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FAMOUS MODELS

Sorry, not a reference to the catwalk, but to all those circles, grids and acronyms that you either love or hate. Most of
us have met a few models that mean something to us, but different ones work for different people. In these pages
you'll find a brief summary of the more common models, and how to get more information about them. A word of
caution: we've just given the main principles of each model, enough to understand how they apply, so please don't
view these pages as a definitive reference. Where we know of a good book or website to get the full picture, we've
included it.

They're listed below in three broad groups.

Organisations Teams & Groups Individuals

Organisations

This section looks at how organisations behave, change, etc, and how work gets done in them, largely regardless of
the individuals that do the work.

• Task, Team & Individual; John Adair

• 7S Strategy Framework

Teams & Groups

This section looks at how people behave when they’re in organised groups or teams, or towards other people in
general.

• Belbin Team Styles

• Stages of Group Development
• Six Thinking Hats
• Situational Leadership
• Transactional Analysis

Individuals

This section looks at how people behave as individuals, generally independent of the world around them. It also
includes some of the more common personal profiling models used by occupational psychologists.

• Covey's Seven Habits

• Maslow Hierarchy of Needs
• Other motivation models
• Assertiveness at Work
• Johari Window
• Myers Briggs Type Indicators
• Cattell 16PF Personality Profile

For a quick reference guide to common business jargon, you can also visit the comprehensive Buzz-word glossary at
the Learningbuzz.com web site.

FAMOUS MODELS

Adair's Three Circles

John Adair developed his three circles approach to leadership at the Royal Military Academy at Sandhurst during the
1970's. He observed what effective leaders did to gain the support and commitment of the followers. His model is
important for two reasons: it's simple, so is easy to understand and apply, and he was one of the first to look at
effective leadership from the point of view of those being led.
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THE THREE CIRCLES

John Adair found that effective leaders pay attention to three areas of need for members of the team: those relating to
the task, to the team itself, and to individual members of the team. At any time, the emphasis on each circle may vary,
but all are interdependent and so the leader must watch all three.

Task needs include setting a clear goal and objectives, and organisation and management of the process.

Team needs are things like effective interaction, support, shared work and communication within the team and with
other teams.

Individual needs will of course vary from person to person, but the effective leader will pay attention to, and deal with,
how each person is behaving and feeling.

The three circles model is nowadays seen as rather basic, especially by managers who want to be considered
sophisticated and up-to-date. However it's a good approach to learn early in your leadership career, providing a solid
foundation for more complex human relations.

FAMOUS MODELS

7S Framework

It's all very well devising a strategy, but you have to be able to implement it if it's to do any good. The Seven S
Framework first appeared in "The Art Of Japanese Management" by Richard Pascale and Anthony Athos in 1981.
They had been looking at how Japanese industry had been so successful, at around the same time that Tom Peters
and Robert Waterman were exploring what made a company excellent. The Seven S model was born at a meeting of
the four authors in 1978. It went on to appear in "In Search of Excellence" by Peters and Waterman, and was taken
up as a basic tool by the global management consultancy McKinsey: it's sometimes known as the McKinsey 7S
model.

Managers, they said, need to take account of all seven of the factors to be sure of successful implementation of a
strategy - large or small. They're all interdependent, so if you fail to pay proper attention to one of them, it can bring
the others crashing down around you. Oh, and the relative importance of each factor will vary over time, and you can't
always tell how that's changing. Like a lot of these models, there's a good dose of common sense in here, but the 7S
Framework is useful way of checking that you've covered all the bases.

The Seven Factors are:

Strategy A set of actions that you start with and must maintain
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Structure How people and tasks / work are organised
Systems All the processes and information flows that link the organisation together
Style How managers behave
Staff How you develop managers (current and future)
Superordinate Goals Longer-term vision, and all that values stuff, that shapes the destiny of the organisation
Skills Dominant attributes or capabilities that exist in the organisation

There's a lot more to the 7S framework of course, especially how you apply it in practice. It may appear as an
outmoded concept in today's environment of "constant change and learning", but the basic principle that you've got to
watch a lot of factors all the time as you implement any strategy still applies. Just don't let the apparent rigidity of the
framework make you heavy on your feet.

For more about strategy and strategic management in general, look out "Strategic Management" by Dess & Miller
(McGraw Hill 1993). It's not a bedtime read, but is a useful reference work of ideas and case studies. If you want
more on the 7S model, read Richard Pascale's subsequent "Managing on the Edge" (1990).

FAMOUS MODELS

Belbin Team Roles

R Meredith Belbin published "Management Teams - why they succeed or fail" in 1981. Driven by the increasing
importance of team-working in organisations at the time, Belbin set out to identify what made a good team, based on
research in the UK and Australia. Although the book offered a number of important factors, it's the team roles that
became famous. Belbin found that in successful teams all eight roles could be seen in operation, and concluded that
when selecting people for a team, filling the eight roles was as important as choosing technical skills or experiences.

Belbin's ideas continue to be used by thousands of organisations because they make sense and they work. You can
buy all sorts of tools to identify individuals' preferred roles, and help teams to make the best use of each role.
Although your preferred roles are relatively unchanging over time, most of us can happily perform two or three of the
roles, thus filling any gaps in the team's profile. That also means that one person can cover more than one role -
clearly important if you have a team of less than eight people!

The concept works best when used openly within a team or across an organisation. Individual preferences are only
useful if they're known to others, so teams can assess who can best fulfill each role. You can use role identification as
a form of team-building: it reinforces the fact that everyone is bringing something to the team, so you all need each
other if you are to be successful.

The eight roles are follows. The brief descriptions are of the "pure" roles that you're unlikely to find in practice: what
you'll see depends on the mix of preferred roles in each individual. The abbreviations after each title are the common
shorthand used when describing and charting the roles.

EXTROVERT ROLES

- outward looking people whose main orientation is to the world outside the group, and beyond the task(s) in hand.

Plant The Innovator. Unorthodox, knowledgeable and imaginative, turning out loads of radical
ideas. The creative engine-room that needs careful handling to be effective. Individualistic,
PL disregarding practical details or protocol - can become an unguided missile.
Resource The extrovert, enthusiastic communicator, with good connections outside the team. Enjoys
Investigator exploring new ideas, responds well to challenges, and creates this attitude amongst others.
Noisy and energetic, quickly loses interest, and can be lazy unless under pressure.
RI
Chairman Calm, self-confident and decisive when necessary. The social leader of the group, ensuring
individuals contribute fully, and guiding the team to success. Unlikely to bring great intellect or
CH creativity.
Shaper Energetic, highly-strung, with a drive to get things done. They challenge inertia,
ineffectiveness and complacency in the team, but can be abrasive, impatient and easily
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provoked. Good leaders of start-up or rapid-response teams.
SH

INTROVERT ROLES

- inward-looking people principally concerned with relations and tasks within the group.

Monitor Evaluator Unemotional, hardheaded and prudent. Good at assessing proposals, monitoring progress
and preventing mistakes. Dispassionate, clever and discrete. Unlikely to motivate others,
ME takes time to consider, may appear cold and uncommitted. Rarely wrong.
Team Worker Socially-oriented and sensitive to others. Provides an informal network of communication and
support that spreads beyond the formal activities of the team. Often the unofficial or deputy
TW leader, preventing feuding and fragmentation. Concern for team spirit may divert from getting
the job done.
Company Worker The Organiser who turns plans into tasks. Conservative, hard-working, full of common sense,
conscientious and methodical. Orthodox thinks who keeps the team focussed on the tasks in
CW hand. Lacks flexibility, and unresponsive to new ideas
Completer Finisher Makes sure the team delivers. An orderly, anxious perfectionist who worries about everything.
Maintains a permanent sense of urgency that can sometimes help and sometimes hinder the
CF team. Good at follow-up and meeting deadlines.

Different roles are important at different times, and the effective team will be aware of who should be 'centre stage' at
a given time. You can of course link Belbin roles to personality types, where you'll find common words like 'Extrovert'
and 'Analytical', but remember that Belbin roles are less definitive. A sales team might apparently be full of extrovert,
expressive and energetic people, but someone will still be able to act as the Company Worker or Completer Finisher.

Belbin's original book ("Management Teams - why they succeed or fail") is still in print and is a good place to go to
understand his concept. Following the wide acceptance of the Team Roles concept, he later published "Team Roles
at Work", exploring the practical application of his ideas in more detail. You can also buy team games that bring out
each person's roles, as well as electronic or paper-based questionnaires.

FAMOUS MODELS

Stages of Group Development

Often quoted, often misunderstood. Bruce Tuckman's classic description of the stages of group development is easy
to understand and remember, but it helps to go back and look at what's behind each stage.

Bruce W Tuckman is a respected educational psychologist who first described the (then) four stages of group
development in 1965, soon after leaving Princeton. Looking at the behaviour of small groups in a variety of
environments, he recognised the distinct phases they go through, and suggested they need to experience all four
stages before they achieve maximum effectiveness. He refined and developed the model in 1977 (in conjunction with
Mary Ann Jensen) with the addition of a fifth stage. Since then, others have attempted to adapt and extend the model
- although sometimes with more of an eye on rhyme than reason.

FOUR STAGES OF GROUP DEVELOPMENT

Tuckman described the four distinct stages that a group can as it comes together and starts to operate. This process
can be subconscious, although an understanding of the stages can help a group reach effectiveness more quickly and
less painfully.

Stage 1: Forming
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Individual behaviour is driven by a desire to be accepted by the others, and avoid controversy or
conflict. Serious issues and feelings are avoided, and people focus on being busy with routines,
such as team organisation, who does what, when to meet, etc. But individuals are also gathering
information and impressions - about each other, and about the scope of the task and how to
approach it. This is a comfortable stage to be in, but the avoidance of conflict and threat means
that not much actually gets done.

Stage 2: Storming

Individuals in the group can only remain nice to each other for so long, as important issues start
to be addressed. Some people's patience will break early, and minor confrontations will arise
that are quickly dealt with or glossed over. These may relate to the work of the group itself, or to
roles and responsibilities within the group. Some will observe that it's good to be getting into the
real issues, whilst others will wish to remain in the comfort and security of stage 1. Depending
on the culture of the organisation and individuals, the conflict will be more or less suppressed,
but it'll be there, under the surface. To deal with the conflict, individuals may feel they are winning
or losing battles, and will look for structural clarity and rules to prevent the conflict persisting.

Stage 3: Norming

As Stage 2 evolves, the "rules of engagement" for the group become established, and the scope
of the group's tasks or responsibilities are clear and agreed. Having had their arguments, they
now understand each other better, and can appreciate each other's skills and experience.
Individuals listen to each other, appreciate and support each other, and are prepared to change
pre-conceived views: they feel they're part of a cohesive, effective group. However, individuals
have had to work hard to attain this stage, and may resist any pressure to change - especially
from the outside - for fear that the group will break up, or revert to a storm.

Stage 4: Performing

Not all groups reach this stage, characterised by a state of interdependence and flexibility.
Everyone knows each other well enough to be able to work together, and trusts each other
enough to allow independent activity. Roles and responsibilities change according to need in an
almost seamless way. Group identity, loyalty and morale are all high, and everyone is equally
task-orientated and people-orientated. This high degree of comfort means that all the energy of
the group can be directed towards the task(s) in hand.

Ten years after first describing the four stages, Bruce Tuckman revisited his original work and described another,
final, stage:

Stage 5: Adjourning

This is about completion and disengagement, both from the tasks and the group members.
Individuals will be proud of having achieved much and glad to have been part of such an
enjoyable group. They need to recognise what they've done, and consciously move on. Some
authors describe stage 5 as "Deforming and Mourning", recognising the sense of loss felt by
group members.

Tuckman's original work simply described the way he had observed groups evolve, whether they were conscious of it
or not. But for us the real value is in recognising where a group is in the process, and helping it to move to the
Perform stage. In the real world, groups are often forming and changing, and each time that happens, they can move
to a different Tuckman Stage. A group might be happily Norming or Performing, but a new member might force them
back into Storming. Seasoned leaders will be ready for this, and will help the group get back to Performing as quickly
as possible.

Many work groups live in the comfort of Norming, and are fearful of moving back into Storming, or forward into
Performing. This will govern their behaviour towards each other, and especially their reaction to change.

FAMOUS MODELS
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Six Thinking Hats

Edward de Bono is probably one of the best known writers on human behaviour, particularly for his ideas on lateral
thinking. He's published several books, and still lectures and talks extensively on the whole subject of thinking and
creativity. The Six Thinking Hats were published in the early 1980's, and have become popular across a range of
environments. With more and more teamwork, empowerment and involvement going on, the concept arrived just at
the right time. It's certainly helpful for individuals to understand how the Six Hats can be applied, but they work best
when they can be used as a common language in a team or group: that's why we've included them in the Teams &
Groups section.

THE SIX THINKING HATS

WHITE is neutral and objective, concerned with objective facts and figures

RED relates to anger and rage, so is concerned with emotions

BLACK is gloomy, and covers the negative - why things can't be done

YELLOW is sunny and positive, indicating hope and positive thinking

GREEN is abundant, fertile growth, indicating creativity and new ideas

is the sky above us, so is concerned with the control and organisation of the thinking
BLUE
process

You can refer to the Hats in two ways: to describe the thinking process that's required in a given situation, and to
define how someone IS thinking without appearing critical. So you might be struggling with an apparently
insurmountable problem, and call on the team to put on their Yellow Hats to generate some positive approaches. Or
you can ask someone who's getting negative to take their Black Hat off for a moment - this is far more neutral than
telling them to stop being so negative!

If you're searching for a way to boost your team's performance, take a look at the Six Hats. Problem-solving will be
improved, and the very fact that you all become conscious of how you're thinking will make you do it better. What's
more, the process of learning the Six Hats is fun in itself, so you can use it as a team-building event.

A couple of cautions: the Six Hats won't produce better solutions alone - you still need the right skills and experience
on hand to create and implement your ideas. Secondly, be prepared to persist in the early days: once you've learned
the techniques, they'll need to be nurtured until they become part of the everyday language of the team.

There is of course a book - "Six Thinking Hats" by Edward de Bono, surprisingly! It's not the best way to learn the
concept, but once you can speak "Hat", it's a very useful guidebook and aide memoire.

FAMOUS MODELS

Situational Leadership

This is a term that can be applied generically to a style of leadership, but that also refers to a recognised, and useful,
leadership model. In simple terms, a situational leader is one who can adopt different leadership styles depending on
the situation. Most of us do this anyway in our dealings with other people: we try not to get angry with a nervous
colleague on their first day, we chase up tasks with some people more than others because we know they'll forget
otherwise.
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But Ken Blanchard, the management guru best known for the "One Minute Manager" series, and Paul Hersey created
a model for Situational Leadership in the late 1960's that allows you to analyse the needs of the situation you're
dealing with, and then adopt the most appropriate leadership style. It's proved popular with managers over the years
because it passes the two basic tests of such models: it's simple to understand, and it works in most environments for
most people. The model doesn't just apply to people in leadership or management positions: we all lead others at
work and at home.

LEADERSHIP BEHAVIOUR

Blanchard and Hersey characterised leadership style in terms of the amount of direction and of support that the leader
gives to his or her followers, and so created a simple grid:

• Directing Leaders define the roles and tasks of the 'follower', and supervise them closely. Decisions are
made by the leader and announced, so communication is largely one-way.
• Coaching Leaders still define roles and tasks, but seeks ideas and suggestions from the follower. Decisions
remain the leader's prerogative, but communication is much more two-way.
• Supporting Leaders pass day-to-day decisions, such as task allocation and processes, to the follower. The
leader facilitates and takes part in decisions, but control is with the follower.
• Delegating Leaders are still involved in decisions and problem-solving, but control is with the follower. The
follower decides when and how the leader will be involved.

Effective leaders are versatile in being able to move around the grid according to the situation, so there is no one right
style. However, we tend to have a preferred style, and in applying Situational Leadership you need to know which one
that is for you.

DEVELOPMENT LEVEL

Clearly the right leadership style will depend very much on the person being led - the follower - and Blanchard and
Hersey extended their model to include the Development Level of the follower. They said that the leader's style
should be driven by the Competence and Commitment of the follower, and came up with four levels:

High Competence Experienced at the job, and comfortable with their own ability to do it well.
D4
High Commitment May even be more skilled than the leader.
High Competence Experienced and capable, but may lack the confidence to go it alone, or the
D3
Variable Commitment motivation to do it well / quickly
Some Competence May have some relevant skills, but won't be able to do the job without help.
D2
Low Commitment The task or the situation may be new to them.
Low Competence Generally lacking the specific skills required for the job in hand, and lacks any
D1
Low Commitment confidence and / or motivation to tackle it.

Development Levels are also situational. I might be generally skilled, confident and motivated in my job, but would still
drop into Level D1 when faced, say, with a task requiring skills I don't possess. For example, lots of managers are D4
when dealing with the day-to-day running of their department, but move to D1 or D2 when dealing with a sensitive
employee issue.

SITUATIONAL LEADERSHIP

You can see where this is going. Blanchard and Hersey said that the Leadership Style (S1 - S4) of the leader must
correspond to the Development level (D1 - D4) of the follower - and it's the leader who adapts.
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For example, a new person joins your team and you're asked to help them through the first few days. You sit them in
front of a PC, show them a pile of invoices that need to be processed today, and push off to a meeting. They're at
level D1, and you've adopted S4. Everyone loses because the new person feels helpless and demotivated, and you
don't get the invoices processed.

On the other hand, you're handing over to an experienced colleague before you leave for a holiday. You've listed all
the tasks that need to be done, and a set of instructions on how to carry out each one. They're at level D4, and you've
adopted S1. The work will probably get done, but not the way you expected, and your colleague despises you for
treating him like an idiot.

But swap the situations and things get better. Leave detailed instructions and a checklist for the new person, and
they'll thank you for it. Give your colleague a quick chat and a few notes before you go on holiday, and everything will
be fine.

By adopting the right style to suit the follower's development level, work gets done, relationships are built up, and most
importantly, the follower's development level will rise to D4, to everyone's benefit.

To make Situational Leadership work, you need to go through a training programme, where you'll learn about how to
operate effectively in all the Leadership Styles, and how to determine the Development Level of others. And the
Blanchard organisation would be happy to tell all about their training programmes worldwide.

You can also get the basics from Ken Blanchard's "Leadership and the One Minute Manager."

FAMOUS MODELS

Transactional Analysis

There was a time when every forward-thinking manager in a large company would be familiar with TA - Transactional
Analysis - but trends have moved on, and it's rarely featured in development training these days. It was restricted by
its complexity, and the fact that it could be manipulated, but some current ideas on leadership and teamworking have
their roots in TA, and the language of TA still persists - which is why we've included it here.

Transactional Analysis was developed by Eric Berne as an approach to psychoanalysis and therapy in the early
1950s, but was adopted by commercial organisations in the '60s as they tried to improve the ways that people in
general interacted. It defines some basic Ego States and Life Positions that individuals can adopt, and uses those to
describe how Transactions then occur between two people. The idea is that if you know your own state, and can
determine the other person's state, you can use your behaviour to influence the interactions between the two of you.

1. EGO STATES

Berne defined three basic personalities or Ego States, each with characteristic attitudes, feelings, behaviours and
language. Two of the states subdivide into two further facets:

makes rules and sets limits

Critical Parent
disciplines, judges and criticises
PARENT
advises and guides
Nurturing Parent
protects and nurtures
concerned with data and facts
considers options and estimates probabilities
ADULT
makes unemotional decisions
plans and makes things happen
fun-loving and energetic
Free (Natural) Child
creative and spontaneous
CHILD
compliant and polite
Adapted Child
rebellious and manipulative

2. LIFE POSITIONS

The other building block of TA is the view we have of ourselves in relation to other people around us. There are four
life positions, shown as a grid that became known as the "OK Corral". The quotation in each box typifies the attitude
of each Life Position:
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I'M NOT OK I'M OK
YOU'RE OK YOU'RE OK
"I wish I could do that as well as you do" "Hey, we're making good progress now"
I'M NOT OK I'M OK
YOU'RE NOT OK YOU'RE NOT OK
"Oh this is terrible - we'll never make it" "You're not doing that right - let me show you"

People will move around the grid depending on the situation, but have a preferred position that they tend to revert to.
This is strongly influenced by experiences and decisions in early life.

"I'm OK, you're OK" people are in the 'get on with' position. They're confident and happy about life and work, and
interact by collaboration and mutual respect, even when they disagree.

I'm OK, you're not OK" people are in the 'get rid of' position. They tend to get angry and hostile, and are smug and
superior. They belittle others, who they view as incompetent and untrustworthy, and are often competitive and power-
hungry.

I'm not OK, you're OK" is the 'get away from' position. These people feel sad, inadequate or even stupid in
comparison to others. They undervalue their skills and contribution and withdraw from problems.

I'm not OK, you're not OK" is the 'get nowhere' position. These people feel confused or aimless. They don't see the
point of doing anything, and so usually don't bother.

3. TRANSACTIONS

The central concept of TA is that Transactions between people can be characterised by the Ego State of the two
participants. What's more, the Ego State adopted by the person who starts the transaction will affect the way the
other person responds.

For example, Mr A says "what time will they arrive?", and Mr B replies "at 2pm." This is a simple Adult to Adult
transaction.

However, if Mr A adopts a Child state: "I'm worried that they might not arrive on time," that will tend to produce a
Nurturing Parent response from Mr B: "Don't worry, we'll still have plenty of time to talk to them."

This model shows how the Transaction 'balances' between the two people: if one drifts into Parent, that will encourage
the other to move to Child, and vice versa. The preferred state for most business transactions is Adult-Adult, but it's
OK to move to another state as long as you're aware of it and are ready for the changed response from the other
person.

Of course it doesn't always work that way, and an Adult state can sometimes be met with, say, a Parent response:
"What time will they arrive?" "How should I know, I didn't arrange it!"

4. STROKES

We all need and seek care, attention, love and recognition from others, and in TA, a stroke is defined as a unit of
recognition. With children, strokes are obviously sought and given: they show off their new toy, or misbehave to get
attention, and know the adults will respond right on cue. But grown-ups do the same: working hard, deliberately
making mistakes, arriving late, or simply arriving home and sighing "what a day!"
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Strokes can be positive or negative, and it's generally better to give a negative stroke than none at all (because that
may be taken as negative anyway). But in many business organisations, strokes are subject to a set of unwritten
rules:

1. don't give positive strokes freely;

2. if you give positive strokes, make them conditional;
3. don't ask for positive strokes - certainly not directly;
4. most positive strokes are insincere ('plastic');
5. never give a physical stroke - by touching someone;
6. don't miss a chance to give a negative stroke.

The result is a cold, unfeeling environment where normal human emotions are generally suppressed. Even in 'warm'
organisations where it's OK to express feelings, strokes are still subject to certain norms - such as not giving them to
people above you in the hierarchy.

In the absence of a free exchange of strokes, people manipulate others in order to get the strokes they crave, and
start playing games.

5. GAMES

The complexity of the TA model leaves it open to manipulation, or "Games". You adopt a Child state because you
want someone's help, or a Parent state to make them do something for you. But often the games end up damaging
the relationship, and the type of game someone plays is influenced by his or her life state.

Examples of games players are:

The Persecutor: "if it weren't for you", "see what you made me do", "yes, but".

The Rescuer: "I'm only trying to help", "what would you do without me?"

The Victim: "this always happens to me", "poor old me", "go on, kick me".

There are more themes to the TA model than we can show here, but every day you see complex transactions that fit
the model. Many effective leaders - and those who are seen as "good with people" - apply the TA principles, often
without being aware of it. Even though TA has fallen out of fashion, it's just as applicable today as it ever was. If
you're really interested in how people interact - and not just wanting to hone your interpersonal skills - then TA is worth
exploring.

FAMOUS MODELS

Covey's Seven Habits

Stephen R Covey published his "Seven Habits of Highly Effective People" in the late 1980's. He discovered over
years of reading and studying success that certain underlying themes seemed to recur. These weren't superficial
behavioural "how to's", but went deeper, relating more to one's ethics or way of life. The result was his seven habits,
equally applicable to your personal, social or business life. Unlike many other approaches, the seven habits work best
if they're adopted in their entirety. You can't pick and choose which ones to apply, nor are they situational ("if this
situation occurs, follow this formula.").

THE SEVEN HABITS OF HIGHLY EFFECTIVE PEOPLE

PRIVATE VICTORY
The first three habits relate to our own internal or personal philosophy

Be Proactive Be aware of yourself, your strengths, weaknesses, blind spots, motivations - and be proactive
in finding out as much as you can about yourself. Then be proactive in applying that
knowledge to your relations with others.
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Begin with the End in In summary, create and live by a personal mission statement. This may lead onto more
mind specific goals and objectives, but the idea is that you try to live as the sort of person you'd like
to be remembered for when you've passed on.
Put First Things First Define what it is that really matters in your life, then spend your time on those important
things. Rather than spreading our time thinly across too many activities, concentrate on doing
a few things well.

PUBLIC VICTORY
The next three habits relate to our interaction with our environment

Think Win/Win Not an original phrase, but in all your dealings with others, aim for each little negotiation to
provide success (a win) for both sides.
Seek First to Put another way, "God gave us two ears and one mouth, and they should be used in that
Understand, then be proportion." In your communications, be sure you know the other person's point of view before
Understood you start expounding your own ideas.
Synergize Look for ways to take your ideas and other people's ideas and build on them together, on the
basis that the outcome will be something greater than the sum of the inputs.

AND FINALLY, RENEWAL

The seventh habit that makes all the other six last is Sharpening the Saw. This powerful idea can really only be
described by Covey's word-picture:

Suppose you were to come upon someone in the woods working feverishly to saw down a tree.
"What are you doing?" you ask.
"Can't you see?" comes the impatient reply. "I'm sawing down this tree."
"You look exhausted!" you exclaim. "How long have you been at it?"
"Over five hours," he returns, "and I'm beat! This is hard work."
"Well why don't you take a break for a few minutes and sharpen that saw?" you inquire. "I'm sure it would go a lot
faster."
"I don't have time to sharpen the saw," the man says emphatically. "I'm too busy sawing!"

Sharpening the saw is about renewing yourself - physically, mentally, spiritually and emotionally.

The Seven Habits are difficult to describe adequately in such a small space as this. Suffice to say that thousands of
managers have found them a powerful philosophy, and when you boil them down, there's a lot of common sense in
what Covey says.

In 1990, Covey published his concept of "Principle-Centered Leadership". This built on his idea that success comes
to people who have a strong sense of purpose and principles for how they live their lives. If you think about effective
leaders you've known or worked for, you'll find there was something they stood for or were known for - and which was
probably respected as something 'good'. Covey describes how leaders who have a clear idea of what they stand for
and what they want to achieve will be more effective in maintaining and developing organisations and the people who
work in them. He also shows how this approach can make our personal relationships more effective, and the chapter
entitled "Eight ways to enrich marriage and family relationships" may be an application too far for more cynical
European readers.

The third Covey Classic is "First Things First", published in 1994. This approach builds on the principles of his first
two books and applies them to managing time. But this is no straightforward 'Time Management' course: Covey
asserts that to be effective, we need to have a clear understanding of what we should be doing, and only then can we
plan our business or personal time. Again he tends to drift into motherhood and apple pie, but the First Things First
approach has worked for a wide range of managers. The discipline of taking stock of what's really important in your
life allows you to be more assertive in managing your time, and the balance between your work and personal/social
time.

FranklinCovey Europe will of course be happy to offer training courses built on Stephen Covey's core 'products'

FAMOUS MODELS
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Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

Ah, Maslow! Probably one of the most-frequently quoted psychologists, yet how many of us can recall the detail of
his famous hierarchy?

Abraham Maslow was an American behavioural psychologist who worked both in academia and industry. He
published a number of Human Relations books until the early '70's, but it was his first book, "Motivation and
Personality", published in 1943, that set out his idea of the hierarchy of human needs.

THE HIERARCHY OF NEEDS

Maslow argued that the factors that drive or motivate people to act lie on an ascending scale. Once a group or order
of needs is satisfied, the individual will not be motivated by more of the same, but will seek to satisfy higher order
needs. What's more, a higher order need will not be a motivator if lower order needs remain unmet. Maslow defined
five orders of needs, listed in ascending importance:

Physiological The basic survival requirements of warmth, shelter and food

Security Protection from danger of threat
Social Relations with others, expressed as friendship comradeship or love
Self-Respect Sense of personal worth, respect and autonomy
Self-Actualisation Sense of achieving your full potential

Thus, for example, we won't be concerned about working relationships or professional achievement if we are truly
concerned for our own security. By the same token, a manager won't motivate someone by talking about personal
ambition and achievement if that person feels he's about to lose his job.

Of course, Maslow's ideas were applied to the complete range of human experience, whereas for most us,
Physiological and Security needs are usually met to a large extent. But recent history has shown that when
individuals are homeless, hungry and under threat, all social systems and self-respect break down.

Despite this, Maslow's hierarchy still applies to modern commercial life, and managers would do well to think in these
terms when trying to motivate staff.

There have been a number of variations on Mazlow over the years. Some split Physiological needs down into Energy
(food, warmth) and Protection (shelter). Others have added Power - the need for influence over the actions of others,
either person-to-person, or group-to-group.

FAMOUS MODELS

Motivation Theories

Over the years many psychologists have attempted to define and categorise what motivates people. This became
particularly important after the Second World War as the Western nations attempted to rebuild their drained industrial
economies, and during the '50s and '60s much was researched and written about Human Relations. It was
recognised that people who worked in organisations were more than just numbers and, if properly managed, could not
only produce more, but also contribute more.

This is not the place to cover the work of every motivational theorist: we've simply chosen a couple that have entered
the mainstream management vocabulary:

• Theory X / Theory Y
• Herzberg's Motivation - Hygiene Theory

In addition, Abraham Maslow has his own page here.

THEORY X / THEORY Y

Douglas McGregor published "The Human Side of Enterprise" in 1960, in which he suggested that traditional
management methods (which he called Theory X) might not be the only way to get people motivated. Instead, you
could take a different approach (based on Theory Y) and achieve the same if not more.
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Theory X is the traditional view of direction and control, based on these assumptions:

1. The average person inherently dislikes work and will avoid it if at all possible.
2. As a result, most people have to be coerced, controlled and threatened if they are to put in enough effort to
achieve the organisation's goals.
3. In fact the average person prefers to be directed, avoids responsibility, isn't ambitious and simply seeks
security.

Theory Y, based on the integration of individual and organisational goals, assumes:

1. The physical and mental effort of work is as natural as play or rest, so the average person doesn't inherently
dislike work.
2. We are capable of self-direction and self-control, so those factors don't necessarily have to come from
elsewhere.
3. Our commitment to an objective is a function of the rewards for its achievement.
4. The average person learns not only to accept but to seek responsibility.
5. Most people have a capacity for imagination, ingenuity and creativity.
6. The intellectual potential of most people is under-used in modern industrial life.

Theory Y is not a soft option. In fact it can take as much management effort as Theory X, but the effects of a Theory
Y approach will last longer. The Theory X manager is a dying breed (although it has to be said he's not yet extinct),
and Theory Y lies behind most modern approaches to motivation. Nowadays the terminology is used as a polite way
of referring to the old command-and-control approach to management: the trouble is the diehard Theory X manager
won't pick up the subtle criticism!

HERZBERG'S MOTIVATION - HYGIENE THEORY

Frederick Herzberg studied and practised clinical psychology in Pittsburgh, where he researched the work-related
motivations of thousands of employees. His findings were published in "The Motivation to Work" in 1959. He
concluded that there were two types of motivation:

Hygiene Factors that can demotivate if they are not present - such as supervision, interpersonal relations, physical
working conditions, and salary. Hygiene Factors affect the level of dissatisfaction, but are rarely quoted as creators of
job satisfaction.

Motivation Factors that will motivate if they are present - such as achievement, advancement, recognition and
responsibility. Dissatisfaction isn't normally blamed on Motivation Factors, but they are cited as the cause of job
satisfaction.

So, once you've satisfied the Hygiene factors, providing more of them won't generate much more motivation, but lack
of the Motivation Factors won't of themselves demotivate. There are clear relationships to Maslow here, but
Herzberg's ideas really shaped modern thinking about reward and recognition in major companies

FAMOUS MODELS

Assertiveness At Work

There are several models that describe assertiveness and how to develop it, but the probably the best thinking comes
from Ken and Kate Back, who've specialised in this area of human behaviour for over 20 years. In their book
"Assertiveness at Work - a practical guide to handling awkward situations", they describe what assertiveness is, and
how to develop it. Their concepts are simple and make sense, and have helped many people to become more
effective in their dealings with others.

DEFINING ASSERTIVENESS
Assertiveness lies in the middle of a continuum of behaviour towards others, that the Backs defined in terms of how
we recognise the rights of the two parties involved.

Aggressive You exert your right to have ideas and opinions at the expense of the other person's rights. In
fact you behave as if the other person's rights don't matter.
Assertive You exert your rights freely and clearly, but at the same recognise the other person's rights to
be heard, to have pride in what they do, etc.
Non-Assertive You take too much account of the other person's rights, to the extent that you forego some or
 14
all of your rights to express ideas or influence events.

To illustrate the three types of behaviour, they quote a simple example of a manager spotting some minor errors in the
written work of a subordinate. The manager goes to the individual and says:

Aggressive "I don't know how you've got the nerve to give me this sort of stuff for signing. It's full of
mistakes."
Assertive "Jane, I'd like you to re-do this document as there are several mistakes in it."
Non-Assertive "I know it's, er .... probably my fault in .... not writing very clearly, but is there, um .... any
chance at all you could find a spare minute to um .... just change one of two small things on
this letter for me?"
Or you find an excuse not to take the document back at all.

Clearly the desired behaviour is to be assertive, and the book goes on to describe in detail how you can develop
assertiveness in a range of situations. To frame that development, they put forward the idea of Inner Dialogues:
those conversations we have with ourselves before we interact with someone else. Sometimes these Inner Dialogues
are subconscious, but if you become more aware of them, you can manage them and become more effective in your
dealings with others.

To go back to the example above, the inner dialogues might be:

Aggressive "If people produce rubbish, I have every right to tell them so"
"She obviously doesn't care. That's typical of young people today."
"This reflects badly on me, and I won't stand for it."
Assertive "This may be uncomfortable for us both, but we can handle it."
"She has the right to make mistakes, but the responsibility to correct them."
"I want her to know the effect her errors have on other people."
Non-Assertive "I don't want to make a scene or upset our working relationship."
"I'm sure these are unintentional errors - I'll let it go this time."
"I know she's very busy, so I expect that's why these mistakes happened."

By having your Inner Dialogue before you deal with the other person, you can adjust your behaviour to be Assertive.
You achieve this by turning your Faulty Inner Dialogue (aggressive or non-assertive) into a Sound Inner Dialogue
(assertive). There's something for all of us in this model - it isn't just for tyrannical bosses or shrinking wall-flowers!
Effective assertive behaviour is an important building block for creating a empowered, involving, learning organisation
culture. You would do well to develop your assertiveness before embarking on grander culture changes.

Many training organisations incorporate this thinking into their training courses on Assertiveness or Personal
Effectiveness, but if you want to understand Assertiveness properly, Ken and Kate Back's original book is a great
place to start.

FAMOUS MODELS

Johari Window

Joe Luft and Harry Ingham were researching human personality at the University of California in the 1950's when they
devised their Johari Window. Using a form of word derivation normally reserved for suburban house names, they
based the title on their two first names. Rather than measuring personality, the Window offers a way of looking at how
personality is expressed.

THE JOHARI WINDOW

Luft and Ingham observed that there are aspects of our personality that we're open about, and other elements that we
keep to ourselves. At the same time, there are things that others see in us that we're not aware of. As a result, you
can draw up a four-box grid, which includes a fourth group of traits that are unknown to anyone:
 15

1. The public area contains things that are openly known and talked about - and which may be seen as
strengths or weaknesses. This is the self that we choose to share with others
2. The hidden area contains things that others observe that we don't know about. Again, they could be positive
or negative behaviours, and will affect the way that others act towards us.
3. The unknown area contains things that nobody knows about us - including ourselves. This may be because
we've never exposed those areas of our personality, or because they're buried deep in the subconscious.
4. The private area contains aspects of our self that we know about and keep hidden from others.

with thanks to John Morris

The application of the Johari Window comes in opening up the public area, so making the other three areas as small
as possible. This is done by regular and honest exchange of feedback, and a willingness to disclose personal
feelings. People around you will understand what "makes you tick", and what you find easy or difficult to do, and can
provide appropriate support. And of course you can then do the same for them.

Self-assessment questionnaires can be used to indicate the size of your public window, but any measure is purely
subjective.

FAMOUS MODELS

Myers Briggs Type Indicators (MBTI)

One of the tests of a good model for human behaviour is that when you apply it, your reaction is "tell me something I
don't already know." Of course, the clever bit is being able to describe and classify behaviours so that they cover all
people, and that you can use them to predict behaviour accurately. And most people who've completed a Myers
Briggs profile will tell you it got them about right, and that an understanding of the Type Indicators has helped them in
dealing with other people.

The MBTI were created by two non-psychologists with a lifelong interest in human personality. In the early 20th
Century, Katherine Myers developed a classification of personality based on her own observations, and only later
discovered that it aligned with the more scientific theories of Carl Jung. Katherine's daughter, Isabel Myers, picked up
her mother's ideas and tried to turn them into practical use. She created the Type Indicators and spent most of the
50's and 60's validating them, but it wasn't until 1975 that they became an established tool in occupational psychology.

THE MYERS BRIGGS TYPE INDICATORS

 16
The MBTI classify the ways in which we view the world around us, deal with it and react to it. Like all such profiles,
they're not infallible or all-encompassing, and it's possible to behave "against Type." But by and large your MBTI
profile is a good predictor of how you'll think and behave in most situations and with most people. What's more, if you
and your colleagues are aware of your MBTI profiles, this can help you operate more effectively together.

The MBTI comprise four separate pairs of preferences: there are no positive or negative scales, and no "ideal" profile:
you are what you are. You create your profile by completing a simple questionnaire, and there several versions of
varying complexity and value available.

Extraversion E I Introversion
Sensing S N Intuition
Thinking T F Feeling
Judging J P Perceiving

E/I Preference: interest in the world around you

The Extravert (E) is more interested in outer world of people and things, whilst the Introvert (I) is more concerned with
the inner world of concepts and ideas.

S/N Preference: how you gather information about the world

The Sensing (S) person takes in the actuality or facts about their surroundings (using their five senses), whilst the
Intuitive (N) will prefer looking at connections between what's happening and possibilities that might follow.

T/P Preference: how you evaluate that information

The Thinker (T) prefers to adopt logical processes to arrive at an impersonal finding, and the Feeling (F) person
evaluates by personal, subjective means.

J/P Preference: your attitude to the world

The Judging (J) person prefers an ordered life, with decisions made and conclusions drawn, whilst the Perceiving (P)
person takes life as it comes, open to new ideas, not ready to decide.

The profile gives you two overall pieces of information: your four-letter type (INTJ, ESTP, etc), and the strength of
your preference on each of the four 'scales'. Clearly there are 16 possible types, and most profiling systems offer a
pen-portrait of each one.

You should use this information in two ways. Firstly, it gives a structure for you to reflect on your preferred ways to
deal with the world around you. Clearly there are good and bad features of each preference, and it's helpful to know
what your strengths or weaknesses are likely to be. But secondly, the data can help you understand how you deal
with other people, probably with a different profile. There may be times when you'll be comfortable with someone with
the same preferences as you, but sometimes opposites attract and can relate well to each other. There are also
pointers to your preferred learning style, motivation factors, and to a lesser extent, preferred occupation.

In general, it's more useful to do the profiling as part of a group - either a work team or on some form of training
course. That way you get to compare profiles, and understand how you can (or can't) interact easily with others.

This is not the place to give a full description of all 16 types. Our purpose is simply to provide an aide-memoire for
people who've done the profile, and give a flavour of how it works if it's new to you. The MBTI look at how we deal
with the world around us: if you want to know about the underlying personality that's driving the MBTI profile, you need
to use a profiling tool such as Cattell 16PF or one of its variants.

You can read more about the origin of the types in Isabel Myers book, "Gifts Differing", but it won't help you determine
your own profile. For that you need to use one of the several profiling tools available through licensed users of the
MBTI process. For more information on the the 16 personality types and what they mean for you, look at "I'm Not
Crazy, I'm Just Not You." This book has been popular with people who've been profiled, found that the information is
helpful, and want to become more adept at understanding themselves and others in terms of MBTI.

FAMOUS MODELS
 17
Cattell 16PF Profile

The Cattell 16PF (16 Personality Factor) model is probably the most-widely used system for categorising and defining
personality. Other similar systems exist and may be preferred by certain organisations and professionals, but it's the
16PF in its various forms that is universally understood.

Unlike other common personal profiling tools such as Myers Briggs or Belbin, the 16PF defines our basic, underlying
personality, without regard to how we apply it or the environment in which we apply it. A simple analogy would be to
think of the human being as a personal computer. Personality profiles such as 16PF measure the basic features of
the PC such as the size of the hard disk, RAM, processing speed and so on. They're relatively unchanging features of
the PC that strongly influence its performance, but which we don't normally see. Intelligence Quotient (IQ) is a
indication of the breadth and complexity of the software loaded on the PC, which it uses to process ideas and
information. But the way in which the PC performs is mainly influenced by its environment - as represented by the
user who gives it information and asks it to perform tasks.

So our underlying personality is there all the time, but the way we see it is affected by our intelligence, and by our
upbringing and education, which may have taught us either to emphasise or suppress aspects of our personality.
However, if you can understand what your personality is, you can then make better use of the strengths it gives you,
and make allowances for the resultant weaknesses. Because personality is relatively unchanging through adult life,
this understanding will be of long-term value to you.

THE 16 PERSONALITY FACTORS

Each factor can be measured on a scale, determined by completing a questionnaire, and the word pairs below
indicate the extremes of each scale. The letter codes were ascribed to each scale as a shorthand notation.

Factor Descriptors
A Warmth Reserved Outgoing
B Reasoning Less Intelligent More Intelligent
C Emotional Stability Affected by feelings Emotionally stable
E Dominance Humble Assertive
F Liveliness Sober Happy-go-lucky
G Rule Consciousness Expedient Conscientious
H Social Boldness Shy Venturesome
I Sensitivity Tough-minded Tender-minded
L Vigilance Trusting Suspicious
M Abstractedness Practical Imaginative
N Privateness Straightforward Shrewd
O Apprehension Self-Assured Apprehensive
Q1 Openness to Change Conservative Experimenting
Q2 Self-Reliance Group-dependent Self-sufficient
Q3 Perfectionism Self-conflict Self-control
Q4 Tension Relaxed Tense

Using all 16 Factors, and a more comprehensive set of descriptions than we've given here, you can create a pretty
accurate picture of someone's personality. Combinations of factors also give a more detailed picture, and with the
help of a competent adviser, you can begin to recognise the "real you" that lies beneath the outward self created by
your upbringing and environment.

However, absorbing the data from all 16 factors can get complicated, and in recent years a variation of 16PF called
16PF5 has become more commonplace.

THE 16PF5 MODEL

16PF5 takes the 16 Factors of 16PF and groups them together into 5 overall themes (hence the name). Clearly there
is some overlap between the 16 Factors, but narrowing them down to 5 Factors give a much sharper picture of the
underlying personality. If you want to know what's behind any one of the 5 Factors you can "zoom in" on the relevant
16 Factors to see what the drivers are. Some of the 16 appear in more than one of the 5 themes, by the way.
 18
The Five Factors are:

Factor Descriptors
EXTRAVERSION Introverted, socially inhibited Extroverted, socially participative
ANXIETY Low anxiety, unperturbed Easily worried and generally tense
WILL Open minded, receptive to ideas Resolute and determined
INDEPENDENCE Accommodating and selfless Independent and persuasive
SELF CONTROL Free-thinking and impulsive Structured and inhibited

Using a personality profile is a tricky process. You can buy basic self-assessment questionnaires, but they only give a
flavour of the information you can get from a properly-conducted assessment with a competent professional adviser.
But used in this way, the 16PF and its variants give a powerful interpretation of your personality which you can use to
great personal benefit. It doesn't matter at all what your profile is: the real benefit comes from understanding what it
means for your personal and professional life, and play to your strengths.