FORUM

Integrated Design and Construction of Tall Buildings

Abbas Aminmansour, A.M.ASCE column-free office environments, providing greater flexibility in
Structures Program, School of Architecture, Univ. of Illinois at Urbana- building use. With their major lateral load-resisting systems lo-
Champaign, Champaign, IL 61820-6921. E-mail: aamin@illinois.edu cated at the building perimeter, tube structures by their nature
have great potential of being a major element of building aes-
Kyoung Sun Moon thetic. This potential has been either strongly pursued or inten-
School of Architecture, Yale Univ., New Haven, CT 06511. tionally minimized depending on specific design situations.
Among various tube configurations, framed tubes such as the
Contemporary tall buildings frequently incorporate distinctive ar- ones used in the demolished World Trade Center Towers in New
York and in the Aon Center in Chicago 共Fig. 1兲 are rarely used
chitectural designs that require unique and innovative design of
today due to their very closely spaced columns, which obstruct
structural, mechanical, lighting, electrical, and other building sys-
the great views typically provided by tall buildings. Braced tubes
tems. In addition, the massive scale of tall building systems cre-
and their variations are still used in contemporary tall buildings
ates critical interrelationships and dependencies among these
such as the World Financial Center in Shanghai 共Fig. 2兲. How-
systems. Construction of tall buildings is impacted by the build-
ever, unlike the clear expression of structure in Chicago’s John
ing architecture and systems and may require special construction
Hancock Center 共Fig. 3兲, the perimeter braces in the World Finan-
materials, equipment, techniques, or processes that necessitate
cial Center are hidden behind a reflective glass facade.
close collaboration between the contractor and the design team.
One of the most prevalently used tube systems today is the
Moreover, issues such as efficiency and economy of operation
diagrid. With its new aesthetic expressions and great structural
and maintenance of tall buildings during their life-spans offer
efficiency for tall buildings in resisting lateral forces, diagrids
incentives for the design and construction team to think critically
have been used for major tall buildings such as the Hearst Tower
beyond the construction phase and incorporate features and ma-
in New York 共Fig. 4兲, the Swiss Re Building in London 共Fig. 5兲,
terials that increase the return on the developer’s investment. Fur-
the Lotte Super Tower in Seoul, and the Guangzhou Twin Towers
ther, the increased sensitivity to the environment and our limited
in Guangzhou. In these buildings, diagonals are strongly ex-
natural resources influence not only the design, but construction
material and techniques used in the development of tall buildings.
Thus, design and construction of tall buildings is a multidisci-
plinary challenge bringing together the architect, architectural
engineering consultants 共including the structural engineer, me-
chanical engineer, and lighting engineer兲, and the contractor from
the conception and planning of the project to completion of con-
struction of the building. This collaboration requires general
knowledge and understanding of the different disciplines by each
professional involved in the process.
This paper presents a number of strategies for the successful
execution of tall buildings. Teamwork and integrated design and
construction for comprehensive and efficient outcomes are par-
ticularly highlighted with emphasis on the role of the different
parties involved in the planning through to the operation of tall
buildings.

Structural Systems, Spatial Configurations,

and Building Aesthetics

The invention of iron/steel skeletal structural systems in

Chicago—the technological driving force of tall building
developments—led to the emergence of modern tall buildings.
Since then, tall building structures have evolved toward taller and
more efficient systems in conjunction with changing functional
requirements based on the development of new management sys-
tems 共Abalos and Herreros 2003; Russell 2003兲. Departing from
the conventional frame structures, a significant evolution occurred
with the development of tubular structures in the late 1960s,
which satisfied both structural and functional requirements.
Tube systems have provided very efficient structures with Fig. 1. Aon Center in Chicago 共Courtesy of Abbas Aminmansour兲

JOURNAL OF ARCHITECTURAL ENGINEERING © ASCE / JUNE 2010 / 47


Fig. 2. Shanghai World Financial Center 共Courtesy of Abbas Amin-
mansour兲
pressed on the building facade as primary aesthetic components
as well as building identifiers. While most diagrid structures are
designed with diagonals placed at uniform angles, some diagrid
structures, such as the Lotte Super Tower, employ varying-angle
diagrids, with steeper angles toward the ground. This varying
angle configuration of diagrids provides superior structural per-
formance and more dynamic visual expression for a very tall
building 共Moon 2008兲. Diagrids are also used as structural solu-
tions in irregular freeform shape tall buildings such as the Phare
Tower in La Defense and the Fiera Milano Tower in Milan, which
lead another direction of contemporary tall building design.
Compared with conventional orthogonal structures, diagrid
structures require more complicated joints where at least six
structural members meet. Thus, careful consideration should be
given to design and construction of diagrid joints for successful
project execution. Prefabrication of the complicated diagrid nodes
combined with the fact that these joints can be designed with pin
connections due to the triangulated configuration of diagrids may
lead to less work at the job site. Due to the absence of vertical
structural members, geometric configuration of façade systems
should be well coordinated between architects and engineers to
achieve desired aesthetic and functional performance.
Another tall building structural system used worldwide today
is the core-supported outrigger system. By connecting shear core
and exterior columns or mega columns, the system maximizes its
bending rigidity with an extended moment arm. While tube struc-
48 / JOURNAL OF ARCHITECTURAL ENGINEERING © ASCE / JUNE 2010
Fig. 3. John Hancock Center in Chicago 共Courtesy of Abbas Amin-
mansour兲
tures concentrate lateral load-resisting system components, which
resist both shear and bending at the building’s perimeter, typical
core-supported outrigger systems resist shear primarily through
their cores and bending through the cores and exterior columns
connected to the cores by the outriggers 共Moon et al. 2007兲. In
resisting lateral forces, outrigger systems perform with the
couples created by tension and compression in the perimeter col-
umns connected to the outriggers. However, careful structural
planning may eliminate the actual tension with gravity loads
共Smith and Coull 1991兲.
For very tall buildings with multiple outriggers of usually
double-story heights, coordination of the structural system with
spatial organization and building aesthetics is crucial in successful
design. As is the case with the Jin Mao Building in Shanghai 共Fig.
6兲, outriggers or other deep structural components may be located
at the mechanical floors, which are vertically distributed along the
building height and also typically require double-story heights.
Fig. 7 shows the mechanical floor of a tall building with signifi-
cant structural components present on that floor.
Structural efficiency and vertical building proportioning re-
lated to aesthetics and function as well as efficient zoning of
mechanical systems should be considered simultaneously in de-
termining the locations of outriggers. Unlike tube structures, out-
rigger systems do not rely entirely on building perimeter
structures in resisting lateral forces, thereby allowing the exterior
columns to be more widely spaced. Consequently façade design is
less constrained by perimeter structures 共Ali and Moon 2007兲.
Building Form and Structural Performance
Today’s architecture, including tall buildings, can be understood
only through recognition of the dominance of cultural pluralism.
Fig. 4. Hearst Tower in New York 共Courtesy of Abbas Aminman-
sour兲
Early design of tall buildings culminated with the emergence of
the International style, which prevailed for decades. Today, how-
ever, as is true of other building types, multiple design directions
are prevalent for tall buildings. The lack of a dominant style has
produced various building forms, such as free forms, twisted
forms, tapered forms, and tilted forms, and the supporting struc-
tural systems. The importance of an integrative design and con-
struction approach is more significant today due to the complexity
of building forms compared to the Miesian building forms pro-
duced during the mid-twentieth century.
Early irregular freeform tall buildings were proposed by some
architects such as Frank Gehry and Peter Eisenman in the late
twentieth century, but their designs never left the drawing boards.
Today, however, many freeform tall buildings, such as Daniel
Libeskind’s Fiera Tower, Zaha Hadid’s Dancing Tower, and Thom
Maine’s Phare Tower, are designed and planned to be actually
built. Irregular freeform design has become a new direction in
contemporary architectural design. Another interesting approach
in tall building design today is the twisted forms found in the
Turning Torso in Malmo 共Fig. 8兲 and the Chicago Spire in Chi-
cago, both designed by Santiago Calatrava. In conjunction with
either the new building forms or the conventional building forms,
tapered or tilted forms are also prevalent in today’s tall buildings.
From the viewpoint of building forms, these approaches can be
understood as reactions to once globally prevalent prismatic
building forms. This type of cyclic transition in building forms
related to architectural aesthetics can be traced throughout the
history of architecture 共Moon 2005兲.
From the viewpoint of corresponding structural systems and
performance, today’s irregular building forms require more com-
plicated system design, analysis, and construction. But, on the
JOURNAL OF ARCHITECTURAL ENGINEERING © ASCE / JUNE 2010 / 49
Fig. 5. Swiss Re Building in London 共Courtesy of Kyoung Sun
Moon兲
other hand, they may offer better performance in response to dy-
namic wind forces. Unlike conventional rectangular box building
forms, any irregularity in building form helps prevent wind from
forming organized vortexes which in many cases produce the
most serious vibration problems in the across wind direction.
There exists a great potential in design integration to produce
better performing buildings. As an example, the World Trade
Center towers required viscoelastic dampers to be installed for
motion control after occupancy, while the Burj Dubai 共Fig. 9兲, a
much taller building, is designed without any damping mecha-
nisms. With many irregular setbacks in the Burj Dubai, winds are
expected to be “confused” without forming organized vortexes
共Baker et al. 2008兲. The coordination of irregularity in building
forms between architects and engineers to satisfy building aes-
thetics and at the same time to maximize structural performance
will lead to a higher-quality built environment.
Some typical features used by architects and structural design-
ers to reduce tall buildings’ responses to wind forces include ver-
tically tapering profiles, reduced wind sail at top of the building,
rounded or chamfered corners, and notches or vents 共Nordenson
and Riley 2003兲. Today, wind tunnel analysis is an integral part of
design of tall buildings. Such experimentations offer the designers
valuable insight into the building response to wind. Information
obtained from wind tunnel tests are based on the building shape
as well as any obstacles, such as other buildings, that may influ-
ence airflow and formation of vortices around the building.
To further reduce vortex-shedding-induced dynamic motion of
tall buildings, various damping systems can be installed integrally
with other building systems. For the structural design of a very
 Fig. 8. Turning Torso in Malmo 共Courtesy of Antony Wood,
Fig. 6. Jin Mao Building in Shanghai 共Courtesy of Abbas Aminman- CTBUH兲
sour兲

There is a great potential to integrate these performance-driven

technologies with building aesthetics.
tall building, it is possible for the serviceability requirements to Constructability is a serious issue for the successful execution
be dominant 共Connor 2003兲. In early days, even structural bracing of irregular forms. As building forms become more irregular, pro-
members were always hidden from building façades because ex-
posure of these structural elements was opposed to the architects’
aesthetic direction. It took a long time for these once purely struc-
tural elements to be exposed in building façades, as can be seen in
Chicago’s John Hancock Center of 1969 and today’s diagrid
structures. Damping devices, like bracing members, have often
been kept out of the view in tall buildings as well. However, the
pendulum-type mass damper in Taipei 101 is exposed for viewing
in the atrium of the building as an ornamental element 共Fig. 10兲.

Fig. 7. Two-story mechanical floor of a tall building with significant

structure present 共Courtesy of Abbas Aminmansour兲 Fig. 9. Burj Dubai 共Courtesy of Kyoung Sun Moon兲

50 / JOURNAL OF ARCHITECTURAL ENGINEERING © ASCE / JUNE 2010

Fig. 10. Taipei 101 tuned mass damper 共Courtesy of Abbas Amin-
mansour)
ducing appropriate construction modules, the structural and
façade systems become more critical for improved economy. Ex-
tracting regularity from an irregular building form and adjusting
the building form following the extracted regularity can be one
approach. Another approach may be to make the construction
modules relatively regular and design more adaptable connections
so that they can accommodate any irregularity.
Structure, Façade, and Environmental Systems
From the viewpoint of technology, the emergence of tall buildings
began from the functional separation of structures and façades.
Iron/steel skeletal structures and the curtain wall concept replaced
traditional masonry walls, and the era for tall buildings began.
The functional separation of building structures and façades, how-
ever, did not accompany complete physical separation. Structural
and façade systems have always been constructed together with
physical contacts for their mutual benefit. The two systems, once
fully integrated with serious limitations when implemented in tall
buildings, have been relatively separated with minimum connec-
tions necessary to contribute to each other. Thus, new modern
ways of integration to accommodate new concepts have been de-
veloped. Some designers capitalize on portions or all of the struc-
tural and façade systems serving as prominent parts of the
building architecture 共Fig. 11兲. Such decision on the part of the
designer is a choice, though, and not a necessity.
Façades are typically supported by the primary structures at
the building perimeter. They provide enclosure for the building
and protect its interior from the outdoor environment. However,
structures are subjected to movements due to various reasons,
JOURNAL OF ARCHITECTURAL ENGINEERING © ASCE / JUNE 2010 / 51
Fig. 11. New York Times Tower in New York 共Courtesy of Abbas
Aminmansour兲
such as external forces, aging, and environmental changes. There-
fore, façades are designed and detailed to accommodate the struc-
ture’s movements without causing damage to the often delicate
façade material. Based on these fundamental interactions, the two
systems have developed toward each other’s—and in turn—a
whole building’s better performance. Architects and engineers are
in charge of developing better performance in these two indepen-
dent but very closely related systems.
Compared with heavy masonry walls, relatively light modern
curtain walls, typically composed of metals and glasses, allow
more visual and environmental connections between the exterior
and interior. More visual connections including introduction of
more natural light and great views into the interior space are
desired by architects and occupants alike. However, potential
harsh exterior environments require careful considerations for de-
sign and detailing of curtain walls. During the period when out-
door environmental conditions are unfavorable for human
comfort, maximum insulation value for the façade systems is de-
sired. On the other hand, for the periods when outdoor conditions
are close to the human comfort zone, façade systems may be
designed to allow use of the outdoor environment to generate
indoor comfort more economically. Further, façade designs that
permit free nighttime cooling through natural ventilation may be
considered. In such cases, structural systems and interior finish
designs should be carefully configured to augment the use of
thermal mass capacity. However, sometimes façade designs that
allow occupants control for natural ventilation create a dilemma
for designers. Some designers do not favor permitting occupants
access to outdoor air to avoid losing environmental control.
Among other things, access to outdoor air impacts control of

Fig. 12. Double-skin façade design example 共Courtesy of Adam
Gimpert兲
stack effect 共also known as chimney effect兲 phenomenon in tall
buildings.
Double-skin façades 共Fig. 12兲 can be an effective design
choice for tall buildings. They represent one of the most advanced
forms of contemporary building envelope systems. Properly de-
signed double-skin façades can successfully accomplish visual
lightness and transparency as well as better environmental control
than single-skin façades. Studies suggest that the productivity of
the occupants in the buildings clad with double-skin façades is
higher because of the more comfortable work environment these
façades can offer 共Oesterle et al. 2001兲. However, usable area
reduction due to the cavity spaces, higher façade self-weight, and
more expensive cost of construction are some of the concerns to
be carefully considered in the design of double-skin façades.
An obvious function of building façades is to allow natural
light in the building, thereby creating a more comfortable envi-
ronment as well as reducing energy costs. Higher ceilings in
buildings with considerable glazing allow natural light to reach
deeper in the space, but add to the building’s overall height. The
depth of the floor sandwich may also increase the building’s over-
all height. Building floor sandwiches typically include floor
beams, girders, and slabs, as well as mechanical and other build-
ing components. Strictly from the structural point of view, deeper
beams are more desirable because of their potentially higher
bending strength and lower deflection. However, they too increase
the floor sandwich’s thickness and add to the building height.
Increased building height results in additional use of material and
more space to condition during the life of the building. It also
52 / JOURNAL OF ARCHITECTURAL ENGINEERING © ASCE / JUNE 2010
increases the building’s exposure to high winds, which in turn
may require a “stronger” structure. Thus, decisions that increase
the building’s height must be carefully studied and made in col-
laboration with other team members.
Tall building perimeters are very important zones architectur-
ally, structurally, and environmentally. Thus, it is expected that
many building components are congested along their perimeter to
fulfill the necessary multiple complex functions. From the view-
point of structural behavior, it is quite desirable to concentrate as
much lateral load-resisting systems as possible on the perimeter
of tall buildings where building façades are located. This idea
increases structural depth against lateral loads and increases the
system’s efficiency. However, the idea may not be desirable in
terms of architectural and environmental control system design.
Nonetheless, observed from a slightly different angle, this could
increase the possibility of design integration because more ma-
neuverable components are concentrated at the same location.
Façades serve as the environmental mediator between the
building interior and exterior and are supported by the building
structure. If integrally designed, they can coexist with the struc-
ture without conflict and can enhance the performance of the
structural and environmental systems. Other building systems can
be designed in the same manner as well. With this approach, each
system is designed for its best performance while at the same time
actively participating in the enhancement of related systems’ per-
formances. For this type of synergistic integrative design method-
ology, it is absolutely necessary for architects and engineers to
holistically understand the project.
Case for Sustainable Design
Over the last several years, sustainable design of buildings in
general has gained more attention from architects, engineers, and
constructors. Appropriately, sustainable design and construction
of tall buildings has become more popular among building pro-
fessionals as well. Given their enormous scale, the impact of sus-
tainable design and construction of tall buildings will be
proportionately large. The number of tall buildings designed and
constructed around the world with sensitivity to our environment
and natural resources is ever increasing. The Hearst Tower in
New York City 共Fig. 4兲, which opened in October of 2006, is the
first office building in the city to receive Gold LEED certification.
The tower was built on top of the existing six-story Hearst office
building, which was built in the late 1920s.
The idea of placing a new building on top of an existing build-
ing or using portions of an existing building structure is not a new
concept. In Chicago alone there have been a number of examples
of such projects in recent years. The Dearborn Center, a tall build-
ing recently added to the city’s skyline, was built on top of exist-
ing foundations built about a century earlier. Another example of
such projects in Chicago is the vertical completion of the Health
Care Service Corporation 共HCSC兲, also known as the Blue Cross
Blue Shield building 共Fig. 13兲. The project, which began in 2007,
will add 24 stories on top of the existing 31-story tower built 10
years earlier with the future expansion in mind.
Using existing structures to build on top of saves material,
energy, and labor through reuse of existing constructed material.
However, these projects require careful investigation for ad-
equacy of the existing structure to accommodate new additions.
But in the end, in addition to the savings just mentioned, such
projects could bring the new project to completion earlier, thereby
generating considerable revenues for the owner as opposed to

Fig. 13. Vertical expansion of the Health Care Service Corporation
building in Chicago 共Courtesy of Abbas Aminmansour兲
tearing down the building and constructing again.
A number of ideas may be included in sustainable design and
construction of tall buildings. One such idea is using highly inno-
vative and efficient structural systems that could save significant
material as opposed to conventional systems used in design of tall
buildings. Using materials that are recycled and/or more readily
available and processed locally as opposed to shipping them from
long distances is another example of sustainable design ideas.
Sensitive environmental systems design can have a substantial
impact on the sustainable design of tall buildings. With the ever-
increasing cost of utilities and our limited available natural re-
sources, energy-efficient tall buildings can save the environment
and our resources as well as offer big savings in the cost of
operating the building over its expected life. Creative and effi-
cient use of natural lighting as well as efficient heating, ventilat-
ing, and air conditioning systems are important factors in
realizing a sustainable design for tall buildings. Also, designing
tall buildings for better indoor air quality and a healthier environ-
ment is the right thing to do and could save considerable health-
care costs. The good news is that, contrary to what some believe,
incorporating sustainable design ideas does not substantially in-
crease the cost of design and construction of tall buildings. Indeed
it is possible that the “additional” initial cost of sustainable design
and construction of tall buildings may be very minimal, if any.
Other ideas for responsible use of our natural resources in-
clude use of intelligent environmental system controls; energy
generation; energy efficient lighting and equipment; installing
sensors for control of lighting and other energy based fixtures and
JOURNAL OF ARCHITECTURAL ENGINEERING © ASCE / JUNE 2010 / 53
equipment; energy efficient glass; use of construction materials,
furnishings, carpet, paint, sealants, etc. that are made of recycled
material and do not emit undesirable fumes; reuse of waste water
and collected rain water; and reducing the amount of walls and
partitions acting as barriers for natural light reaching deep inside
the building. Effective implementation of these and similar ideas
requires a collaborative and integrated approach by the design and
construction team.
Summary
Tall buildings are an integration of architecture, structural, and
environmental systems, and they require substantial resources to
build and operate. Therefore, design and construction of tall
buildings is a highly multidisciplinary process. To realize a desir-
able built environment through tall buildings, all professionals
involved in the design and construction of such projects should
work collaboratively from project inception to completion. Fur-
ther, operation and maintenance of the building after completion
must be taken into consideration during the design stage.
The knowledge, experience, and input that each team member
can offer throughout the design and construction process will add
substantially to producing a built environment that is creative,
environmentally sensitive, aesthetically pleasing, functional, and
reasonable to construct, operate, and manage. Every team mem-
ber’s basic background and knowledge of aspects of tall building
design and construction beyond his/her own discipline is crucial.
It is true that the workload of individual design and construction
team members varies throughout the process, but every profes-
sional has a significant role to play at every stage.
References
Abalos, I., and Herreros, J. 共2003兲. Tower and office: From modernist
theory to contemporary practice, MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass.
Ali, M. M., and Moon, K. 共2007兲. “Structural developments in tall build-
ings: Current trends and future prospects.” Archit. Sci. Rev., 50 共3兲,
205–223.
Baker, W., Korista, S., and Novak, L. 共2008兲. “Engineering the world’s
tallest—Burj Dubai.” Proc., Council on Tall Buildings and Urban
Habitats, 8th World Congress: Tall & Green: Typology for a Sustain-
able Urban Future.
Connor, J. 共2003兲. Introduction to structural motion control, Prentice-
Hall, Upper Saddle River, N.J.
Moon, K. 共2005兲. “Dynamic interrelationship between technology and
architecture in tall buildings.” Ph.D. dissertation, Dept. of Architec-
ture, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Mass.
Moon, K. 共2008兲. “Optimal grid geometry of diagrid structures for tall
buildings.” Archit. Sci. Rev., 51 共3兲, 239–251.
Moon, K., Connor, J. J., and Fernandez, J. E. 共2007兲. “Diagrid structural
systems for tall buildings: Characteristics and methodology for pre-
liminary design.” Struct. Des. Tall Build., 16 共2兲, 205–230.
Nordenson, G., and Riley, T. 共2003兲. Tall buildings, Museum of Modern
Art, New York.
Oesterle, E., Lieb, R., Lutz, M., and Heusler, W. 共2001兲. Double-skin
façades: Integrated planning, Prestel, Munich, Germany.
Russell, J. 共2003兲. Architectural style and management ideals, AV Mono-
graphs 103.
Smith, B., and Coull, A. 共1991兲. Tall building structures: Analysis and
design, Wiley, New York.
Copyright of Journal of Architectural Engineering is the property of American Society of Civil Engineers and
its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's
express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use.