Sie sind auf Seite 1von 24

SEMINAR REPORT

ON SHALE GAS
DISCOVERY AND EXTRACTION

FOR COURSE -
B.TECH. (6th SEMESTER)
PRODUCTION AND INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING
PI-314 SEMINAR-I REPORT

SUBMITTED BY -
PRAVEEN KUMAR UPADHYAY

SUBMITTED TO –
DR. N.K SINGH
Dept. Of Mechanical Engineering, N.I.T.KURUKSHETRA

0
LIST OF CONTENT

 Introduction to Shale fuel-


 Defining Shale fuel
 Composition, Properties of Shale Rock

 Middle-East Monopoly- OPEC and Rising Oil Prices.

 Why extracting shale fuel became the need to the century?

 Historic Timelines and development of technology for Shale fuel


Extraction.

 Global Grounds of Shale fuel.

 America- The major Player.

 Fracking- The Process, Challenges and Environmental Concerns.

 Media and Community Reaction of this Invention.

 Examples of Geopolitical Disruptions, Change in International


Relation policy and Venezuelan Crisis boosted by Shale Fuel
Export.

 Conclusions

1
 References

Introduction to shale fuel

Defining shale Fuel


Shale fuel refers to natural fuels that is trapped within shale formations. Shales are fine-grained
sedimentary rocks that can be rich sources of petroleum and natural gas. Shale gas has become
an increasingly important source of natural gas in the United States since the start of this century,
and interest has spread to potential gas shales in the rest of the world. In 2000 shale gas provided
only 1% of U.S. natural gas production; by 2010 it was over 20% and the U.S. government's
Energy Information Administration predicts that by 2035, 46% of the United States' natural gas
supply will come from shale gas. Shales ordinarily have insufficient permeability to allow
significant fluid flow to a wellbore, most shales are not commercial sources of natural gas. Shale
gas is one of a number of unconventional sources of natural gas; others include coalbed methane,
tight sandstones, and methane hydrates. Shale gas areas are often known as resource plays (as
opposed to exploration plays). The geological risk of not finding gas is low in resource plays, but
the potential profits per successful well are usually also lower.

From shale rock deposits kerogen is obtained and then fractional distillation of the crude kerogen
is done so as to obtain different forms of conventional fuels.

Kerogen- It is a solid organic matter in sedimentary rocks. Consisting of an estimated 1016 tons of
carbon, it is the most abundant source of organic compounds on earth, exceeding the total
organic content of living matter by 10,000 fold. It is insoluble in normal organic solvents and it
does not have a specific chemical formula. Upon heating, kerogen converts in part to liquid and
gaseous hydrocarbons. Petroleum and natural gas form from kerogen. Based on its origin,
kerogen may be classified as algal, mixed terrestrial and marine. The name "kerogen" was
introduced by the Scottish organic chemist Alexander Crum Brown in 1906.

Reference picture briefly showing the fine grain structure of the shale rock

2
Composition of the shale rocks
The kerogen obtained from the shale rocks are abundant in following hydrocarbons which is the
basic content of fuel whose combustion can meet our everlasting requirement of power and
energy.

There is no exact formula of oil shale gas. Compositions of oil shale gas depends of retorted oil
shale and exploited technology. Natural shale gas is mainly composed of methane, although it
might also contain compounds that energy companies have to separate from methane to make the
gas usable commercially. These impurities may be different in each well and reservoir.

The other compounds found in shale gas include natural gas liquids, which are hydrocarbons of a
heavier nature that will be separated in processing plants as liquids. These liquids include
heptane, hexane, pentane, butane and propane. Shale gas also includes condensates and water.

The gaseous components of raw shale gas include Sulphur Dioxide, Hydrogen Sulphide, Helium,
Nitrogen and Carbon Dioxide. Mercury may also be found in smaller concentrations in most
reservoirs where natural gas is obtained. The mercury found will be lowered in concentration
until it’s below the detectable threshold of one part per trillion.

Natural gas and shale gas may also refer to gas that is commercially viable, after the impurities
have been removed. When gas is delivered to customers who use it, the characteristics may vary,
depending upon the raw natural gases. The full list of composition ingredients also includes Iso-
Butane and Oxygen.

Properties of the shale rock


Shales form a particular petroleum system wherein the same rock formation is simultaneously
source, reservoir rock, sealing rock and the trap, while gas migration occurs solely in a micro-
scale or is absent. Quite a challenge for the petrophysicists who have to use more advanced
techniques of research, especially in micro- and nano-scale.

3
Shale properties can be described in different scales of observation:
 mineral grains (nano-and micro-scale),
 Packages of lithologically- uniform laminae (millimetre or centimetre scale),
 Higher order sedimentary complexes displaying internal lithological variability and
higher order patterns of the sedimentary structure (scale of metres).

In order to characterize the Petrophysical properties of the rocks, i.e. rock capability to
accumulate and transport reservoir fluids, it is necessary to determine the values of two key
parameters:
 porosity, and
 Permeability.

Moreover, the characterization of the reservoir fluid (oil, gas, water) present in the rock is an
important aspect. An illustrative Petro physical model of an organic matter-rich shale rock is
presented below.

Porosity of shales
Porosity means the volume of void space in the rock (expressed as percentage) which can be
filled with oil, gas or water. Therefore, porosity determines the volume of reservoir fluids
accumulated by the rock.

Two types of porosity are distinguished:


 total porosity – calculated as the total pore volume divided by bulk volume of the rock,
and
 Effective porosity – calculated as the volume of interconnected (permeable) pores divided
by bulk volume of the rock.

Shale rock is built of micro- and Nano-sized space pores with varying degrees of water
saturation and partly of residual organic matter. Void spaces also occur between rock grains
(inorganic pores and micro-pores), but their volume is minimal. Effective porosity appears as a
result of fracturing.
So far, in the case of conventional oil and gas reservoirs (sandstones, carbonate rocks) porosity
was defined as the void space between rock grains (inorganic pores and micro-pores). In that
space and within laminae enriched in silica, as well as in the system of natural fractures and
micro-fractures, the gas is accumulated in the form of free gas.

In shale rocks, natural gas occurs as:


 free gas within rock particles,
 free gas within the dispersed organic matter,
 gas adsorbed by the dispersed organic matter,
 Gas adsorbed by certain clay minerals.

In addition to the aforementioned various accumulation spaces, free gas is present in clay-mud
shale complexes also within laminae that are enriched in organic matter. However, a significant

4
amount of natural gas is present in organic pores located within insoluble organic matter which is
called kerogen.
Permeability and Fracturability of shales

Permeability is associated with the presence of natural cracks/fractures in the rock which enable
the flow of reservoir fluids between pore spaces. Permeability enables the flow of natural gas or
oil into the borehole and their production. Permeability coefficient is dependent on:
 the size of pores,
 relative configuration of the rock-building grains,
 grain grading and cementation, and
 Rock fracturing patterns.

In the case of shale rocks, both permeability and porosity are highly dependent on:
 mineral composition,
 organic matter distribution,
 quantitative (%) content of organic matter, and
 Thermal maturity of organic matter.

Shale rocks characterized by low permeability it basically prevents any unrestrained flow of
hydrocarbons. Accordingly, stimulation jobs (such as fracturing operations) must be performed
in order to connect the pores to the borehole and allow for an unrestrained flow of gas and
reservoir fluids.

Middle-east oil market monopoly and opec


History of Oil
Oil continues to be an important energy source despite the fact that it's non-renewable and has
negative environmental effects.
The history of oil started in the United States in the mid-19th century. It was initially a product
for lighting lamps, but its energetic potential was soon discovered. The United States dominated
the early market. When Russia found oil in the Caspian Sea, they soon started to pump it into
Europe.

Early Fields in the Middle East


The production in the Middle East began in Iran (Persia back then) by the turn of the 20th
century. The British were looking for energy sources and found oil there, making Persia their
reliable supplier.

5
Oil Drill in Saudi Arabia, 1948
After World War I, oil was seen as a strategic resource. The European powers competed for the
control over areas where it was suspected to exist. The Great Depression put Saudi Arabia and
other nations of the Persian Gulf in trouble and motivated the search for water sources in the
desert. Not much water was found but oil was, and lots of it. American and European companies
acquired concessions to exploit this resource. After World War II, the American economic boom
and the world recovery from the war pushed the demand, increasing exploration and production
in the Middle East.

Nationalization
Iran started the process of nationalization of oil production in the 1950s, meaning the local
government assumed control over oil resources. Eventually, most nations did the same, and
foreign companies lost the hegemony and had to adapt to the rules of the different governments.
However, profits were still high so they carried on, often partnered with newly-established local
companies.

Saudi Arabia dominates the oil market in Asia. Data from the U.S. Energy Information
Administration (EIA) showed that the Kingdom maintained its market share among Asian oil
importers during the first half of 2015.
According to the EIA, Saudi Arabia exported crude oil at an average of 4.4 million barrels per
day (b/d) to its seven major trading partners in Asia from January to June this year. Asia
represents more than 50% of the total crude exports of the Kingdom during the period.
The average total crude oil imports reported for seven Asian countries including China, India,
Japan, South Korea, Singapore, Taiwan, and Thailand was 19.1million b/d. Saudi Arabia’s share
of crude oil imports to the seven Asian countries was 23.2%.
O.P.E.C.
The Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries is an intergovernmental organisation of
14 nations, founded in 1960 in Baghdad by the first five members (Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi
Arabia, and Venezuela), and headquartered since 1965 in Vienna, Austria. As of September 2018,
the then 15 member countries accounted for an estimated 44 percent of global oil production and
81.5 percent of the world's "proven" oil reserves, giving OPEC a major influence on global oil

6
prices that were previously determined by the so called "Seven Sisters” grouping of
multinational oil companies. The stated mission of the organisation is to "coordinate and unify
the petroleum policies of its member countries and ensure the stabilization of oil markets,
in order to secure an efficient, economic and regular supply of petroleum to consumers, a
steady income to producers, and a fair return on capital for those investing in the
petroleum industry." The organization is also a significant provider of information about the
international oil market. The current OPEC members are the following: Algeria, Angola,
Ecuador, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Libya, Nigeria, the Republic of the
Congo, Saudi Arabia (the de facto leader), United Arab Emirates, and Venezuela. Indonesia and
Qatar are former members.

Rising Oil Prices


Experts warn emerging markets could suffer as crude prices hit four-year high of $82. The global
economy could be damaged if oil prices return to $100 (£76) a barrel, experts have warned, after
crude prices hit a four-year high of $82.16.
Some market watchers have predicted prices between $90 and $100 by the year’s end after
OPEC last weekend rebuffed Donald Trump’s demands for the oil cartel to rein in prices by
expanding production. Now after Tuesday’s high a leading analyst has said that if prices climbed
to $100 – a level not seen since September 2014 – growth in oil demand would be “annihilated”
and demand would fall sharply. Moreover, Petro Matrix said, emerging economies’ growth could
suffer because of steep crude prices causing inflationary pressures that lead to interest rate rises.
Those countries could also be forced to cut oil taxes, widening budget deficits. Any slowing in
emerging markets would add to the recent economic challenges facing countries including
Turkey and Argentina. The price of Brent crude, the international benchmark, has crept up in the
past week as it became clear that major oil producers were not planning to increase output.
Trump tweeted that the “OPEC monopoly must get prices down now”, but when the cartel met in
Algiers on Sunday it focused on how a previously agreed increase would be divvied up, rather
than a new boost.
Observers expect prices to keep rising, mainly due to concerns over the impact of US sanctions
on Iranian oil exports from November.

7
Analysts at Barclays said they saw further upside risk to oil prices, while Ashburton Global
Energy Fund predicted prices above $90 by the end of the year due to “tight supply, healthy
demand, falling global inventories … and anaemic spare capacity”.

why shale fuel is important?

 Shale Fuel is very important not just for supplying energy to the people as the demand
increases, but for increasing national energy security. It is simply unfortunate that there
are negative aspects associated with producing gas from shale such as high water
production, methane release, well density and of course, fracking.

The United States has massive shale gas reserves and it's not much of a secret that there is
probably enough gas from shale to last at least over a hundred years at the current rate of
natural gas consumption. It is also not a secret that oil reserves are declining and
becoming more problematic to exploit. The United States is importing large volumes of
oil from the Middle East and increasing prices to satisfy the demand. One solution could
be to convert cars to run on natural gas, or even better, hybrid natural gas, thus increasing
energy security and cutting emissions.

Natural gas produces half the amount of greenhouse gases when combusted as opposed to

8
coal. China is currently building a new coal plant every week on average and China is
now just recently the highest contributor of greenhouse gas emissions than any other
country. China is a country where shale gas would be immensely important. If China, and
other coal-dependent countries were to ease off the dependence on coal and move to
natural gas, greenhouse gas emissions will fall considerably.

States like Colorado, Texas and Pennsylvania have seen the real impact of shale gas
production. As a geologist, and trying to not show bias, minor earthquakes and methane
release into the water supply can happen, but it is highly unpredictable when or where. Of
course, if there was any way to prevent these, it will have been implemented already.

So, what is the importance of shale gas? I would say it is the fuel of the future, an energy
for future presidents to understand better, and it will see a lot of competition from more
expensive nuclear energy, condensed solar energy and to a lesser extent, wind, tidal,
hydro etc. and with an increasing population in developing countries that rely more on
cheap fuel sources (e.g. coal) it is sure to be very important in the coming years.

 U.S. Shale Plays have:


• Created 600,000 jobs in the U.S. in 2010.
• Added about $1,000 in disposable income per household.
• Introduced higher paying job at about 23.00 USD per hour.
• And contributed about $77 billion to the nation’s economy.

 The EIA reported that total atmospheric methane emissions from all sources constitute
only 10% of all other Greenhouse Gas (“GHG”) emissions. CO2 was by far the
predominate greenhouse gas; at about 83%. Furthermore, not all atmospheric methane
comes from natural gas systems. Only a third of the atmospheric methane emissions
come from wells, pipelines and storage tanks. Other major sources of methane emissions
come from fermentation, landfill and coal mines. Therefore, shale gas contributes about
3% of the total greenhouse gas inventory.
 Similarly, MIT reported, “according to EPA inventories released in 2010, in 2008 GHG
emissions from natural gas systems were 126 teragram (one teragram is equivalent to one
million metric tons) of CO2 equivalents (CO2), less than 3% of total CO 2 equivalent
emissions from all energy sources and activities.” Natural gas systems include
production, processing, transmission and distribution of conventional and unconventional
(shale gas) natural gas.
 The discovery and exploration of shale gas reserves in North America has led to a fall in
natural gas prices "In mid-2011, natural gas prices in North America hovered around US
$3.70/ Mbtu, which is about 72% less than at the heights of 2008." The US produced
about 84% of all its natural gas usage in recent years, hence imports of natural gas have
been scarce into the US, sub sequentially gas prices in general have fallen across the
world. Looking ahead, shale gas is expected to make up about 46% of the U.S natural gas
supply by 2035; this is a significant jump from the 14% make-up in 2010.

 EXTRACTING SHALE GAS COULD REJUVENATE LOCAL COMMUNITIES

9
Communities would benefit from significant investment, new jobs, and local tax revenue
if extraction went ahead. Furthermore, they would receive a share of revenue from
extraction, which could have a substantial impact on regional economies and local public
services. INEOS has promised to share 6%. Four percent of this would go to homeowners
and landowners in the immediate vicinity of a well and a further 2% to the wider
community. Based on our estimates, a typical 10km by 10km development area would
generate £375m for the area over its lifetime.
 HEATING
Natural Gas is used for heating 22 million UK homes – that’s 83% of all homes. Without
gas we would have to replace our gas fired central heating with electric heating. At a cost
of around £2000 per household, this would amount to some £44bn.Electric heating costs
around 3 times as much as gas. Gas is cheaper than coal, oil, nuclear or renewables. It is
65% cleaner than coal and 25% cleaner than oil. In 2012 the UK imported 43% of its gas,
and this will continue to rise. National Grid estimates that import dependency will reach
69% by 2018/2019. We have huge gas reserves right under our feet that we can access
safely.

Historic Timelines
1860s: Liquid first used to stimulate shallow, hard rock wells in Pennsylvania, New York,
Kentucky and West Virginia.

1930s: Initial attempts to inject a nonexplosive fluid into the ground to stimulate a well.
Often using acid, this technique created etching along the fractures allowing more gas and
oil to escape to the surface.

The Birth of what we commonly refer to as "Fracking"

10
1947: Hydraulic fracturing of wells introduced by Stanolind Oil. 1,000 gal of naphthenic-
acid and-palm-oil- (napalm-) thickened gasoline was injected, followed by a gel breaker,
to stimulate a gas producing limestone form at 2,400 ft. While there wasn't a significant
increase in production, this was a start.

1949: Halliburton becomes the first company to use hydraulic fracturing to extract natural
gas at an industrial magnitude. The technology used then bears little resemblance to what
is used in contemporary fracking procedures. Drilling operations could not use the same
pressures or magnitudes that they can today, so they could only extract natural gas present
in loose geological formations.

1974: Congress passes the Safe Drinking Water Act to protect underground sources of
drinking water. The Environmental Protection Agency requires Underground Injection
Control permits under the SDWA for any injection of a fluid (42 U.S.C. Sections 300h to
300h-8). The EPA also bans the injection of most hazardous materials and mandates
regulation of all injected materials. But this same year the EPA rules that hydraulic
fracturing does not fall under the regulatory power of the SDWA because its primary
purpose is the extraction of natural gas, rather than the injection of hazardous material.
Because of this, fracking operations are able to proceed unhindered by the new
regulations.

1976: The Department of Energy launches the Eastern Gas Shales Project, a joint
research project among state, federal and private industrial organizations to research
"unconventional" natural gas resources.

1986: As part of an early federal effort to investigate new methods of extracting natural
gas, the Department of Energy sponsors the drilling of 2,000-foot horizontal well in the
Devonian Shales of Wayne County, W. Va.

1999: The present day form of hydraulic fracturing, which uses much higher pressures
than earlier processes, is deployed in the Barnett Shale in Texas. Formerly inaccessible
gas reservoirs are now open for fracking.

11
June 2004: EPA report says fracking fluids are toxic and that some portion of these toxic
fluids remain in the ground after a frack job. However, the report concludes "injection of
hydraulic fracturing fluids into coal bed methane wells poses "little or no threat" to
drinking water supplies.

2005: Fracking boomed after the Energy Policy Act in 2005 exempted it from
compliance with the Safe Drinking Water Act, the Clean Air and the Clean Water
Act. Also, the CERCLA Superfund Act doesn't cover fracking sites.

June 2009: U.S. House of Representatives introduces the Fracking Responsibility and
Awareness of Chemicals Act to repeal fracking's exemption from the SDWA. The act
never came to a vote.

February 2010: The House Committee on Energy and Commerce launches an


investigation into the potential environmental and health impacts of fracking.

November 2011: By request of the U.S. Congress, the EPA issues a Plan to Study the
Potential Impacts of Hydraulic Fracturing on Drinking Water Resources, to be completed
by 2014.

12
Global grounds of shale fuel

America- currently biggest player


13
Argentina

In June 2013, the US Energy Information Administration estimated that Argentina held 802
trillion cubic feet of recoverable shale gas reserves, the third largest in the world. Large reserves
of tight oil and gas were in the Vaca Muerta formation. In 2014, three quarters of the shale gas
and oil concessions in the country were held by the Argentinian company YPF (nationalised in
2012) which committed to develop the Vaca Muerta field with US company Chevron
Corporation. However, in spite of a hydrocarbons law favourable to exploring and developing
companies and passed by the Argentine Senate in 2014, the Financial Times noted that "Some
analysts doubt whether many companies will follow Chevron until Argentine's erratic president
Cristina Fernandez, leaves power in 2015."

Canada

Recent shale gas discoveries have caused a sharp increase in estimated recoverable natural gas in
Canada. The nation has a number of prospective shale gas targets in various stages of exploration
and exploitation in British Columbia, Alberta, Saskatchewan, Ontario, Quebec, New Brunswick
and Nova Scotia. One major area of exploration in Canada is north of Fort Nelson, in north east
British Columbia. Encana and EOG Resources are developing the area known as Horn River due
to its high yield shale deposits. A number of these well sites are serviced by Alberta fracturing
companies, many of which started out as a one-person operation with the purchase of a cement
truck. This rapid expansion of shale gas in Canada is not without controversy. On 8 March 2011,
the Quebec provincial government effectively declared a temporary moratorium on the use of
chemical fracturing during shale gas drilling pending a stricter full environment assessment
audit. Acting under recommendations from a provincial environmental assessment board,
Quebec Minister of Environment Pierre Arcand stated that "We are committed to making sure
that it is done properly or it won’t be done at all," The assessment board cites the chief concern
of groundwater contamination with respect to the St. Lawrence valley, and recommended the
audit in order to fully inform and involve communities and the public of the risks involved in
shale gas exploitation in Quebec.

Mexico

Mexico drilled its first shale gas well in 2011, in the Burgos Basin of northern Mexico, in the
equivalent of the Eagle Ford Formation of the US. But as of February 2013, there have been only
six productive shale gas and tight oil wells drilled in Mexico (a seventh was abandoned as non-
productive), all producing from Eagle Ford equivalent. The national oil company Pemex has
limited investment capital, and focuses its effort on what it sees as higher-return conventional oil
and gas projects, rather than gas shales or tight oil. The US Energy Information Administration
estimates Mexico's recoverable reserves of shale gas to be 681 trillion cubic feet, the fourth
largest shale gas reserves in the world. In Mexico's case, the relevance of shale gas passed from
official speeches to energy policy priorities, with two scenarios of production included in the
Energy Strategy 2012. With five shale basins preliminarily identified, the business-as-usual
scenario in the Strategy encompassed the development of only one shale gas play, with the more
favorable scenario adding another play. For each scenario, production would start by 2016 with

14
the output expected amounting to 15% and 29% from the total gas production expected by 2026.
By early 2013, the thrill of shale gas started to transform, with less fanfare in the edition of the
Strategy that year, recognizing that in spite of the considerable shale gas potential, the path of
development chosen would be constrained by Mexico's legal and economic framework, with
more favorable opportunities depending on the implementation of more ambitious measures,
namely an energy reform that could complement the state-owned oil and gas monopoly of more
than 75 years. While this reform was eventually accomplished, other challenges must be
surmounted. Mexico's shale oil and gas development close to the US border is hampered by the
activities of organized criminal groups that include the theft of pipeline products and the
extortion to companies in the extractive industries, along with lack of adequate infrastructure;
overall, this has resulted in the low economic competitiveness of Mexico's shales in comparison
with those across the border in the United States soil. It remains to be seen if the awaited
Mexican energy reform will overcome these drawbacks. Owing to Mexico's weak rule of law
and poor success in previous major industry reforms, the legal changes brought about might as
well end up worsening the drawbacks in the energy sector and namely in the development of the
country's shale resources.

United States

The first commercial gas well drilled in the US, in 1821 in Fredonia, New York, was a shale gas
well producing from the Devonian Fredonia Shale formation. After the Drake Oil Well in 1859,
however, shale gas production was overshadowed by much larger volumes produced from
conventional gas reservoirs. In 1996, shale gas wells in the United States produced 0.3×1012 cu
ft (8.5 km3), 1.6% of US gas production; by 2006, production had more than tripled to 1.1×1012
cu ft (31 km3) per year, 5.9% of US gas production. By 2005, there were 14,990 shale gas wells
in the US. A record 4,185 shale gas wells were completed in the US in 2007. In 2007, shale gas
fields included the No. 2 (Barnett/Newark East) and No. 13 (Antrim) sources of natural gas in
the United States in terms of gas volumes produced. A study by MIT says that natural gas will
provide 40% of America's energy needs in the future, from 20% today, thanks in part to the
abundant supply of shale gas. With 4% annual production growth expected between 2010 and
2030, shale gas has been "a veritable game changer" for the United States. Shale gas, especially
from the Marcellus Shale, have tested up to 16% ethane content. This low priced feedstock for
ethylene synthesis has led to a "frenzy" of new ethylene plants in the US.

15
Fracking: Process and demerits

Process-
Hydraulic fracturing (also fracking, hydro-fracturing or hydro-fracking) is a well stimulation
technique in which rock is fractured by a pressurized liquid. The process involves the high-
pressure injection of 'fracking fluid' (primarily water, containing sand or other proppants
suspended with the aid of thickening agents) into a wellbore to create cracks in the deep-rock
formations through which natural gas, petroleum, and brine will flow more freely. When the
hydraulic pressure is removed from the well, small grains of hydraulic fracturing proppants
(either sand or aluminium oxide) hold the fractures open.
A hydraulic fracture is formed by pumping fracturing fluid into a wellbore at a rate sufficient to
increase pressure at the target depth (determined by the location of the well casing perforations),
to exceed that of the fracture gradient (pressure gradient) of the rock. The fracture gradient is
defined as pressure increase per unit of depth relative to density, and is usually measured in
pounds per square inch, per square foot, or bars. The rock cracks, and the fracture fluid
permeates the rock extending the crack further, and further, and so on. Fractures are localized as
pressure drops off with the rate of frictional loss, which is relative to the distance from the well.
Operators typically try to maintain "fracture width", or slow its decline following treatment, by
introducing a proppant into the injected fluid – a material such as grains of sand, ceramic, or
other particulate, thus preventing the fractures from closing when injection is stopped and
pressure removed. Consideration of proppant strength and prevention of proppant failure
becomes more important at greater depths where pressure and stresses on fractures are higher.
The propped fracture is permeable enough to allow the flow of gas, oil, salt water and hydraulic
fracturing fluids to the well. During the process, fracturing fluid leak off (loss of fracturing fluid
from the fracture channel into the surrounding permeable rock) occurs. If not controlled, it can
exceed 70% of the injected volume. This may result in formation matrix damage, adverse

16
formation fluid interaction, and altered fracture geometry, thereby decreasing efficiency. The
location of one or more fractures along the length of the borehole is strictly controlled by various
methods that create or seal holes in the side of the wellbore. Hydraulic fracturing is performed in
cased wellbores, and the zones to be fractured are accessed by perforating the casing at those
locations. Hydraulic-fracturing equipment used in oil and natural gas fields usually consists of a
slurry blender, one or more high-pressure, high-volume fracturing pumps (typically powerful
triplex or quintuplex pumps) and a monitoring unit. Associated equipment includes fracturing
tanks, one or more units for storage and handling of proppant, high-pressure treating iron, a
chemical additive unit (used to accurately monitor chemical addition), low-pressure flexible
hoses, and many gauges and meters for flow rate, fluid density, and treating pressure. Chemical
additives are typically 0.5% of the total fluid volume. Fracturing equipment operates over a
range of pressures and injection rates, and can reach up to 100 Mega Pascal (15,000 psi) and 265
litres per second (9.4 cu ft/s) (100 barrels per minute).

Demerits-
Environmental impacts
If we’re serious about meeting our legally binding environmental targets, by 2030 we’ll be using
40% less gas in Britain and the North Sea could provide all of that. More importantly, there’s
another way to get the gas we need in Britain – and we don’t need to frack the countryside to get
it. Fracking is a risk we don’t need to take, we can make all the gas we need from a natural,
abundant resource: grass. Britain has enough grass land to provide 97% of our homes with green
gas. Britain’s fracking plans go against the direction of traffic for the entire world. In 2016 in
Paris, world leaders committed to the end of the fossil fuel era. Fracking would only go back on
that agreement and entrench the use of finite fossil fuels in Britain for decades to come. A recent
independent government report stated that fracking is simply not compatible with the UK’s
climate targets. There are countless environmental and public health arguments against fracking
too.

Fracking and water contamination


Environmentalists believe that the water mixture which is directed at the rock during the fracking
process contains carcinogenic chemicals, which could potentially escape and pollute water
around the fracking site.

Fracking and earthquakes


There are also major concerns that fracking causes earth tremors. In 2011, test fracking in
Lancashire was suspended after two earthquakes of 1.5 and 2.2 magnitude hit the area. A study
afterwards concluded that it was very likely that these were caused by fracking. As if these
weren’t reasons enough not to begin fracking in Britain, it’s pretty clear than people just don’t
want it – the government’s own Public Attitudes tracker reveals continuing opposition in each
new wave of surveys. Currently only 13% of the public are in favour of fracking, whilst 82%
prefer renewables.
Meanwhile, opposition in the form of local and organised anti-fracking groups keeps growing.
There really is no argument for fracking and no energy company should invest in or supply gas
from shale. Instead, they should be looking to develop and invest in the only sustainable energy
source we have – renewable energy.

17
Media and community protest against fracking

Some Examples on protest lines are:-


 'We Bloody Live Here, and It's Not Fair': How Communities in the U.K. Are Taking on
Fracking.

 Woman in iconic anti-fracking photo calls it a 'middle finger' to the industry.

 Three environmental activists are believed to be the first people to receive jail sentences
for an anti-fracking protest in the UK.

 I was jailed for my fracking protest. But others face much worse -Simon Roscoe Blevins

 Several hundred supporters of the three protesters jailed for blocking access to the
Preston New Road fracking site in Lancashire have gathered outside the high court in
London before their appeal against their sentences.

 The jailing of fracking protesters tells us we are winning this fight-Caroline Lucas

 The Political System Is Failing Us': British Energy Dept. Blockaded to Protest Climate
Inaction and Fracking. "The time to take action against climate injustice is now... If we do
not act now, we face extinction. At the very least we will witness the breakdown of
society as we know it."- By Jessica Corbett.

 As the fracking protesters show, a people’s rebellion is the only way to fight climate
breakdown -George Monbiot

18
 Colorado Takes Fracking Restrictions to the Polls. Voters will decide whether to institute
larger setbacks for oil and gas operations, which would make most of the state off limits
to drilling.

Geopolitical activities triggered by this

Declining Trend/Slump in oil prices

Oil and natural gas prices fluctuate on a daily basis. These commodities are traded on public
markets, such as the NYMEX, and the price rises and falls with supply and demand. As more
people in the world own cars and developing countries like China demand more energy, prices
are expected to increase. On the other side of the equation, an increase in supply can push oil
prices down. As new sources of oil and gas are discovered and accessed around the world, the
total supply increases. In the last year, oil prices have dramatically decreased because of supply
and demand.

India purchasing oil from America


India is buying oil from USA for different reasons:-

Indian exports to US stand at 72.8 billion USD, while imports come to around only 42 billion
USD. The trade deficit is 30.8 billion USD which is quite high, hence in order to reduce trade
deficit Trump insisted India to buy oil from USA

India is buying oil from USA at prices cheaper by atleast 2 USD per barrel than supplied by
OPEC countries. OPEC countries sell the oil to western countries at responsible pricing while
they sell oil to ASIAN nations with Asian premium (extra surcharge)

19
In USA there are reserves of unconventional oil (shale oil extracted by fracking process which is
harmful for environment). The extraction of unconventional oil is very costly. Presently USA has
Trump administration which does not exercise much tight controls on extraction and does not
have very strict environment concerns (Eg:- Exit from Paris Climate Agreement), but when
Democratic Party of USA will come into power the extraction will be very expensive as it will
subjected to very tight controls. At that time, buying oil from USA will be expensive.

India has made large investments for development of Chabahar port, so there can be a slight
possibility of this development being affected as buying oil from USA can infuriate Iran.

China Increasing Territorial claims


With U.S. troops gone from South Vietnam, China made a move at sea in 1974, and the
ripple effects are still being felt.
China has deployed several new weapons systems to its largest base on the Paracel Islands in the
disputed South China Sea, a Washington-based think tank said. The Asia Maritime Transparency
Initiative (AMTI) of the Centre for Strategic and International Studies reported about these new
military platforms on Thursday, May 24. The AMTI based this report on satellite imagery of
Woody Island in the Paracels, taken on May 12.

"Since they are covered, it is difficult to definitively identify the new platforms, but they likely
include truck-mounted surface-to-air or anti-ship cruise missiles and accompanying radars," the
AMTI said.

The AMTI said the platforms were likely brought in for military drills that took place on May 9,
but their prolonged stay suggests that they will be there permanently. China has also deployed
two trucks, 4 covered vehicles, and a combat aircraft to Woody Island. The Paracels, which are
occupied and controlled by China, have been claimed by Taiwan and Vietnam, but not the
Philippines.

20
Venezuelan Crisis
In 1999, Hugo Chavez became president of the country. He pledged to fix income inequality in
the nation by giving to the poor, who felt neglected in the country’s classist society. Many
Venezuelans fiercely believed in his promises, and his charismatic personality made many of his
followers support him unconditionally. Throughout the 2000s, Chavez increasingly tightened his
grip on authority. He introduced a new constitution, began to strictly regulate the media,
“threatened and punished his political opponents,” according to a report from Human Rights
Watch, and forged an alliance with the Cuban government. By 2013, before his death, Chavez
was a force to be reckoned with — he had strategically placed his supporter at the most
important levels of the government, the military, and the state-run oil company. Before Chavez
died of cancer in 2013, he named Nicolas Maduro as his successor. A former bus driver who later
became foreign minister and vice president, Maduro was Chavez’s right-hand man for most of
his presidency. Maduro promised to continue his predecessor’s legacy through established and
popular social programs. Shortly after Maduro came to power, the price of oil dropped, and
because 98% of Venezuela's export earnings come from oil, the state of the country declined
rapidly.

The government began printing more money (which drives down its value), regularly increasing
the minimum wage, and implementing price controls on certain products. Maduro has blamed
the United States and other countries for starting an “economic war” against the country. (In late
November, he raised the minimum wage 150% and compared President Donald Trump to Adolf
Hilter for his imposition of economic sanctions against Venezuela.) Russia and China have
provided financial help, with both countries backing Maduro’s government through billions of
dollars in “oil-for-loan” deals, as reported by Reuters. But because of the government’s
mismanagement of the economy and its high inflation rates, most Venezuelans struggle to have a
sustainable life. In 2017 alone, 64% of Venezuelans lost weight, losing 25 pounds on average due

21
to food shortages and an inability to pay for food. About a quarter of the population does not eat
three times a day, and 82% lived in poverty as of 2017.

Venezuela’s conditions have led to a mass exodus of refugees that mirrors that of war-torn Syria.
Because Maduro has installed an oppressive and dictatorial government that gives him influence
over all the branches, there are only small avenues to provide humanitarian aid to citizens in
need.
Conclusion
US spent a lot of capital over years to make the extraction of shale oil possible both technically
and economically feasible. US government has cast aside all the protest and worked in one
direction thereby creating jobs on one hand at the same time making possible the end of
monopoly of middle-east oil giant OPEC. The majority of tight gas reservoirs are found to be
present in China which is playing a smart game out there. They are on one hand going for
bilateral exchange of the Chinese goods with oil and on other hand they are waiting for the right
time to maneuver in the global market to get exceptional prices in the world.

One thing is pretty clear the process fracking have some serious environmental adversities which
cannot be neglected while conducting this process. The impacts like water table contamination,
natural calamities like Earthquake, Flood due to observed seismic movements are some of the
factors that are serious challenge in terms of Ecological biodiversity. And if the world start the
race of oil war it would become a severe concern to the Globe.

“It implies we would be living with oil but will have no water to drink, we will have great
cars to ride but we won’t have the road to drive upon.”

This lines present a clear picture of the future we are going to build up. There is no doubt that
shale fuel are even better than the conventional fuels in terms of their composition and their less
CO2 emission properties. But the process of extracting this Shale gas is constitutionally not
effective in terms to risk it possess to the flora and fauna of this world.

Does it means we should stop production? Absolutely No, Else How will we meet our future
requirement of oil and energy. It is always good to go green and use alternatives like Solar
Energy, Nuclear energy, Hydraulic energy or even bio-fuels but they are not going to give good
thermal efficiency nor they will have diversified use. Monitoring the manufacturing process and
making it smart can play a key role in making this project a viable option.

The opportunity cost analogy given by some scientists suggest that it is just a myth that the
Fracking process is not safe. They say that OPEC is trying to manipulate the media on the notion
of global catastrophe but that cannot be true. This process is conducted in the best possible way it

22
should be done. The world should learn from US and embrace self-sufficient framework that this
discovery is providing us.

India as a nation has started to learn the process of exploiting the shale gas basins and is
currently developing it’s technology as other nation are doing to become an indigenous producer
of oil to meet it’s requirement. But scope of future is really narrowed due to so much limitations.
Still it is a road to walk upon.
REFERENCES
1. Open Sources like
http://www.wikipedia.org
http://www.slideshare.org
http://www.google.com
http://www.scribdd.org

2. The Post Carbon Reader Series: Energy


Hydrocarbons in North America
By J. David Hughes

3. Gas-rich shale formations are ubiquitous throughout the United States, and the states
listed here represent where the resources are located. The Energy Information
Administration maintains a map of shale gas basins in lower 48 states at the following
location- http://www.eia.gov/analysis/studies/usshalegas/images/shalemap-lg.png.

4. Shale Gas: New Opportunities, New Challenges- By Bipartisan Policy Centre (BPC)

5. U.S. Department of Energy, Energy Information Administration, “Review of Emerging


Resources: U.S. Shale Gas and Shale Oil Plays,” July 8, 2011.
http://www.eia.gov/analysis/studies/usshalegas/pdf/usshaleplays.pdf.

6. American Petroleum Institute, “Hydraulic Fracturing Q&A’s.”


http://www.api.org/policy/exploration/hydraulicfracturing/questions_answers.cfm?
renderforprint=1.

7. A. K. Gupta, M. C. Herweyer, and C. A. S. Hall, “Appendix E: Oil Shale: Potential, E


Roy and Social and Environmental impacts.

23

Das könnte Ihnen auch gefallen