08/10/2018

Start with a square one

unit by one unit: 1
1
1 32 64

8 1
1 1 1 1 1 1
        1 1 16 1
2 4 8 16 32 64 2
1
This is an example of an 4
Power & Taylor Series infinite series.

1
This series converges (approaches a limiting value.)

1 1 1 1 1
Many series do not converge:        
1 2 3 4 5



In an infinite series: a1  a2  a3    an     ak Geometric Series:
k 1

In a geometric series, each term is found by multiplying

a1, a2,… are terms of the series. an is the nth term. the preceding term by the same number, r.
n 
Partial sums: S1  a1 S n   ak a  ar  ar 2  ar 3    ar n 1     ar n 1
k 1 n 1
S2  a1  a2
a
This converges to if r  1, and diverges if r  1.
S3  a1  a2  a3 nth partial sum 1 r

If Sn has a limit as n   , then the series converges, 1  r  1 is the interval of convergence.

otherwise it diverges.

 

Example 1: Example 2:

3 3 3 3 1 1 1
     1     
10 100 1000 10000 2 4 8

.3  .03  .003  .0003   .333...

1 1 a 1 1 2
   
3  1 1 3 3
1    1
3 3  2 2 2
a 3 1 r
10  10  
1 9 9 3
1 r
10 10
 

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a 1  r n 
A power series is in this form:

The partial sum of a geometric series is: Sn  

1 r c x n
n
 c0  c1 x  c2 x 2  c3 x 3    cn x n  
0
a 1  r n 
n0

a or
If r  1 then lim 
n  1 r 1 r 

 c ( x  a)
n0
n
n
 c0  c1 ( x  a )  c2 ( x  a ) 2  c3 ( x  a ) 3    cn ( x  a ) n  

If x  1 and we let r  x , then: The coefficients c0, c1, c2… are constants.
1
1  x  x 2  x3    The center “a” is also a constant.
1 x
(The first series would be centered at the origin if you
The more terms we use, the better our approximation graphed it. The second series would be shifted left or right.
(over the interval of convergence.) “a” is the new center.)
 

Example 4:
Once we have a series that we know, we can find a new
series by doing the same thing to the left and right hand 1 1
Given:  1  x  x 2  x3   find:
1  x 
2
sides of the equation.
1 x
1
Example 3: This is a geometric series where r=-x.
1 x
d 1 d 1
 1  x    1  x   1 
1 2
1
 1  x  x 2  x3   dx 1  x 1  x 
2
1 x dx
x
To find a series for
1 x
multiply both sides by x. So:
1

d
1  x  x2  x3  
1  x 
2
dx
x
 x  x 2  x3  x 4   1  2 x  3x 2  4 x3  
1 x
We differentiated term by term.
 

Suppose we wanted to find a fourth degree polynomial of

the form:
P  x   a0  a1 x  a2 x 2  a3 x3  a4 x 4

that approximates the behavior of f  x   ln  x  1 at x  0

Taylor Series
If we make P  0   f  0 , and the first, second, third and fourth
derivatives the same, then we would have a pretty good
Brook Taylor was an approximation.
accomplished musician and
painter. He did research in a
variety of areas, but is most
famous for his development of Brook Taylor
ideas regarding infinite series. 1685 - 1731

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P  x   a0  a1 x  a2 x 2  a3 x3  a4 x 4 f  x   ln  x  1 P  x   a0  a1 x  a2 x 2  a3 x3  a4 x 4 f  x   ln  x  1

f  x   ln  x  1 P  x   a0  a1 x  a2 x 2  a3 x3  a4 x 4 f   x   
1 P  x   2a2  6a3 x  12a4 x 2
1  x 
2
1
f  0   ln 1  0 P  0   a0 a0  0 1 P  0   2a2 a2  
f   0     1 2
1
f  x 
1 P  x   a1  2a2 x  3a3 x 2  4a4 x3
1 x
P  x   6a3  24a4 x
1
f   x   2 
P  0   a1 a1  1 1  x 
3
1
f   0   1 2
1
f   0   2 P  0   6a3 a3 
6
f   x   
1 P  x   2a2  6a3 x  12a4 x 2
1  x 
2

P  0   2a2 a2  
1 f  4  x   6
1
P
4
 x   24a4
1
f   0     1 1  x 
4
2 6
1
f
4
 0   6 P  4
 0   24a4 a4  
24
 

P  x   a0  a1 x  a2 x 2  a3 x3  a4 x 4 f  x   ln  x  1 Our polynomial: 0  1x 
1 2 2 3 6 4
x  x  x
2 6 24
1 2 2 3 6 4 f   0  2 f   0  3 f    0  4
4
P  x   0  1x  x  x  x has the form: f  0  f   0 x  x  x  x
2 6 24 2 6 24

f  0 f   0 f   0  2 f   0  3 f    0  4
4
x 2 x3 x 4
P  x  0  x    f  x   ln  x  1 or:  x x  x  x
2 3 4 0! 1! 2! 3! 4!

5
If we plot both functions, we see 1
4
that near zero the functions match This pattern occurs no matter what the original function was!
3
very well!
0.5
2
1 f  x
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1
-1
-2
-0.5
-3
-4
-5 P  x -1  

example: y  cos x
Maclaurin Series:
(generated by f at x0 ) f  x   cos x f  0  1 f   x   sin x f   0   0

f   0  2 f   0  3 f   x    sin x f   0  0 f
4
 x   cos x f
4
 0  1
P  x   f  0  f   0 x  x  x  
2! 3!
f   x    cos x f   0   1
If we want to center the series (and it’s graph) at some
point other than zero, we get the Taylor Series: 1x 2 0 x3 1x 4 0 x5 1x 6
P  x  1 0x       
2! 3! 4! 5! 6!
Taylor Series:
(generated by f at x  a ) P  x  1
x 2 x 4 x 6 x8 x10
    
2! 4! 6! 8! 10!
f   a  f   a 
P  x   f  a   f   a  x  a    x  a   x  a   
2 3

2! 3!
 

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
example: y  cos  x  at x 
x 2 x 4 x 6 x8 x10 2
y  cos x P  x  1     
2! 4! 6! 8! 10!
   
f  x   cos x f  0 f   x   sin x f     1
2 2

1 f   x    sin x f     1
4  
2 f
4
 x   cos x f  0
2
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 f   x    cos x f      0
2
-1
 0  1 
2 3

P  x   0  1 x     x     x    
 2  2!  2  3!  2
The more terms we add, the better our approximation.
  
3 5

x  x 
    2  2
P  x    x      
 2 3! 5!
 

There are some Maclaurin series that occur often enough

that they should be memorized. They are on your
formula sheet, but today we are going to look at where
they come from.
Finding Common Maclaurin Series

Maclaurin Series:
(generated by f at x0 )
f   0  2 f   0  3
P  x   f  0  f   0 x  x  x  
2! 3!

1 f   0  2 f   0  3 1 f   0  2 f   0  3
 1  x   1  x 
1 1
P  x   f  0  f   0 x  x  x   P  x   f  0  f   0 x  x  x  
1 x 2! 3! 1 x 2! 3!

f n  x  f n  x  f n  0 

List the function and its List the function
Evaluateand
column
its one
1  x  1  x 
1 1
derivatives. 1 derivatives.
1 for x = 0.2 2 3! 3 4!
 1  1x  x  x  x 4  
1 x 2! 3! 4!
1  x  1  x 
2 2
1

2 1  x  2 1  x 
3 3
2 1
 1  x  x 2  x 3  x 4  
1 x
6 1  x  6 1  x 
4 4
6  3!
This is a geometric series with
24 1  x  24 1  x 
5 5
24  4!
a = 1 and r = x.

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f   0  2 f   0  3 f   0  2 f   0  3
sin  x  P  x   f  0  f   0 x  x  x   ln 1  x  P  x   f  0  f   0 x  x  x  
2! 3! 2! 3!

f n  x  f n  0  f n  x  f n  0 

sin  x  0 ln 1  x  0
0 2 1 3 0 4 1 2 2 3 3! 4
sin  x   0  1x  x  x  x   ln 1  x   0  1x  x  x  x  
2! 3! 4! 2! 3! 4!
cos  x  1  x 
1
1 1

 sin  x   1  x 
2
0 3
x x 5
x 7 1 x 2 x3 x 4
sin  x   x     ln 1  x   x     
3! 5! 7! 2 3 4
 cos  x  2 1  x 
3
1 2

Both sides are odd functions.

sin  x  6 1  x 
4
0 6  3!
Sin (0) = 0 for both sides.
 

f   0  2 f   0  3
ex P  x   f  0  f   0 x  x  x  
2! 3!

f n  x  f n  0 

ex 1
1 2 1 3 1 4
e x  1  1x  x  x  x  
x
2! 3! 4!
e 1

x
e 1 x 2 x3 x 4
ex  1  x     
2! 3! 4!
ex 1

ex 1

Convergence
The series that are of the most interest to us are those
that converge.

Today we will consider the question:

“Does this series converge, and if so, for what values of

x does it converge?”

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The first requirement of convergence is that the terms There are three possibilities for power series convergence.
must approach zero.
1 The series converges over some finite interval:
(the interval of convergence).
nth term test for divergence
There is a positive number R such that the series

 n1 an diverges if lim diverges for x  a  R but converges for x  a  R .


an fails to exist or is not zero.
n
The series may or may not converge at the endpoints
of the interval.


 1 athen The series converges for every x. ( R   )
Ex.Note
2: that thisncan n n
n 0
! x prove
If x that series grows without
n ! xdiverges, but can 2
not prove that a series converges.
bound.
n! 3 The series converges at x  a and diverges
If 0  x  1 then lim n ! x  lim n   everywhere else. ( R  0 ) (As in the previous example.)
n
n  n   1 
 
 x
1
As n  ,The
eventually n is larger than , therefore
series diverges. (except when x=0) The number R is the radius of convergence.
x
the numerator grows faster than the denominator.  

Ratio Technique

We have learned that the partial sum of a geometric series

is given by:

1 rn
S n  t1  where r = common ratio between terms
1 r
When r  1 , the series converges.

Ex: x 2 x3 x 4
Geometric series have a constant ratio between terms. ln 1  x   x      If we replace x with x-1, we get:
Other series have ratios that are not constant. If the 2 3 4

1
  1  x  1
absolute value of the limit of the ratio between 1 1 1 n 1
ln  x    x  1   x  1   x  1   x  1   
n

2 3 4

consecutive terms is less than one, then the series will 2 3 4 n 1 n

converge.

 1  x  1
n2 n 1

an 1 1
 tn tn 1 n
L  lim   an 1 
For , if L  lim then: n  n 1  1  x  1
n 1 n
an an
n  tn
n 1

 x  1  x  1 
n

if L 1 the series converges.  lim

n
n 1  x  1
n  n

if L 1 the series diverges. If the limit of the ratio

 lim
 x  1 n  x 1
between consecutive terms
if L 1 the series may or may not converge. n  n 1 is less than one, then the
series will converge.
 

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Ratio Technique
If the limit of the ratio between consecutive terms
is less than one, then the series will converge. 
For t
n 1
n , if L  lim
n 
tn 1
tn
then:

x 1  1
if L 1 the series converges.
1  x 1  1
if L 1 the series diverges.
0 x2
if L 1 the series may or may not converge.
The interval of convergence is (0,2).

The radius of convergence is 1.



Ex:  Ex: 
n n
 3  x  5  3  x  5
n n
n n
n 1 n 1 1
x 5 1
3
1 2 3  n  1 x  5
 x  5   x  5   x  5  
2 3
L  lim
n  3n
3 9 27 x 5  3

 n  1 x  5
n 1 n
L  lim 
3 n 1 3  x  5  3
L  x  5 lim
3n 1 n  x  5
n  n
n  3n
2 x 8
1
L  x5 
 n  1 x  5   x  5   3
n n
3
L  lim
3n  3  n  x  5 
n  n
The interval of convergence is (2,8).

82
L  lim
 n  1 x  5 The radius of convergence is 3 .
n 
2
3n  

Ex:  Ex: 
n! n!
 n  x  3  n  x  3
n n
4 4
n 1 n 1

1 2 3 1
 x  3   x  3  x  3   x  3  
2 3 4
  n 
4
8 27 32 L  x  3 lim  n  1  
n 
 n 1 
 n  1! x  3
n 1
n4
L  lim 
 n  1 n ! x  3
4 n
L x 3.
n 
for all Radius of convergence = 0.

n ! n  1 x  3  x  3
n
n4
L  lim  At x  3, the series is 0  0  0  , which converges to zero.
 n  1 n ! x  3
n  4 n

1
4
 n  Note: If R is infinite, then the series converges for all values of x.
L  x  3 lim  n  1  
n 
 n 1   