacting particles
R = Dia of grit
N = K2(1/R2)
V1 = K1K2/R2(Rh)3/2 = K1K2(h3/2/R1/2)
K3 = Probability of abrasive particle in action
V = V1f = K1K2K3(h3/2/R1/2)f
USM Process Capabilities
• HRC less than 40 – poor MRR
• HRC greater than 60 – Excellent process economy
• Holes as small as 0.076 mm
• Holes as deep as 152 mm (with optimum flushing)
• Aspect Ratio 40:1
• SR – Best #800 (0.25µ)
• Nondirectional Surface
USM Process Capabilities
• Excellent process for machining carbides, ferrites, germanium,
ceramics, glass, tungsten
• Making press tools, dies, wire drawing equipment and other
components made of hard alloys
• Slicing semi-conductors components (e.g. for cutting circular
wafers 1 to 30 mm diameter from germanium and silicon rods
• The automotive applications of machining ceramic engine
components
• The electronics applications vary from machining ceramic
substrates to drilling holes in borosilicate glass for the sensors
• Machining watch bearings and jewels
• Drilling small holes in helicopter power transmission shafts
and gears
• Cutting of thermoplastic or combined natural thermoplastic
tissues
Process Variants
• Rotary Ultrasonic Machining (RUM)

• Ultrasonic Welding (USW)
• Ultrasonic assisted EDM
• Ultrasonic assisted LASER
• Ultrasonic assisted twist drilling
Ultrasonic assisted conventional machining - reduce
machining time, work piece residual stresses and strain
hardening. It also improves work piece surface quality and
tool life when compared to conventional turning
Rotary Ultrasonic Machining
• Rotating diamond-plated tool for drilling, milling threading
• Tool vibrated axially at frequency (20 kHz)
• Reduce Friction and loading of diamond abrasive
• No abrasive slurry (only water)
• 1/2-3/4 HP Motor, 5000 RPM, 300 W
• Hole dia - .51mm, Depth 305 mm
• Aspect Ratio – 200:1

Rotary Ultrasonic Machining
USM Overview
USM
Advantages
1. Burr less
2. Distortion less
3. No thermal effects
4. Single pass cavity sinking
5. Machines nonconductive materials
Disadvantages
1. Tool Wear
2. Frequent Tuning
3. Low MRR
4. Uneconomical for soft materials
5. The accuracy of the machined surface is lost if the axis of the tool and horn is
misaligned with the transducer axis
6. Tendency of the holes to break out at the bottom (static load and amplitude)
7. Bottom of the hole can't be machined flat (ineffective slurry circulation, fewer active
grains are present under the tool face)
AJM
Abrasive Jet Machining
AJM (Microblast, Bead Blasting)
• Similar to sand blasting, except that a very narrow jet of

air/abrasive particles achieves localized cutting
• High pressure air (dry air, nitrogen, CO2 or helium) with
fine powder, blended together to form an abrasive
mixture
– This mixture is sent through a small, precisely
machined nozzle
– The result is a highly accurate abrasive stream used for
cleaning, cutting, drilling, deburring
• Extremely versatile process with limitless applications (as
hard as diamonds, delicate items like fabric and paper)
AJM
Abrasive Jet Machining
AJM
• Conversion of pressure energy (carrier gas) to its

kinetic energy => high velocity jet
• The nozzle directs the abrasive jet in a controlled
manner onto the work material
• Distance between the nozzle and the work piece
and the impingement angle are set desirably.
• The high velocity abrasive particles remove the
material by micro-cutting action (chipping/abrasion)
as well as brittle fracture of the work material
AJM
• Abrasives
– Alumina (for aluminum & brass) cleaning, cutting & deburring
– SiC (for stainless steel & ceramics) harder work materials
– Glass beads (for polishing) matt finish
– Crushed glass (for polishing) sharper edges
– Sodium bicarbonate (for soft materials) cleaning, cutting & deburring
• Pressure: 5 bar
• Nozzle orifice diameter: 0.5 mm
• Velocities: 200 m/s
• Stand off distance: 2 mm Grit size (15-50 m) in diameter
• Mass flow rate: 15 gm/min
AJM
• The process is usually carried out manually by an operator

• AJM is normally used as a finishing process
• Applied on hard, brittle materials (glass, silicon, mica and
ceramics) that are in the form of thin flat stock
• No recycling of abrasives
• Abrasive grains are fractured, worn and contaminated
• Mask
Process Parameters - AJM
• Abrasive
– Material – Al2O3 /SiC/glass beads
– Shape – irregular / spherical
– Size – 10 ~ 50 µm
– Mass flow rate – 2 ~ 20 gm/min
• Carrier gas
– Composition – Air, CO2, N2
– Density – Air ~ 1.3 kg/m3
– Velocity – 500 ~ 700 m/s
– Pressure – 2 ~ 10 bar
– Flow rate – 5 ~ 30 lpm
Process Parameters - AJM
• Abrasive Jet
– Velocity – 100 ~ 300 m/s
– Mixing ratio – M=Va / Vg (Volume flow rate)
– Stand-off distance – 0.75 ~ 1 mm (high MRR)
– 12.5 ~ 75 mm (cleaning, frosting)
– Impingement Angle – 600 ~ 900
– Mass ratio – α = (M a / M a + c )
• Nozzle
– Material – WC / sapphire
– Diameter – (Internal) 0.12 ~ 1.25 mm
– Orifice dimensions (rectangular) – 0.07 x 0.5 mm to 0.17 x 3.8 mm
– Life – 30 ~ 300 hours
Machining Chracteristics - AJM
• MRR
• Machining accuracy
• Nozzle life (stray cutting, inaccuracy)
Effect of Process Parameters - AJM
Process Capabilities - AJM
• Quality finish
Materials cut by the abrasive
jet have a smooth, satin-like
finish, similar to a fine
sandblasted finish
• Minimal burr
No heavy burrs are produced
by the AJM. Parts can often be
used directly without deburring
• Narrow slots (0.12 – 0.25
mm)
• Low tolerance 0.12mm
• SR – (0.25 – 1.25 µm) 0.025 wafer thin walls
• Cuts in wood
• Steels – 1.5 mm
• Glass – 6.3 mm
• AJM is the right choice for:

– Heat-sensitive or Brittle materials
– Glass
• Composites and Nonmetals
• Burrless Applications
Applications - AJM
• Drilling holes of intricate shapes in hard and

brittle materials
• Machining fragile, brittle and heat sensitive
materials
• Micro-machining of brittle materials
Limitations - AJM
• Low MRR (around ~ 15 mm3/min for machining glass)

• Abrasive particles tend to get embedded particularly if
the work material is ductile
• Tapering occurs (jet flaring)
• High environmental damage!
Water Jet Machining
Water Jet Machining
Water Jet Machining
Nozzle
• Sapphire, Ruby (synthetic)
• 0.07-0.5 mm (upto 1mm)
• 200-500 Hr
• Extend Nozzle life – multi-stage
filtration
Water
Jewel
Water Jet Machining
Catcher
• Reduce noise levels (mach-3 to sub-
sonic)
• Reservoir for collecting machined
debris
• Small diameter pipe with vacuum
discharge port
• Types – steel/ceramic balls;
impingement disc/catcher plates;
catcher basin for large systems
Water Jet Machining
Catcher
Water Jet Machining
Process Parameters
• Pressure (exit pressure) –
higher the better
• Nozzle Diameter - higher the
better !
• Traverse Rate – lower the
better
• Standoff Distance (3 to 25 mm)
Water Jet Machining
Process Parameters
Water Jet Machining
MRR
Q= CD (p/4)D2v
v = (2p/ρ)1/2
where, CD is orifice coefficient (0.7), p is the pressure, ρ is density of
cutting fluid, D is diameter of nozzle
Water Jet Machining
Application
s
• Food Nickel alloys
• Plastic Titanium
• Foam Tool steels
• Paper Glass !
• Rubber Marble
Brass
Copper
Wood
Rubber
Paper
Plastics
Water Jet Machining
Application
s
Cutting
Slitting
Cable Stripping
Edge finishing
Radiusing
De-burring
Polishing
Water Jet Machining
Advantages
• The water stream makes very little noise.
• Chips or waste is moved out of the way of the cutting process
• No crushing or burning of the work surface
• Minimum material loss because of the narrow cut slit
• No environmental pollution
• Easy automation
• Omni-directional cutting capabilities
• No tool resharpning
Water Jet Machining
Advantages
After laser cutting
After plasma cutting After waterjet cutting

Water Jet Machining
Limitation
• Not suitable to cut brittle material because of their tendency to
crack during cutting
• Not suitable for hard, non porous material
• High pressure requires safety considerations
• Multi-stage filtration / De-ionization of water
• Treatment of water with debris after machining
• While it is possible to cut tool steels, and other hard materials, the
cutting rate has to be greatly reduced, and the time to cut a part can
be very long
• Very thick parts can not be cut with waterjet and still hold
dimensional accuracy
• Taper
Water Jet Machining
Limitation
Abrasive Water Jet Machining
 WJM - - - - - “softer” and “easy-to-machine” materials like thin
sheets and foils, non-ferrous metallic alloys, wood, textiles,
honeycomb, polymers, frozen meat, leather etc.
 AWJM - - - - - “harder” and “difficult-to-machine” materials like
thick plates of steel and Al, MMC, CMC, FRP etc.
Typical Parameters in Entrained AWJM
 Orifice – Sapphires – 0.1 to 0.3 mm (0.2 to 0.4 mm)
 Focussing Tube – WC – 0.8 to 1.6 mm dia, 50 to 80 mm length
 Pressure – 2500 to 4000 bar
 Abrasive – SiO2, SiC, glass beads, garnet and Al2O3 olivine
 Stand off distance – 1 to 2 mm
 Traverse Speed – 100 mm/min to 5 m/min
 Depth of Cut – 1 mm to 200 mm (extreme cases - 250 mm)
90
Material Removal in AWJM
 In AWJ machining of ductile materials, material is mainly removed

by low angle impact of abrasive particles.
 Further at higher angle of impact, the material removal involves

plastic failure of the material at the sight of impact.
 In AWJ machining of brittle materials, material would be removed

due to crack initiation and propagation because of brittle failure of
the material.
91
92
93
 Cut generated - kerf
 Top of the kerf (bt) is wider than the
bottom of the kerf (bb).
 bt is equal to the diameter of AWJ
 Diameter of AWJ is equal to the
diameter of the focussing tube or the
insert if the stand-off distance (SOD) is
around 1 to 5 mm.
 Taper angle of the kerf can be reduced
by increasing the cutting ability of the
AWJ.
94
 Surface quality at the top of the kerf is rather good
compared to the bottom part.
 At the bottom there is repeated curved line formation.
 At the top, the material removal is by low angle impact
of the abrasive particle; where as at the bottom, it is by
plastic failure.
95
Where
u - Constant that depends on the work material
cd - Discharge coefficient of the orifice
do - diameter of the orifice
pw - Pressure of water
w - Density of water
96
97
 Exit side of the kerf.
 Widths are different due to tapering of the kerf.

 Severe burr formation at the exit side of the kerf.

98
 Striation formation.
 Surface finish of the kerf.
 Tapering of the kerf.
 Burr formation on the exit side of the kerf.
99
Process variables
 Pressure
 Nozzle diameter
 Standoff distance
 Abrasive type and grit number
 Workpiece feed rate
 An abrasive water jet cuts through 356.6 mm thick slabs of concrete or 76.6-mm-
thick tool steel plates at 38 mm/min in a single pass.
 Surface roughness ranges between 3.8 and 6.4 μm (for WJM minus 1)
 Tolerance -  0.13 mm.
 Repeatability -  0.04 mm.
 Straightness – 0.05 mm per axis length.
100
Introduction
Processing of Materials
Secondary
Processing
Thermal
MRR
Damage Machining
Thermal
Process- LBM,
PAM, EBM etc.
Conventional
EDM
Mechanical Unconventional
Process – USM,
AJM etc.
Thermoelectric
• Electrical Discharge Machining

(EDM)
– This process is like a mini-
thunderstorm. Flashes of lightning in
rapid succession (500 - 5,000 sparks
per second) erode material from the
part being machined.
EDM
• Machining action forms a gap between the
part and the electrode (tool) which causes a
spark which removes the material
• Electrode is (-) and the part is (+)?????
• Electrodes can be made from
– Brass
– Copper
– Graphite
EDM
• Cutting action takes place in a dielectric fluid
which helps to contain the spark and flush
away chips
• Metal removal rates (MRR) are low compared
to other process like milling
– EDM (MRR= 1 cu/in to 15 cu/in per hr.)
EDM
EDM
Mechanism
EDM
• (2) types of machines
Ram Type Wire Type

Electrical parameters
Peak current
Pulse on time
Pulse off time
Supply voltage
Polarity
Non-electrical parameters
Electrode lift time
Machining time
Gain
Flushing
Material based parameters
Material and size of electrode
Work-piece material
Response / Performance Characteristics
• Material Removal Rate

• Surface Roughness
• Tool Wear Rate
• Micro-Hardness
• Wear Rate
• Over-Cut
The energy of the discharge is determined by
gap voltage during discharge,
discharge current and
pulse – on time(length of time that the current flows)
W = 1/2 E I t
where, W - Discharge energy, E - Voltage
I - Current, t - Time
Tool materials: High melting-point
Good electrical conductivity
Cheap and readily shaped
Copper, Brass, Cast aluminum, Copper-boron,

Silver tungsten, Copper tungsten
Dielectric
Dielectric fluid, reservoir, filters, pump (2 µm) and delivery system
Dielectric fluid Insulator between tool and work

Coolant
Flushing medium
Kerosene, transformer oils, and other petroleum distillate fractions.
Desirable characteristics of dielectric fluids are as follows:

• Low Viscosity
• High dielectric strength
• High flash point
• Minimum possible time to breakdown (ignition delay time)
• Freedom from acid or alkaline products
• Understood and controlled levels of toxicity
• Deionize the gap immediately after spark has occurred
• Hydrocarbon oils are most commonly used in conventional EDM, while distilled or
de-ionized water is used principally in micromachining.
Three kinds of layers on an EDM’d component
Tooling for EDM
H
.
ol
ia
D
eD
ol
ia
To
.
hole diameter - tool diameter
ROC =
2
Workpiece Tool
material characteristics
Material
Size
Conductivity Gain
Lift time
EDM
Performance
Type of flushing
Voltage
Viscosity Discharge gap
Current
Pulse-on time
Polarity
Pulse-off time
Electrical
Dielectric parameters
Ishikawa Cause-Effect Diagram

Flushing: Uneven machining and poor surface finish are the usual
consequences of absence/improper flushing
Process Capabilities - EDM
• Electrically Conductive
• Accuracy - ± 0.025 – 0.127 mm (± 0.007 mm)
• Taper - 0.005-0.05 mm
• Aspect Ratio – 30:1 (100:1)
• Angles – 20o
• MRR – 0.001 – 0.1 cm3/hr
• SR – 0.8 – 3.1 µm
• Recast Layer – 0.0025 mm – 0.05 mm
Stepped Cavities Produced by EDM Process
Stepped cavities produced with a square electrode by the EDM process. The
workpiece moves in the two principle horizontal directions (x – y), and its motion is
synchronized with the downward movement of the electrode to produce these
cavities
EDM
• Applications
– Finish geometry for molds ( die sinking)
• Ram
– Punch & dies for blanking, shearing, and progressive die
tooling
• Wire
Die Industry – 50%
Tool Rooms – 30 %
Aerospace – 10%
Automotive – 5%
Others – 5%
Advantages - EDM
• No cutting force
• Burrless
• High aspect ratio
• High accuracy
• Intricate cavities
• Unaffected by hardness
Disadvantages - EDM
• Low material removal
• High consumption of electrodes
• Electrically conductive
• Complex electrodes require time for
fabrication
WEDM
WEDM
• This process is similar to contour cutting with a band
saw
• Slow moving wire travels along a prescribed path,
cutting the work piece with discharge sparks
• Brass, copper, molybdenum steel or tungsten wire
(0.03-0.15-0.3 mm)
• Easily computer controlled
• Gap – 0.025 – 0.05 mm
Equipment - WEDM
• Positioning System
– Adaptive Control CNC (2 axis)
• Wire Drive System
– Deliver fresh wire, constant wire tension
• Power Supply
– Same as conventional EDM
– Less than 20 Amp of current
• Dielectric System
– Low viscosity, high cooling rate, no fire hazard, high MRR
Process Parameters - WEDM
• Pulse current
• Pulse-on time (µs)
• Pulse-off time (µs)
• Wire feed (m/min)
• Wire tension (g)
• Flushing pressure (kg/cm2)
WEDM
• Wire should have sufficient tensile strength
and fracture toughness
• Wire is used once
• Cutting path must contain straight lines
• Slow cutting speed (100 mm/hr in 25 mm steel)
• Wire breakage is a problem
Process Capabilities-WEDM
• Cutting rate – 38-115 mm/hr (25 mm steel)
• Wire Speed – 8-42 mm/sec
• SR – 0.12 – 0.25 µ (0.05 – 12 µ)
• Resolution – 0.001 mm
• Accuracy - ± 0.0025 mm
• Cutting thickness – 200 mm
Process Capabilities-WEDM
Comparision of conventional cutting, laser cuttig and wire EDM cutting
Cut-off, grinded Laser cut Wire EDM cut

Advantages - WEDM
• No electrode fabrication required
• Unmanned machining
• Cost reduction (30-70 %)
• Cuts hardened materials
• Shallower recast layer than conventional EDM
Disadvantages - WEDM
• High capital cost
• Recast layer
• Electrolysis can occur in some materials
• Slow cutting rate
• Not applicable for very large workpieces
• Problems associated with materials with
differing conductivity
Electrical Discharge Grinding (EDG)
Electrical Discharge Grinding
Electrical Discharge Diamond Grinding
Mechanical
HYBRID + Electrochemical Grinding
GRINDING Non Traditional
Ultrasonic Grinding
• Rotating wheel, made of electrically conductive material (graphite,

brass) and contains no abrasives
• Rotation ensures effective flow of dielectric
• No physical contact (melting and vaporization – no shearing)
• Material is removed from the workpiece surface by spark
discharges between the rotating wheel and the workpiece
• Material-removal rate in EDG is
I = current
MMR  KI K = workpiece material factor
• 0.5 – 200 A
• 40-80 V
• 50-250 kHz
• 0.2 – 0.3 µm
• 2 – 3 times faster than diamond grinding
Electrical Discharge Diamond Grinding (EDDG)
• Electro Contact Abrasion Finishing (ECAF)

• Metal bonded diamond grit wheel
• Sparking between metallic bonding and work piece
• Heat generated during sparking softens the work material making
machining by diamond abrasives easier
• Trueing/dressing of metal bonded grinding wheel, profile
generation, blanks.
• Machining of cermets, super alloys, MMC
• 0.15 µm
• No cracking
Electrochemical Machining (ECM)
•Reverse of electroplating
– Basically the same principle as plating but with two major
difference
• Part is the anode (+) and the tool is the cathode (-)
• Metal is “pulled” away from work
•Based on Faradays laws of electrolysis

•Anodic dissolution
ECM
• Chemical change by current α amount of electricity
passed
• Substance deposited/dissolved chemical eq. weights
– m α ItE or m = I t E / F
I = Current (A)
t = time (s)
E = gm equivalent weight (At. wt/Valency)
F = Faraday’s constant
ECM
ECM
– Electrically conductive workpiece

– Shape of the workpiece is obtained by a
formed electrode tool in close proximity but
separated from the work by a rapidly flowing
electrolyte
– Material is depleted from the anode and
deposited onto the cathode in the presence of
an electrolyte bath
ECM
DC 5-25 V
Current Density 20000 – 40000 A/cm2

IEG 0.5 mm
Electrolyte pressure 2 – 35 kg cm-2
Electrolyte flow velocity 20-30 m/s
ECM
• Electrolyte + electrical current => Ionize and remove metal
atoms
• CNC controlled for complex shapes
• Tool (Copper, brass, SS, bronze, carbon, Al, monel) is designed
to posses approximately the inverse of the desired final shape
of the part
• Several tools may be joined to provide a fast broaching
technique on hardened material
• Leaves a burr-free surface
• Not affected by the strength, hardness or toughness of the
material
ECM Subsystems
• Power supply
• Electrolyte circulation system
• Tool and tool feed system
• Workpiece and work holding system
• Control system and machine
Power supply
• DC power (5-25V 40000 A)

• High current density (20000 A/cm2)
• The gap between the tool and the work piece must be low for
higher accuracy, thus the voltage must be low to avoid a
short circuit.
• 3 phase AC => low voltage, high current DC
• Controlled by SCR to prevent short circuits
Electrolyte circulation system
• Electrolyte injected in IEG at high speed (20-30

m/s)
• High inlet pressure (2 – 35 kg cm-2)
• Fairly strong pump
• Includes a filter, sludge removal system, and
treatment units (removed material in the form of microscopic particles
must be separated from the electrolyte through centrifuge, sedimentation or
other means)
• Tank for storing electrolyte

Electrolyte
• Types of Electrolytes
– Inorganic salts (produce insoluble by-products)
– Acidic/Alkalis (produce by-products that go in solution
• Electrolyte serves for:
– Carrying off the material that has been removed from the
workpiece
– Removing hydrogen bubbles created in the chemical
reactions of the process
• Sodium chloride, potassium chloride, sodium
nitrate, sodium chlorate, sulfuric acid, sodium
hydroxide
Tool and tool feed system
• Anti corrosive material

• Good electrical and thermal conductor
• Easily machinable
• Resist chemicals
• Copper, brass, SS, bronze, carbon, Al, monel
• Insulation on tool – areas where no ECM is required
• Rigid to avoid vibration or deflection
Workpiece and work holding syatem
• Workpiece – electrically conductive

• Work holding devices
– Electrically non conductive
– Good thermal stability
– Low moistture absorbtion
– GFRP, plastics etc.
ECM Components
(control system)
• Control parameters include:
– Voltage
– Inlet and outlet pressure of electrolyte
– Temperature of electrolyte
• The current is dependant on the above
parameters and the feed rate
ECM Components
(Machine)
• The machine is a major subsystem of the ECM
• It includes the table, the frame, work enclosure (prevents the
electrolyte from spilling), the work head (where the tool is mounted)
• The tools (electrodes) are also part of the machine system
ECM Tools
ECM Tools
ECM
• MRR = IE/F (g/s) or I*(A/Z)/F or ŋIE/(ρF)
where, I is current strength, F is Faradays Constant (96500 As)
E = gram equivalent weight (atomic weight / valency of dissolution), ρ
is density, ŋ is current efficency.
e.g. I = 500, E = 28.473, F = 96500

MRR = 0.1475g/s
For alloys
A/Z =
= 100/(PWt%*ZP/AP) + (QWt%*ZQ/AQ) + (RWt%*ZR/AR)+……..
Advantages
• No HAZ
• Very accurate and relatively fast
• Can machine harder metals than the tool
• Hard to soft materials made of conductive material can be
machined
• Cutting tool can be made from soft material
• Low heat generated during process
• No cutting forces
• Excellent surface finish
Advantages
TABLE Machining Characteristics of EDM and ECM
PROCESS MRR TOLERANCE SURFACE FINISH DAMAGE DEPTH POWER
mm3/min micron micron micron watts
ECM 15,000 50 0.1-2.5 5 100,000

EDM 800 15 0.2-1.2 125 2700
CNC 50,000 50 0.5-5 25 3000
Note: MRR = metal removal rate; tolerance = tolerance maintained; surface finish =
surface finish required; damage depth = depth of surface damage; ECM =
electrochemical machining; EDM = electro-discharge machining; CNC = computer
numerical control machining.
Advantages over EDM
• Faster than EDM
• No tool wear at all
• No heat affected zone
• Better finish and accuracy
Disadvantages
• More expensive than conventional machining
• Need more area for installation
• Electrolytes may destroy the equipment
• Not environmentally friendly (sludge and other waste)
• High energy consumption
• Material has to be electrically conductive
Applications
• The most common application of ECM is high accuracy duplication.
Because there is no tool wear, it can be used repeatedly with a high
degree of accuracy
• It is also used to make cavities and holes in various products
• Sinking operations (RAM ECM) are also used as an alternative to
RAM EDM
• It is commonly used on thin walled, easily deformable and brittle
material because they would probably develop cracks with
conventional machining
Applications
Thin slots on a roller-bearing cage

Integral airfoils on a compressor disk.
Knee Implants
(a) Two total knee replacement systems showing metal implants (top
pieces) with an ultra-high molecular-weight polyethylene insert (bottom
pieces). (b) Cross-section of the ECM process as applies to the metal
implant. Source: Courtesy of Biomet, Inc.
Economics
• The process is economical when a large number of complex
identical products need to be made (at least 50 units)
• Several tools could be connected to a cassette to make many

cavities simultaneously. (i.e. cylinder cavities in engines)
• Large cavities are more economical on ECM and can be processed

in 1/10 the time of EDM.
Products
• The two most common products of ECM are turbine/compressor
blades and rifle barrels. Each of those parts require machining of
extremely hard metals with certain mechanical specifications that
would be really difficult to perform on conventional machines
• Some of these mechanical characteristics achieved by ECM are:
– Stress free grooves.
– Any groove geometry.
– Any conductive metal can be machined.
– Repeatable accuracy of 0.0005”.
– High surface finish.
– Fast cycle time.
Safety Considerations
• Several sensors are used to control short circuit, turbulence,
passivation, contact and overcurrent sensors. In case of contact,
immense heat would be generated melting the tool, evaporating
the electrolyte and cause a fire
• The worker must be insulated to prevent electrocution
• The tool and the work piece must be grounded before any
handling is performed
Safety Consideration
• Hydrogen gas emitted is very flammable, so it should be disposed of
properly and fire precautions should be taken
• The waste material is very dangerous and environmentally

unfriendly (metal sludge) so it must be recycle or disposed of
properly
• Electrolyte is highly pressurized and worker must check for minor

cracks in piping before operating
µ-ECM
• The application of ECM in thin film processing and in the fabrication of
microstructures is referred to as electrochemical micromachining (EMM)
or micro electrochemical machining µ-ECM.
• Different from ECM, the cathode does not necessarily have the shape of
the contour desired in the anode work piece. Three-dimensional shaping
in EMM may involve maskless or through-mask material removal.
• The tool may also be connected to a CNC machine to produce even more
complex shapes with a single tool.
µ-ECM
µ-ECM
• Micro ECM - - - - - the gap is closer to 15-20 microns
• Micro ECM - - - - - the feature sizes to 15-20 microns
• Major challenge in micro ECM domain is to control the size of the

reaction region.
– Reduce the size of electrodes
– Shield the electrode –for stray currents
– Gap control strategies
– Use ultra short-pulsed voltages having time duration in the ranges of
nanoseconds
Electrochemical Grinding
• Electrochemical grinding (ECG) is an electrolytic material-removal
process involving a negatively charged abrasive grinding wheel, a
conductive fluid (electrolyte), and a positively charged work piece.
• Work piece material corrodes into the electrolyte solution.
• The abrasive action (of an electrically conductive wheel) accounts only for
10% of the metal removal, the remainder is EC.
• Abrasive + Metal (!) bond
– Abrasive – Al2O3 (60-80 mesh)
– Metal – copper, brass, Ni etc
• Requires filtration
• Common electrolytes
– NaCl
– NaNO3
• Abrasives acts as spacers (maintain IEG)
• 10 times life of ECG wheel over conventional grinding wheel.
• Similar to conventional grinders
• EC cylindrical grinding
• EC surface grinding
• EC internal grinding
• EC form grinding
• Zone 1 – EC dissolution
• Zone 2 – Abrasive actions
• Zone 3 – EC dissolution
Metal removal mechanisms in ECG
• DC 4-14 V
• I = 50-3000 A.
• Faraday’s laws closely apply to ECG in that metal removal rate is

almost directly proportional to current density.
• A rule of thumb for estimating metal removal rate for most materials
is 0.16 cm3/min for each 100 A of applied current.
• Wheel speed: 25-35 m/s
– wheel serves as an electrolyte pump
– Speed maintain an even flow of fluid in IEG
• DOC - less than 2.5 mm
• Tolerances: 0.005 mm
ECG Advantages
• Reduce abrasive costs up to 90% (improved wheel life)

• No thermal damage (no cracking, no metallurgical damage)
• No burrs
• No work hardening (stress free)
• Better finish
• Less frequent wheel dressing
• More precise tolerances
• Faster for tough materials
ECG Advantages
• Applications in the
– Aerospace,
– Medical manufacturing
industries
– Surgical needles
– Cutting of thin-wall tubing
Electro Chemical Honing
(ECH)
Electrochemical Honing
• Honing – improves surface after

boring, drilling, or internal grinding
• Hone –
– Composed of abrasive grains that are
bound together with an adhesive
– Irregular shape
– 10 to 50 µm
– Silicon carbide, cubic boron
nitride, diamond etc.
0.075-0127 mm
• Electrochemical honing (Anodic Dissolution + Abrasion)
– 3-5 times faster than conventional honing
– Costs more than conventional honing
– Tool (SS) lasts up to 10 times longer
– Hollow tool with expandable honing stones (spring loaded)

protruding from atleast three locations around the circumference
– Honing stones – same as conventional honing stones but should

resist corrosiveness of electrolyte
– NaCl and NaNO3
– Gap Voltage 6-30V
– Current Density 12-47 A/cm2
– Pressure – 5.1-10.2 kgf/cm2
– Bore Length – 600 mm
– Bore Diameter – 150 mm
– Accuracy - ± 0.012 mm
– Surface Roughness 0.2 – 0.8 µm

ECH ensures
• Reduction in roundness errors
• Reduction in taper
• Reduction in waviness
• Production of stress and burr – free
parts
• Machine materials that are sensitive to
heat and distortion
Electrochemical Super finishing
Super finishing using separate EC electrode

Super finishing using separate EC electrode

Electrochemical Deburring (ECDe)
• Conventional machining results in burrs at intersecting surfaces
• Undesirable
• Performance of component
• Safety of an operator
• Burr - 3D (length, height, thickness) raised edge or small pieces of
material remaining attached to a workpiece after a modification
process
• Compressive burr
• Cutting off burr
• Corner
• Feather burr
• Edge Burr
• Flash Burr
• Entrance/Exit Burr
• Hanging burr
Burrs removal methods
Mechanical Abrasion Thermal Chemical and

deburring deburring deburring ElectroChemical
- Cutting Tools - Electrochemical barrel

-Vibratory
- Power Brush - Electrochemical brush
-Barrel Tumbling
- Scraping - ECM
-Centrifugal
- Electro Polish
- Sand Blasting
-Flow finishing
• Adaptation of ECM to remove burrs or round sharp corners on holes

in metal parts produced by conventional through-hole drilling
• Compared with ECM , in ECDe magnitude of current, electrolyte

flow rate and pressure are all low
• Good for inaccessible places
• ECDe system consists of:

• Electrolyte system
• Electrical power system
• Mechanical Structure
• Separator or filter
• Electrode
• Prerequisites:
• Thickness of burr
• Shape of burr
• Repeatability of burrs ?
• Tool as replica of work
• Electrolyte
• NaCl,
• NaNO2
• NaNO3
• Electrode
• Brass, Copper, SS
• Insulated
• Flow of electrolyte?
• Burr Orientation ?
Movable ECDe Unit

1 - Sperical tip (insulating), 2 - Tool tip with electrolyte supply,
3 – Spring, 4 – PVC sleeve, 5 – Copper shank
• 1000- 2000 A
• 7-25 V
• IEG - 0.1-0.3 mm (up to 1.2 mm)

• Tool tip overlap 1.5 to 2 mm
• SR 0.2 – 1.6 µm
• Time 5- 50 seconds
• Parameters should be set to remove largest burr

Advantages
• Elimination of costly hand deburring
• Increase of product quality and reliability
• Ensures the removal of burrs at the required accuracy,

uniformity, proper radius, and clean edge
• Reduced personnel and labor cost
• Can be automated for higher productivity

Limitations
• Limited to electrically conductive materials
• Corrosive to most materials
• Expensive for small lots
• Burrs should be of consistent shape and sizes

Shaped-Tube Electrolytic Machining (STEM)
• Process variant of ECM (ECM Drilling)
• Drilling small, deep holes (high-aspect ratio – 300:1) in electrically

conductive materials (ø 3.041 in 915 mm thickness)
• Acid base electrolyte
• Hollow (or bit), shaped tube (titanium) covered with thin insulating
coating (uniform coating) on all surfaces except at the tip
• Coating protects electrode from the corrosive effects of the acid and
isolates the electrolytic action to front surface
Constant IEG is required (utilizes servomotors)

• Low Voltage power supply (2-20 V DC) (Generally 5 – 15 V DC)
• Temperature of electrolyte 37-49 0C
• Negative tool and positive work
• Feed rate 1.5 mm/min to 5mm/min
• SR 0.8 to 3.1 µm
• 10% (or lesser) concentration of H2SO4, HCl in water
• Multiple holes (100) simultaneously
• Machine base, fixture etc. are madeup of Ti, SS, Plastics & Ceramics
• Ventilation of machining chamber to vent out eletrolytic mist & H2 gas

• Hole ø 0.64 to 6.35 mm
• Periodic reversal of polarity to avoid plating of formation of plated

layer on electrode (tool)
Process Parameters
• Voltage
• Electrolytic pressure
Hole Diameter (mm) Diameter Tolerance Straightness (mm/mm)
0.5 - 1.0 ± 0.025 – 0.050 0.001 – 0.002
1.0 – 2.0 ± 0.025 – 0.075 0.002 – 0.003
2.0 – 4.0 ± 0.050 – 0.100 0.002 – 0.003
4.0 – 7.0 ± 0.075 – 0.125 0.002 – 0.003
Advantages
• High aspect ratio holes (shaped)
• No HAZ
• No burrs
• Long tool life
• No stresses
• Can machine material with any hardness

Limitations
• Corrosive electrolyte
• Expensive electrodes
• Conductive work pieces
• Requires hit-and-trial or past data or extensive experimentation
• High maintenance cost

100 mm deep hole by STEM

Electro Chemical Discharge Machining
(ECDM)
Introduction
• Last century was the birth of micromachining, in particular
micromachining of silicon.
• At present, a huge variety of micromachining techniques
are available for silicon.
• A similar situation exists for electrically conductive
materials, electrochemical machining (ECM) and electrical
discharge machining (EDM) are available.
• Electrically non-conductive materials are also of great interest for
many applications. Glass and composite materials are two examples.
Introduction
• The technical requirements for using glass in Microsystems are
growing.
• One of the main limiting factors in incorporating glass into micro
devices is its limited machinability
• A similar situation exists for other hard-to-machine materials such
as ceramics and composite materials.
• A possible answer to these issues could be spark-assisted chemical
engraving (SACE) or electrochemical discharge machining
(ECDM).
Hybrid Machining Processes
SOURCE : EBOOK NONTRADITIONAL AND HYBRID MACHINING PROCESSES HASSAN EL HOFY (2005)
Electrochemical discharge machining (ECDM)
• ECDM=EDM+ECM
• Electrochemical discharge machining (ECDM) involves high-

temperature melting and accelerated chemical etching under the
high electrical energy discharged on the electrode tip during
electrolysis.
• ECDM has great potential in micro-machining of non-conductive

hard brittle materials.
ECDM Process
Fig-Schematic diagram of ECDM

ECDM Process
• Work piece is dipped in an appropriate electrolytic solution.
• The tool-electrode is also dipped a few millimetres in the

electrolytic solution and the counter-electrode is in general, a large
flat plate.
• DC voltage is applied between the machining tool or tool-electrode

and the counter-electrode.
• The tool-electrode is generally polarized as a cathode.

Process Mechanism
• Hydrogen gas bubbles are formed at the tool-electrode and oxygen
bubbles at the counter-electrode depending on their polarization and
the electrolyte used
• A bubble layer develops around the electrodes and density of
bubbles and their mean radius increase with increase in current
density
• When the cell terminal voltage is low (lower than a critical value
called critical voltage, typically between 20 and 30 V, traditional
electrolysis occurs, When the terminal voltage is increased above
the critical voltage, the bubbles coalesce into a gas film around the
tool-electrode.
• Light emission can be observed in the film when electrical
discharges, the so-called electrochemical discharges, occur between
the tool and the surrounding electrolyte.
Process Mechanism
Material removal is achieved by following steps-
• The discharge in ECDM is a discrete phenomenon.
• First, the work piece is heated up locally by the electrochemical

discharges.
• The water in the electrolytic solution is evaporated locally leaving

only molten salt in the vicinity of the tool-electrode (Material
removal takes place when the discharge temperature is of the
order of boiling temperature of the work piece material)
• High-temperature etching of the softened workpiece

Process Mechanism
Gas evolving electrodes
• The gas is produced electrochemically according to Faraday's
law.
 Hydrogen and Oxygen Evolution
• In alkaline solutions it is generally believed that the production of hydrogen
proceeds by chemisorption of water molecules on free electrode sites
 Bubble Formation During Electrolysis

• The formation of a bubble involves two steps. Let us consider the formation of hydrogen
gas bubbles.
– The first step is the microscopic formation of H2 by an electrochemical process:
– The second step is the macroscopic formation of bubbles by accumulation of the dissolved H2
in the vicinity of the electrode:
 Bubble Layer
• The bubbles around a gas evolving electrode form a bubble layer
structured in three regions
In the adherence region the bubbles
adhere to the electrode surface and
grow. The typical thickness of this
layer is the mean bubble diameter.
Once the bubbles leave the electrode

surface (when they have a radius equal
to the departure radius) they diffuse
into the bubble diffusion region.
The third region is the bulk region,

which contains only a few dispersed
bubbles.
Schematic representation of the bubble layer structure

The Gas Film
• This gas film is a key element of the process
– Necessary for machining
– Conditions the quality of the machining.
 The formation of gas film
• At high current densities bubbles coalesce to form larger bubbles. It
becomes possible to create a large enough structure on the electrode
surface such that the buoyancy force can no longer overcome the
adherence force of the coalesced bubble. Thus, a gas film forms at
the electrode surface.
Successive steps towards the electrochemical discharge phenomena:
(a) 0 V; (b) 7.5 V; (c) 15 V; (d) 40 V.
Two electrodes are dipped into an electrolyte. The terminal voltage is progressively
increased from 0 to 40 V. At around 25 V a gas film is formed around the cathode, and
at around 30 V the electrochemical discharges are clearly visible.
Process parameters - ECDM
• Electrical Supply (DC or pulsed DC)
• Applied Voltage and current
• Work piece
• Tool electrode
• Electrolyte
• Machining Time
Influence of the Process parameters on the
material removal rate
Controlling the Machining Process
Current–voltage characteristics for an

electrochemical cell
Dependence of the critical voltage of the

a) electrolyte weight concentration
b) tool diameter.
• Appropriate tool-electrode motion (rotation, vibration);
• Using a pulsed voltage supply;
• Adding abrasives to the electrolyte;
• Appropriate tool-electrode material;
• Appropriate tool-electrode shape (promoting flow of the

electrolyte).
Process Capabilities
• Presently - Used for localised surface modifications of the machined
substrate
• Typical values of voltage for glass are around 30 V and for ceramics
and composite materials are about 50-80 V needed
• Non-conducting materials can also be machined using this

technology (e.g., granite, refractory fire-brick, aluminium oxide,
SiC, quartz)
• Ceramic material can be drilled (e.g., Al2O3, Si3N4, MgO, Y203)
• Electrolytes - NaF, NaNO3, NaCl, and NaOH

• Feed rate and passivation effect directly affects the MRR, SR, TWR
(?), especially for micro holes
• Surface damage may result due to thermal stresses
Undesirable sparks and HAZ (grey area)
Mechanical cracks resulting from mechanical

contact !!!
Groove machined at (a) 23 V, (b) 25 V, and (c) 27 V

(a) Micro-grooves
(b) enlarged micro-grooves
(c) micro-pillar
(d) micro-wall
(e) and (f) micro-pyramid
machined on glass by
ECDM
Mcro-hole machined by ECDM (150 μm-thick workpiece)

ECDM - Common Machining Strategies
• Gravity-Feed Drilling
• Constant Velocity Feed Drilling
• 2D and 3D Machining
• Wire Electrochemical Discharge Machining

Components of Micromachining Set-up of ECDM
• Electrodes
• Processing cell
• Power supply
• Positioning system
Comparison of EDM, ECM and ECDM
PROCESS COMPONENTS MECHANISM OF MECHANISM OF

DISCHARGE MATERIAL
REMOVAL
ECM Electrodes and Not applicable as there is Electrochemical
electrolyte no discharge reaction
EDM Electrodes and Breakdown of the Melting and

dielectric dielectric between the vaporization of the
electrodes work piece due to
electrical discharge
ECDM Electrodes and A high electric field in the Melting and

electrolyte vicinity of the cathode vaporization of the
work piece
Limitations-ECDM
• Beyond a certain value of electrolyte temperature, ECDM
performance starts deteriorating
• Process is potentially useful and cost effective mainly for non-

conducting materials and machining in the micron region
• Both machining time and hole entrance diameter increase with

increasing machining depth
• ECDM Hybridization is needed for improvement in machining

Applications of ECDM Process
• Machining non-conducting materials such as alumina, quartz,
ceramics, composites etc
• Micro fabrication of miniature machine tools for
micromachining (aeronautics, MEMS)
• Micro–fabrication of array of holes with high aspect ratio
(fabrication of micro-filters needed in micro-EDM process)

ECDM - Variants
• ECDM + Mechanical Grinding
• ECDM + Ultrasonic vibrations
• ECDM + Form machining (ECDT, ECDMilling etc.)

Electrostream Drilling (ESD)
Dual pole tool in ECM of hole
Profiles of machined holes by using the dual

pole tool and the insulated tool
ECD Hole with increase in depth

M. Sen, H.S. Shan / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 45 (2005) 137–152
• STEM – (5-15 V DC); CD (100 – 300 V DC); ESD (150 – 800 V)
• STEM – (Ti tube); CD (electrically non-conducting - straight glass
tube); ESD (electrically non-conducting glass nozzle)
• STEM – (Depth 75 – 1000 mm ); CD (6 mm); ESD (25 mm)

• ESD – Electrically (-)ve charged, high velocity acid electrolyte
stream is passed through electrically non-conducting nozzle. This
stream strikes (+)ve charged workpiece and removes material.
• Drilling high aspect ratio holes
• Drilling holes at steep angles/curved holes
• Hole diameter 0.127 – 0.89 mm (upto a depth of 5 mm in dwell
drilling and 25 mm in penetration drilling)

• Sludge gets dissolved in acid electrolyte (H2SO4 and HCl)
• H2SO4 - Carbon steel, cobalt alloys, SS
• HCl – Al, Ti etc.

• Zero Feed – Dwell Drilling – No movement of nozzle (limited due
to work piece configuration or machine capabilities
• Nozzle tip fixed at predetermined distance
• Poor accuracy
• Limited depth of hole

• Finite Feed – Penetration Drilling – Nozzle fed towards the work to
maintain constant IEG

• High-aspect ratio holes (40:1 in penetration drilling, 10:1 in dwell
drilling)
• No burrs, No induced residual stress, Negligible damage, No HAZ,
No tool wear
• Multiple hole drilling
• Speed - 1.5 mm/min
• Shallow holes with any angle (750)
• SR - 0.25 – 1.67 µm
• Bell mouth entrance
Electron Beam Machining
Classification of NTM processes
EBM uses Thermo-electric Energy.
Drilling by electron beam
Number – 25600
Diameter – 0.55mm
Material –
anticorrosion steel
• High intensity of electron beam energy (109 W/cm2)
• High speed of electrons (1.6 108 m/s),
• Small surface of impact
Electrons in the crash with particular atoms (molecules) of the base

material transfer their energy.
Depth of conjunction – depth in that electron transfer completely their

energy
Electrons are essentially bigger than photons!!!!
Requires Vaccum !
• Electrons with air molecules --- crash
• Electron beam energy decreases with increase in distance in air
EBM
• High-energy focused
electron beam in pulsed
mode is made to impinge
on the workpiece with a
spot size (10 – 100 µm)
• Kinetic energy of the high
velocity electrons is
converted to heat energy
as the electrons strike the
work material (“melt –
vaporisation”)
• The molten material is
expelled from the cutting
zone by the high vapour
pressure at the lower part
EBM
Manufacturing,
Engineering &
Technology,
Fifth Edition, by
Serope
Kalpakjian and
Steven R.
Schmid.
Schematic illustration of the electron-beam machining process ISBN 0-13-
148965-8. ©
Unlike LBM, this process requires a vacuum, so workpiece size is 2006 Pearson
Education, Inc
limited to the size of the vacuum chamber
Electron gun - a triode
EBM
Vacuum 10-4 to 10-6

Torr
{1 Torr = 1mm of Hg}
Electron gun - a triode
EBM
Vacuum 10-4 to 10-6

Torr
{1 Torr = 1mm of Hg}
EBM
• Electron Beam Gun - Generate free e- at the cathode, accelerate them to a sufficiently
high velocity and to focus them over a small spot size
• Cathode (tungsten)
– Shape of cartridge (for quick replacement)
– heated to a temperature of around 2500 oC for thermo-ionic emission of e-
– highly negatively biased so that the thermo-ionic electrons are strongly repelled
away form the cathode - e- generated do not diverge and approach the next
element, in the form of a beam
• Bias Grid
– Controls the flow of e- and acts as a switch (pulsed mode)
• Anode
– Attracts the e- beam and in turn accelerate it (e- velocity - half the velocity of light)
• Magnetic lenses shape the beam and try to reduce the divergence
• Apertures allow only the convergent e- to pass quality of the e- beam
• Electromagnetic lens
– Focusses on the desired spot
• Deflection coil
– Manoeuvre EB by small amount, to improve shape of the machined holes
EBM
POWER SUPPLY
• Pulsed DC
• Power densities of 1.55 MW/mm2
• Voltage range up to 150 kv to accelerate electrons
• High-voltage sections of the power supply are submerged in

insulating dielectric oil
EBM
Beam Guidance
EBM
Energy of Electrons:
K.E.=E*e=1/2 mV2
Where,
m= mass of electron
e= charge on electron (joules), E= voltage
V= velocity of electron (cm/sec)
Number of electrons per second (N)
N= I * n
Where,
I= beam current
n= electron per second per amp current
EBM Total Power :
Total Power:
P= E I
Energy Required to vaporize Work material:

G = ŋP/W.(cm3/sec)
Where:
P = Power.(watts)
ŋ = cutting efficiency.
W= W=[C(Tm-20)+C(Tb-Tm)+Hf+Hv] (joules/cm3)
Specific energy required to vaporize metal.
Where:
C= Specific Heat, Tm = Melting temperature
Tb = Boiling temperature, Hf = Heat of fusion,
Hv = Heat of vaporization
EBM Process Parameters
• Accelerating voltage (limited to 120 kV)
• Beam current (200 µ amp - 1 amp)
• Pulse duration (50 µs - 15 ms)
• Energy per pulse (100 J/pulse)
• Lens current
• Spot size
• Power density
Hole Dia 0.2 mm in 5 mm thick Cu

Material Volumetric removal rate (mm3 s-1)
Tungsten 1.5
Aluminium 3.9
Hole by single pulse of EBM in alloy steel
Holes diameter (100 µm to 2 mm) - depth upto 15 mm – 20000

holes/sec
l/d ratio of 10
No burr
Any known material (SS, steel, Ti, Al, plastics, ceramics, leathers
EBM Process Capabilities
• Thermal damages are associated with EBM. However, the HAZ is
rather narrow (shorter pulse duration in EBM).
• HAZ (20 to 30 µm)
• Machining of fragile and brittle materials
• Shallow angle of as less as 20o to 30o
• Produces finer surface finish and narrower cut width than other
thermal cutting processes
EBM Process Capabilities
EBM Applications
• Ideal for micromachining
– Drilling small diameter holes - down to 0.05 mm (0.002 in)
– Cutting slots only about 0.025 mm (0.001 in.) wide
– Perforating of sheet
– Pattern generation (associated with integrated circuit fabrication)

EBM
EBM
EBM
EBM
EBM
EBM
EBM Limitations
• Need of a vacuum
• High energy required
• Expensive equipment
• Slow for mass production
• Generates hazardous X rays
Ion Beam Machining (IBM)
Electron Ion
• Ion Beam Milling, Ion Beam Etching, FIB, IB Deposition etc…
• 1852 – Sputtering by Grove ---- deposition of metal on glass walls
of glow discharge tube
– Ejection of atoms from a surface when it is bombarded with
other ions.
• Atomic -----------------Sand Blaster

• In place of sand, submicron ion particles are accelerated
(accelerating voltage) and bombarded at work piece.
• IBM takes place in a vaccum chamber
• An ion is an atom or molecule in which the total number of
electrons is not equal to the total number of protons, giving the atom
a net positive or negative electrical charge
In its passage through matter, an ion may interact with

• ATOMIC ELECTRONS and/or ATOMIC NUCLEI
The interaction of an ion with an atomic electron is purely Coulomb (i.e. interaction
governed by the Coulomb’s law).
Such interaction will result in:
• IONIZATION – the electron is

ejected from its atomic orbit
or
• ATOMIC EXCITATION – the

electron is raised to an outer orbit
An ionized/excited atom will eventually return to its ground state, accompanied by the
emission of one or more x-rays/photons.
•An electron ejected from its atomic orbit is
called a secondary electron. It may further
ionize or excite another atom, resulting in the
emission of more x-rays/photons.
Ion bombardment at normal incidence to surface

Three types of collision between ion and atom

Effects of low and high energies on atom removal

(a) low energy case (b) high energy case
An ion beam machine:
A plasma source which generates the tons
Extraction grids for removing the ions from the

plasma, and accelerating them towards the
substrate (or specimen)
A table for holding the specimen.

Heated Tungsten Filament
10-4 Torr
1 kV (Acceleration)
Heated Tungsten Filament
10-4 Torr
1 kV (Acceleration)
• Plasma sources generate plasmas.
• Excitation of plasma requires partial ionization of neutral atoms

and/or molecules of a medium.
• Several ways to cause ionization: collisions of energetic particles,

strong electric fields acting on bond electrons, or ionizing radiation.
- The following reaction occurs:
Ar  e   Ar   2e 
Argon ions are thereby produced

• A magnetic field, obtained from an electromagnetic coil or a
permanent magnet, is often applied between the anode and cathode
to make the electrons spiral.
• The Ion Source has arrays of permanent magnets to produce a multi-
cusp magnetic field in regions remote from the plasma grid
• The field confines the plasma by lengthening the path of ionizing
electrons and reducing their drift to the walls.
• Spiraling increases the path length of the electrons and hence
increases ionization
• Ions are removed from the plasma by means of extraction grids.
• Grids are normally made of two or three arrays of perforated sheets

of carbon or molybdenum; these materials can withstand erosion by
ion bombardment.
• The perforations in each of the sheets are aligned above one another.
- The outer grid

• Outer grid is usually kept at ground potential, which is a more
negative level than that of the anode.
• Provides the negative field that is needed to remove the ions
from the plasma.
- The second grid

• Second grid is held at a negative potential below the ground
value.
• Escape of electrons from the plasma is thereby prevented, as
is their diffusion back from the work chamber.
- Third grid
• Maintained (at the anode potential)
- Ground Electrodes
• Ground Electrodes are used for extracting positively charged
ions from the source that combine downstream to form a broad
beam.
• Individual electrodes in close proximity to the extraction
electrode can be biased to inhibit back streaming of
neutralizing electrons close to the source or back to the
extraction electrode.
Applications
• Ion beams can be used for sputtering or ion beam etching and for ion
beam analysis.
• Ion beam etching, or sputtering, is a technique conceptually similar

to sandblasting, but using individual atoms in an ion beam to ablate a
target.
• Reactive ion etching is an important extension that uses chemical

reactivity to enhance the physical sputtering effect.
Applications
Applications
sidewall edge
tip
Advantages
• Low temperature processing reduces handling an stress problems.
• No dimensional changes
• Good adhesion of treated surface
• Can improve corrosion, oxidation, wear, hardness, friction, fatigue
• All kinds of material,
• High quality of surface and accuracy (under 100 nm),
• High rate of material removing.

Limitations
• Very shallow treatment (< 1 μm)
• Vacuum is needed
Plasma Arc Cutting/PAM
PAC
PAC
Plasma Arc Cutting/PAM
• Plasma
• Ionized gas that results from heating a material to
extremely high temperature
• Composed of free e- that have disassociated from main
gas atoms, protons and neutrons
• In plasma state, gas becomes responsive to electricity and
magnetism
• Temperature 33000oC (High velocity jet 10,000-14,000oC)
• TIG welder – constricted by passing arc through
4.5mm Ø water cooled copper nozzle
PAC
PAC
PAC
• PAC is a thermal material removal
process that is primarily used for
cutting thick sections of electrically
conductive materials.
• PAC uses a high velocity jet of plasma
to cut through the metal by melting it.
• The high gas flow rate facilitate the
removal of molten metal through the
kerf
• 1000 A at 200 V DC
• Plasma velocity – several hundred m/s
PAC
• Principal
• The number of collisions between atoms increase
• Gases ionize (creation of e- and ions)
• e- collide with atoms, exite them
• De-excitation light is emitted from atoms resulting in more e-
and ions – formation of plasma
Types of Arcs
Non-Transferred Arc
• DC power source – connected
directly across cathode and
nozzle
• Cathode and Nozzle carry same
current
• Plasma is formed as flame
• Heat is lost in useless heating of
nozzle
• Generated arc is between the
electrode and the nozzle and
heat is carried to the work-piece η = 65-75%
by the plasma gas
Types of Arcs
Transferred Arc:
• Cathode is connected directly to
negative DC source
• Anode nozzle is connected to positive
through a suitable resistor to limit the
current through nozzle upto 50 A
• W/P is connected directly to positive of
supply
• Once ignited, a pilot plasma flame is
established b/w cathode and anode.
• Electro-thermal efficiency is 20-30 %
more than non-transferred mode
• Generated arc is between the
electrode and the work-piece
η = 85-90%
Gases Used
 Primary Gases:
Gases that are used to create the plasma arc are nitrogen, argon,
hydrogen or mixture of them
 Secondary Gases (O2, CO2, Argon-Hydrogen) or Water:
Surrounds the electric arc to aid in confining it and removing the
molten material.
System Components
 Torch
 Power Supply
 Gas Supply
 Arc Starting Circuit
 Cooling System
www.twi.co.uk/j32k/servlet/ getFile/jk51.html
System Components
A. The Torch:
• The torch is the holder
of the electrode and
nozzle
• Responsible for
forming the arc and
maintain it in a vortex
• Zirconium, Hafnium
and tungsten (!!!)
Groover 626
System Components
B. Power Supply:
• Constant DC current
source
• Speed and cut thickness
are determine by the
amount of output
current
System Components
C. Arc Starting Circuit:
• High frequency generator
circuit that produces high
AC (5,000 to 10,000 volts at
approximately 2 megahertz)
• To start the arc, the AC
ionizes the cutting gas,
which makes it conductive
to allow the DC current to
flow through it
System Components
A. The Torch:
Types of Torches:
 Air Plasma Torch
 Oxygen-Injected Torch
 Water Injected Torch
 Dual Gas Torch
Types of Torches
Air Plasma (Benedict 337) Water Injected (Benedict 340)

Plasma Cutting Variables
• Voltage
• Nozzle
• Air flow rate
• Stand-off distance
• DOC
• Feed
• Speed
• Torch Angle
Advantages - Disadvantages
• Cuts any metal. • Large heat affected

zone.
• 5 to 10 times faster
• Rough Surfaces
than oxy-fuel.
• Difficult to produce
• 150 mm thickness sharp corners.
ability. • Smoke and noise.
• Easy to automate. • Burr often results.
Benefits of Plasma Cutting
Faster Cutting Speed
– No Pre-heat Cycle
– Smaller Cut Width
– Smaller Heat Affected Zone
– Portable Unit
– Cost
The cost savings means that PAC is a better choice for
material cutting and welding when precision is not critical.”
Applications
• Pipe industry –
preparing pipe edges
for welding.
• industries for shape Cpam.engr.wesc.edu
cutting
Process Capabilities- PAC
• Normal applications 3-75mm thick (150 mm)
• Cutting Speed
– S (m/min) = 25.4/t (for 500 A plasma)
• Tolerances ± 0.8 mm for less than 25 mm thick
» ± 3 mm for greater than 25 mm thick
• Taper = 5 -7 o
• SR = 5 µm and above
Other Plasma Uses
• Plasma Arc Welding (PAW)- plasma arc is produced
and aimed at the weld area to weld.
• Applications- Used for butt and lap joints because of

higher energy concentrations and better arc stability.
Safety Precautions
• Machine the heat affected zone
(0.75-5 mm).
• Regulate gas pressure
(approx. 1-1.4 MPa).
• Maintain constant distance between
torch and work piece.
• High labor safety (i.e. goggles, gloves,
etc…).
• Proper training for operators.
• Protection against glare, spatter and
noise from the plasma.
PAW
• Coalescence is produced by heat obtained from a
constricted arc setup between
PAW
LASER BEAM MACHINING
LASER
LASER stands for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation.
Laser is a very intense, concentrated, highly parallel and monochromatic
beam of light.
Coherence is very important property of Laser.
Incoherent Light:
Incoherent light is due to spontaneous and random emission of photons by
the atoms in excited state. These photons will not be in phase with each
other.
Coherent Light:
Coherent light is uniform in frequency, amplitude, continuity and constant initial
phase difference.
Coherent beam of light is obtained due to stimulated emission of photons from the
atoms jumping from meta-stable state to lower energy state.
Incoherent Light Coherent Light

LBM
• Thermal material-removal
• Utilizes a high-energy, coherent light beam to
melt and vaporize particles on the surface of
metallic and non-metallic work pieces
• cut, drill, weld and mark.
LBM
Power Density of electric Bulb is 110000 times lesser than 100W laser with a 1 cm diameter
beam at a distance of 1m (127 W/cm2)
Using a lens for focussing at a spot of 0.127mm, the power density increases to more than
800000 W/cm2
Factors: Power Density and Interaction time
Heating: Defocussed beam 1.52 – 1.54 W/cm2

Welding (Melting): 1.54 – 1.55 W/cm2
Cutting: w/p at focus and power densities higher than 1.56 – 1.58 W/cm2
LBM
Three Components of Laser Devices:
1. The Pump: It is an external source which supplies energy to obtain
population inversion.
2. The Laser Medium: It is material in which the laser action is made to take
place. It may be solid, liquid or gas. The very important characteristic
requirement for the medium is that optical inversion should be possible in
it.
2. The Resonator: It consists of a pair of plane or spherical mirrors having
common principal axis. The reflection coefficient of one of the mirrors is
very near to 1 and that of the other is kept less than 1. The resonator is
basically a feed-back device, that directs the photons back and forth
through the laser medium.
Fundamentals - LASER
Principle of Laser:
An atomic system having one or two meta-stable states is chosen. Normally, the
number of atoms in the lower energy state is greater than that in the meta-stable
state.
This population is inverted by a technique known as optical pumping. It is made
induced absorption of incident photons of suitable frequency.
The atoms are made to fall from meta-stable state to lower energy state and
photons are emitted by stimulated emission.
The photons are reflected back and forth in the active medium to excite the other
atoms.
Thus a large number of photons are emitted simultaneously which possess the
same energy, phase and direction. This process is called ‘amplification of light’.
To produce laser beam, the following two conditions must be fulfilled:
1. The meta-stable state should all the time have larger number of atoms
than the number of atoms in lower energy state.
2. The photons emitted due to stimulated emission should stimulate other
atoms to multiply the photons in the active medium.
Various Atomic Interactions related to LASER:

a) Induced Absorption:
Photons of suitable size (energy) are supplied to the atoms in the ground state.
These atoms absorb the supplied energy and go to the excited or higher energy
state. IF Ei and Ej are energies of ground state (lower energy) and excited state
(higher energy), then the frequency of required photon for absorption is
Ej - Ei where ‘h’ is Planck’s constant

ν=
h Atom
E1 E1
E0 E0
Atom hν
Before absorption After absorption
b) Spontaneous Emission:
An excited atom can stay in the higher energy state only for the time of 10-
8 s. After this time, it returns back to the lower energy state by emitting a
photon of energy hν = E1 – E0. This emission is called ‘spontaneous

emission’.
During spontaneous emission, photons are emitted randomly and hence
they will not be in phase with each other. Therefore, the beam of light
emitted is incoherent.
Atom
E1
E0
Before emission
E1
hν
E0
Atom
After emission
c) Stimulated Emission:
When photon of suitable size (energy) is showered (made to fall) on an
excited atom in the higher energy state, the atom falls back to the ground
state by emitting a photon of energy hν = E1 – E0 which is in phase with
the stimulating (incident) photon.
Thus, it results in the appearance of one additional photon. This process is
called ‘stimulated or induced emission’.
Atom
E1
hν
E0
Before emission
E1
hν hν
hν
Atom E0
After emission
d) Population Inversion and Optical Pumping:
To emit photons which are coherent (in same phase), the number of
atoms in the higher energy state must be greater than that in the ground
state (lower energy).
The process of making population of atoms in the higher energy state
more than that in the lower energy state is known as ‘population
inversion’.
The method by which a population inversion is affected is called
‘optical pumping’. In this process atoms are raised to an excited state by
injecting into system photon of frequency different from the stimulating
frequency.
E2 Excited State
E1 Meta Stable State
E0 Ground State
Atoms
Atoms
E2 Excited State
hν
E1 Meta Stable State
hν
hν
E0 Ground State
Pumping
E2 E2
E1 E1
Atoms hν’
Atoms hν’
E0 E0 hν’
Rapid fall after 10-8 s After Stimulated Emission
E2 from E1 ------- 10-8 seconds (meta-stable)

Stay for a longer time (10-3 seconds).
More number of atoms get collected in the meta-stable state which is large
than that at lower energy level.
Population inversion is achieved.
Laser Beam Formation ----- Example (Ruby Laser)
1. Laser in OFF state
4. Photons runs parallel to the
rod direction & reflect back
and forth and stimulate
emission on more atoms
2. Flash Tube excite atoms in

the Ruby Rod
5. Laser light passes through

partially-reflective mirror
3. Some Atoms emit Photons

Different Type of Laser for Laser Cutting
1. CO2 laser (most
commonly used for laser
cutting):
a. Have the highest
Continuous Wave (CW)
power (5kHz)
b. Capable to extract as
much as 10kW/m of
discharge tube (with
CO2 Laser Schematic [8]
traverse flow laser)
c. Have a high energy
efficiency (up to 10%)
CO2 (pulsed or continuous wave): It is a gas
d. Capable of both CW laser that emits light in the infrared region.
and Pulsed operation
Smart Laser Cutting System
2. Nd:YAG (Neodymium-doped Yttrium-Aluminum-Garnet):
a. has the highest peak power for pulsed operation
b. May be operated in either CW or pulsed (200Hz)
temporal modes
3. Nd: Glass: more economical but has lower thermal

conductivity. Used for low pulse repetition rates
(1Hz; due to its poor thermal properties) & high
pulse energies. Ideal for drilling.
4. Nd: Ruby: low energy efficiency & power, Limited

to pulsed laser operation
5. Excimer:
a. High power (Average power over 100W) pulsed beams
(1kHz)
b. Laser length limited to 2-3 m - Lesser materials that can

be processed vs. that of CO2 laser
c. Used to machine solid polymer pieces, remove polymer

films, micromachine ceramics, medical applications
d. Ablation material removal process
e. Higher precision & less heat affected zone vs. CO2 &
Nd:YAG lasers
f. Produces large area beams  use mask to produce series

of holes - 5000 holes in a polymide sheet in 3 sec vs 50 sec
using CO2 or Nd:YAG lasers.
Laser Beam Temporal Modes
Continuous Wave (CW) commonly
results in the highest cutting speed
& better surface finish. Roughness
is determined by thickness, alloy
content, etc.
Pulsed beam results in the fewest
thermal effects & least distortion of
workpiece. With drilling overlapping
holes (see right), it’s possible to cut
with smoother surface.
Characteristics of Laser Light:
• Laser light is highly directional

• Laser light is highly coherent
Wave trains for laser light may be several hundred kilometers long
• Laser light is highly monochromatic
• Laser light can be sharply focussed
Flux densities for focussed laser light is 10 times of oxyacetylene
flame
• Brightness
(power emitted per unit area per unit solid angle)
Material Removal Types of Laser Cutting
Sublimation – Material changes directly from solid to vapor by bypassing

liquid phase
 Vaporization: low vaporization temperature materials
 Fusion: Material is melted & ejected (by an inert gas jet)
 Reactive Fusion: dross is no longer a metal, but an oxide
 Thermal stress cracking or controlled fracturing: for brittle materials
 Scribing: Mechanical snapping along scribed line
 Ablation (Excimer laser): breaking organic material bonds
 Burning in reactive gas
Equipment
1. Laser-beam generator
2. Beam delivery: Circular polarizer's,
mirrors, beam splitters, focusing
lenses and fiber optic couplings
3. Workpiece positioning
4. Auxiliary devices: Laser head, safety
equipment, etc.
In addition, assist gases also required
Cutting Considerations for Different Materials
A. Ferrous Metals:
i. High efficiency.
ii. One approximate rule:1.5kW laser power will cut
a. 1mm thick mild steel at approx 10m/min
b. 10mm thick mild steel at approx 1m/min
B. Non-Ferrous Metals:
i. Mostly less efficient than cutting steel, due to the higher reflectivity,
thermal conductivity & less efficient oxidation reaction
ii. Similar edge qualities to SS

C. Non-Metal:
Most non-metallic materials are highly absorptive at CO2 laser
wavelength.
Cutting process:
i. Melt Shearing (mostly for thermoplastic): cut very quickly & high
quality edges
ii. Vaporization: usually only for acrylic
iii. Chemical degradation: slow cutting, high temperature, but flat &
smooth result
Cutting Speed on Mild Cutting Speed on
Steel Stainless Steel
Cutting Speed on Aluminum Cutting Speed on Acrylic
Max Cutting Speed for Polymer: V=PQt-B

P = Laser Power (W) t = material thickness (mm)
Q = an experimentally derived constant for the polymer
B = an experimentally derived constant for the material
Power setting for different cutting applications
Application Recommended Laser Cutting consideration
Requirement Power
Thin materials: 150 Watt Average, 450 Up to 0.04” thick can be

Non- metals Watt peak cut at full speed of
1200in/min with 150
watt
Thicker materials: 250 watt to 500 watt Up to 1”: Power 
Non-metals average - up to 1500 Cutting Speed  ,
watt peak cleaner result & lower
HAZ
Metals 150 watt to 500 watt Al, Brass, SS use 500 W
average - up to 1500 due to its reflectivity. As
watt peak thickness , also power
need to be 
Cutting
Holes larger than 0.05 mm
• Concentrated light with high velocity jet
• Gases used are – air, argon, oxygen
•CW or pulsed
•L/D 20:1
•Repeatability - ± 0.025 – 0.05 mm
• Ave production time reduced by 67%
Cutting
Key features of laser cutting includes:
• Application to a wide range of materials
• Narrow kerf width
•Non contact
• Good edge quality (square ,clean and no burrs)
• Very narrow HAZ, low heat input
• Very high repeatability and reliability
• Virtually any material can be cut
•High Speed laser cutting machines

•Complete automatic laser cutting installations for
lights out operation
•Higher power lasers offer cut thickness in excess
of 25mm
Cloth & Plastics Cutting
• Low power CO2 laser machines for cutting
thin non-metals, (plastics, cloth) are now
becoming commonplace.
• Combined engraving / cutting machines
common in schools / colleges
Laser Marking
•High peak power – pulsed laser
•Laser marking the worlds largest laser
application
•Relevant to all sectors
•Virtually any material can be laser marked to
produce robust images, texts and codes
•Applications include part marking and serialisation,
asset tracking, etc.
•Applying brand logos and emergency info on
moulded components
•Marking of fabrics (e.g. faded jeans) and seat
coverings
•Depth – 0.25 mm
•Uniformity - ± 0.005 mm
Marking
• New marking codes, e.g. ID Matrix Code
• Can loose up to 45% of the mark and you can still read it
Developments in Laser Marking
• High beam quality, high efficiency
laser sources give high quality
marks on metals at increased
speeds
•Better “engraving”
performance on metals
•Internal glass marking
Photomask Technique
In this technique, a mask (called a reticle)

containing the pattern to be machined is
illuminated by a laser light and then images this
pattern on to the work surface using a optical
system
Advantages
i. Submicron depth control by controlling the
number of pulses used.
ii. High process repeatability.
Marking
Laser Welding
•Established in the early 80’s
•Now used on many production lines
•Used for welds with requirements of low distortion
and high speed.
•Weldments are placed with gap less than 5% of its
thickness
•Shielding gases like argon or He are used to
prevent oxidation
•Low volume applications and subcontract limited
to niche areas such as mould tool repair, jewellery
and dentistry
Welding
Key features of deep penetration laser welding include:
•High energy density – Keyhole welding
• High processing speeds
• Rapid start / stop
• Welds at atmospheric pressures
• No filler required
•Narrow welds
• Very accurate welding possible
• Good weld bead profiles
• No beam wander in magnetic fields
• Little or no contamination
•Weld penetration – 2.5 mm
Welding
• A 10 kW fibre laser used in

shipbuilding
Spot and MicroWelding
• Repairing mould tools
• Medical devices
 400m spot welds on a
orthodontic bracket
• Sensors
• Read / Write heads
Orthodontic Bracket
Other Laser Welding applications
• Plastics and Polymer Welding

– Possible to use laser to weld transparent
plastic to opaque plastic
• Clearweld®
– Uses absorbing dye in joint interface to
weld two nominally transparent polymers
– Can even be used for clothing!
Drilling
• Material Removal Process
•Hole diameters dependent on laser source,
Cu-vapour - Nd-Yag
•Small Holes – dependent on drilling mode
•0.127-1.27 mm
•L/D 100:1
•Tapered, rough shape that lacks a high
degree of roundness
•Recast Layer and HAZ – 0.002 to 0.10 mm
•Repeatability - ± 0.025
Drilling
• Main market sector for laser drilling is in
aerospace industry
• Nickel based alloys
• Cooling hole
 Turbine blades / nozzle
guide vanes
• Boeing / GE drilling composites to improve
acoustic quality of a jet engine
• Micro drilling of wing surface to reduce drag
 Hole size 50m, Number of
holes 108
Drilling
Micro machining
• 50 m diameter hole in steel, CVL
• 125 m diameter holes in 0.5 mm alumina, CVL
• Laser drilled injector holes, 60 Deg

Cleaning
Emerging process, particularly driven by
art and monument restoration
Engineering applications are being

identified – dry cleaning of metal
components prior to welding and PCB’s
and component leads prior to soldering.
Applications include mould tool cleaning
Stripping of paint from aircraft
Cleaning
Advantages of laser cleaning
 Laser Cleaning does not damage
 No abrasive effect (No abrasive)
 No mechanical contact
 No heat effect
 Laser cleaning does not pollute
 No solvents
 No polluted effluents
 Fumes extracted easily
The operator protection is reduced to a simple eye protection
Surface treatments
•Three main processes – hardening,
melting and alloying. Aim to improve
surface properties such as wear and
corrosion resistance, one can:
• Temper
• Laser Hardening Laser hardening
• Laser fusing / cladding (depositing a
hardwearing corrosion resistant surface
• Alloying surfaces
• Nitrate
• Treat many different materials
Surface treatments
Special hardening process for titanium
• Surface is laser heated
• Nitrogen is blown over the surface forming

titanium nitride under on the surface
• The surface hardness is increased many times

compared with the parent material
Laser Cladding
• Deposition of wear and corrosion resistant
materials
• Reduced heat input gives lower distortion
Laser Forming - an emerging
process
 Bending metal with light
 Laser beam induces thermal stresses
 The plate expands, cools and contracts
 The flat plate deforms into a new shape
 Industrial sectors
 Aerospace
 Automotive
 Marine
Laser Forming
•Potential application in difficult to form
materials
 Laser forming of GLARE (metal
composite) as used in the A380
 220x80mm 2/1 Self-Reinforced

Polypropylene based MLC
Laser Shock Peening
 Laser shock peening used to induce

compressive shocks within a
component
 Penetration far greater than
traditional methods
Fine Cutting
Micro-cutting
• A wafer cut in 100 m silicon

• A 0.01 X 0.1 mm slot cut in Tungsten
• Stent cutting, Kerf width >20 microns
• Wall thickness 100 microns

Structuring and texturing
• Machined into metals and ceramics, and
also produced by material modification in
polymers
Drilling
• Small hole arrays in thin foil
• 10 µm hole in 50 µm thick Pt/Ir foil
entrance surface exit surface

Drilling
100µm holes drilled in high-density polyethylene with

(a) a twist drill bit
(b) a KrF laser
Laser Drilling Capabilities
Wire stripping
Lasers are used to stripe insulation from very thin wires which is
having a diameter as small as 100μm or less.
Laser stripped insulation from 100μm

diameter pH-sensor wire
Stripping of insulation from

miniature cable of 50 micron
diameter copper wires
100-μm gear, micro machined with an laser, against the hair on the leg of
a fly
Physical processes occurring during LBM.
• Machining by laser occurs when the power
density of the beam is greater than what is
lost by conduction, convection, and radiation,
and moreover, the radiation must penetrate
and be absorbed into the material.
CO2 LASER
Characteristics of cuts by Laser Cutting
1. Kerf Width: CO2 laser range from 0.1-1mm
2. Roughness: 0.8mm material  1 m

10 mm material  10 m
3. Dimensional Accuracy: main problem is thermal

effect (distortion)
Comparison of Laser cutting to other methods
Advantages
• Laser machining is a thermal process: depends on thermal
and optical rather than the mechanical properties
• Laser machining is a non-contact process: No cutting forces
generated
• Laser machining is a flexible process
• Laser machining produces a higher precision and smaller
kerf widths results (as small as 0.005mm dia hole)
• Tool wear and breakage are not encountered
• Holes can be located accurately by using an optical laser
system for alignment
• Very small holes with a large aspect ratio can be produced
Advantages
• A wide variety of hard and difficult-to-machine
materials can be tackled.
• Machining is extremely rapid and the setup times are
economical.
• Holes can be drilled at difficult entrance angles (10° to
the surface).
• Because of its flexibility, the process can be automated
easily such as the on-the-fly operation for thin gauge
material, which requires one shot to produce a hole.
• The operating cost is low.
Disadvantage of Laser Cutting
• Low energy efficiency

• Material damage: Heat affected zone (HAZ)
• Laser cutting effectiveness reduces as the workpiece thickness
increases
• Laser cutting produces a tapered kerf shape (due to divergence)
• High equipment cost
• Tapers are normally encountered in the direct drilling of holes
• Blind hole of precise depth is difficult to achieve with a laser
Abrasive Flow Machining
Aerospace applications (blades)
Internal Surfacea
Figure Increase cooling airflow to ±1 percent of total flow by

polishing and radiusing hole using AFM.
AFM - INTRODUCTION
 General challenges in Modern metal working industry
 Finishing operation cost nearly 15% of total machining cost
 The traditional abrasive finishing processes are being pushed to

their limits of performances
 Abrasive Flow Machining (AFM) is a process developed during

1960’s by Extrude Hone Corporation, for producing good quality
of products and finishing inaccessible areas…
 AFM is an advanced machining process that can be used to deburr,

radius, polish, remove recast layer, and finishing of difficult to
access areas and complex internal passages of components
417
AFM - WORKING PRINCIPLE
 Pumping an abrasive-laden medium through or over the
component to be finished.
 The medium is pushed by means of two hydraulic cylinders
(vertically or horizontally)
 Media flows from one cylinder through the tooling into the other
cylinder, and then returns.
AFM to deburr a turbine impeller.

Source: Courtesy of Extrude Hone Corp.
WORKING PRINCIPLE OF AFM
AFM - WORKING PRINCIPLE
Schematic representation of AFM

machine
Piston
Media Cylinder-1
Work Piece Fixture
Flange
Media Cylinder-2
Existing set up of conventional AFM at IIT Roorkee

AFM - MECHANISM
 The abrasion in AFM is referred to as the removal of solid

material from a surface by the unidirectional sliding action of
discrete particles of another material
 When abrasive grains make contact with the wearing surface
1. The formation of plastically impressed grooves which

did not involve material removal…
2. The separation of material particles in the form of micro
chips
AFM - MECHANISM
 Indentation of abrasive particles on the w/p surface and
subsequently particle movement along the scratch length
 Ductile materials - Micro ploughing and micro cutting
processes and
 Brittle materials - micro cutting

AFM - MECHANISM
AFM medium quickly abrades the peaks of the rough micro surface at
the first, after which the valleys become slightly abraded as the peaks
flatten into plateaus. Eventually a smooth and uniform profile is
produced with no trace of the original surface
AFM - ELEMENTS
Major elements in AFM process are
1. Machine – How much extent of abrasion?

2. Media – What kind of abrasion?
3. Fixture – What is location of abrasion?
Machine
• Pressures from 7 to 220 bars,
• Flow rates of up to 380 Ltrs / min and

higher
• Media cylinder diameters - 7.5 to 15 cm;

15 to 61 cm (for high production rates)
• Volume of flow depends on media cylinder Commercial AFM machine

stroke length and number of cycles (from Extrude Hone corp.)
AFM MEDIA
Media Most Important & critical component
Viscoelastic Polymer with

Fine Abrasive Particles
special rheological properties
= Deformable Grinding Stone
 Abrasives in AFM media are
1. Al2O3- general purpose abrasive
2. SiC - high stock removal rates (durable and economical)
3. B4C – Suitable for abrading hard materials (expensive)
4. CBN & Diamond – Used for most difficult materials, such as

tungsten carbide
Tooling
 Main objectives for designing tooling are:
1. To hold the work piece in position on the machine, and
2. To confine and direct media to the desired areas.
 Tooling materials used are
Steel- strength and durability
Nylon, Teflon, Urethane - complex shapes
Aluminum - easily machined, lightweight materials

Tooling
Tooling for external surfaces

Tooling for internal surfaces
Tooling for simple AFM (courtesy IIT-Roorkee)

Tooling for Hybrid AFM courtesy IIT-Roorkee
PROCESS PARAMETERS IN AFM
AFM Process Elements
Machine settings Abrasive medium Workpiece configuration

formulation
Medium viscosity
Extrusion Pressure
Restricting passage length & area
Medium rheology
Number of cycles
Workpiece hardness and

composition
Flow volume and its speed Abrasive type, size, and
concentration
AFM process parameters and the system elements that primarily control them
MEDIA
PROCESS PARAMETERS
MACHINE
IN AFM
Viscosity Extrusion Pressure
Shape
Number of cycle
Grain Type of abrasives
Media flow rate

Size
Media flow volume
Temperature Abrasive concentration
AFM
Reamed
Type of Surface
Length
Bore Drilled
Geometry
Cross-sectional area Brittle
Material
Ductile
WORK PIECE
Ishikawa Cause-and-Effect Diagram

Various industrial applications of Abrasive flow Machining
After AFM
Before AFM
Turbine engine parts Medical implants
Valves and fittings used in Automotive components

Pharmaceutical applications Die –Polishing applications
Advantages And Limitation Of Traditional AFM
 AFM can finish Inaccessible areas and complex internal passages of

components
 It saves up to 80% cost of final finishing component comparatively manual
 Easy to operate
Limitations
 Low material removal rate !!!!
 Increase in process time, and
 Low finishing rate

Advantages - AFM
 AFM can finish Inaccessible areas and complex internal passages of

components
 It saves up to 80% cost of final finishing component comparatively manual
 Easy to operate
Applications of AFM
Micro Slits
Hybrid AFM - Need
Hybridization is a combination of two or more non conventional

process
 Finishing a surface of advance/difficult to machine materials.

 Finishing up to Nano-level.
 Improving the efficiency of the processes…
 To achieve higher material removal rates.
Magnetic Abrasive Finishing
Magnetic Abrasive Finishing – Internal Surface

Flexible Magnetic
Abrasive Brushes
Magnetic Abrasive Finishing – Flat Surface
Non-Magnetic Material – M.F. lines go around it

Magnetic Material – M.F. lines go in it
Process Parameters
• W/P Material • Clearance
• W/P Shape • Rotational Speed
• W/P Size • Vibration Amplitude
• Pole Shape • Vibration Frequency
• Pole Size • Machining Fluid
• Size of abrasive (d)

• Size of FM particle (D)
• Mixing Ratio (d and D)
)1/4
w
Magnetic Assisted Abrasive Flow Machining
(MAAFM)
Strong magnetic field -

applied around the work
piece during processing by
AFM
Result - Increase in the
number of dynamic active
grains taking part in the
cutting action.
Ferromagnetic abrasive used
Sehijpal Singh, Shan,

H.S. and Kumar, P.(2002)
MAAFM process: 1. cylinder containing medium; 2. flange; 3. nylon fixture; 4.

workpiece; 5. eye bolt; 6. hydraulic press; 7. auxiliary cylinder; 8. modular relief valve; 9.
piston of hydraulic press; 10. directional control valve; 11 & 12. manifold blocks; 13.
electromagnet [ Singh at al. 2002].
Magnetorheological Abrasive Flow Finishing (MRAFF)
 Magnetically stiffened slug of

magnetorheological fluid is extruded
back and forth through or across the
passage formed by workpiece and
fixture
 Simultaneously rheological properties of
abrasive laden medium are controlled
using external magnetic field
 Better control of the process behavior
due to better control over abrading
medium’s Schematic of MRAFF experimental setup
(Jha and Jain, 2004).
453
Magnetorheological Abrasive Flow Finishing (MRAFF)
 The abrasive (cutting edges)

held by the carbonyl iron
particles (CIPs) chains rub the
workpiece surface and shear the
peaks from it
 As the magnetic field strength is
increased CIPs chain keep on
holding abrasives more firmly
and thereby result in increased
finishing action
Magnetorheological abrasive flow finishing process

CIP is a highly pure iron, prepared by chemical
Jha and Jain, (2004,2006) & Jha (2008)
decomposition of purified iron pentacarbonyl.
Ultrasonic
Ultraso
Ultrasonic
machining
Flow
Ultrasonic
Flow
polishing Polishing
Reported by Jones and Hull in 1998

Ultrasonic flow Polishing
Ultrasonic Flow Polishing (UFP) is the
combination of AFM and USM. In this
process, the abrasive/polymer mix is
pumped down the centre of the
ultrasonically energized tool.
The vibrating tool ultrasonically energized

the mix..
The process was reported to have the

capacity to produce a micro/nano level
finish on the surface of losed cavities whilst
causing minimal deterioration to its profile
or dimensional accuracy. Surface finish
improvements of up to 10:1 have been
Jones and Hull in 1998 recorded by the process.
This process has the special application for
machining blind cavities, which are difficult
to be polished by AFM.
Centrifugal Force Assisted Abrasive Flow Machining
• Pressure on the abrasive particles

in the media they contact the
surface of workpiece during
processing.
• Providing a Centrifugal Force

Generating (CFG) rod with
rotational mechanism in the AFM
Walia R.S., Shan, H.S. and Kumar P. (2006)
setup that helps the media to Reddy M. K, Sharma, A.K. and Kumar P.(2008)
simultaneously rotate at a speed
while being axially pushed.
• The rotation of the rod causes a

centrifugal force to act on the
media, which in turn increases
media contact quality
Chemical Machining (CHM)
• CM – Etching - Chemical Milling – Chemical Blanking – Photo

Chemical Machining (PCM) – Photo Fabrication – Photo
Chemical Milling
• Oldest nontraditional machining process
• Material removal from the surface by controlled chemical

dissolution using reagents, etchants - acids/alkalis
• CM – produces decorative metal items and precision metal parts

• CM – Etching - Chemical Milling – Chemical Blanking

• Photo Chemical Machining (PCM) – Photo Fabrication – Photo
Chemical Milling
• Oldest nontraditional machining process
• Material removal from the surface by controlled chemical

dissolution using reagents, etchants - acids/alkalis
• CM – produces decorative metal items and precision metal parts

(shallow cavities produced on plates, sheets, forgings, and
extrusions) or overall reduction of weight
1 – Work Material
2 – Mask
3 – Shapes (Cavity-through/blind)
carved out of Mask
Procedure for chemical milling Steps :
1. Relieving of residual stresses (prevent warping)
2. Thorough degreasing and cleaning of surfaces
3. Application of masking material (tapes, paints, plastics etc.)
4. Masking is selectively removed (Cut and Peel, Screen, PCM)
5. Exposed surfaces is etched with etchants
6. Parts thoroughly washed and cleaned (prevent further reactions with
residue etchant)
7. Left-over masking material is removed and the part is cleaned and
inspected
8. Additional finishing operations (if required) are performed on CM parts
9. Sequence (steps 2-8) is repeated to produce stepped cavities and
various contours
Remove
Prepare Mask Etch
Mask
E = U/d
Preparing and pre-cleaning

Necessary to assure the proper adhesion of the masking material to
workpiece and lowers maskant de-bonding and stray etching
- Type of mask material Solvent wipe

Cleaning techniques - Required depth of cut Vapor degreasing
- Workpiece material Alkaline etching
Note: it is difficult to clean porous material

Maskants
• Tough enough to withstand handling
• Adhere well to the workpiece surface
• Scribe easily
• Inert to the chemical reagent used
• Withstand the heat generated by etching
• Removed easily and inexpensively after etching
Maskants
• Tough enough to withstand handling
• Adhere well to the workpiece surface
• Scribe easily
• Inert to the chemical reagent used
• Withstand the heat generated by etching
• Removed easily and inexpensively after etching
Maskants
1. Cut and Peel

• Neoprene, Butyl, vinyl based materials
• Coating thickness – 0.025 to 0.13 mm
• Generally manual
• Accuracy ± 0.13 to 0.75 mm
• Maskant applied then it is cut and peeled off from selected area to
be etched
• Etching depth – 13 mm deep (useful for etching >1.5 mm thick)
• Large sized w/p in chemical, aircraft, missile etc.
Maskants
1. Cut and Peel
Maskants
2. Screen Printing
• Screen (fine mesh silk or SS) is used with areas blocked off (stencil) that
are to be etched
• Screen is pressed against the part and maskant is rolled
• Screen is removed and part dried by baking
• High Volume production
• Low Accuracy
• Low etching depth (<1.5mm); Mask thickness is less than 0.05 mm
• Part size limited to 1.2 X 1.2 m
• Flat surfaces with only moderate contours
3. Photoresist Masks (Photochemical Machining)
Photographic negatives
Light
• Photographic image to selectively cure the photoresist (photosensitive

mask) on w/p
• Accuracy 0.025 mm, typical tolerances ±0.013 mm
3. PCM
• Steps
a. Prepare enlarged drawing of artwork that will be used to create the
desired image in the workpiece
b. Photograph the artwork and produce the reduced, highly accurate
photographic master transparency (photo master)
c. Part cleaned and degreased
d. Apply thin coating of photoresist (light activated photoresist material)
and dry by baking
e. Hold photo master (PM)and w/p together. Apply UV light through PM
on w/p so that after development, the coating is removed from all areas
to be etched
f. Parts etched, stripped off residual photo resist and inspected
Etchant – dissolves metal by changing it into metallic salts
• Acid or alkaline solutions
Main technical goals are to achieve the following:

1. Good surface finish
2. Uniformity of metal removal
3. Control of selective attack
4. Control of hydrogen absorption in the case of titanium alloys
5. Maintenance of personal safety
6. Cost
7. Depth of Cut
8. MRR
Etchant
Maskants and Etchants for Different Workpiece Materials
Process Parameters Etchant type
Concentration
Properties
Mixing
Operating temperature
Circulation
• Workpiece chemical reactivity
• Maskant and its application.
Process Outcomes
• Etch factor (d/T )
• Etching and machining rate
• Production tolerance
• Surface finish
• MRR
Surface roughness and etch rate of some alloys after CM

Design Considerations for Chemical Machining:
1. Sharp corners, deep and narrow cavities, severe tapers, folded seams, or
porous workpiece materials should be avoided
2. Minimum 10% tolerance thickness should maintained
3. Bulk (primary) processing by other processes prior to chemical

machining
4. Strict control on work environment and work part
5. Masking method should be compatible with the equipment

CM Advantages
• Weight reduction is possible on complex contours
• Simultaneous material removal, from all surfaces, improves productivity
• No burrs, no stress - machining of delicate parts possible.
• A continuous taper on contoured sections is achievable.
• The capital cost of equipment, used for machining large components, is relatively
low.
• Design changes can be implemented quickly !!!!!
• Less skilled operator is needed !!!!!

Limitations
• Hydrogen pickup with some materials.
• Wall straightness is subject to undercutting limitations.
• Scribing accuracy is limited and complex designs become

expensive
• CHM application
Thinning of parts by
CHM
Bio-Chemical Machining (BCM)
1. Biochemical machining is a wet etching style fabrication of
biodegradable materials, which utilizes biochemical reactions of
enzymatic hydrolysis, using enzyme solution as etchant
2. BCM - Degradation or micro-removal (micromachining) process at the
molecular chain level. Strict control on work environment and work
part
MEMS (micro electro-mechanical system) technologies led to development
of miniaturized biochips for rapid biotechnological analysis
• micro-array (10 to 500mm)
• micro-fluidic chips (mixing, reaction, detection, etc - LOC (lab-on-a-chip))
Advantages of the LOC

(1) Required time for analysis is much shorter
(2) Very small amount of specimen and reagent are required
(3) High analysis accuracy
(4) Low contamination
(5) Easy to use, etc.
Typical substrate materials for micro-fluidic chip fabrication are glasses
(such as fused silica glass, etc.) or polymers (such as PDMS (polydimethyl
siloxane), PMMA (polymethyl metacrylate), COC (cyclic olefin
copolymer) etc.).
1. Biodegradable plastic (BIOPOL ): a plastic in which the degradation is
mediated at least partially by a biological system
2. Biodegradable plastic is a material defined as polymer, which is

degraded into low molecular substances by bacteria.
3. Biodegradable corresponds to the capacity to be chemically

transformed by the action of biological enzymes or microorganisms in
products that themselves are capable of further biodegradation.
Hydrolase (cutting tool in machining) is

an enzyme that catalyzes the hydrolysis (of
a chemical bond.
Film Surface of Biodegradable Plastic
poly(l -lactide) (PLLA)

• Microorganism does not directly attack the workpiece; however, the

hydrolase secreted from the microorganisms can degrade it.
• Material removal requires enzymes

with high activity
• Medium – C, N2, Vitamins, salts etc.
Mold - Filamentous fungi

Temperature
Steps
• Work pieces, added in container with
BCM solution.
• Constant Temperature
• Oscillation of shaker
• Cleanining and drying of w/p(s)
Polydimethyl siloxane (PDMS)

- high adhesive property
Filamentous fungi thrive under weak acid conditions,
p[H] measures the hydrogen ion concentration
Pure water has a pH very close to 7 at 25 °C

Solutions with a pH less than 7 – acidic
Solutions with a pH greater than 7 - basic
Enzyme reactions are activated with an
increase in temperature
The activity drops after a certain
temperature
ASPE
Fabricated grooves in mask fabrication with 300 nm width mask

and 400 nm width mask
Process Summary
• Temperature, Enzyme Concentration
• Degradation (Machining) Depth
• Machining Time
• Efficient and precise fabrication of nanofluidic chips, nano-
channels
• Arbitrarily shaped grooves can be produced
• No stresses
Bio Machining (BM)
• Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans (Thiobacillus ferrooxidans)
• Workpieces - rinsed with sterile distilled water and 75% ethanol and dried
before use.
• The metals were covered with 100 mL of culture supernatant in a flask
• Flask placed in shaker at 30O C and 150 rpm for leaching
• Metals removed and rinsed (sterile distilled water) and dried in oven (50OC)
• Mass measured to find sp. MRR

Bio Machining (BM)
Bio Machining (BM)
Bio Machining (BM)
The ferrous-ferric ion redox couple is the key process responsible for
metal dissolution (biomachining).
Direct / indirect mechanisms.
Direct mechanism - the electrons are transferred from the metal work-
pieces to the microorganisms.
Indirect process - the Fe 2+ is first oxidized by microorganism to Fe3+
to derive energy for its growth. These ferric ions then act as the
oxidizing agent and subsequently catalyze metal dissolution
Bio Machining (BM)
Specific metal removal rate during pattern

writing of copper by At. ferrooxidans culture
Bio Machining (BM)
Bio Machining (BM)
Bio Machining (BM)
Bio Machining (BM)
Bio Machining (BM)
Surface appearance of copper

workpiece
(a) Control
(b) after 1 hr treatment
(c) after 2 hr Treatment
(d) after 3 hr treatment
Bio Machining (BM)
SEM photograph of biomachined groove s

(80 µm depth and 45 µm width) on a pure
copper piece
Bio Machining (BM)
Thank you

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Non-Traditional Machining Processes

Instructor – Dr. Akshay Dvivedi

• Fundamentals of Non-Traditional Machining processes

• Selection of appropriate process to meet design

• Effect of process parameters on the quality characteristics

• Effect of material properties on a given process

• Applications and process capabilities of Non-Traditional

End Product: Value and utility added to output.

 Conventional Machining Processes

Shear deformation in conventional machining leading to chip formation.

 There may not be a physical tool present

• High hardness and the strength of the material

• Dimensional and surface finish requirements

• Very high hardness and strength of the material (above 400

Piezo-resonators; Material: Piezoceramics,

Profile drillings in glass and ceramic tubes

Machining specimens. Material: silica glass, Machining purpose: machining

Volume of material Removed Wi  Wf

Volume of material Removed Ti  Tf

LIQUID MEDIUM HEAT TREATMENT DAMPING CHARACTERISTICS FREQUENCY

MATERIAL TYPE CONCENTRATION GEOMETRY, SIZE & SIZE & AMPLITUDE

THICKNESS METHOD OF SLURRY MOUNTING METHOD COOLING POWER RATING

WORKPIECE SLURRY TOOL TRUNK DESIGN MACHINE SETTINGS

PERFORMANCE OF THE PROCESS

MACHINING RATE SURFACE FINISH MACHINING ACCURACY TOOL WEAR

PENETRATION RATE BOUNDARY LAYER OUT OF ROUNDNESS LONGITUDINAL WEAR

SURFACE PROFILE CONICITY LATERAL WEAR

SURFACE ROUGHNESS OVERSIZE CAVITATION WEAR

• Mechanical abrasion by direct hammering of the

• Rotary Ultrasonic Machining (RUM)

• Rotating diamond-plated tool for drilling, milling threading

• Tool vibrated axially at frequency (20 kHz)

• Reduce Friction and loading of diamond abrasive

• No abrasive slurry (only water)

• 1/2-3/4 HP Motor, 5000 RPM, 300 W

• Hole dia - .51mm, Depth 305 mm

• Aspect Ratio – 200:1

• Similar to sand blasting, except that a very narrow jet of

• Conversion of pressure energy (carrier gas) to its

• The process is usually carried out manually by an operator

• AJM is the right choice for:

• Drilling holes of intricate shapes in hard and

• Low MRR (around ~ 15 mm3/min for machining glass)

After laser cutting

After plasma cutting After waterjet cutting

 In AWJ machining of ductile materials, material is mainly removed

 Further at higher angle of impact, the material removal involves

 In AWJ machining of brittle materials, material would be removed

 Widths are different due to tapering of the kerf.

 Exit side of the kerf.

• Electrical Discharge Machining

Ram Type Wire Type

• Material Removal Rate

Copper, Brass, Cast aluminum, Copper-boron,

Dielectric fluid Insulator between tool and work

Kerosene, transformer oils, and other petroleum distillate fractions.

Desirable characteristics of dielectric fluids are as follows:

Ishikawa Cause-Effect Diagram

Comparision of conventional cutting, laser cuttig and wire EDM cutting

Cut-off, grinded Laser cut Wire EDM cut

Electrical Discharge Grinding

Electrical Discharge Diamond Grinding

HYBRID + Electrochemical Grinding

GRINDING Non Traditional