Folder of Wisdom

Jonathan Porro

Theory/Topic Principles/Major Application

Piaget Cognitive development occurs when children are faced with three
processes: equilibrium, assimilation, and accommodation. Also occurs in 4
key stages.
Processes
1. Equilibrium - Adapting to new situations to better ones
understanding of concepts.
2. Assimilation - The use of ones understanding of one concept to
explain another.
3. Accommodation - Ones understanding of a concept is improved by a
new experience.
Stages
1. Sensorimotor (0-2) - Develop object permanence and intentional
behavior.
2. Preoperational (2-7) - Develop symbolic representation. Stuck in
egocentric thinking. Perspective on problems is negatively affected
by centration.
3. Concrete Operational (7-11) - Children exist centration, now able to
think about various perspectives to problems. Lacking reversibility
and logical thinking. Achieve the ability to arrange objects in orderly
sequence.
4. Formal Operations (11+) - Development of abstract thinking and
deductive reasoning. Reversibility is accomplished as well and
children can think logically.
Critique
1. Doesn't go past age 11
2. Doesn't discuss external influences on development
3. Overstating abilities of children
Vygotsky Cognitive development occurs naturally, but can be assisted by those
already ahead on their own development.
Terms
1. Zone of Proximal Development - The area in between ones base skill
and the skill of a mentor. (see illustration)
a. Scaffolding - Teachers, parents, skilled peers raise up base
understanding.
b. Intersubjectivity - Investment in student's success; positive
interdependence.
c. Material Tools - Tools used to accomplish unobtainable tasks
(calculator, ruler, computer, etc.)
d. Psychological Tools - Manners/Social Cues can be taught
Critique
1. Scaffolding can hold back advanced students
2. Zone of Proximal Development is vague
Erikson Throughout development, people face 8 crises, which must be overcome,
lest they hinder one's development, having a domino effect on following
stages.
Stages of Psychosocial Development
1. Basic Trust v. Mistrust (0-1) - Infants learn whether or not needs will
be met by others [parents].
2. Autonomy v. Shame/Doubt (1-3) - Children will take responsibility for
some of their own needs, or feel shameful of their abnormal
dependence on others [parents].
3. Initiative v. Guilt (3-6) - Children try to accept responsibilities beyond
their capacity, or will feel guilty for conflicting with others [family].
4. Industry v. Inferiority (6-12) - Children master social/academic skills,
feeling a sense of accomplishment, or feel inferior to their peers
[teachers and peers].
5. Identity v. Role Confusion (12-20) - Adolescents either gain a sense of
identity and skill in an area, or feel existential confusion regarding
their role in society [society/peers].
6. Intimacy v. Isolation (20-40) - Adults either form meaningful
relationships or feel isolated [lovers, spouses, close friends].
7. Generativity v. Stagnation (40-65) - Adults either assume
responsibility of their culture or suffer a mid-life crisis and become
By knowing the stage of cognitive development of
one's students, a teacher could correctly identify the
strengths and weaknesses of their students. With this
knowledge, teachers could shape curriculum to meet
the capabilities of students with accuracy.
Consideration for Vygotsky's contributions to cognitive
development are recommended.
By accurately assessing the skills of students, teachers
can arrange group work to initiate scaffolding. If a
teacher were to have close reading groups, for
example, they could try to put at least one advanced
student in each group to facilitate learning. Advanced
students would get to reinforce their knowledge by
mentoring, and less skilled students will receive the
help of a peer.
Increased by Skilled Person
Teaching Occurs
Base Skill Here
From elementary to secondary education, students
struggle with initiative, industry, and identity. Erikson
claims that the family is the primary agent for initiative,
but I believe that teachers can be just as crucial. This
could be helped, not by any specific activity, but by
constant practice. For example, I would let my students
know that they should call me out if I am very wrong
about something. Not only would this let me appear
more human to them, it would give them the
confidence they need to take initiative more often. I
could also carry this over by letting certain students
who seem to be lacking initiative make certain class
decisions. Who will be the line leader, or, how much
time should we have for this activity are appropriate
questions to ask. For industry, I could try to avoid
hierarchies being developed in class. This would involve
strategic grouping regarding my students’
socioeconomic and academic statuses. Also, being
aware of community resources such as churches who
do food drives or clothing donations would be helpful
in leading my students’ families to resources they need

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 responsibility of their culture or suffer a mid-life crisis and become
self-centered [spouse, children, cultural norms].
8. Ego Integrity v. Despair (65+) - The old adult feels proud of their life
and accomplishments, or feels regret at having not taken advantage
of opportunities, often feeling resentment or bitterness [life
experience, social experiences].
Critique
1. Parent involvement dwindles, when parents often play strong roles in
peoples' lives well into adulthood.
2. 20-40, strong relationships are actually sought all throughout life.
Kohlberg Morally, people develop from more selfish intents when they are younger
to more selfless intents when they are older.
Stages
1. Preconventional (0-9)
a. Punishment - compliance with rules to avoid punishment
b. Reward - compliance with rules for rewards
2. Conventional (9-20)
a. Good boy/girl - Conformity for approval of others
b. Authority - Conformity for societal rules/laws
3. Postconventional (20+)
a. Social Contract - Recognition that rules can be broken for the
greater good
b. Individual Morality - Internal beliefs/values are rigid and
unaffected by circumstances.
Critique
1. Scenarios lack context and have limited options
2. Postconventional order is subjective, acting solely on inner values can
be perceived as selfish and morally misdirected
Skinner The theory of Operant Conditioning states that behavior can be affected
through systems of punishments and rewards.
Terms
1. Punishment - consequence after undesirable behavior
a. Aversive Stimuli - yelling, grabbing, scolding, psychologically
damaging
b. Reinforcement Removal - taking away enjoyable stimulus.
c. Extinction - ignore behavior
d. Time Out - remove from source of undesirable behavior
e. Response Cost - Lose points in Token Economy
2. Reinforcement - consequence after desirable behavior
a. Positive - add desirable stimulus
i. Premack Principle - this for that
ii. Token Economy
b. Negative - remove undesirable stimulus
c. Schedules of Reinforcement
i. Fixed Interval - after fixed time, give reinforcement
ii. Fixed Ratio - after # of times demonstrating behavior
iii. Variable Ratio - random target behavior
iv. Variable Interval - random time
Multiple Intelligence The theory claims that there are at least 9 different intelligences that
people are innately skilled with. This counters the idea that intelligence can
be based on a standard set of criteria. It is important to note that people
can be adept in more than one intelligence.
Intelligences
1. Spatial - visualizing the world, adept at artistic endeavors such as
painting and drawing, and mathematic fields like geometry.
2. Naturalistic - understanding nature and living things, adept at
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in leading my students’ families to resources they need
to be on the same level as their peers. Identity could be
cultivated simply by connecting lessons to the specific
interests of my students and pointing them to
extracurricular activities. This would help them find
their passions and answer the question Who am I?
My high school students will likely fall in the
conventional stage of moral development. That being
said, they will likely behave in accordance to what their
peers expect from them. For this reason, it is necessary
to develop a flourishing classroom environment, where
I can direct what students expect from themselves as
well as each other. By giving them all similar stakes in
their behavior [see the application of Skinner], I can
create a safe and cooperative classroom.
In addition, I could help students to advance in their
moral development, not through the use of vague
scenarios with limited options, but by pointing out
when a problem is present and having an engaging
classroom discussion about it. This could also be done
by adding discussion of morality into the literature we
read.
I plan on teaching high school English, so my students will
be roughly 13-18 years old.
Positive reinforcement, the addition of pleasant stimuli,
should only be considered as verbal praise or extra credit
at this age. Students are not so much concerned with
receiving toys and candy as they once were, nor are they
interested solely in impressing the teacher. If a student is
adhering to all rules, I would be congratulatory, but in a
small way. Simply acknowledging that a student has had a
good idea or that they did something very mature and
responsible should be enough. This will assure them that
they are doing something correctly and make them feel
respected by themselves and peers.
As far as schedules of reinforcement, I am most fond of a
fixed interval for older students. At this point, behavior
should be expected, so I should not have to reward them
for each time they behave. If they adhere to all of my class
and school rules for two weeks, I may be inclined to treat
them to something mentioned earlier.
Of course, not all students will be interested in cultivating
a cooperative classroom community and may infringe
upon the established rules. Let’s say a student is not
adhering to the school’s Acceptable Use Policy (AUP) and
is texting while I am giving a lesson. I am keen on
extinction and time-outs as punishments for minimal
offenses like this. I may slowly walk over to the student
while lecturing just to show them I am aware of their
behavior. If they do not get the hint, they will put their
phone in a box on my desk. After they are removed from
their distraction, they may be inclined to pay attention.
For more severe infractions, I may have to give students
detentions. Infractions I’ll have no patience for are
cheating and bullying. If I see this, the student is getting
detention. In addition, parents will be called and grades
will be affected. Some things just boil down to common
decency, which should be mostly established this late into
high school.
I am not too fond of the theory of Multiple
Intelligences, as it seems to categorize students away
from each other, rather than give them similar goals.
Furthermore, the theory may make students embrace
their weaknesses instead of encouraging them to
improve. If I have an intrapersonal student, I cannot
exclude them from group work. All that will do is
cultivate social ineptitude in my students. I do,
 2. Naturalistic - understanding nature and living things, adept at
biological fields such as botany and zoology.
3. Musical - more able to discern different sounds and play music by
ear. Adept at identifying rhythms and meter.
4. Logical/Mathematical - adept in fields of math regarding quantifying,
hypothesizing, and problem-solving.
5. Existential - adept at fields of philosophy, especially those regarding
existence. Why we are here and why we die
6. Interpersonal - adept at working with and understanding other
people. More likely to be a team leader and have charismatic
qualities.
7. Bodily/Kinesthetic - adept at controlling the body intentionally. More
likely to be skilled in dancing, sports, and other physical endeavors.
8. Linguistic - adept at endeavors involving language. May have
nuanced vocabulary and may be skilled in writing/reading.
9. Intrapersonal - Awareness/reliance of oneself. Less likely to work well
in groups, but exceptionally skilled in solo work.
Critique
1. Certain intelligences such as existential and naturalistic are vague.
2. Tests to identify ones intelligence assess preference rather than
actual aptitude in a field.
Bandura Albert Bandura conducted the Bobo Doll experiment in the 60's. This test
was used to assess whether or not aspects of operant conditioning would
affect aggression in children.
Study
Children were shown a video of an adult confronting a Bobo Doll. The
adult would push and kick the doll, as well as throw balls at it and
beat it with a hammer. Children who watched this video were taken
into three groups.
1. Film ended after aggression
2. Film ended with praise for aggression
3. Film ends with punishment for aggression
After the film, children were taken into a room filled with a wide
array of toys, including a Bobo Doll. The findings were such…
1. Group 1 displayed heavy aggression toward the doll
2. Group 2 displayed slightly heavier aggression toward the doll
3. Group 3 displayed little to no aggression toward the doll
Conclusion
Kids have very malleable minds and will do what they see role
models do, especially if the role model's acts are followed by positive
outcomes.
Assessment/Authentic Assessing is the process of gathering, analyzing, and interpreting all relevant
information about a student's academic performance.
Types of Assessment
1. Formal - Tests, quizzes, papers; all are graded
2. Informal - observation-based; often not graded
3. Formative - aim is to track student progress as it FORMS
4. Summative - aim is to track the SUMMATION of student progress
Types of Authentic Assessment
1. Performance Based - individual work is based on curriculum and is
used to apply/create knowledge. [Active Learning]
2. Portfolio - Collection of total work completed over a period of time to
judge a student's overall progress and gained strengths.
3. Observation Based - Student is watched/compared to their
performance before learning.
Maslow Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs claims that everyone has a set of needs which
can be categorized in a pyramid with the importance of said needs
correlating to how low they are. It is said that, if the lower tiers cannot be
satiated, learning will be hindered.
Deficiency Needs
1. Physiological - sleep, rest, food, oxygen
2. Safety - structure, stability
3. Belonging/Love - fitting in, affiliation, social support
4. Esteem - self-esteem, competence, respect
Growth Needs
1. Understanding - knowledge, meaning
2. Aesthetic - beauty, form, balance
3. Self-Actualization - being the best person one can be
4. Transcendence - helping others self-actualize
Critique
1. Simplifies the human condition
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cultivate social ineptitude in my students. I do,
however, see some promise in incorporating certain
elements of natural, kinesthetic, and interpersonal
intelligences into more common core linguistic ad
mathematic ones. If done correctly, this could engage
students and cultivate their learning.
One way I might do this in my English class is by giving
the students choices occasionally. I made mention of
this earlier and will probably continue to do so as it fits
well into multiple fields of pedagogy, but simply giving
students choices in the way they are assessed is an
effective way to play on their strengths and engage
them.
If I were trying to be an elementary teacher, this study
would have more implications to my career. Knowing
that my students are extremely impressionable, I could
try to model appropriate behavior. This could be done
by giving them anecdotes concerning what I have done
in certain situations and what I learned from them. In
addition, simply showing equal kindness to my
students will show them what is to be expected from
them.
One more thing I could do is identify one student
whom the rest look up to and give them praise for
demonstrating positive behavior. This can then trickle
down when the other students start displaying desired
behaviors.
Authentic assessment is crucial to building confidence
and passion in the learning of students. By giving them
larger assessments, especially ones such as portfolios
and performance-based, I could distribute the
responsibility of learning equally. I could outline
specific goals for my students and give them a set of
resources to refer to (notes, websites, etc.). Then I
could make myself more and more scarce, cultivated
their reliance on themselves and peers.
Understanding and acknowledging the needs of a
student before pushing them to academic success is
valuable information for a teacher to have. If a student
is not sleeping or coming to school hungry, a teacher
should be someone they can rely on to prepare them.
1. Physiological - a teacher should have access to
community resources to help students who are
growing up in impoverished conditions. Food
and clothing drives run by local churches are a
go-to for such things.
2. Safety - is a student is showing signs of being
abused by guardians, it is the job of a teacher to
identify the issue and take action, moving the
student to a safer environment.
3. Belonging - Teachers should cultivate a positive
classroom environment in which positive
 1. Simplifies the human condition
2. People may be tackling multiple tiers at once
3. Some tiers fit in with each other too well (e.g. basic needs)
Bloom's Taxonomy Bloom's Taxonomy claims that there are tiers to learning, with basic recall
being on the bottom and the ability to create being on the top. Using
varying styles of questioning and prompting, teachers can facilitate higher-
level learning.
Tiers
1. Remember - recall/define/duplicate
2. Understand - explain/classify/discuss/describe
3. Apply - use/execute/interpret/sketch
4. Analyze - connect/compare/contrast/question
5. Evaluate - justify/argue/judge/support/critique
6. Create - produce/design/assemble/investigate
Critique
1. Some prompts for tiers are simply synonymous to prompts in other
tiers and don't differentiate as much as they should.
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classroom environment in which positive
engagement with peers is reinforced and
hostility is punished.
4. Esteem - Teachers should constantly recognize
students strengths and use them to improve
their weaknesses. For example, if a student is
shy, but shows exceptional skill in reading with
inflection and pace, I may be inclined to help
them join the school's drama club.
Again, the need for varying assessments and
assignments is necessary to cultivate genuine learning
experiences. There is nothing wrong with utilizing the
lower tiers to establish a base understanding of
curriculum, but it is necessary to build upon that more
and more until students can create. An example of this
which I love is when teaching the epic poem, Beowulf,
a teacher may start by telling students to recount
events from the story and describe them. This takes
care of the first two tiers and establishes a base
understanding of the plot and the style of writing.
Then, a teacher could ask students to draw out certain
scenes, compare them to others, judge Beowulf himself
as a hero, and write their own shortened epic poem in
the same style. This transition would be very gradual
but almost seamless if done in a correct chronology.