CHAPTER

Introduction
1
1.1 PAVEMENT DESIGN REQUIREMENTS
Pavement structure is a part of road structure, which consists of the following ele-
ments: subgrade, subbase course, base course, and asphalt layer, all of which directly
bear the effects of heavy loads and environmental conditions. The basic requirements
for pavement are durability, smoothness, and safety (ie, skid resistance). Pavement
should also be constructed in a way that is as friendly to environment as possible.
Durability means longer service life; that is, the pavement structure must have
enough strength and resistance to deformation. In fact, all of the current pavement
design methods were established based on durability, which is the core of pavement
design. The smoothness of pavement ensures riding comfort, which is more impor-
tant for drivers on freeways and highways because of faster travel speeds. If the pave-
ment is smooth, it not only ensures a high quality of riding, but it also diminishes the
potential damage due to the dynamic loads of vehicles to pavements. As a result, the
pavement will last longer. In order to ensure a pavement’s smoothness, proper struc-
ture, material design, and construction are necessary. Skid resistance is the require-
ment to the surface characteristics of pavement, means the driving safety provided by
the pavement wearing course, traditionally not included in the structure design.
A pavement can become distressed in various ways, including cracking
(eg, fatigue cracking, low-temperature cracking, and reflective cracking), deforma-
tion and new emerging distresses. When pavement becomes distressed early on, it
means that it was constructed with inadequate durability. Too much distress means
the pavement is no longer usable; therefore, it is said to have a short lifespan. This is
why limiting and delaying distress are the main objectives in pavement design.
When compared with other structures of highway engineering, the lifespan of
pavement structure is very short. Generally, the design lifetime for the asphalt pave-
ments is only 15 years in China to save the initial construction cost. With increasing
traffic volume, the effects of pavement maintenance and rehabilitation on the high-
way traffic become more and more significant, so the design lifetime of pavement
tends to be longer, which gradually evolved into the long-life pavement concept.
The mission of pavement design is to insure pavement without unacceptable dis-
tress within pavement design life period. In order to realize this objective, the various
factors, such as pavement structure, material, load, environment and economy, etc.,
must be considered comprehensively, with the final criterion being the performance
of pavement. Therefore what the pavement design is based on the performance is a
Structural Behavior of Asphalt Pavements. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-849908-5.00001-8
1
# 2016 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
2 CHAPTER 1 Introduction

reasonable choice when you conceive the pavement design concept. This is not only
a trend of the development, also a consequence of the development.
Subsequently, a number of the representative pavement design methods will be
discussed in relation to how they meet the requirements of pavement design.

1.2 REPRESENTATIVE PAVEMENT DESIGN METHODS

1.2.1 EMPIRICAL-BASED DESIGN METHODS
1.2.1.1 California bearing ratio design method [1,2]
The California bearing ratio (CBR) is an indicator that describes the characteristics
of pavement materials developed in the 1920s by the US California Division of High-
way. CBR expresses the ratio of the penetration resistance between the test material
and the standard granular. The meanwhile investigation shows that the dominant dis-
tress types of pavements are the lateral displacement of subgrade material due to
absorbing water, the differential settlement of materials beneath the pavement layer,
and too much pavement deflection. Based on the investigation results, the CBR
design method and the design curves suited for the California’s traffic and climate
conditions were developed to control the shear distress of the subgrade.
In the early part of World War II, the comprehensive investigation of flexible
pavement design methods was made by the US Army Corps of Engineers, which
led to CBR being selected as the design method of choice for the runway pavements.
Due to a large load difference, the CBR test procedure was modified, and the thick-
ness design curve developed for highway load was extended to accommodate a range
in aircraft wheel loads based on the shear equivalence. In the basis of many years of
research and practice, the formula of the pavement thickness, wheel load, and tire
pressure was presented in 1956 and was then modified according to the effects of
repeated loads and heavy loads. As a result of this development, the equivalent
single-wheel load concept was introduced.
In the basis of the CBR design procedure of the US Army Corps of Engineers, the
US Granular Association developed the CBR design method for highway pavements
in 1972. The guideline of the CBR method is that the pavement design should pro-
vides adequate thickness and quality to prevent any pavement layer from repeated
shear deformation and frost effects.
The CBR design method is an empirical method with a clear concept and simple
procedure, making it suitable for the thickness of the design needed for heavy-duty
pavement.

1.2.1.2 AASHTO design method [3,4]

AASHO (present AASHTO, American Association of States Highway and Trans-
portation Officials) pavement design method grows out of AASHO Road Tests con-
ducted during 1958–62. It is a design method that had and continues to have
significant influence. The Road Test was finished by the end of 1961, and the
research summary reports were presented in May 1962, which consisted of a large
 1.2 Representative pavement design methods 3

amount of valuable test data regarding the pavement’s design, construction, and per-
formance. Based on the research, AASHO Interim Guide for the Design of Flexible
Pavements was published in 1961, and AASHO Interim Design Guide for Design of
Pavement Structures was published in 1972. Then, the revised AASHTO Design
Guide was formally issued in 1986 and 1993 respectively.
In AASHO (AASHTO) design method, the present serviceability index (PSI)
concept was put forward to reflect the service level of pavement. Through the sub-
jective rating of the service level and the objective measurement of pavement con-
ditions of the same road, the relationship between PSI and pavement conditions was
developed, as shown in Eq. (1.1). The rating (0–5 in scale) of the pavement was con-
ducted by rating’s panel, while objective measurements include the slope change of
pavement surface, rutting depth, and cracking areas.

 pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
PSI ¼ 5:03  1:91lg 1 + SV  1:38 RD2  0:01 C + P (1.1)

where
PSI is the present serviceability index.
SV is the average change of slope.
RD is the average rutting depth (cm).
C is the map-cracking area per 1000 ft2 pavement (m2).
P is the patching area (m2).
The initial basic design equation of the design method is:
ΔPSI
lg
lgW18 ¼ 9:36lgðSN + 1Þ  0:2 + 4:2  1:5 (1.2)
1094
0:40 +
ðSN + 1Þ5:19
where
W18 is the cumulated number of ESAL (equivalent single axle load) (18 kips)
over the design lifetime of pavement.
ΔPSI is the difference between initial PSI and terminal PSI (4.2  PSIt), which
depends on the highway grade.
SN is the structure number of pavement, which describes the total equivalent
thickness of pavement structure, as shown in Eq. (1.3):

SN ¼ a1 D1 + a2 D2 + a3 D3 (1.3)
where
ai is the material coefficient of ith layer.
Di is the thickness of ith layer (in.).
The structure number (SN) of pavement is specifically defined in the AASHO method,
which expresses the total resistance of the pavement structure except the subgrade.
4 CHAPTER 1 Introduction

The parameter ai in Eq. (1.3) is a parameter related to the type and strength of the material
and can be obtained based on the resilient modulus, Marshall Stability, CBR value, tri-
axial test result, and unconfined compressive test. The required minimum SN can be
calculated from the predicted cumulated ESAL during the design lifetime with
Eq. (1.2), then the thickness of the pavement structure layers can be determined based
on the types of pavement structure layer materials and Eq. (1.3).
ΔPSI in Eq. (1.2) is the difference between the initial PSI and terminal PSI. In the
AASHO design method, it is assumed that the initial PSI ¼ 4.2 and the terminal
PSI ¼ 1.5.
It can be found from the AASHO design equation that the lifetime and perfor-
mance of pavement structures are the same if the SN of the pavement structures
are the same no matter what type of materials are used for pavement structure layers.
In the AASHTO design guide published in 1986, the reliability concept of pave-
ment structure and the effects of drainage conditions were introduced. The design
equation is as follows:
ΔPSI
lg
lgW18 ¼ ZR S0 + 9:36lgðSN + 1Þ  0:2 + 4:2  1:5 + 2:32 lg MR  8:07 (1.4)
1094
0:40 +
ðSN + 1Þ5:19
where

ZR is the reliability coefficient of pavement structure.

S0 is the combined standard deviation of the equation, which is related to the
parameters of the variability of pavement structure, generally S0 ¼ 0.4–0.5.
MR is the resilient modulus of subgrade (in psi), which is significantly affected by
climatic conditions, such as frost, and therefore should be considered carefully in
the design process of pavement.

When considering the drainage condition of pavement layers, the SN can be calcu-
lated according to following formula:
SN ¼ a1 D1 + a2 D2 m2 + a3 D3 m3 (1.5)
where mi is the drainage coefficient of ith layer of pavement structure, the value and its
change range depend on the season. If the pavement is impermeable and there is a good
roadside drainage facility, the water table in the pavement structure will be kept beneath
the subbase course. In this case, the value of mi is between 1.0 and 1.4. When the subbase
material is in a saturated state because of a high water table, the value of mi is around 0.4.
When compared with the initial AASHO design equation, there is no doubt that
the above modification is necessary. In the initial AASHO design equation, only the
average change of pavement performance was considered, which means that the
survival rate of the pavement that was designed based on the equation is only
50%. In the design equation shown in Eq. (1.4), the reliability concept is considered
so that the survival rate of the pavement designed based on the equation will be
increased. Additionally, the variability consideration of the pavement structure in
Eq. (1.4) makes it possible to use a different reliability coefficient for a different
 1.2 Representative pavement design methods 5

highway. On the other hand, consideration of the drainage condition makes the
design result have more focuses on the specific conditions.
In 1993, the revised AASHTO design guide was published. This design guide was
modified in many aspects; it discussed the consideration of the reliability, recom-
mended using T274 as the standard test procedure for determining the bearing value
of soils, recommended using resilient modulus for determining the coefficient of
pavement layers, modified the effects of the drainage and freeze-thaw factor, gave
the axle load equivalent value at critical PSI ¼ 3.0, and presented the low-volume
pavement design method.
The AASHO design method developed the PSI concept for pavement and gave
the formula of equivalent ESAL, and relates the pavement structure design to the
terminal serviceability index Pt. These concepts and ideas have produced a broad
and far-reaching influence on the later pavement methods. As Professor Monismith
[1] said: “The AASHO Road Test sparked a renewed interest in improved pavement
design and provided the impetus for the development of many current analytically
based design procedures. Under the excellent leadership of W.N. Carey, Jr., the
AASHO Road Test provided another important contribution to the engineering com-
munity since well-documented performance data were assembled and stored permit-
ting future researchers to have access to these data. Performance predictions by the
new analytically based procedures could be compared with actual field performance;
reasonable comparisons confirmed the ‘engineering reasonableness’ of the
methodologies.” However, the design equation in AASHTO guide is based on the
short-term tests and limited-tested types of pavement materials and subgrade soils,
and the configurations of vehicle used in the tests are inconsistent with the mixed
traffic on real pavements. Because the pavement structural resistance is expressed
only with the structure number, it is not believed to be an accurate expression. When
we use Eq. (1.3) or Eq. (1.5) to determine the thickness of pavement layers based on
the calculated SN from Eq. (1.2) or Eq. (1.4), we will not obtain the unique result. It
means there is an alternative relationship between the pavement layers, so that the
reasonableness and reliability of pavement design cannot always be ensured.

1.2.2 MECHANISTIC-BASED DESIGN METHODS

1.2.2.1 Overview
Since the 1960s, researchers keep trying to use the mechanistic method to perform pave-
ment analysis and pavement design. This effort gradually became the mainstream
method in the pavement studies, coupled with progress in mechanics and the develop-
ment of the computer technique. With this background, the software used for pavement
analysis has been developed based on the multilayer elastic theory, as shown in Table 1.1.
Since the late 1960s, some researchers used the finite element method for the
analysis of pavement. Compared with the multilayer elastic theory, the finite element
method is more flexible in the consideration of material property.
In the analysis of dynamic load effects, the research is very limited so that did not
have the effective applications in the pavement analysis.
 6
Table 1.1 Examples of Pavement Analysis Software Based on Elastic Theory [5,6]

CHAPTER 1 Introduction
Continuity
Number of Number Conditions at Probabilistic
Software Layers (Max.) of Loads Interface Considerations Software Source

BISAR 10 10 Full continuity to No Shell

frictionless

Remarks: * Comparatively long running time since complete set of stresses and strains provided for each point
* Considers horizontal as well as vertical loads

CHEV 5 2 Full continuity No Chevron Research Company

Remarks: * Nonlinear response of granular materials accounted for in DAMA program of the Asphalt Institute, which makes use
of CHEV program

ELSYM 10 100 Full continuity to No University of California at Berkeley

frictionless

Remarks: * Short running time for particular point

PDMAP 5 2 Full continuity No NCHRP (Project1-10B)

(PSAD)
Remarks: * Running time is long for degrees of reliability other than 50% (the deterministic mode)
* Iterative process used to arrive at moduli for untreated granular materials

VESYS 5 2 Full continuity Yes FHWA-US DOT

Remarks: * Running time is long in probabilistic mode

* Program considers materials both as time independent (elastic) and time dependent (viscoelastic)
CHEVIT 5 2 Full continuity Yes US Army CE Waterways Experiment
Station

Remarks: * Modification of CHEV Program

* Includes provision for stress sensitivity of granular layers

CIRCLY 5+ 10+ Full continuity to No MINCAB Systems, Canterbury, Australia

frictionless (for Australian Road Research Board)

Remarks: * Permits consideration of horizontal and vertical loads; in particular, permits consideration of radially directed
horizontal forces
* Can consider orthotropic material behavior

1.2 Representative pavement design methods

* Permits consideration of strain energy

EV 20 + Unlimited Full continuity to No Tongji University

frictionless

Remarks: * Permits consideration of horizontal and vertical loads

NAAPS Unlimited Unlimited Full continuity to No Tongji University

frictionless

Remarks: * Permits consideration of elastic, viscoelastic, and viscoelastoplastic materials

APAS-WIN Multilayer elastic theory; can analyze effects of climate, axle load spectrum, tire characteristics, temperature, and fatigue

AXYDIN Axial symmetry finite element method; permits analysis of dynamic loads

CAPA-3D 3D finite element method; can analyze effects of nonlinearity, rheology, anisotropy, interface continuity conditions, dynamic
load, tire characteristics, cracking propagation, temperature, damage accumulation, fatigue, and deformation

Continued

7
 8
CHAPTER 1 Introduction
Table 1.1 Examples of Pavement Analysis Software Based on Elastic Theory—cont’d
Continuity
Number of Number Conditions at Probabilistic
Software Layers (Max.) of Loads Interface Considerations Software Source
KENLAYER Multilayer elastic theory; can analyze effects of nonlinearity, rheology, interface continuity conditions, dynamic load, tire
characteristics, damage accumulation, fatigue, and deformation

MICHPAVE Axial symmetry finite element method; permits analysis of nonlinearity and fatigue

MMOPP Multilayer elastic theory; can analyze effects of nonlinearity, climate, dynamic load, axle load spectrum, tire characteristics,
reliability, cracking propagation, damage accumulation, fatigue, and deformation

NOAH Multilayer elastic theory; permits analysis of anisotropy, interface continuity conditions, climatic effects, axle load spectrum,
reliability, fatigue, and deformation

SYSTUS 3D finite element method; can analyze effects of nonlinearity, rheology, interface continuity conditions, dynamic load, tire
characteristics, and cracking propagation

VGADIM95 Multilayer elastic theory; permits analysis of climatic effects, temperature effects, damage accumulation, fatigue, and
deformation

VEROAD Multilayer elastic theory; permits analysis of climatic effects, axle load spectrum, tire characteristics, reliability, damage
accumulation, fatigue, and deformation
Table 1.2 Examples of Analytically Based Design Procedures [1,5]
Pavement Distress Environmental
Organization Representation Modes Effects Pavement Materials Design Format

Shell International Multilayer elastic Fatigue in Temperature Asphalt concrete, Design charts;
Petroleum Co., Ltd., solid treated layers; untreated aggregate, the computer
London, England rutting: cement-stabilized program BISAR is
Subgrade aggregate used for analysis
strain
Estimate in
asphalt
bound layer
National Cooperative Multilayer elastic Fatigue in Temperature Asphalt concrete, Design charts;
Highway Research solid treated layers; asphalt-stabilized bases, computer
Program (NCHRP) rutting untreated aggregates program

1.2 Representative pavement design methods

Project 1-10B (MTC093)
Procedure
The Asphalt Institute, Multilayer elastic Fatigue in Temperature, Asphalt concrete, asphalt Design charts;
Lexington, KY (MS-1, solid asphalt-treated freezing and emulsion, treated bases, computer
MS-11, MS-23) layers; rutting: thawing untreated aggregate program DAMA
Subgrade
strain
Laboratoire Central de Multilayer elastic Fatigue in Temperature Asphalt concrete, Catalog of
Ponts et Chaussees solid treated layers; asphalt-treated bases, designs;
(LCPC) rutting cement-stabilized computer
aggregates, untreated program (ELIZE)
aggregates for analysis
Centre de Recherches Multilayer elastic Fatigue in Temperature Asphalt concrete, Design charts;
Routieres, Belgium solid treated layers; asphalt-stabilized bases, computer
rutting untreated aggregates program
(MTC093)
National Institute for Multilayer elastic Fatigue in Temperature Gap-graded asphalt mix, Catalog of
Transportation and solid treated layers; asphalt concrete, designs;
Road Research rutting: cement-stabilized computer
(NITRR) South Africa Subgrade aggregate, untreated program
strain aggregate
Shear in
granular
layers

9
Continued
Table 1.2 Examples of Analytically Based Design Procedures —cont’d

10
Pavement Distress Environmental
Organization Representation Modes Effects Pavement Materials Design Format

CHAPTER 1 Introduction
National Cooperative Finite element Fatigue in Temperature Asphalt concrete, ILLI-PAVE; elastic
Highway Research idealization; treated layers; untreated aggregates layer programs
Program (NCHRP) multilayer elastic rutting: (eg, ELSYM)
Project 1-26 solid Subgrade
Procedure (AASHTO) strain
Federal Highway Multilayer elastic Fatigue in Temperature Asphalt concrete, Computer
Administration U.S. or viscoelastic treated layers; cement-stabilized program: VESYS
DOT, Washington, solid Rutting: aggregate, untreated
D.C. Estimate at aggregate, sulfur-treated
surface materials
serviceability
(as measured
by PSI)
University of Multilayer elastic Fatigue in Temperature Continuous or gap- Design charts;
Nottingham, Great solid treated layers; graded asphalt mixes of computer
Britain rutting: known volumetrics on program
Subgrade standard UK materials (ANPAD) for
strain analysis and
design
Austroads Multilayer elastic Fatigue in Temperature, Asphalt concrete, Design charts,
solid treated layers; moisture untreated aggregates, computer
rutting: cement-stabilized program CIRCLY
Subgrade aggregates
strain
National Cooperative Multilayer elastic Fatigue in Temperature, Asphalt concrete, Computer
Highway Research treated layers; moisture untreated aggregates, program JULEA
Program (NCHRP) rutting: chemical-stabilized
Project 1-37A Subgrade materials
strain
Asphalt
concrete, time
hardening
Low-
temperature
cracking
 1.2 Representative pavement design methods 11

In the basis of the development of analysis software, the analytically based pave-
ment design methods were developed, examples of which are shown in Table 1.2.
Although the attempts to use mechanistic methods for the structural design of
asphalt pavements have started in the 1960s, their rapid development and wide
use did not begin until the 1970s and 1980s. The Shell (International Petroleum
Co., Ltd.) method and AI (US Asphalt Institute) method are the representatives of
these methods in that period of time.
In fact, these kinds of methods are similar to those used for the bridge, building,
and dam engineering. The essence of these methods is to use the mechanistic
approaches to analyze the responses of pavement structures to the loads and environ-
ment. If the critical state of pavement failure is determined, then based on these
methods the proper materials and thickness of pavement layers are able to be calcu-
lated in light of this critical failure. Monismith [5] summarized and presented a clear
framework to describe the process of these pavement analysis and design methods, as
shown in Fig. 1.1, in which the traffic, environment, subgrade, and pavement

Pavement
Traffic Environment Subgrade
material
characteristics

Degree Trial pavement thicknesses and

of risk material combinations Inputs

Analyses for
specific distress
modes

Permanent Thermal
Fatigue
deformation cracking

Distress Distress
criteria Analyses

Selection of thickness and Design

material requirements Decisions
FIG. 1.1
Simplified design/analysis framework.
12 CHAPTER 1 Introduction

material determine the design of pavement structure. In fact, the similar ideas are also
included in SuperPave and ME (mechanistic-empirical) methods.

1.2.2.2 Shell design method

The Shell pavement design method is developed based on the mechanistic analysis,
AASHO Road Test data, and laboratory test data by Shell International Petroleum
Co., Ltd., and the first version was published in 1963, then a systematic Shell Pave-
ment Design Manual as presented in 1978, in which the effects of the temperature
and traffic loads on the pavements are considered carefully, and the property of mix-
ture is expressed with the stiffness and fatigue. In 1985, the further revised version
was finished, in which the appendix was supplemented, and the consideration of the
safety coefficient and confidence level were introduced. The analysis of the stress
and strain in pavement structure is conducted with the computer, but the design pro-
cedure is expressed in the graphology; thereby, it effectively avoids the use of com-
puter, which was inconvenient at that time for engineers. With the more and more use
of computer, the design procedure had been a computer based Shell design procedure
[7,8], therefore the accuracy, flexibility and efficiency of the design is improved
significantly.
In the Shell method, the pavement structure is treated to be a three-layer system (ie, the
subgrade, base course and asphalt layer, and the characteristics of ith layer are expressed
in term of the thickness hi, resilient modulus Ei, and Poisson’s ratio μi. The viscoelastic
property of the mixture is expressed with the stiffness depending on the asphalt content,
asphalt stiffness, and mixture air voids. The dynamic modulus of subgrade depends on the
stress state, and it can be measured in site with a dynamic deflectometer. The applied
load in test and the water content in the subgrade should be representative of the work
state of subgrade in the future pavement structure. The modulus of the unbound
base materials depends on the stress state (ie, on the subgrade modulus and the thickness
of base course). The traffic effects are characterized with an equivalent 80 kN ESAL,
which is a dual wheel on one axle, with each wheel weighing 20 kN with 600 kPa uniform
tire-pavement contact pressure and 105 mm in contact radius.
In the environment factors, only temperature effects on the mixture property are
considered in the Shell design method. First, the monthly mean air temperature is
converted to a weighted annual mean air temperature according to the weight coef-
ficient shown in Fig. 1.2. Then Tmix, the equivalent temperature of asphalt layer, can
be calculated based on the thickness of the asphalt layer and the weighted annual
mean air temperature.
There are two major design indicators and two secondary design indicators in the
Shell method. Two major design indicators are the horizontal tensile strain εt at the
underside of the asphalt layer and the vertical compressive strain εz at the top of sub-
grade; the corresponding criteria are as shown in Eqs. (1.6) and (1.7).

εt ¼ ð0:856  Vbit + 1:08Þ  S0:36

mix  N
0:2
(1.6)

εz ¼ 0:028  N 0:25 (1.7)

 1.2 Representative pavement design methods 13

where

N is the accumulated ESAL. In order to reflect the effects of the lateral

distribution of the axle loads and the healing of the asphalt mixture on the fatigue
life, the fatigue life of asphalt mixture is multiplied by 10 in the design software.
Vbit is the asphalt content (volume percentage).
Smix is the stiffness of asphalt mixture corresponding to weighted annually mean
air temperature (MPa).

50
10

Equivalent asphalt layer temperature (°C)

50
100
40 200
400
600

Asphalt layer thickness (mm)

Weight coefficient

1
30

20

10–1

10

10–2 0
–10 0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30
(A) MMAT or w-MMAT (C) (B) w-MMAT (C)

FIG. 1.2
Consideration of temperature in the Shell method. (A) Weight coefficient curve. (B) Equivalent
asphalt layer temperature.

The dynamic modulus of the base or subbase materials E2 can be determined

empirically based on the dynamic modulus of subgrade E3 if it has no test data,
as shown in Eq. (1.8).

E2 ¼ k  E3
(1.8)
k ¼ 0:2h0:45
2

where h2 is the total thickness of unbound base materials (mm), and 2 < k < 4.
Based on the above formulas, the thickness of pavement layers can be determined
and its flowchart is as follows:

Step 1. Prepare an asphalt layer with thickness h1.

Step 2. Calculate the equivalent asphalt layer temperature Tmix.
Step 3. Select the appropriate asphalt and mixture based on the local environment
and highway importance, and determine the modulus of the asphalt layer
and subgrade.