rrative-based career counseling

perspectives in times of change:

an analysis of strengths and limitations
Michael J. Stebleton

There is an ongoing movement in the career development counseling fieid that focuses
on narrative-based approaches. The purposes of this article are to analyze the factors that
ied to a turn to narrative career counseling, to examine the strengths of narrative, and to
outline potential limitations. The literature review examined scholarly work in the career
development field. Contributions from other disciplines (e.g., medicine) were integrated
to provide complementary perspectives. The author contends that there is an appropriate
place for narrative in career and employment counseling. Suggestions for addressing
limitations and applications for career and employment counselors are highlighted.
• • • •

Personal stories identify and shape individuals. Stories inform life; they hold people
together and keep them apart (Mair, 1988, p. 127). Career and employment counselors
assume unique positions of privilege as listeners of these stories that arefilledwith the
complexities of clients' human experiences. More specifically, these clients in need bring
career-related stories of loss; of transition; of belonging; and of indecision; as well as
of hope, creativity, and optimism. Narrative career counseling represents an innovative
perspective that has received significant recent attention in the career development
literature (Amundson, 2006; Brott, 2005; Bujold, 2004; McMahon & Watson, 2008,
2009). Yet, the narrative career counseling perspective can still be considered a work
in progress (Reid, 2006). What are the strengths of using narrative-based counseling
approaches, and why might career development practitioners opt to integrate these
strategies into their practice? What might be the potential limitations of narrative-based
perspectives, and how might practitioners address these issues?
The purpose of this article was threefold: (a) to briefly explore the trends that led
to a shift in the interest in narrative-based approaches; (b) to outline the potential
strengths and limitations of narrative-based career and employment counseling
perspectives; and (c) to discuss practical applications and strategies for career and
employment counselors, including possible avenues for addressing the obstacles
of using a narrative-based perspective. Although the merits of narrative counsel-
ing have been highlighted in the literature (Brott, 2001; Campbell & Ungar, 2004;
Chen, 2002), there is a dearth of articles that extensively examine the potential
limitations, as well as the benefits, of using narrative-based approaches. With
the current article, it is my intent to fill this gap. The objective is not to dissuade
career and employment counselors from incorporating narrative perspectives into
their work, but rather to consider the factors involved when deciding to integrate
narrative approaches. This article includes an analysis of the literature on narrative
approaches and provides concrete suggestions for career practitioners who want to
use a narrative approach. Moreover, I contend that there is an appropriate place for
• • • •
Michaeli Stebleton, Department of Postseœndary Teaching and Learning, University of Minnesota-Twin
Cities. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Michael d Stebleton, Department
of Postseœndary Teaching and Learning, College of Education and Human Development, University of
Minnesota-Twin Cities, 178 Piilsbury Avenue, SE, Minneapolis, MN 55455 (e-mail:steb0004@umn.edu).
© 2010 by the American Counseling Association. All rights reserved.
64 journal of employment counseling • June 2010 • Volume 47
narrative-based approaches to make a worthy contribution to the career development
and employment counseling profession.

EXAMINING NARRATIVE-BASED APPROACHES: A CAVEAT

For purposes of this article, story or narrative can be defined as a collection of lived
experiences that make up one's life-career, including transitions in paid and unpaid
life roles over the course of a lifetime. When examining the benefits and limitations of
any approach, including narrative-based counseling strategies, there is a tendency to
compare and contrast features with other models of practice. Inevitably, narrative ap-
proaches—and other similar interventions based on postmodern theories—are analyzed
in relation to the modern traditional career models (e.g., trait and factor approaches).
According to Sampson (2009), modern and postmodern career theories should not be
viewed as mutually exclusive. Sampson noted, "Creating winners and losers in this
discussion is detrimental to the profession and the individuals being served" (p. 91).
He referred to this dichotomous split as the unnecessary divorce (Sampson, 2009, p.
94) that is occurring in the debate between modern and postmodern theories.
I agree with Sampson's (2009) position. In this article, I assume the stance that
both narrative-based career and employment counseling approaches and more tradi-
tional approaches can coexist; they can be viewed as compatible and complementary.
Practitioners are encouraged to integrate narrative-based approaches with practices
of the modern approach pending a determination of the clients' needs and related
issues. Sampson stated that "the stakes are too high for theorists, researchers, and
practitioners to assert that one approach is uniformly superior. Both points of view
have merit and can be integrated in practice" (p. 94). One approach should not be
viewed as being ultimately more effective than the other. Every approach has its
limitations, but that should not imply a complete abandonment of the model. In turn,
practitioners can be served by a greater understanding and appreciation of varying
perspectives without having to assume an all-or-nothing stance.

METHOD
The use of narrative to understand human experiences is not entirely new to the
field of career development (Collin & Young, 1986). Much has been written in
recent years about the role of story, narrative, and constructivist paradigms in the
career development field (Cochran, 1997; Gibson, 2004; Peavy, 2004; Richardson,
1993; Savickas, 1995). Likewise, narrative as applied to the human sciences is not
a novel concept (Polkinghorne, 1988, 1995). Narrative has been used in a variety
of disciplines, including the social and behavioral sciences (Czarniawska, 2004),
medicine (Charon, 2004), and family therapy (Carr, 1998).
The literature reviewed for this article is primarily drawn from scholarly journals and
publications in the career development field and represents global perspectives from
a range of contributors. I selected articles from the major journals dedicated to career
development issues (e.g.. Journal of Employment Counseling, Journal of Vocational Be-
havior, The Career Development Quarterly, Journal of Career Development) as well as other
counseling-focused journals that address work and career psychology issues (e.g.. Journal
of Counseling Psychology, Counseling Psychologist). I also consulted international journals
such as International Journal for Educational and Vocational Guidance, South African
Journal of Psychology, and Australian Psychologist for contributions. The emphasis was

journal of employment counseling • June 2010 • Volume 47 65

on examining contributions that focused on the merits of narrative counseling approaches
as well as articles that included its limitations or potential disadvantages. Furthermore,
contributions from the medical, literary, and other professions are integrated throughout
the article. These sources help to complement the career development literature as well
as provide useful models where appropriate. The reference list is not intended to be
exhaustive but rather to serve as a resource for readers.

A MOVE TO NARRATIVE
Narrative-based approaches of career development emerge from a rich historical past
grounded in traditionalism and positivistic approaches to career, including Parsons's
(1909) concept of rational career decision making (see also Baker, 2009). Career coun-
seling in the postmodern world has shifted from an emphasis on clients' scores (i.e.,
objectivity) to an emphasis on their personal stories {i.e., perspectivity; Blustein, 2006;
Savickas, 1993; Stebleton, 2007; Toporek & Flamer, 2009). More recently, Savickas
et al. (2009) contended that the new paradigm for career construction assumes a shift
from "scientific facts to narrative realities" (p. 243). It can be argued that anyone who
has a career has a career story, or assumed narrative (CoUin & Young, 1988). Each
client brings this collection of episodes or chapters of her or his narrative to any given
context, including an employment or career counseling scenario.
Many career and employment counselors are interested in postmodern approaches
that focus on the meaning of the narratives that clients ascribe to their lived experiences
(Peavy, 2000; Sampson, 2009). What are some of the more significant changes that
have contributed to this shift? First, Severy (2008) noted that changing demographics
have created a more diverse workplace wherein the role of contextual factors assumes
a prominent role in work-life decision making. As a result, it is more challenging
to grasp a common norm with which to compare individuals across diverse cultures
through the use of psychometric instruments. In other words, the changing diversity
of the current workplace has allowed more perspectives to be shared through the use
of stories in addition to traditional assessment tools (Savickas, 1993). Second, the
term career and its meaning have morphed into an integrative and holistic view of life
roles (Blocher, Heppner, & Johnston, 2001; Hansen, 1997). Career is not necessarily
a paid occupation that is grounded in a traditional structure, but rather is viewed as
a constellation of roles, both paid and unpaid (Richardson, 1993). These nonpaid life
roles (e.g., caregiver, mother, father, son, daughter) are often assigned more value and
recognition through the use of story in the counseling context. Third, the employment
contract between employer and employee has dramatically changed; there is no loyalty
contract in the new workplace, where each employee assumes self-responsibility for
her or his career (Amundson, 2005; Feller, 2003). The impact of globalization, orga-
nizational mergers, and downsizing has facilitated these profound changes as well.
Individuals tend to move from job to job and often from career to career. In turn, their
stories (i.e., the collection of career transitions and lived experiences) will also travel
with them, and they will need to be prepared to share their own unique narratives of
transition with various audiences (Ibarra, 2003).
According to Parker (2008), this employment change influences not only the skills
used in this "flat" environment (i.e., interconnected via technology and global com-
munication, resulting in a more level playing field than in the past; Friedman, 2005,
p. 369) but also on the whole concept of employability and loyalty, with a heightened

66 journal of employment counseling • June 2010 • Volume 47

importance placed on soft skills, such as inteqaersonal communication and negotia-
tion. As a result, the development of transportable skills is essential in a less secure
workplace (Blocher et al., 2001). Furthermore, there is a need for lifelong learning
and adaptability given the untenable nature of job security or lack of an employability
contract of any kind. The changes in today's turbulent workforce as well as new national
and global economic insecurities will lead to a greater emphasis on understanding
client narratives in career development contexts, including counseling.

CHANGES IN ECONOMIC SECURITY AND STORIES OF TRANSITION

As evidenced by the recent global recession, there are profound changes in economic
security as it relates to work. Many jobs that were cut in various sectors will most
likely not return. For many individuals, the desire to maintain any kind of job has
become paramount. The recession will eventually end, but it is likely that the recovery
will take a longer time, perhaps years, to fully rebound. As a result of the recession—as
well as more general changes in the world of work as addressed previously in
this article—thousands of workers will continue to be forced to endure unplanned
transitions. According to Schlossberg (1984), these abrupt employment changes are
considered nonnormative events, and they are neither voluntary nor anticipated. Sig-
nificant employment transitions have an impact on other aspects of life (Krumboltz,
1993), including overall stress and anxiety levels. Career and employment counseling
professionals will continue to work with employees in transition, irrespective of severe
economic conditions, and clients will need to construct new identities and new stories
of transition as they adjust to redefine work roles and realities (Feller & Whichard,
2005). Ibarra and Lineback (2005) contended that all individuals need to become more
adept at creating and expressing meaningful stories of transition. These stories need
to be coherent and articulate and to emphasize continuity and causality:

Without a compelling story that lends meaning, unity, and purpose to our lives, we feel lost and
rudderless. We need a good story to reassure us that our plans make sense-that, in moving on, we
are not discarding everything we have worked so hard to accomplish and selfishly putting family
and livelihood at risk. It will give us motivation and help us endure frustration, suffering, and hard
work. (Ibarra & Lineback, 2005, p. 66)

Career counselors and those who work in the career development profession (e.g., employ-
ment counselors, coaches, human development professionals, and educators) will continue
to hear clients' narratives filled with frustration, despair, and resentment due to transitions,
plcinned or unplanned. Conversely, as a result of these changes, many clients will seek out
new and innovative opportunities that wiU be more self-fulfilling in the long run. In turn,
narrative-based approaches to career and employment counseling have the potential to fill
an important role. Career and employment counselors will be in an ideal place to recogmze,
absorb, interpret, and be moved by the stories they hear irom clients, actions that constitute a
set of skills termed narrative competencies (Charon, 2001, p. 1898). Counseling professionals
can hone their narrative competencies and apply naiTative-based approaches to better serve
clients, especially during times of prolonged transition and upheaval in their clients' personal
and professional Mves. Additionally, career development professionals can assist clients with
the process of reauthoring new chapters to their career stories and creating future possible
selves (Markus & Nurius, 1986). In this next section, I outline several strengths or benefits
of the narrative-based career and employment counseling approach.

journal of employment counseling • June 2010 • Volume 47 67

STRENGTHS OF NARRATIVE-BASED CAREER AND EMPLOYMENT
COUNSEUNG APPROACHES

Although further empirical studies on the outcomes of narrative strategies need to be con-
ducted, it can be argued that there are numerous benefits of a narrative-based approach
to career and employment counseling. First, the counseling experience can be more
empowering for the client than it is with other counseling approaches because narrative
perspectives tend to assume a collaborative, cocreative process (Campbell & Ungar, 2004).
According to Reid (2005), the process tends to be proactive when the client is given the
chance to reauthor a story, and this often results in new possibilities in the future. Like
other postmodern, constructivist counseling approaches, narrative perspectives tend to
emphasize personal agency in the career construction process (Niles & Härtung, 2000).
The counselor is more of a facilitator than an expert, and the helping relationship tends to
be a team effort; the chent is not a passive responder (McMahon & Patton, 2006b).
Second, the main emphasis in narrative-based career and employment counseling
approaches is on the evolving meaning of experiences as opposed to more static
traits. This allows for creativity in the counseling process (Severy, 2008). Clients
are able to give a voice to their experiences and to learn how to articulate and share
their life stories with others (Bujold, 2004; Reid, 2006). Their experiences can be
viewed as being proactive and contextual when taking a holistic counseling approach
that assumes multiple realities and an examination of life roles across various social
domains (i.e., this could include exploring both paid and nonpaid life roles).
Third, narrative-based approaches have the potential to be effective in cross-cultural
counseling contexts with historically marginalized populations, including clients of color
and immigrant groups (Clark, Severy, & Sawyer, 2004). The narrative process uses the
clients' language and integrates contextual factors that might have an impact on life and
career decision making. This often includes exploring work from a systems perspective
wherein environmental factors interact with other variables (McMahon & Watson, 2009).
For example, the use of language, such as metaphor, can be revealing from a narrative
perspective. The use of metaphor in the career development profession is not new (Inkson,
2007; Inkson & Amundson, 2002; McMahon, 2007; Mignot, 2004; Pryor & Bright, 2008).
Amundson (2008) contended that metaphors can create possibilities, shift perspectives,
and help counselors explore different perspectives of clients' stories. Additionally, the use
of story is congruent with the oral histories integral to many cultures. Maree and Molepo
(2006) described how one of the proudest attributes of Africans is their ability to tell
stories; it is embedded within the culture, as are cultural singing and working together.
The narrative approach acknowledges that individual qualities, cultural influences, and
contextual factors can change over time (Reid, 2005), and clients can develop the self-
presentation skills needed to share their stories with others (Ibarra, 2002).
Fourth, the narrative perspective helps to educate clients regarding the reality that
life-career planning is an ongoing, cyclical process rather than a single-time event that
is only engaged in during times of crisis (Severy, 2008). Counselors can teach clients
the strategies of long-range planning as well as the importance of being open to change
and chance events (Chen, 2005; Gelatt, 1989; Mitchell, Levin, & Krumboltz, 1999). In
addition, the narrative approach allows clients to discuss the holistic and integrative
nature of their life (Hansen, 2001). Given the amount of change that most individuals
will experience in their work life, it is vital that clients learn lifelong employability
skills, including how to engage in integrative planning strategies when needed.

68 journal of employment counseling • June 2010 • Volume 47

 Fifth, narrative-based approaches have the potential to view client career problems
(Cochran, 1997) from a strengths-based perspective rather than from within a deficit model.
This approach is congruent with a positive psychology model wherein emphasis is placed on
what is right with the individual rather than what is wrong (Lopez & Lx)uis, 2009; Seligman
& Csikszentmihalyi, 2000). Clients can be encouraged to work from their natural strengths
and talents as opposed to their weaknesses. Just as there are strengths of the narrative-based
movement, there are several limitations that should be considered. It should be noted that
some of the strengths can be tumed around and perceived as limitations, the focus of the
next section, depending on the client and the context of the counseling scenario.

LIMITATIONS OF NARRATIVE-BASED CAREER AND EtVlPLOYtVIENT

COUNSELtNG APPROACHES

The narrative-based career and employment counseling approach, like other construc-
tivist approaches, can be viewed as a work in progress. As such, there are several
limitations or challenges that narrative perspectives can present. First, narrative-based
career and employment counseling approaches may present incongruent expectations
of the helping role between the client and the counselor. Some clients may expect the
employment counselor to be the traditional expert and assume a more authoritative
role (McMahon & Patton, 2006b). If the client is reserved or is unable to verbally
contribute to the dialogue, this approach might not be effective. The client needs to
be willing to engage in the exploration process; the client is a copartner in this col-
laborative process. Similarly, clients who expect a quick fix to their issues may not be
a good match for a narrative approach. Plus, the client who seeks the right answers
through a more traditional assessment tool (e.g., using a narrowly defined test-and-tell
approach) will likely be disappointed with the counseling experience. With narrative-
based approaches, the client is assigned the role of expert (Bujold, 2004).
Second, narrative-based career and employment counseling approaches tend to be time-
consuming and demanding. Reid (2006) discussed this issue through an inquiry about
counselor resources. How much time is needed to accomplish the clients' goals using
narrative-based approaches? Money and lack of time are finite resources for counseling
agencies and employment counselors, especially in tight economic times. Reid also as-
serted that clients from certain cultures might take more time to reveal their stories. Given
this reality, the counselor needs to determine what is practical and manageable given the
resource limitations. Moreover, narrative-based approaches require enhanced creativity
and commitment on the part of both client and counselor. Despite these concerns about
the demanding nature of narrative-based approaches, career and employment counselors
should be prepared to wholly engage in the process if they decide to go this route.
Third, the lack of structure and concerns about training may prevent some career
and employment counselors from adopting narrative-based counseling approaches.
Beginning counselors may feel overwhelmed because of the lack of structured
techniques and outcomes for narrative-based approaches that are more affiliated
with traditional approaches (Mcllveen & Patton, 2007; Thomas & Gibbons, 2009).
Experienced counselors might be less willing to learn new approaches and instead
rely on more traditional approaches that tend to be more directive and predictable
(e.g., psychometric assessments). Chope and Consoli (2006) indicated that some
counselors might find discomfort in talking to diverse clients about the various
complex areas of their worldview. These issues could include but are not limited to
journal of employment counseling • June 2010 • Volume 47 69
rules in the family systems, attitudes about work, gender stereotypes, cultural context,
diversity within cultural groupings, cultural persona, and religion.
Similarly, some clients may not have the privilege of engaging in extensive re-
flection about self-concept and creating future selves. For many clients, there are
likely to be more immediate needs such as survival (Blustein, 2006; Richardson,
1993). In this case, a narrative-based counseling approach may not be appropriate
or feasible. On the other hand, some career and employment counselors are willing
to learn about narrative approaches but are not aware of the resources available to
them. McMahon and Patton (2006a) commented that this problem was common in
constructivist career counseling, which includes narrative-based approaches, and for
which the prevalent question remains, "But how do we do it?" Counselors need to
be aware that there are no perfect answers to this query, yet be willing to learn and
experiment as they move forward with the process. Reid (2005) clearly articulated
that there are ethical concerns regarding the use of narrative counseling approaches
without appropriate knowledge and training. This is especially the case for new career
practitioners where there might be some potential to inadvertently harm a client.
Fourth, a critique of the narrative-based approach is a concern about the level of
effectiveness and efficacy. Unlike the traditional approaches of career development
that have years of research support, narrative career counseling has not yet acquired
a great deal of supportive evidence (Mcllveen & Patton, 2007). There are questions
about the validity of narrative approaches and assessment tools (Bujold, 2004). Op-
ponents of narrative research have critiqued the value-laden aspects of life stories
and narrative research in general. There are other lingering questions that fall under
this critique. Reid (2006) raised the question, "Are constructivist approaches too
focused on understanding with not enough attention paid to action?" (p. 33). Some
narrative opponents contend that there is too much focus on clients' past problems
(i.e., uncovering the career problem) and not enough focus on establishing goals and
then being accountable for accomplishing them. A related concern has to do with
the abstract nature of narrative approaches and whether theory can successfully be
put into practice (Reid, 2006). Qualitative assessment tools—grounded in vocational
psychology theory—continue to be created (Brott, 2005; Thorngren & Feit, 2001)
in reference to assessing narrative counseling approaches, and further empirical
research needs to be conducted on outcomes of their effectiveness.
Fifth, there is the danger of oversimplification of and overreliance on narrative-based
approaches at the expense of other useful counseling approaches. Narrative-based
approaches should be integrated with other existing models and traditional theories
(Reid, 2006). Ideally, they do not replace foundational trait-and-factor concepts but
rather complement and enhance them. Similarly, with the narrative-based approach
there is a risk of oversimplifying a client's experience and, therefore, not allowing
the counseling process to evolve. There can be a potential to rush in the counseling
process toward closure prematurely in an attempt to tie up loose ends.
Sixth, a potential limitation is the tendency to rely on Western interpretations of nar-
rative itself, such as the linear structure of story with a beginning, a middle, and an end
(cf. Cochran, 1997). This model may work adequately for some clients, but a universal
approach to the understanding of narrative should not be assumed. For example, in some
cultures the story is cyclical in nature rather than linear (Reagan, 2005). Reissman (1993)
noted that Western, White, middle-class career and employment counselors may expect
stories to follow temporally chronological plots. On the basis of this cyclical approach,
70 journal of employment counseling • June 2010 • Volume 47
some clients from other cultural backgrounds will be likely to tell stories with plots that
are organized episodically by theme rather than being temporally sequenced. Narrative
may be viewed as more fluid and open and not as something that is static with obvious
demarcations within the story. Finally, some well-intended career and employment coun-
selors might mistakenly overrely on narrative because of the newness and popularity of
the approach, and this should be avoided. In summary, career and employment counselors
who use narrative-based approaches would be wise to view narrative as another tool in
the toolbox and opt to use it prudently, depending on the client, context, and resources
available. Clearly, narrative-based counseling approaches can and should be used in
conjunction with other counseling strategies.

ADDRESSING LIMITATIONS OF NARRATIVE-BASED CAREER AND

EMPLOYMENT COUNSELING APPROACHES

Although there will always be potential limitations to any career counseling model, there
are certain strategies that the counseling profession in general—as well as career and
employment professionals in particular—might assume to address some of the concerns
about adopting narrative-based perspectives. The first major issue is the concern about
training for and obtaining the skills needed in narrative-based career and employment
counseling. There are established training programs, both within career development and
outside the field, that focus on narrative. These curriculums embed narrative theory and
practice directly into the training and can serve as useful models for future educational
models (Chen, 2002). For example, Spangar (2006) discussed the work of Peavy and
his socioDynamic perspective, a constructivist approach that uses narrative concepts. A
program in Finland used Peavy's (1992, 2000) tools to train more than 300 employment
counselors in the National Professional Development Program organized by the Ministry
of Labor there. To illustrate this concept, the counselors learned a visual mapping strat-
egy using drawing techniques called life-space mapping to help better understand the
meaning of clients' goals. On the basis of this approach, Spangar shared a vignette from
an employment counselor in which the mapping process was used with an immigrant
applying for a work permit in Finland. The actual drawing of the work permit provided
a visual plan targeted toward this client's future objective, and this exercise helped to
build a collaborative relationship between the client and the employment counselor.
Next, Reid (2003,2006) has suggested that personnel responsible for counselor training
programs consider the advantages of first-person narrative accounts over the use of case
studies. Reid (2003,2006) reported that when narrative accounts were used in her program,
counselors appeared more interested and engaged than they were when more traditional
training formats were used. Narratives tend to be more personal than case studies, and the
"story speaks uniquely to each listener" (Reid, 2005, p. 128); they tend to be uninterpreted.
She encouraged career guidance programs and practitioners to incorporate narrative coun-
seling approaches right from the beginning of new counselor training programs.
An additional contribution regarding narrative approaches comes from the medi-
cal profession. Physician Rita Charon (2001, 2006) has pioneered a relatively new
movement in the medical profession called narrative medicine. In addition to learning
about the biological and physiological aspects of their patients, new medical students
at several medical colleges and nursing programs enroll in specialized classes in
literature and the humanities to learn more about the importance of story or patient
narratives (Marnocha & Marnocha, 2007). As a result of this approach, physicians
journal of employment counseling • June 2010 • Volume 47 71
learn to study not only objective data about the health status of their clients (e.g., blood
pressure, cholesterol levels) but also the more subjective data or measures of health
(Verghese, 2001). These subjective measures include personal and lived experiences
of illness that are recounted in great detail—if given time and permission—from
patient to physician. Charon (2006) and her colleagues intend to change medical
practice by encouraging doctors to really listen and pay attention to the subjective
measures, the emotive stories that frequently reveal more about what is really going
on with a patient, as opposed to limiting them to an overreliance on objective data.
Similarly, the emphasis turns to authentic listening skills and healing rather than
the sole reliance on diagnostic skills (Churchill & Schenck, 2008).
Narrative has also been applied to the study of ethics in the medical profession
(Charon & Montello, 2002; Geisler, 2006) as well as psychiatry (Joachim, 2008).
Hudson Jones (2002) outlined activities used in training programs in narrative medi-
cine and narrative ethics, including reading groups, graduate seminars in literary
studies, writing about patients, intensive short courses, and fellowships and certificate
programs. These activities from the medical field can serve as useful examples for
counselor training programs. Just as medical physicians and other health science
professionals use narrative-based approaches to better understand their patients
and stories of illness, employment counselors and other career development profes-
sionals might acquire comparable knowledge to better grasp the meaning of client
narratives that involve transition, loss, and hope. Although an expanded discussion
of the redevelopment of counselor graduate training is beyond the scope of this
article, there is an opportunity to continue the conversation of the role and place of
narrative-based approaches in career counseling curriculum and training.
The next major concern involves the critique about the effectiveness of narrative-
based approaches, including the role of assessment in the counseling process. Learning
more about narrative-based approaches will allow career and employment practitioners
to become more familiar with qualitative assessment tools. Further development and
ongoing use of these instruments will help to address the issue of efficiency and put-
ting ideas into action. McMahon and Patton (2006b) stated that these qualitative tools
are not meant to replace traditional forms of assessment, rather they can coexist. They
encouraged practitioners to slowly integrate narrative-based counseling approaches into
their work. There are numerous qualitative tools that are grounded in narrative perspec-
tives. Examples include card sorts, genograms, circle of life exercises, lifelines, goal
maps, constructivist career courses, and the career-o-gram (Brott, 2004; Parker, 2006;
Thomgren & Feit, 2001; Wnuk & Amundson, 2003). Moreover, qualitative methods
of assessment can be used, either on their own or in conjunction with more traditional
tools, in a variety of contexts allowing for application to diverse client populations
(Grier-Reed, Skaar, & Conkel-Ziebell, 2009). Brott (2001) urged career development
practitioners to apply a storied approach to counseling using the narrative paradigm.
This approach can be especially useful for cHents who lost their jobs during the recent
economic recession that started in 2007-2008. It is likely that many clients seeking
out employment counseling will want to reinvent themselves by creating new story
chapters. Some clients will desire to change vocations, while others will opt to hone
new skill sets or return to school. It is important that career counselors consider the
value of narrative-based approaches to help clients meet their objectives.
As noted, there is a concern that narrative approaches, including assessment processes,
are time-consuming and demanding in terms of resources. This is especially true when
72 journal of employment counseling • June 2010 • Volume 47
mental health professionals engage in narrative therapy (Gilbert, 2002), during which
the emotional costs to the practitioner can be draining as well. It can be argued that the
application of narrative-based approaches in the career counseling field can exist on a
continuum from extremely intensive applications to hands-on, rudimentary exercises
that are no more demanding than traditional approaches grounded in trait-and-factor
theory. Christensen and Johnston (2003) highlighted several interventions that aim to
incorporate narrative into the career planning process. Several ideas included written
exercises; providing information on the world of work; and vicarious learning experi-
ences such as role modeling, shadowing, informational interviewing, and card sorts that
efficiently explore client values clarification (Parker, 2006). There are new qualitative
resources that are time-efficient and consider the importance of contextual factors in
the career process. For example, McMahon and Watson (2009) designed a tool. My
System of Career Influences (MSCI), that is based on a constructivist perspective
and incoiporates their systems theory framework (STF). The tool encourages career
professionals to move from theory to practice (to address another critique of narrative-
based approaches). A key component of the MSCI is a section that pushes the client
to reflect on the system or environmental factors that might have an influence on life-
career planning. Some of those complex concerns (e.g., gender stereotypes, race, role
of family, cultural context) are comparable to the issues noted by Chope and Consoli
(2006) that occasionally become obstacles to dialogue, especially for new counseling
professionals. The MSCI is an example of a tool that allows counselors to delve into
the important contextual factors that affect clients.

STRATEGIES FOR CAREER AND EMPLOYMENT PRACTITIONERS

The counseling process is synonymous with storytelling. In fact, one could argue
that career and employment counseling is a narrative act; we are in the business of
receiving clients' stories. Yet, if narrative-based counseling approaches are indeed
still evolving, there are recommendations that can be extended to career practitio-
ners who wish to hone skills and further explore narrative within their own practice.
In this section, I outline several practical suggestions for career and employment
counselors that are designed to foster professional development.
First, although not a novel strategy to the counseling field, the writing process can be
encouraged as a way for career development practitioners to reflect on counselor—client
interactions. The medical profession again serves as a useful model for this process.
Charon (2001) requires her medical students to write narrative summaries after they
meet with patients. Writing serves as a tool to hone listening and recall skills for
practitioners and clients (Marnocha & Marnocha, 2007). Journal writing serves as an
example. Physicians and medical practitioners frequently pen their own narratives of
working in the profession. This reflection process can potentially deepen empathy and
enhance interpersonal skills (Russell, 2008). Career and employment counselors can
do the same through journal writing and writing their own personal narratives. Practi-
tioners might give clients similar homework assignments that involve reflective writing.
The products of the narrative-based homework exercise can serve as a starting point
for dialogue. Additionally, career and employment counselors can build support with
colleagues by sharing their writing with other counseling professionals. This strategy
provides a form of group support, reduces stress, and prevents professional burnout
that is common in the helping professions (Skovholt, 2001).
journal of employment counseling • June 2010 • Volume 47 73
 Second, career counselors can learn more narrative approaches through the study
of career development literature devoted to narrative-based approaches. Ongoing
professional development can be enhanced by learning more about narrative ap-
proaches through reading regular contributions in the scholarly journals devoted to
nontraditional approaches to work-life issues. There is an emphasis on postmodern
constructivist approaches in the recent literature (Richardson, 2004; Young & Col-
lin, 2004; Young, Marshall, & Valach, 2007). The paradigm shift is occurring with
a strong emphasis on story and the meaning of these diverse narratives. Also, prac-
titioners can learn more about narrative through active exploration across multiple
disciplines, including medicine, literature, and the human sciences.
Third, career and employment counselors are encouraged to practice authentic
listening and facilitation. Authentic listening involves attending to themes and transi-
tions in clients' stories. This process involves recognizing literary devices, including
the use of metaphor and proverbs as well as contextual factors that often play a role in
the client narrative. Peavy (2000) referred to this process as dialogical communication
(p. 21). Practitioners should listen for verbal cues but, what is more important, they
should pay attention to what the clients' nonverbal cues may be saying (or not say-
ing) about the narrative. All clients possess stories. However, some stories will take
longer to reveal themselves. Charon (2006) encouraged practitioners to identify the
meaning of individuals' words, silences, and behaviors. Patience is a vital attribute
for those who wish to incorporate narrative-based counseling approaches.
Fourth, career and employment counselors can learn more about narrative structure
through immersion in literature and other forms of story. From a Western perspective,
there are key acts or elements that constitute most stories. Narratives have a natural
flow, yet it is useful to be familiar with structure and other literary devices such as
metaphor. Almost all good stories are filled with emotion. Perhaps, more important,
counselors can avoid an overrelianee on and oversimplification of narrative by learn-
ing more about non-Western stories and other forms of story, including oral histories
from other countries. As noted previously, not all stories are linear in nature. Clients
will share their stories in different ways depending on their lived experiences and
cultural history. Career and employment counselors will be better prepared to in-
corporate narrative multicultural counseling approaches into their practice if they
become more fluent in the diverse elements of narrative perspectives.
Fifth, as career and employment counselors, we can practice articulating our own life-
career stories. We serve as role models for our clients. It is important to be comfortable
sharing our narratives. Just as we urge clients to practice stating their stories, we should
heed this same advice. A good story possesses a tight coherence, and that involves the
telling and retelling of our narratives (Ibarra & Lineback, 2005). Watson (2007) encour-
aged physicians to tend to their own stories and maintain the conditions for wholeness.
This same advice can be applied to career and employment counseling professionals.

CONCLUSION AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS

Career and employment counselors work simultaneously in engaging and challenging

as well as rewarding times. We are immersed in a profound shift in the career devel-
opment field—a marked change from an emphasis on the old (scores and objective
measures) to a focus on the new (stories and narrative approaches). Although narrative
is not a new phenomenon, there has been an increase in the interest in narrative-based
74 joumal of employment counseling • June 2010 • Volume 47
approaches to career counseling. This article addressed possible strengths and limita-
tions of narrative-based approaches as well as strategies to overcome the limitations.
Finally, counseling professionals can hone narrative skills by engaging in professional
development and by testing narrative-based strategies incrementally with clients.
In the future, there needs to be continued research on the effectiveness of
narrative-based approaches in employment counseling settings. Ongoing research on
the effective use of qualitative tools applied in employment counseling settings will
provide more insight into how practitioners can use resources efficiently. In addition,
further qualitative studies should be conducted on the use of narrative approaches
with diverse populations across the life span (e.g., college students from historically
marginalized populations, immigrant students, individuals dealing with midcareer
changes, and retired persons). Change is inevitable. Individuals will continue to face
unplanned transitions. As a result, these prospective clients will seek new ways to
reinvent themselves. Narrative-based approaches are another tool that can be used in
tandem with existing traditional career counseling models. Employment counselors
and other career practitioners are strongly encouraged to incorporate narrative-based
approaches into their practice by becoming more knowledgeable about the role and
value of narrative from a variety of perspectives.

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