Curso Internacional de Diseño de Disposicion Final de Residuos Solidos

DIVISION DE EDUCACION CONTINUA
CURSOS ABIERTOS
CURSO INTERNACIONAL DE DISEÑO DE DISPOSICION..FINAL DE RESIDUOS SOLIDOS
(RELLENOS SANITARIOS)
Del 14 al 18 de Marzo d~ 1994 •
.. .
FE C H Á HORARIO TEMA PROFESORES
1
Lunes 111 9;00 a 10;00 h. BiEmvén'ida Órgar\lsmos Coórdi~adores

.ro; oó'
a 1l!'oo
:-· ' ·: ~ .
. SitUación Mundial Dr. Luis F. Díaz · 1 . .
Latinoámerica 1ng. Francisco Zepeda Porras

11; oo' 12 ;00'. a' Fundamentos· del Relleno Sanitario M. r. N.C. Vasuki ·.1
12;30 a 111;.00 Legislación Dr. W. Forester

' . 1ng. Francisco Zepeda Porras
•'
1ng. Gustavo Solórtano Ochoa
14;00 a ,111;30 Mesa Redonda
1
17;00 a 19;00 CarácterTsticas .. de los Residuos Dr. León Van Arendonk
'. ; • ; ~' .; ' 1. ~ ' ·:-·
Sólidos y procedimientos para su
aceptación · i
'·1 1
19;00 a 20;00· Selección de Sitios, Aspectos Geolo- Dr. lsabelle A. Pa~is
• - . ·~ 1 .·'. • . • ' • ..,
gícos y no· Geologícos
io; o'o'· a ío; 3fr Mesa Redonda·,..,. · - o •
· ·;: nv -~- : ;·' · ··
. . .. . • .!, : · ·:_t r·_. ...·. . .
Martes 15 9;0.0 a . 10;00
,,., . h. • Metodología .para. el .einP.)azal))i~nto 1r;¡g. Jorge Sánch!!z Gómez
.'de rellnos ·sanitarios·.. ·
:-,
·10;00 a 11;00
,.¡ 1'•
·Factores so.ciales y ecologícos •·1c ...·R psa lb a .e ruz J 1menez
L .1 · ··
• • ,' ' 1 •
l1;00a 12;00 Estudios previos ,. ,_ lng .. Ricardo Estrada Núñez
.12;39 a 111;00 Interpretación. de las características Dr. Robert K.· Ha m
del sitio en· er diseño de un relleno
sanitario . ._ H , -~
~11;00 a 111;3.0 Mesa Redori~.a.. ... •.. . .• ,.,. r , 1 -
17;00 a 19;00 Pt':9cesos .~e .d.egr~da!=ión y .em1s1ones Dr. Ráfa'ello Cossu
,, d,e ur. ré.lleno.s~nitario,.,. , ·'~'' ••: ,- Dr. Rainer Stegmann,
19;00 a 20;00 lmplémentación del diseño y construc- Mr. N:c. Vasuki · ·
. ción.
20;00 ¡j 20i30 .Mesa Redonda
l• 1p ~, ·.Jr·
Miércoles 16 9ioo a· 1oioo h. · wa·t~r' balance· ánd· ·Jeacháte · quiantity Dr: · Péter 'Lechner:., ¡·
10;00 a n;oo . Cóiltrol de bio'gas · · Dr. Rainer Stegmann'
11;00 a 12;oo Mané jo y control de .lixiviados•-•rc: ,·· · ·• Dr.J:~afaello Cóssu .~~··¡·~ ·
12;30 a 14;00 Protección .del agu'a · subtérrlmea ·Dr. D_i!< Beker · j
14;00 a 14;30 Mesa. ·Redonda . . . . ·. ·
17;00 a 18;00. Opúadóñ élel re'lieho sanitario, ·equipo
y ·person'\11 · "' .."'",;k Om,bj'l
~ •1 o V' ·.. Hójá 1 2i ·,¡.
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18;00;a 19;óo 1 Sistemas de éóhtrol en la ope'ración del lng. Arturo Dávila Villarreal
Jf : (l 1 .,..f '
,Relléno Sanitario'
19;00 ·a 2ó:oo·' ·Clausura del' rélláno sanitario y sü .\ Dr.- Luis F. Draz'
:cuidado a largo plazo
:iO;O(Hi :20;30 'Mesa Redonda
~ - -· ~ !. ' (' ·, d '¡ • • ... • .1 11 . 1. 1 : •. ~'
Jueves 17 9;·oo :a 11 ;·oo h;· qetermir}?ciórr él~,pá~ámetrós de diseño 1ng.: J6rge Sinchez Gómez
·n r• 1 ••• p~_,;a latinqámeri<;:a·.:: :,-:;, ,: . 1,,-. 1.• , . •:.
1,1 ;00 a 12;ÓO Diseñó del. :r.e,lleno sanitario y 'obras lng. ·Felipe López Sánchez
complementarias para latinoámerica
Parte 1
12;3.9 a 1~;00 Diseri~ del telleno sanitario y ,obras
¡.
¡ t 1 . complementarias para latinciánierica . ' ..• ) t-
"
: •• :. '·: ~ i _: ., Parte 11 .. ·,· .. ,
¡: ,··
14;00 a 14;30 Mesa Redonda "
17;,00 a H;OO .. Modelq~.;de p,rediccíór;r.•de 1_11ovimiento I?F· Adl-iáp Ortega
de contaminantes .,. '"
1s;oo,a 19;00 Análisis de costos lng. Feo. Zepeda Porras
·1'9;oó 'a 20;oo , Implicaciones· sobre la salud pública.
20;00'a 20;30 Mesa Redónda
. ! . . ·_,). '-· . 1·-:---:·1;- ·e 1,1 . • . .1·
Viernes 18 9;00'a 10;90 h. Desarrollo Institucional Lic. Jesús Barrera Lozano

10;00 a 11; ~o Mitos y realiudades sobre los residuos lng. Arturo Dávila V.
J: sólidos.
11;00'a 12;00 Muestreo, análisis e interpretación de lng. Domingo Cobo Pérez
los resultados de pruebas de !al:>orat~
l .
rio ~
1
:· • • ·-
.. 12;3.0 a 14.;'oo Impacto y monitonio ambient_al .

" 14;oo a 14;30
1?;00 20;30 :
Mesa Redonda ,.
Mesa Redonda, La ,partidpacJón de la
' ., '·
1 !'J''• - • \¡ ~· iniciativa privado en los ''sistemas de •. _;:~~u!
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1 Dr. Luis F. D·raz
..
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2 Dr. Robert K, Ha ni "
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: Dr. Pe ter Lechner .
~ Dr. Di k Beker
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5 Dr. . Raffaello Cossu ...

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6 Mr. Ren.rik Or ·: ;_' - :
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7 Dr. 1sabelle A. Paris ... ..
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e Dr. William S. Forester

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~ Dr. · Rainei- Stegmann ' '
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CONFERENCISTA
- .. - ..
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..
10 Dr. León Van Arendonk

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...
"·
.. .. ..
11 Mr. -N. e. Vasuki .
12 lng. ' Jorge Sánchez Góméz ..

"
.. -·· ..
13 lng. Arturo· Dávila Villarreal

..
..... . ... . ... ---- . -· .....
14 lng.: Felipe de Jesús Barrera Loza·na
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:· .... -- 1 ... ... ..
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15 lng~ Eugenio Domingo Coba Pérez.
¡-- ' - ': .... fl:.
- .. -- - ··----
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16 lng. Ricardo Estrada Núñez
;·
.. ..- . . ... ... ... _ -~- ..
17 Lic. Rosa Iba Cruz Jiménez ... i!'
.. - . . ·---. --··· - . ... ....... .....

•
18 lng. Felipe López Sánchez
.
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.. .. . .. 1·; .·. .., ·;·:··
- ······· :·
ESCALA DE EVALUACION : 1 a 10 ,.. ...

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CONFERENCISTA
19
20
1ng .. ·:G_t¡stavo Solorzano Ochoa
Dr. Adrián Ortega '

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21 lng. 'Francisco Zepeda Porras

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EVALUACION DEL CURSO

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1: . APUCACION INMEDIATA DE LOS CONCEPTOS EXPUESTOS ..
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2. . CLARIDAD CON QUE SE EXPUSIERON LOS TEMAS
.,
'
3.. .. GRADO DE ACTUALI ZACION LOGRADO EN EL CURSO
...
4. CUMPLIMIENTO DE LOS OBJETIVOS DEL CURSO . . -.. . .
S. CON TI NUI DAD EN LOS TEMAS DEL CURSO
G. ·.CALIDAD
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DE LAS NOTAS DEL
;·
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EVALUACION· TOTAL . ..
ESCALA DE EVALUACION.: .. 1 a 10
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1.- lQué le pareció el ambiente en la División de Eduación
MUY AGRADABLE
Continua?
AGRAI"I-~RLE
•. ,_ DESAGRADABLE
- - -
1- 1
¡ 1 1 1
2.- Medio de comunicación por el que se enteró del curso:
PERIODICO EXCELSIOR PERIODICO NOVEDADES

ANUNCIO TITULADO DI ANUNCIO TITULADO DI
VIS ION DE EDUCACION VISION DE EDUCACION FOLLETO DEL CURSO
CONTINUA CONTINUA
~------:o
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CARTEL MENSUAL
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D
RADIO UNIVERSIDAD
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COMUNICACION CARTA,
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FOLLETO-- ANUAL CARTELERA UNAM '_'LOS
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4.- (Qué'-
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·-· .• ~·. --~ ~- '
5.- lRecomendaría- el curso a otras personas?! 1 SI 1 1 NO
6.- iQué periódico lee con mayor frecuencia?

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cursos le austaríu que ofreciera la División ele Educación Continua?

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8.- La coordinación académica fué: -- ...

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9.- ·si está interesado en tomar algún curso INTENSIVO 1Cuál es el hora'rio
más .conveniente par¡¡ usted? -------
LUNES A VIERNES LUNES A VIERNES LUNES A HIERCDLE S · HARTES y JUEVES'
DE 9 a 13 H. y DE 17 a 21 H. y VIERNES DE DE 18 A 21 H-.·
DE 14 a 18 H. 18 a 21 H. ... .....
(CON COMIDA)
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- . - ..
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1o.- iQué servicios adicionales deseai'Ía que tuv.iere la División de Ed Lu:ación
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: Continua, par¡¡ los· asistentes? - ---------- ____,,.,-
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' NOMBRE DEL CURSO - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
.. FEGHA DEL CURSO ·
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• C O M E .N T A R ..1. O S *
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CURSOS-ABIERTOS---
.
- -=---''U.IRSO"INTERNACIONAL-DE-l:liSEÑO-DE-DISPOSICION-FINALDE-RESIDUOS
. SOLiDOS
(RELLENOS SANITARJOS)
Del 14 al 18 de Marzo de 1994.
DIRECTORIO DE PROFESORES
1.- Dr. Luis F. Díaz 2.- Dr. Robert K. Ha m

Coordinador Internacional Professor of civil and Environmental
President Engineering, University of Wisconsin
CaiRecovery lncorporeted Madison, Wl, USA.
Hercules, Ca. 94547
Telephone 510 724 0220
Facsímile 510 724 1774
3.- Dr. Pe ter Lechner 4.- Dr. Di k Beker

Universitat fur Bodenkulter Rijksinstituut voor Volksgezondheid
lnstitut fur Wasservorsorge en Milicuhygiene
Wien, Austria Bilthoven, The Netherlands
5.- Dr. Raffaello Cossu 6.- Mr. Henrik Ornebjerg

Universita de Cagliari 1/S Verforbraending
CISA, Cagliari, ltaly Glostrup, Denmark
Dr. lsabelle A. paris 8.- Dr. William S~ Forester

G.I.E. Orion/Creed Executive Secretary
Paris, France USA/Calnadian lnternational Solid
Management Federation
Silver Spring, Md. USA.
9.- Dr. Rainer Stegmann 1 O.- Dr. Leon Van Aren don k
Technosehe Universitat B.R.P. BV/Grontmij Group
Hamburg-Hamburg De Bilt, The Netherlands, Holanda
Arbeitsbereich Abfallwirtchaft
und Standttechnik
Ramburg, Germany
11.- Mr. N.C. Vasuki 12.- 1ng. Jorge Sánchez Gómez

Chief Executive Officer (CEO) Coordinador Nacional
Delaware Solid Waste Aythority Director Técnko de Desechos Sólidos
Dover, De, USA. Dirección General de Servicios Urbanos
Del Departamento del D.F.
San Antonio Abad 122 Piso 6
Col. Tránsito
México, D.F.
Tel. 578 50 89, 740 29 98 y 740 23 73
2
13.- lng. Arturo Dávila Villarreal

Coordinador Nacional
Director General
14.- lng. Felipe de Jesús Barrera Lozano
Jefe de Recursos Humanos de Estudios
..
America, S.A. de C.V. y Consultor-Externo
PROCESA, 1ngeniería y Ecología de Empresas Particulares
S.A. de C.V. Calz. de Tlalpan 2818
Rancho Seco 127 04840 México, D.F.
Fracc. Santa Cecilia Tel. 684 80 71
04930 México, D.F.
Tel. 671 68 13, 671 87 45
15.- 1ng. Eugenio Domingo Cobo Pérez 16.- lng. Ricardo Estrada Núñez
Director General
IMASA
Agricultura 83
Col; Escandion
11800 México, D.F.
Tel. 515 66 19, 516 32 98
17.- Lic. Rosalba Cruz Jiménez 18.- lng. Felipe López Sánchez
Subdirector Técnico Dirección de
Desechos Sólidos, D.D.F.
San Antonio Abad 122 Piso 6
Col. Tránsito
México, D.F.
Tel. 577 97 76
19.- 1ng. Gustavo Solorzano Ochoa 20.- Dr. Adrián Ortega

Director de rngeniería Ambiental
Tecnología, Ecología y Ambiente
S.A. de C . V . '
Arenal 37
Col. Chimalistac
01070 México, D.F.
Tel. 661 06 64
21.- lng. Francisco Zepeda Porras

Asesor Regional de la OPS/OMS
en CEPIS en Lima, Perú y en
Washington, C.D., E·.u.A.
·.L ?.·-
MANUAL FOR THE DESIGN OF SANITARY LANDFILLS
IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
DRAFT
This manual is selected as the overall text

for the Training Seminar conducted
by the ISWA Working Group on Sanitary Landfills, .. ,
Mexico City, Mexico, March 14-16, 1994. lt was preparad .
by CaiRecovery, lncorporated, 725C Hercules, CA 94547 . ".
for The World Bank, Washington, OC 204433, and currently ,. · ·· -
is under review for later publication ·
by the UNDP-World Bank Program. · ·::·'".':; ,
•
ISWA Working Group on Sanitary Landfills
1100 Wayne Avenue, Suite 700
P. O. Box 7010
Silver Spring, MD 20907-7010
TABLE OF CONTENTS
SECTION
1. lntroduction ..................................................................................................................... 1·1

1.1. Background ....................................................................................................... 1·1
1.2. Need for a Manual ........................................... ~ ................................................ 1·3
1.3. Objective ................................:........................................................................... 1-3
1.4. Scope of the Manual ........................................................................................ 1-3
2. Sanitary Landfill Fundamentals .................................................................................... 2·1

2.1. Basic Principies ................................................................................................. 2·1
2.1 :1 . Definition ............................................................................................ 2·1
3. The Landfill Planning Process ...................................................................................... 3-1

3.1. Major Classes of Solid Wastes ........................................................................ 3-1
3.2. Types of Solid Wastes ...................................................................................... 3-2
3.2.1. Significance of Waste Types ............................................................ 3-2
3.2.1.1. Leachate Formation ........................................................... 3-3
3.2.2. Acceptable ......................................................................................... 3-3
3.2.3. Unacceptable Wastes ....................................................................... 3-4
3.2.4. Special Wastes .................................................................................. 3-7
3.3. Determining Generation Rates and Composition of Wastes ... :.................. 3-13
3.3.1. On the Need for Accurate Determination ...................................... 3-13
3.3.2. Survey Procedures .......................................................................... 3-14
3.3.2.1. Ouantity ............................................................................ 3-15
3.3.2.2. Composition ..................................................................... 3·19
3.3.2.3. Other Physical Characteristics ..... ,................................. 3-20
3.4. Summary .......................................................................................................... 3-21
4. Site Selection ................................................................................................................... 4-1

4.1 . lntroduction .............................................................•......................................... 4-1
4.2. Decision Factors ............................................................................................... 4-2
4.2.1. Useful Ufe Span and Size of Site ..................................................... 4·2
4.2.2. Topography ....................................................................................... 4-4
4.2.3. Soils .................................................................................................... 4-8
4.2.3.1. Uner Construction Soils ........•......................................... 4-14
. 4.2.3.2. Cover Soils ....................................................................... 4-14
4.2.3.3. Attenuation ....................................................................... 4-15
4.2.4. Geology ............................................................................................ 4-17
¡¡
4 .2. 5. Hydrogeology .................................................................................. 4-1 8
4.2.5. 1. Physiographic Setting ..................................................... 4-1 9
4.2.5.2. Geology and Soil Characteristics ................................... 4·21
4.2.5.3. Groundwater Recharge ................................................... 4·22
4.2. 5. 4. Vadose Zone .................................................................... 4-23
4.2. 5. 5. Uppermost Aquifer ........................................................... 4-25
4.2.5.6. Underlying Aquifers ............. ,........................................... 4·26
4.2.5.7. Summarization of Relation between Geological and
Characteristics and for Groundwater
Contamination ............................................................................... 4-27
4.2. 6. Veg etation ........................................................................................ 4-28
· 4.2. 7. Site Access and Hauling ................................................................. 4-28
4.2.8. Land Use .......................................................................................... 4·29
4.2.8. 1. Availability of Cover Soil .................................................. 4·29
4.2.8.2. Compatibility with Uses lntended for Surrounding
Land Are as ..................................................................................... 4-31
4.2.9. Economic Considerations in Site Selection .................................. 4-32
4.2. 1 O. Decision Making Sequence ......................................................... 4-32
5. Sanitary Landfill Technology ........................................................................................ 5-1

5. 1. Approaches ....................................................................................................... 5-1
5.1.1. Cell Design and Construction .......................................................... 5·1
5. 1 .2. Description ......................................................................................... 5· 7
5. 1.2. 1. Tre nch ................................................................................. 5· 7
5.1 .2.2. Are a ..................................................................................... 5-9
5. 1.2. 3. Ramp ................................................................................... 5-9
5.1 .2. 4. Comb inatio n ....................................................................... 5·9
5.1 .3. Covers .............................................................................................. 5-1 1
5.1 .4. Customized Methods ...................................................................... 5-17
5.1 .4.1. Topographical Contouring .............................................. 5·1 8
5.1.4.2. Land Reclamation for Agriculture ......................... ,......... 5-1 9
5.1 .4.3. Reclamation of Aquatic Environment.. ........................... 5-20
5:2. Provision for Material Recovery ..................................................................... 5-20
5.2. 1. lntroduction ...................................................................................... 5-20
5 .2.2. Associated Pro ble ms ...................................................-................... ·5·20
5.2.2.1. Designation o! Scavenging Site ..................................... 5-21
5.2.3. Management of Scavenging Activity ..........................; .................. 5-22
5.2.3. 1. Traffic ................................................................................ 5-23
5.2.3.2. Supervision ....................................................................... 5·2 4
5.2.3.3. Guid e lines ................................. :....................................... 5-24
¡¡¡
The cells are designed based on the quantity of wastes requiring disposal. The basic
elements of a cell are:
• height
• length
• width of working lace
• slope of side walls
• width of daily cover
• height of finished fill
The height of a cell is a function of the quantity of waste, thickness of daily cover,
stability of slopes, and degree of compaction. As the height decreases, the need for cover
material for the entire fill increases. Typical heights vary between 2 and 4 m.
The mínimum width of the cell or minimum working lace depends u pon the type of
vehicle used. lt is generally recommended that the minimum width be about 2 to 2.5 times the
width of the blade used for building the cell. Recommended cell widths as a function of
-
quantity of waste are given in Table 5-1.
The width of the cell or working lace also is impacted by the maximum number of
vehicles arriving at the peak hour. The width of the working lace (in meters) can be calculated
_. ·by multiplying the maximum number of vehicles arriving at the peak hour by 4.
The slope of the cell is the inclined plane upon which the wastes are distributed. The
maximum recommended slope is 1:3.
The trench method only has one working lace. On the other hand, the are a and
combined methods may have two working faces.
5-5 1
'·
Tabla 5-1. Recommended Cell Widths as a Function of Quantity of Wastes
Quantity of Traxcavator Bulldozer Front-End Loader Minimum Wic

Wastes (TPD) (HP) (HP) (HP) Blade Width (m) ot Cell (m)
'20-50 <70 <50 <100 up to 4.0 e

25-130 . 70-100 80-110 100-120 up to 5.5 10
130-250 100-130 110-150 120-150 up to 6.5 12
250-500 130-190 150-180 150-190 up to 7.5 1s
5-6
- =-~::----5.1.2.:__-Description~-~~~=--=-·::_·~-_:·_::_·=========_:·;:_· _:-__:_:~::__:====~==--=--=-==--
5.1.2.1. Trench
As the name implies, the trench method involves the excavation of a trench into which
the waste is disposed, i.e., spread and compactad (Figure 5-4). The waste is deposited on the
slope of the trench (slope 1:3). The excavated material (spoils) serves as cover.material.
Spoils not used for the daily cover is stockpiled for later use in a subsequent area fill that might
? be constructed on top of the completad trench fill.
Sidewall stability is a critica! factor in trench designs. Sidewall stability is a function of
the characteristic strength of the soil, depth of the trench, distance between trenches, and
slope of the sidewall. Maximum depth and steepness of sidewall slope are compatible with
clays, glacial till, or other fine-grained, well-graded, consolidated soils. Weaker soils require
gentler sidewall slopes. Other factors that may atfect soil stability and permissible steepness of
sidewall slope are the weather and the length of time the trench is to remain open.
Because a suitable distan ce should be maintained between the bottom of the fill and
the groundwater table, compatibility with groundwater safety places another constraint on
trench depth.
Since the amount of required cover material is a function of width of trench,
theoretically the trench should be as narrow as is possible. However, because width must be
adequate to permit dumping and accommodate the compaction equipment, feasibility
(practicality) demands that the trench be sufficiently wide to accommodate the number and
types of ve hieles that use the fill. Generally, the indicated width is twice that of the largest
piece of equipment that will work in the trench.
Depending upon the projected size of the fill, excavation may either be done
continuously at a rate adjusted to landfilling requirements, or periodically on a contrae! basis.
5-7
Figure 5-4. Canyon Fi 11
Alignment of the trenches relativa to the prevailing wind exerts a significan! influence on
amount of blowing litter. The alignment most effective in terms of reduction -of amount of
-blowing is one that is perpendicular to the prevailing wind.
To ensure drainage, the bottom of the trench should be sloped away !ro m the active fill.
Water that may ~ollect at the bottom of the trench should be pumped out of the trench,
because refuse should not be depositad on standing water. Surface water can be diverted
from the trench by constructing temporary berms on the sides of the excavation.
5.1.2.2. Area
Unlike the trench method, the area method involves no excavating (Figure 5·3).
lnstead, a layer of waste is spread and compactad on the surface of the ground (on the
inclinad slope). Cover material is then spread and compactad over the layer of :-vaste. The
area method is used on flat and gently sloping land. lt can be adaptad to quarries, strip mines,
ravines, valleys, canyons (Figure 5-4), other land depressions; and excavations made for the
landfill.
5.1.2.3 Ramp
The ramp or progressive slope method consists of spreading and compacting the salid
waste on a slope, as is illustrated in Figure 5·5. Cover material obtained directly in lront of the
slope is spread and compactad over the compactad waste. Because it does not involve the
importation of cover, the ramp method prometes greater efficiency of site usage only when a
single lift is constructed.
5.1.2.4. Combination
8oth the are a method and the trench method might be used if the site has varying
thickness of topsoil and receives a large amount of wastes. The trench method would be used
'
where the topsoillayer is thickest. Spoil not used for cover on the trench fill would be reservad
.5-9
Fígure·S-5. Sanítary Landfi11 - Ramp Method
5-10
for the area fill. Through the use of the area method and stockpiled cover material, additional
lifts (layers) can be constructed upon a completed lift.
5.1'.3. Covers
The main aspects of the design of a cover are its individual layers. The schematic in
Figure 5-6 shows eight difieren! layers that can be considered.
The most basic design of a final cover contains two layers: 1) the surface !ayer, and 2)
· the hydraulic !ayer.
In a developing country, it is advisable to use a thickness of 60 cm for the surface !ayer
and 20 cm for the hydraulic barrier. This design would be acceptable in are as with high
evaporation and .low rainfall, (i.e., warm and dry) and it is depicted in Figure 5-7.
In other climates and where situations demand additional protection such as with a
humid climate, it may be necessary to include other layers.
In order to preven! the downward flow of water, the cover must be designed su eh that
the major fraction of rainfall and melting snow become run-off. This can be accomplished by
building a cover having a slope between 1% and 2%. This inclination prometes flow off the
cover and at the same time reduces erosion. Erosion also is reduced by establishing
vegetation. Vegetation, in turn, prometes evapotranspiration (moisture form the soil is released
to the atmosphere through uptake and evaporation. Thus, slope and vegetation play an
importan! role in the performance of the cover.
In a basic design, the hydraulic barrier is below the vegetative support. The hydraulic
barrier essentially is the first componen! of the cover specifically designed to preven! the
passage of liquids into the waste.
5-11
/
---H"U-<-~- (e~/J"~)
¡:::.-,_. ¿¡LL/'i._S.
. . -·- - - - - - -""77-:---.--~.....,-----,::--
.X .J.< .A: _. '·, .>«_-· .

-....,.-....,--
- -- ---------- ---·------
Figure 5-6. Components of a Final Cover
5-12
-
/ '
·--------- --------·----- .. --
Figure 5-7. Basic Design of Final Cover
5-13
In the event that the layer of top soil (vegetativa support) does not have a sufficiently
low permeability to preven! percolation, then the waste will be subject to infiltration and thus the
potential.generation of leachate. lnfiltration can be substantially reduced by the incorporation
of a lateral drainage layer above the hydraulic layer as shown in Figure 5-6. The introduction of
the drainage layer into the design brings about additional.degrees of safety, complexity, and
cost. All of which may not be acceptable to a less developed country. This is because the
drainage must be accompanied by a filler zone. The filter zone consists of a layer of carefully
selected cohesionless soil. This layer, as its name implies,' serves the purpose of preventing
downward motion (filtering) of small soil particles from the vegetativa layer into the drainage
layer. These particles would eventually clog the drainage layer.
Finally, if brush and tree growth is prometed and burrowing animals are present, it
would be necessary to include a biotic barrier. This barrier generally is located between the
filler and drainage layers. The biotic layer is designed to preven! damage to the hydraulic
barrier due to tree roots or animals.
Surface Neqetative) Layer: This layer is needed to protect the cover from eros ion due
to wind and water flow. This layer should be made up of nutritiva and dense top soil in order to
support plant growth. This material can be mixed with composted yard debris, sludge, or
animal manures.
Filler Layer: Any time fine soils are placed above coarse soils there is potential for the
migration (piping) of the fine soils into the voids of the layer of coarse grains. This
phenomenon results in the plugging of the coarse layer. Filler layers are used to remove fine
particles from infiltration and to allow upward flow of landfill gases. Soil or non-soil particulate
filters can be used. In the event they are not available, geotextiles m ay be used.
Biotic Barrier: The integrity of the hydraulic barrier must be maintained in the design of
the final cover. Plants and animals can perforate the hydraulic barrier and thus ruin the design.
5-14
One method of controlling this potential problem is through frequent mowing and pruning the
plants and through the use of rodenticides. Another method of control is through the
installation of a biotic barrier. A biotic barrier consists of a layer of construction debris of
crushed rock of such size to prevent the movement of plants and animals.
Drainage Layer: The design of final covers should, in most cases, incorporate the
design of a drainage layer. The few exceptions would be in very dry areas where precipitation
is very low. The only purpose of this layer is to intercept the downward flow of infiltration and
to remove it befare it can penetrate the hydraulic barrier.
A schematic of a drainage layer is shown in Figure 5-8. As shown in the figure, the layer
must slope in the direction of collection points on the perimeter o~ the landfiiL The layer should
be made up of porous material.
Hydraulic Barrier: This is the most important layer of a final cover. The main function of .,
tl'!e hydraulic barrier is to prevent infiltration of precipitation into the solid waste.
In industrializad countries, these barriers are made up of fine-grained.soil carefully
compactad. The soil can be mixed with other materials such as bentonite clay and fly-ash in
order to attain the desired permeability. The success of the final cover depends upon the
maintenance of the hydraulic barrier's integrity.
The integrity of the hydraulic barrier can be impacted through three mechanisms:
chemical, mechanical, and environmental. Chemical impacts are the least troublesome and
relate to vapors and gases. Mechanical impacts involve, primarily, damage dueto construction
such as excessive overburden, high compaction, and coarse materials punctures.
Environmental impacts are those relatad to drying, wetting, and root penetration.
Synthetic membranes can be used in place of soil as hydraulic barriers. These
materials can be prohibitively expensive for these applications in some less developed
5-15
?._.,_:,,.. •L/-
-¡..;, p-~
1
..· , ••
'
C../1t..oi;,.,_
S:7dt¡..
·--~--
Figure S-8. schematic of a Drainage Layer
5-16
countries. lf synthetic membranas are used, they must be properly protected from mechanical .
damage (both during construction and maintenance) by !nstalling adequate underlayment and
a protective layer such as sand on top.
Foundation Layer !Buffer): The foundation !ayer is designad to serve as a buffer
between the final cover and the wastes as well as to support the load from the cover. This
layer is made up of compactad coarse-grained soil placed on top of the uppermost waste lift.
One of the main concerns in the design of a final cover is subsidence or settlament due
to decomposition of the wastes. Thus, ona of tha most effective means of protecting the
foundation !ayer and therefore tha final cover is by ensuring that the wastes are thoroughly
compactad.
Gas Control: Landfill gas (biogas) ,is a product of dacomposition of organic mattar in
the landfill. The gas is primarily composed of methana and carbon dioxide. The quantity and
composition of the gas depends upon a number of variables including: natura of wastes,
climate, and moisture content.
-
Gas control mechanisms typically utilize a j:lorous layar placad as clase to the wasta as
possible. The layer may be part of a static or dynamic gas collection system (See Section 6.3). ·
5.1.4. Customized Methods
lf the intention is to use sanitary landfilling for some specific purpose in addition to
wasta disposal, it may be advisable to adapt ("customize") the landfill design to lit both the
waste disposal and tha desired use. Examples are topographical contouring, land reclamation
for agricultura! use, strip mine reclamation, and gas (methane) recove.ry. Other uses are
discussed in Section 9.3.
5-17
5.1.4.1. Topographical Contouring
An example of topographical contouring is the construction of a fill that becomes a hill
in a land area unrelieved by variation in elevation prior to completion of the fill. An advantage
of such an approach is more efficient usage of land area, i.e., more waste can be disposed
within a given area.
Basically, the completed fill would be a vertical series of more or less circular lifts
tapered to achieve the contour of a hill. The area method would be used in the construction of
the lifts. Permissible steepness of the slope is determinad by the angle of repose of the soil
cover. the climbing capacity of the equipment, and the angle of slip (slide) and tip (roll over) of
the equipment when operating at normalloading. The design specifications should be low
enough to provide a comfortable margin of safety with regard to these items. In summary, the
maximum grade of the slope must be ene at which severa! requireme11ts (e.g., spreading,
compaction, covering) for a satisfactory fill can be met without endangering the safety of the
workers, and at which the eventual landscaping of the hill can be done.
lt should be emphasized that constructing such a hill is difficult. Among the many
factors and items that intensify the difficulty are the following:
• lt is inherently easier to operate equipment on level ground than on a slope; and

certainly, equipment "wear-and-tear'' is less.
• Even though the slope may be within the angle of repose, sorne slippage takes place
during normal operation. The slippage intensifies the difficulty of achieving the
degree of compaction required for the refuse and cover material.
• Blowing of litter is accentuated.
• Abrasion of soil cover by wind and erosion by downflowing surface water during
rainfall easily reaches problem levels.
• To the usual problems encountered in establishing a vegetativa cover on a

completad fill (Section 9.3.) must be added those of planting and maintaining
.vegetation on a hillside.
5-18
5.1.4.2. Land Reclamatiori for Agriculture
Sanitary landfilling designed to accomplish land reclamation for agricultura combines
satisfactory waste disposal with very practicalland reclamation. The approach is applicable to
a wide variety of situations. Examples are abandoned quarries, problem canyons, strip mined
areas, agricultura! lands no longer workable because of excessive soil erosion, and other land
areas severely damaged through exploitation.
Des pite the considerable diversity suggested by the preceding lis! of examples, the
method of sanitary landfill followed in all cases is essentially the area method adapted to fit a
particular situation. For nonworkable agriculturalland, a single lift may be sufficient; whereas
several lifts would be required for abandoned quarries, canyons, and exhausted strip mines. In
all cases, the depth of the final cover (i.e., of the topmost lift) should be such that plan! roots do
'
not enter the buried waste mass before the wastes have been sufficienUy stabilized. Required
depth and type of soil will vary with type of crop to be grown on the fill. ·.
Measures must be taken to preven! or minimize unfavorable impacts upon the
environment which otherwise would be exerted by the landfill. Precautions against
groundwater pollution by leachate intrusion are the same as those applicable to all sanitary
landfills in general. Design concepts addressed to minimize or preven! adverse environmental
impacts from leachate generated are described in Sections 4.2 and 6.2.
Because of the safety hazards (fire and explosions) associated with accumulations of
biogas, steps must be taken to preven! or dissipate accumulations. In addition to the safety
hazard, accumulated biogas is likely to inhibit root development. An approach other than
simply dissipating the gas to the atmosphere, consists in recovering the gas and using it as a
fu el. Gas management is treated in Section 6.3 .
. 5·19
5.1.4.3. Reclamation of Aguatic Environment
Refuse is often dumped into rivers on the pretéxt that it is land reclamation. Salid waste
should not be disposed near potential sources of water supply. In some cases it may be
acceptable to reclaim marshes and areas with pockets of water with higher salinity. In these
situations, the water should be removed or allowed to evaporate and the appropriate
evaluations carried out (geological. hydrological, etc). Consideration should be given to the
ecological conditions of the site.
5.2. PROVISION FOR MATERIAL RECOVERY
5.2.1. lntroduction
Since sanitary landfilling is the subject of this manual, the present section deals only
with material recycling (scavenging) done at the landfill site. This does not include scavenging
at the point of waste generation, during collection, or during transport. Presently. the sequence
most commonly followed for scavenging at the disposal site is as follows:
1. lncoming refuse is dumped as usual at or near the working face. i.e., immediately ·
behind or at the foot of the working face.
2. Scavengers sort through the dumped load.
3. Machinery spreads and compacts the residues from the scavenging activity.
4. The rest of the procedure is conventionallandfilling.
5. The scavengers sort their materials into organizad lots.
Although the coverage of scavenging in this section of the manual is restricted to that
which takes place at the disposal site, it does not affect fundamental arguments for and against
the practica as a whole. Typical materials recycled this way include unbroken bottles, any type
of metal, plastics, cardboard, paper products, textiles, and glass.
5.2.2. Associated Problems
The case for the necessity of scavenging must be strong enough to counterbalance the
many objections that can be raised against scavenging at the site. These objections stem from
5·20
'
the safety hazards to the personnel of both the scavenging group and landfill employees and
from the interference caused by the scavenging activity that prevents the efficient conduct of
work at the fill. Scavenging activities have severe negative impacts on the productivity of the
equipment and the efficiency of overall process. The hazards caused by the intermingling of
the manual scavenging activity and the equipment-oriented sanitary-landfilling activity increase
when heavy equipment is involved, as is the case with landfills on a municipal scale.
Furthermore, scavenging results in delays and often interferes wilh compaction and application
of the soil cover. Therefore, the problem is essentially one of developing a safe interface
· between scavenger and landfill equipment that allows for efficient operation of the landfill.
5.2.2.1. Oesignation of Scavenging Site
The problem of developing an interface between scavenging and efficient landfill
operation can be lessened or even eliminated by treating the scavenging activity as a first step
in a sequence of steps that make up the landfill activity. Such an approach makes feasible a
spatial separation of the two activities. Unfortunately, such a spatial separation adds a step to
the overall operation. The step has two parts: 1) discharge the incoming wastes al the
scavenging portien of the disposal site, and 2) transfer the residue remaining after scavenging
to the burial site.
lf the scavenging site is kept relatively close to the burial site, the transfer from the ene
site to the other may be done quickly by means of a bulldozer. Such an arrangement would
demand that the scavenging site be movable. Of course, !he two sites mus! not be so close as
to promete mutual interference between man and machinery. The scavenging area could also
be locat~d about 1 lo 2 km away from the working lace. In this case, the waste to be disposed
could be transportad by means of dump trucks.
A fixed scavenging site for the life span of the fill would be indicated when transfer by
bulldozer is no longer fe asible. A fixed scavenging site would be neither feasible nor advisable
5-21
for a small disposal sita. Oedication of a fixed portian of the disposaf sita to scavenging takes
on many al the characteristics and advantages of a transfer station. For instance, sca·1enging
done in a fixed area can be sheltered from the elements (wind, rain, etc.) and an undesired
impact upon the environment can be avoided or minimizad. The operation itself can be kept
more orderly and closely controlled, and abuses can be discouraged. Furthermore, efficiency
can be improved by including a certain amount of mechanization (e.g., conveyor belts and
screens). Best of all, encounters between scavengers and landfill equipment could be more
easily avoided. These severa! advantages combine to enhance efficiency. This alternativa
would also allow for the provision of much needed sanitary facilities and a bener working
environment for the scavengers.
Perhaps the strongest objection to designating a fixed sita is the fact that the added
step of pick up and transfer mentioned earlier becomes a necessity. This objection does not
come into play until the distance between the scavenging and burial sites becomes great
enough to render transfer by bulldozing no longar feasible. Of course, the capital expenditure
associated with the erection of a building and introduction of added equipment would be
another disadvantage. The scavenging are a can be located about 1 to 2 km away from the
working face. In this case, the waste to be disposed would be transportad by means of a
truck. From the preceding discussion it can be seen that the size of the disposal site is the
decisiva factor regarding advisability and necessity for dedicating a portian solely to
scavenging. In general, a mínimum life span of 1O years would justify the incorporation of a
fixed scavenging area.
5.2.3. Management of Scavenging Activity
Importan! factors when managing scavenging activities are the relativa priorities of the
scavenging and the burial activities. Burial should have precedence over scavenging since the
reason for the fill is the disposal of wastes. Therefore, scavenging must be managed in a way
that does not unduly interfere with the main activity of the landfill site burial, or disposal, of
5-22
waste. On the other hand, consideration must be given to the loss income to the scavengers
as well as the loss of secondary materials to the local industry.
5.2.3.1. Traffic
Unless carefully managed, traffic to and from the disposal site can be ene of the more
disruptive of the interfaces between scavenging and burial (disposal). Among the more
obvious causes of disruption are the increase in number of vehicles using the same road and
the difieren! moving speeds that result from the difieren! types of vehicles involved.
Scavengers' vehicles may be as small as a pushcart oras large as the vehicles used to
transport the larger loads of scavenged material. On the other hand, waste collection and haul
vehicles would surpass the scavenger vehicles in terms of size, weight and speed. In some
•
instances, long delays are brought about by the discharge of recyclable materials from the
waste collection ve hieles. Waste hauling traffic will move at a much !aster pace than would
scavenger traffic, and would be materially slowed both _by intermingling with scavenger traffic
and by the increase in traffic density. Unfortunately, the best way to separata the traffic would
be to provide separata access roads, and this probably would be the most expensive way.
Hence, the decision asto separation of access would rest upon economic feasibility.
The amount of access by scavengers to the disposal site depends upon the degree o!
separation between scavenging traffic and disposal traffic. lf separation is complete, the
access could range from unlimited lo somewhat limitad. On the other hand, if the two traffics
are not separated, unlimited access is immediately ruled out because of the excessive
interterence with disposal traffic. lf access is to be restricted, the question beco mes ene of
which individuals are to be excluded. In arriving at decisions, it should be remembered that
political and social expediency would inevitably enter into any decision that would limit access.
5-23
5.2.3.2. Supervision
The scavenger activity should be under the direction of a supervisor whose principal
function is to see to it that the activity proceeds efficienUy and fair1y and does so with a
minimum of interference with the disposal operation. Accomplishing the latter implies working
closely with the director of the disposal operation. The latter should have the final say in
decisions that affect the disposal operation (landfilling). The supervisor of the scavenging
activity may be assisted by subordinates, if efficiency of operation requires such a provision.
Efficiency and safety demand that good housekeeping be rigorously enforced - the
supervisor would see to it that this is done.
5.2.3.3. Guidelines
A relatively fixed set of guidelines should be established that ranges from general for all
participants to specific for the individual parties involved in the scavenging activity. Among the
subjects that could be regulated are:
1. Assignment of spaces, refuse loads, etc., to individual scavengers or groups of

them.
2. Removal of scavenged material from the site - i.e., how soon, how often, and
how it is done - everything from separation of scavenged material to loading it
·and hauling it away - cart, motorized vehicle.
3. ldeally, the municipality should be responsible for the sale of the recovered
materials.
The laborers should be provided with uniforms and safety equipment, bathrooms,
showers, eating facilities, and first aid equipment.
5.3. PROVISION FOR SPECIAL WASTES
5.3.1. Baled Wastes
Because of the technology involved and the high costs, baling municipal wastes
generally would not be a practica! disposal option for a developing country. However, it is a
5-24
remete possibility that baling might be adopted. Therefore, this section briefly describes
landfilling baled wastes.
Type and moisture content of the waste determines the cohesiveness and density of the
bales. With respect to those two characteristics, the optimum moisture content is between 15%
and 25%. With the present baling technology and suitable moisture content, densities of bales
range from 950 kgfm3 to 1130 kg/m 3. Bale dimensions range between 0.9 and 1.2 in the
minimum dimensions and from 1.2 to 1.8 m in length. To keep recoil (expansion alter pressure
is released) at a mínimum, baling pressure should be greaterthan 1.4 x 107Nfm2. Even under
optimum baling conditions, the volume of the bales eventually expands 1O% to 15%.
The bales are tightly stacked in the fill. In the United States, efficiency apparently
dictates that each lift be no higher than three layers of bales. Maximum stability is attained by
arranging the layers in a manner similar to bricklaying in which each layer is offset so that
abutting ends of bales in ene layer are directly under those in another. Each lift should consist
of three layers of bales and is covered with a thin layer of soil to accommodate truck and
equipment traffic. The contours of the floor of the site should reflect the contours desired for
the completad site. A photograph showing a bale fill is presented in Figure 5-9.
Proponents of balefilling (landfilling baled wastes) claim that the following advantages
can justifiably be attribu1ed to the use of baling in MSW disposal:
1. Baling ensures a higher effective density, thereby reducing the land requirement.
For example, the wet density of refuse in a conventionallandfill was approximately
133% greater than it had been originally. In a high-density landfill, the density was
abou1143% that of the original; and in a balefill, abou1192% denser.
2. Apparently, use of on-site equipment and personnel is less intensiva in a balefill.
3. Damage to the environment is diminished. Judging from United States experience,

balefills do not have environmental problems to the extent characteristic of
conventionalfills. The experience thus lar is that leachates from balefills have fewer
contaminants than do those from conventional fills. The reason advanced for the
fewer contaminants is the tendency for infiltrating water to be diverted to the spaces
between the bales because of the low permeabilities of the spaces.
5-25
""·
"''
...
~
.~
'
Figure S-9. View of Refuse Bales. (Photograph courtesy of Caterpillar)
5·26
.'
~ - - -
----~~-----4.-Problems"related"to"vectors,dust,blowing"litter~traffic;and"moisture-are-- --~-:--~
considerably reduced in number and severity. Of course, all of these advantages
are contingent upon the balefill being operated in an environmentally sale manner.
5.3.2. Co-disposal
As the term implies, 'co-disposal' involves the mixing of one type of waste with another
and the subsequent disposal of the mixture. Although the co-disposaJ described in this section
applies to most types of non-industrial sludges, the section is directed primarily to sludges
associated with the storage, treatment, and disposal of human body-wastes (primarily, the fecal
wastes). Examples of the latter sludges are those produced by a conventional wastewater
(sewage) treatment facility, septic tan k p.umpings, sludge from the storage pits of unsewered
public toilets, and nightsoil in general.
Des pite the many hazards lo public health and nuisances attributed to the practica,
• untreated nightsoil frequently is co-disposed with municipal solid wastes in developing
. countries. These hazards and nuisances are amplified by the prevalence of the open dump
method of disposal. Although perhaps not as pronounced, the same hazards attend the open
dump co-disposal of primary (i.e., raw) sewage sludge trom a sewage treatment facility ..The
hazards can be substantially reduced by resorting to sanitary landfilling.
In an operation involving co-disposal by sanitary landfilling, an approach is to deposit
the sludge (20% to 30% solids) on top of the refuse at the working face of the landfill. The
sludge and refuse are thoroughly mixed. The mixture is then spread, compacted, and covered
in the manner usual lo the sanitary landfilling of refuse. Uquid in the sludge is absorbed by the
refuse. In the United States, municipal refuse has a considerable moisture absorption capacity
- as much as 60 to 1BO kg of moisture per 100 kg of refuse. Wrth such refuse, the weight of
water in the sludge should not exceed about 50% of the weight of the refuse lo which it is
applied. Be cause the moisture and organic conterits of refuse generated in developing
countries.are much higher than !hose in United States refuse, the absorption capacity of
5-27
developing country retuse would be correspondingly lower. Hence, the maximum weight of the
water in the sludge should be much lower than 50% of the weight of the retuse.
Sludges having a low solids content (2% to 4% solids) may be spray-applied from a
tank truck to a !ayer of refuse at the working faca. The retuse serves as a bulking agent. For
example, with United States retuse, the bulking ratio for a 3% solids sludge would be at least 7
Mg of retuse to 1 Mg of sludge. lf the solids content of the sludge were 20% or more, the
bulking ratio of refuse to sludge could be as low as 4 to 1. In a developing country, the ratio of
refuse to sludge would have to be much higher. In practica, application of sludges having a
solids content approaching 3% should be avoided because of the likely development of
operational and environmental problems. In this particular option (co-disposal), scavengers
should not be permitted to come in contact with the wastes.
A different approach. involves the use of sludge/soil mixture as an interim or final cover
ovar completad areas of the refuse landfill. The approach has. soma advantages: ·
1. Sludge is removed, or reduced, from the working faca of the fill.
2. Because of the nitrogen and phosphorus contents of the sludge, the mixture
prometes the growth of vegetation ovar the completad fill are a, thereby reducing
fertilizar requirements.
3. The development of sanitation and erosion problems might al so be mitigated.
A major disadvantage is the limitation of the approach to well-stabilized sludge (i.e.,
digested). The limitation arises from the incompleta burial of the sludge and its resulting
exposure to the hazards and nuisances associated with pockets of incompletely stabilized
sludges.
5.3.3. Hazardous Wastes (Secure Landfill)
5.3.3.1. lntroduction
Hazardous wastes are equally dangerous and toxic in developed and developing
countries. Locale of origin or occurrence has no bearing on the degree of hazard inherent in a
5-28
particular hazardous waste. At the most, there is the possibility that a given hazardous waste
might pose a greater danger in a developing country, since "legal" definitions, standards, and
safeguards tend to be more relaxed in developing countries. The result is that: 1) measures
required in the disposal of hazardous wastes in developing countries should not differ
materially from those imposed in developed countries; and 2) the •secura landfill" approach
described in this section applies equally in developed and developing settings. The only
differences would be those arising from conditions peculiar to the individual settings.
5.3.3.2. Definition and Specifications
A "secura landfill" is a soph.isticated engineered earthen excavation especially designad
to contain hazardous wastes such that they cannot escape into the environment. Therefore, a
genuinely secura landfill must have the following features: ·
1. Waste disposed in it is completely enclosed by a layar or liner of impervious

material.
2. The distance between the bottom of the liner and the groundwater is sufficient to
prevent contact between the two.
3. Le achate and all other liquids are not allowed to accumulate inside or outside the
containment layers.
4. Groundwater is monitored such that leakage from the fill can be detectad.
5. The fill is located such that it is isolated from surface and subsurface water
supplies; is free from floo.ding, earthquake, or other disruptions; and its site is not
needed for other uses after the facility is closed [1].
5.3.3.3. Design
As with all sanitary landfills, design is largely dependen! upon the hydrogeological
characteristics of the site. Thus, i1 the distance to the water table is substantial and the soils
are very impermeable, compaction of the soils at the site coupled with the placement of single
liner either of natural or of synthetic material would be sufficient. In such a case, soil or
bentonite could serve as a natural material and polyvinyl chloride, high density polyethylene, or
5-29
chlorinated polyethylene could serve as a synthetic materiaL H conditions are not ideal, but do
meet mínimum standards, it would be necessary to excavate the soil presently at the landfill site
and replace it with a sand/gravellayer followed by a compacted clay liner, a synthetic liner, and
a final !ayer of compacted clay. In all cases, provision should be made for preventing the
various wastes from mixing together and thereby triggering a chemical reaction (e.g., highly
caustic waste with a strong acid waste). This is done by separating different are as from one
another by forming subcells using earthen dikes.
Arrangements must be made for collecting and withdrawing leachate as it accumulates
in the basin. This is done through a network of piping installed in the fill. Quality of the
groundwater should be monitored by means of monitor wells placed along the perimeter of the
fill. Monitoring of groundwater should be begun prior to the initiation of the deposition of
-
wastes and be continued thereafter until chances of pollution beco me non-existen!.
The design, operation, and monitoring of a secure fill is a highly sophisticated process
which requires the participation of skilled professionals.
The various elements of a secure fill are diagrammatically indicated in Figures 5-1 O and
5-11.
5.3.3.4. Closure of the Fill .
Obviously, the operation of the fill is terminated when it s capacity has been exhausted.
The closure operation must be designed such that total and complete decontamination of the
facility is assured, and that the completed fill does not pose a threat to the public safety and the
environment. This objective is attained by adhering to the following procedure:
1. At termination,_ cover the upper suriace of the completed fill with impermeable soils.
2. Cover this !ayer with a synthetic liner (if available) to effectively seal this !ayer and
underlying wastes from rainfall.
5-30
--- ---------
Compacted
Cl ay
Externa! Leachate Impermea b1e

( Collection and Synthetic Liner
( 1/i thdrawa 1 Groundwa ter
Interna 1 Lea e ha te 'lo ni tori ng
( Coll ection and
Hithdrawl
Sand or grave! e
·::;:·.·.·.:::.·:·.·.:·.::·.·.·.·.·:·.·:::·::-·.·.·: ::·.·..:·:::.·. .-.·.-.·.::.·.·.:.::.:.·:.::: ..
Water Table
ZONE OF ( GROUIID~IATER)
SATURATiON
Figure 5-10. Components of a Secure Landfill
5-31
Standpipe (Internal Leachate Monitoring & liithdrawal)
Compacted Clay (with synthetic liner
belowl
Leachate Col-
& Withdrawal
Gas
Vents
Figure 5-11. Typi cal Lay-out of a Secure Landfi 11
5.-32
- 3. · Cover the s~nthetic linerwith·toQsoWand_seecUhe_topsoil.tó prodí.Ji:e-vegetation~to=---
complete the closure operation. Leachate and gas collection pipes should
protrude through the final cover.
Finally, it is extremely important that the completed fill not be excavated in any way
since most buried hazardous wastes continue to be dangerous long alter their burial. The
consequences could be disastrous, as has been amply demonstrated in the past.
REFERENCE
1. Northeim, C. M., et al, Handbaak far the Design, Canstructian. and Operatian af Sanitarv
Landfills, draft cap. Prepared lar the U.S.E.P.A. by the Research Triangle lnstitute, Feb.
1987. -
·2. Bruner, D.R., and D.S. Keller, Sanitarv Landfill Design and Operatian, U.S.E.P.A., Repart
No. SW-65TS, 1972.
5-33
Section 6
FACIUTY DEVELOPMENT
6.1. SITE DEVELOPMENT
This section deals with the wide variety of steps involved in preparing a site for an or·
derly and sanitary operation. Steps o! majar interest are:
• terrain upgrading (clearing, grubbing, etc.)
• construction of access and on-site roads
• provision o! scales
• installation of facilities
• erection of necessary structures
• erection of fences
6.1.1. Terrain Upgrading
First, remove objects that may impede the free operation and movement of vehicles and
equipment. Thus, trees, shrubbery, and other interfering vegetation should either be cleared
from the site, orbe restricted to its periphery. Due to chronic shortages of household fuel, in
most developing countries the site might be without combustible vegetation long befare being
considerad a landfill site. Therefore, this step may be irrelevant for sorne sites.
Second, grade the site so as to eliminate interfering surface (contour) irregularities. The
surface of the site should be contoured such. that a controlled runoff is prometed and ponding
is prevented. Measures for minimizing erosion, the generation of dust, and sedimentation
problems should be taken. To avoid danger of erosion and scarring of the land and allow
closer supervision, large sites should be cleared in increments.
6.1.2. Roads
All-weather (permanent) access roads from the public road system to the site should be
provided. With large sites, these access roads would be extended !rom the site's entrance to
6-1.
the vicinity of the working area. The roads should be designad to support the anticipated vol-
ume of pedestrian and vehicular traffic. Adequate drainage should be provided to prevent the
roads from flooding during wet seasons. ldeally, the roadway should consist of two lanes
(mínimum total width, 7.3 m) for two-way traffic. Grades should ·not exceed motorizad equip-
ment limitations (uphill grades, less !han 7%; downhill grades, less !han 10%) [1). Although the
initial cost of on-site permanent roads may be higher !han that of temporary roads, the differ-
ence is more than compensated by savings in equipment repair, maintenance, and time.
Because the location of the working faca is constantly changing, roads for the delivery
of wastes from the permanent road system to the working lace usually are temporary in terms
of natura and construction. Temporary roads may be constructed by compacting the natural
soil already present and by digging drainage ditches. The roads may be topped with a layar of
tractive material, such as grave!, crushed stone, cinders; broken concrete, mortar, or bricks.
Ume, cement, or asphalt binders would increase the serviceability of the temporary roads.
lf the expected truck traffic is only 25 to 50 trips per day, a graded and compactad soil
usually would suffice. Traffic consisting of more !han 50 trips per day probably would justify the
use of calcium chloride as a dust inhibitor, or of binder materials such as soil cement oras-
phalt. Traffic consisting of more than 100 to 150 round trips per would necessitate a base
course plus a binder.
The preceding specifications would have to be modified to fit the condition peculiar to
the leve! of local development, and more specifically to those of the community being served.
As stated earlier, it can be expected that construction of a facility in a developing country would
be mostly confinad to relatively large communities, metropolitan areas, and capital cities - at
least for the near futura. Therefore, it can be expected that sanitary road systems would have
to accommodate conventional garbage collection trucks. Moreover, since all uiban centers,
even the most advanced, have sizeable economically depressed areas, it also is likely that traf-
6-2
•1
ficto, from, and on the landfill will include•a range of transport vehicles that extends from the
very primitiva to the relatively modern. This wide variation would add to the complexity of road
planning and designing and regulation of traffic. The special provisions needed to accommo-
date additional traffic brought on by the inclusion of a scavenging operation at the disposal
site, are discussed in Section 5.2.3.1 .
6.1.3. Measurement of Weight (Scales)
An accurate knowledge of the gravimetric and volumetric amounts of wastes delivered
to the disposal site is an essential element in the development and implementation of solid
waste collection and landfilling strategies, as well as in the regulation and control of the landfill
operation. Therefore, to the extent feasible, all incoming wastes should be weighed. Weighing
the emptied vehicle (i.e., determining tare weight) would not be necessary if its weight were al-
ready known - as would be true if standard conventional vehicles were used. Manufacturer's
. '
specifications for such vehicles include vehicle weight. However, such standardization may not
exist.
Types of scales ra.nge from highly automated electronic scales down to simple, portable
beam versions. The platform, or scale-deck, may be constructed of wood, steel, or concrete.
The scale should be able to weigh the largest vehicle that will come to the landfill on a routine
basis .. Thirty to sixty tons probably would be adequate. ldeally, the platform should be long
enough to weigh all axles simultaneously, although separata axle-loading scales (portable ver-
sions) would suffice. A schematic diagram of a truck scale is presentad in Figure 6-1.
The aé:curacy of the scale should be checked periodically. This can be done using one
of the following ways:
• Check for a change in indicated weight as a heavy load is moved from the front to
the back of the scale.
• Look for irregularities in the action (motion) of the dial during weighing.
• Use test weights.
'6-3
Motor Truck Scale
Electronic Low Profile/Abo ve Grade
BFIIGHT ORANGE
APPROACH & BEAM
MINI MAL FOUNDA·

TlON (PADS POURED
TO BELOW FROST LINEJ
RUGGED STEEL
MAIN BEAMS
SELF·AUGNING.
SUSPENDED MOUNTING SYSTEM
(SIMPI..E SEñVICINGI
CONCRETE AC:URACY SHEAR

OR STEEL DECK BEAM LOAD CELLS
(NO CHECK RODSJ
Figure 6-1. Schematic Diagram of a Truck Scale
6-4
-- ~--- ~~---
_______· iú:4.-Ütil~ies-(Eiectricity 1 Water,Et~)----------
ldeally, electrical, water, and sanitation services should be provided. However, the like-
' 1 • lihood of all three being available at a disposal site in a developing country is unlikely. Electric-
ity can be used for illumination and power. These two uses are almost essential if equipment
maintenance. and repair are to be done at the site. Electricity can be generated at the site by
means of a portable generator. Water should be available for drinking, fire fighting, dust con-
trol, and emp_loyee sanitation. In the absence ol access to a sewer, ventilated latrines should
be built.
6.1.5. Structures
tf technical and economic feasibility permit, a structure or structures should be erected
to provide office space; to house employee facilities; to provide a sheltered area lor equipment
storage, maintenance, and repair; and to serve as a scale house.- The office space is needed
for record keeping and requirea clerical activities. Employee morale, well-being, and efficiency
would be immensely benefited by providing a structure that includes a health clinic; provisions
for workers' washing, changing, and toilet facilities; and a canteen. The equipment structure
serves as garage and repair shop. Buildings that will be used for less !han ten years should be
temporary types and prelerably be movable. The design and construction of all buildings
should take into consideration landfill gas movement and differential settlement ol the fill. lf
these facilities are not provided, operation of the landfill will be impeded.
6.1.6. Fencing
Access to the landfill operation can be controlled by erecting a fence around the site.
The fence does the following:
• keeps out children, as well as dogs and large animals
• screens the landfill
• delineates property lines
Type and height of the fencing are determinad by the available resources and -
conditions prevailing at the site.
.6-5
Utter fences may be erected in the immediate vicinity of the working lace to control
blowing paper and other litter. A low (about 1 m) fence usually suffices at a trench operation;
whereas a 2 to 3 m height may be necessary ata windy, area-type operation. Utter fences
should be movable. A diagram of a screen as well as a typical installation are presentad in
Figures 6-2 and 6-3.
6.2. WATER MANAGEMENT (WATER RESOURCE PROTECTION)
The two principal types of water resources to be protected are the surface waters and
the groundwater. Surface waters may be polluted by runoff from the landfill; whereas ground-
water may be contaminated by leachate from the fill. These relations are indicated in Figure 6-
4. The aim is to directly and indirectly preven! the landfill from adversely influencing inputs to
the water resource. This is best accomplished by excluding from the water resources inputs
that originate in the landfill.
6.2.1. Surface Water
The first step is to minimiza surface waters entering the sanitary landfill. Upland
drainage can be accomplished by means of pipes through fills that are located in gullies;
ravines, and canyons. Runoff from are as surrounding the fill can be excluded by excavating a
series of channels or shallow ditches to divert it (i.e., the runoff).
All runoff from the disposal site and the fill itseH must be excluded from all unaffected
water resources. This is done by channeling the runoff to a collection and storage site where it
can be treated. Ultimately, however, the best recourse is to exercise careful control over the
amount of water retained on the fill site and the length of time the runoff is retained there. The
longer the retention time, the greater the opportunity for the water to be contaminated before it
le aves the fill site. Since runoff from the fill itself occurs only when the upper surface of the fill is
as high or higher than the level of the surrounding land, an effective means of minimizing the
extent of degradation of the runoff is to shorten the time it is retained at or on the fill. This is
done by grading the landfill cover to promete runoff of rainfall. The grade of the cover should
6-6
Figure 6-2. Portable Utter Fence (2 m high, 3 m wide)
6-7
1
1
\
\ of
\
,/>JC
sc:reens
-/;'f\lll\lllll
\
\
\
''
' ......
- •
Figure 6-3. lnstallation of Portable Screens in Accordance with Wind Direction
fr8.
Soil Cow•r
Figure 6-4.. lnterrelation between Climatic (precipitation), Topographic, Hydrologic, and

Geologic Factors in Terms of Leachate Travel and Groundwater Contamination
6-9
be determinad on the basis of the planned use of the completed site and of the ability of the
cover material to resist erosion.
Surface water that runs off stockpiled cover material should not be allowed to enter
watercourses without having been previously interceptad and pended to remove settleable
solids. A complete surface water plan must be developed with other site preparatory planning.
6.2.2. Groundwater
The basic premise of protection of groundwater quality is that landfilled solid wastes
and any le achate from the wastes not be allowed to contaminate groundwater. Leachate and
leachate formation are described in Section 3. Leachate is generated by the passage of water
through the solid waste in a fill. 11 it is moisture already present in the fill, it is termed 'primary
leachate.' 11 the moisture comes from rainfall infiltrating into and percolating through the fill, the
le achate is termed "secondary leachate. • In both cases, the eventual" composition of leachate
is dependen! upon the type of solid wastes deposited in the fill, age of the fill, and severa! other
factors.
The degree .of required separation of fill from groundwater is determinad by the poten-
tia! of the leachate for contaminating the groundwater. The potential for contamination is
greatest when the leachate contains toxic and hazardous compounds and/or when underlying
material is highly permeable. The degree of separation necessary to protect groundwater in-
creases with the potential for contamination. One should not plan on the leachate being di-
luted in the groundwater because the usually laminar pattern of groundwater flow allows very
little mixing to occur in an aquifer.
An earlier step in protecting groundwater quality is to ensure that a suitably thick !ayer
of soil is between the bottom of the fill and the groundwater. The interposition of the !ayer
permits the attenuation of leachate that percolates through the !ayer (i.e., providing a soil
column). Required thickness of the !ayer depends upon the nature of )he soil and other fac-
tors. These factors, as well as the phenomenon of attenuation itself, and the other factors that
6-10
.r --
'
also have a bearing on groundwater protective measures are all discussed in Sections 4.2.4.
through 4.2.5.7.
In the early days of sanitary landfilling (1930 to 1939), attenuation by way of the under-
lying soil !ayer was the principal me asure being advocated (Figure 64). However, in recen!
years, the fund of knowledge and the depth of the understanding of leachate and its contami-
nation characteristics became sufficiently great to reveal the limitations of natural attenuation
that takes place in the soil !ayer. This inadequacy has become more pronounced as MSW
began to contain increasing concentrations of toxic or hazardous substances. Consequently,
it became evident that more effective means would have to be developed for accomplishing the
needed protection. Probably the best approach to controlling the movement of fluids into and
out of landfilled solid wastes and establishing leachate collection. systems in a fill is to enclose .
the fill with an impermeable liner or liners. The enclosure may or may not include the fill cover.
6.2.2.1. Soil and Clay liners
Soil liners are used in single liner systems and in composite liner systems. In situations
that require secure containment, such as hazardous waste containment, double and composite
liners should be used. A single liner system may be the choice in a developing country.
A soil liner may either be the sole liner (single liner system) or the lower componen! of a
composite liner system. Used as a single liner, a soilliner reduces or may even preven!
leachate from migrating from the fill into the subsuriace environment. As the lower componen!
of a composite liner, a soilliner constitutes a protective bedding for the overlying flexible mem-
brana liner (FML) and it serves as a back-up for breaches in the FML A useful function of all
soilliners is to serve as a long-term structurally stable base for overlying facility components.
6.2.2.1.1. Materials: To adequately serve as a liner, a soil mu.st have a low permeabil-
ity (less than 1 x 1o-7) when compactad under field conditions: After compaction, the liner
should be able to support itself and the overlying facility components. The liner material should
6-11
yield to handling by construction equipment Finally, a liner constructed of the material (i.e.,
the soil) should suffer no significan! loss in permeability or strength when exposed to waste or
leachate from the waste. A soil that is deficient in a particular characteristic may be rendered
suitable by blending it with another .soil or with a soil additive. An example is the addition
. of
bentonite cement to decrease permeability. ldeally, the compaction and permeability charac-
teristics of the selected soilliner material should be determinad by laboratory tests, so as to
provide necessary information regarding the interrelationship between moisture content, den-
sity, compactive effort, and permeability.
01 the available materials, well-compacted clay soil is ene of the most commonly used.
A clay liner usually is constructed as a membrana 0.3 to 1 m thick. To function as a liner, the
clay membrana must be kept moist. 11 sufficient clay is not available locally, natural clay
additives (e.g., montmorillonite) may be disked into it to form an effective liner. The use of ad-
ditives requires evaluation to determine optimum types and amounts.
11 it meets the necessary speeifications, the native soil at the facility site would best sat-
isfy cost and convenience considerations. Otherwise, a suitable soil must be importad. Obvi-
ously, cost becomes an importan! consideration when off-site material is used. In developing
countries, the distance would depend upon local conditions. In most cases, a haul of any dis-
lance would be impractical. The liner material, whether excavated locally or importad, usually
is stored as a borrow pile established at the site.
6.2.2.1.2. Design and lnstallation: Standard geotechnical practicas adjusted to the
geology and landfill operational requirements are followed in the design of the individual Jandfill
liner. The soilliner must underlie the entire landfill. The liner should be permeable enough to
impede leachate flow and thick enough to provide a structurally stable base for overlying com-
ponents. With allowances for Jeachate collection pipes and sump, thé liner should be uniformly
thick. However, the toes of sidewall slopes should be somewhat thicker to prevent seepage
and to adequately join the bottom and sidewallliners (see Figure 6-5).
6-12
!'
Ora i nage Leachate

Layer Collection
~~~:!~L~~~~~~~~-:~~~~--~~~~----~~~-~~~~~~~~ ~-5%
Sl o pe
6-Clay
. , - - - - - - - - - L - L i ner
'
Figure 6-5. Schematic of Uner Design
6-13
In general, soilliners are constructed of compactad soils installed in a series of layers of
specified thickness. Although the use of thinner increments (and consequently, more layers)
facilitates compaction, it adds te construction costs because the number of layers per unit of
liner thickness is increased. ·Gene rally, thickness of liner layers prior te compaction is en the
arder of 15 to 22 cm.
Uner lnstallation (Constructionl: The liner is installed (constructed) by placing the liner
material (soil) with the use of scraper pans or trucks. The soil is spread evenly over the site
and then is broken up and homogenized through the use of disk harrows, rotary tillers, or
manually manipulated implements to facilitate compaction. 11 soil additives are used, they are
applied evenly over the site and then are thoroughly mixed into the soil.
The liner may be constructed in sections or in ene piece. With a small facility, the liner
may be constructed in ene piece over the entire facility. Sectional (segmentad) installation
probably would be more suitable with large facilities or in continuous operation facilities. In the
latter operations, the wastes are placed as portions of the liner are built. 1t is importan! that the
sections (segments) be installed such that no break occurs between them. This can be done
by bevelling or step-cutting the edge of a section as soon as it is installed so that the suc-
ceeding section can be tied in with the previously installed section (Figure 6-6).
Because the necessary degree of compaction is dependen! u pon a proper moisture
content, any required addition of moisture should be made prior to placement of the liner mate-
rial. Care should be taken te distribute the moisture uniformly throughout the soil. This is done
by allowing adequate equilibration time alter the moisture addition. The time may require days
or even weeks if the soil is very dry or certain additives are used.
Practicas followed and equipment used in earthwork construction are suitable for com-
pacting a liner. The success of the compaction effort depends upon the individual liner layers
being properly tied together. Tying together the layers can be accomplished by scarifying the
6-14
Bevel
Step
Figure 6-6. Detail of Binding Segments of Uner
6-15
surface of the last installed layer prior to adding the next one and ensuring that the moisture
contents of adjacent layers are similar. lf sidewall slopes are not very steep, they can be com-
pactad in layers continuous with the bottom linar layers. Steeply sloped sidewalls may have to
be compactad in horizontallayers because compaction equipment cannot operate on steep
slopes. Tying together is especially importan! for steep sidewalls, because separation between
layers can serve as pathways for the migration of leachate through the liner.
Because climatic conditions strongly influence activities relatad to soilliner construction,
steps must be taken to minimiza climate-related problems. For example, precipitation may in-
terfere with construction operations by eroding or flooding the site or by over-moistening the
liner material. A preventiva step would be to seal-roll the compactad layer so that water will
drain and not puddle or pond on the liner surface. Conversely, desiccation can cause cracks
to develop and thereby seriously increase the liner permeability. Desiccation cracks can be
remediad only by disking, adjusting the moisture content, and recompacting the affected por-
tien of the liner. Uners must not be constructed of frozen soils, and constructed liners must be
protected from below-freezing temperaturas.
6.2.2.2. Flexible Membrane Liners
The constituent material of a flexible membrana liner (FML) is prefabricated polymeric
sheeting. A flexible liner may be used in many ways. For example it may be used as a single
liner installed directly over the foundation soil. On the other hand, it may be part of a compos-
ite liner placed upon a soilliner. Finally, it may be placed above or below a leak detection
system in a double-lined landfill.
FMLs either may not be available in developing countries. However, should they be
available attention must be given to cost as well as installation.
Major steps to be taken in the use of a flexible membrana liner are selection of the FML
material, designing of the subgrade, and planning the installation. The last step includes the
6-16
1
design of subcomponents, such as sealing and anchoring systems and vents. Among the
types of membranas commonly used for lining sanitary landfills are high-density polyethylene,
chlorinated polyethylene, chlorosuHonated polyethylene, and polyvinyl chloride (2,3). lmpor·
tant criteria to follow for selecting a FML include:
• chemical compatibility with the leachate to be contained
• possession of appropriate physical properties such as thickness, flexibility, strength,

and degree of elongation
• resistance to weathering and biological attack
• availability and cost
In the absence of testing facilities, judgments asto compatibility will have to be made
on the basis of specifications listed by the manufacturar. Regarding mechanical properties,
FMLs having high strength and low elongation are best suited where high stresses are ex··
pected (e.g. sidewalls steeper than 2.5:1). Lower strength and higher elongation FMLs (e.g.,
··.
polyvinyl chloride, chlorosuHonated polyethylene, rubbers) are best used for applications likely
te involve larga deformations such as differential settlement and local subsidence. Other me·
chanical properties to be considerad are:
• stiffness or flexibility at various temperaturas, resistance te puncture
• thermal expansion
• seaming characteristics
• resistance te weathering
• resistance te biological attack
• instability of material on the service impoundment
Weathering may take the form of deterioration by ultraviolet light, ozone reactions, and
plasticizer migration. Agents of biological attack include bacteria and fungi and rodents. Here
again, reliance is on data provided by the manufacturer. Although some published literature is
available, such information may be difficult te obtain in a developing nation.
6·17
The subgrade u pon which a FML rests is a key factor in the maintenance of its integrity.
/ 1t does this by serving as a supporting structure and by preventing the accumulation of gas
and liquid beneath the liner. The gas could be produced by microbes in the undertying soil. 1t
may be either the air entrapped during liner installation or that which is being torced through
the soil by a rising groundwater table. Regardless of its origin, the gas can lift up the mem-
brane, thus imposing a stress on ~ (i.e., the membrana). Uquid máy accumulate as a conse-
quence of leaks in the liner and of infiltration of groundwater from surrounding soils. Conse-
quences of the accumulation can be uplift stress and reduction of the strength of underlying
soils. Leachate that escapes from the fill through breaks in the membrana can contaminate
surrounding soils. In addition to those resulting from gas and liquid accumulation, mechanical
stresses may be causad by subsidence beneath the liner. Other mechanical stresses m ay take
the form of tangential stresses due to differential movements of the subgrade, of concentrated
stresses that lead to punctures and tears, and of repeated stresses that fatigue or abrade the
liner. All of these failure mechanisms can be prevented or minimizad by:
• taking general foundation design me asures to prevent settlement, subsidence, slope

failure, and other undesirable occurrences
• determining foundation configuration
• appropriately designing protective bedding layers
• specifying proper surface preparation measures.
Among the foundation design measures are configuration.of the subgrade to be free of
abrupt changas in grade and as plane and regular as is possible. Sidewall slop~s should be
such that tangential stresses do not exceed the tensile strength of the liner. lmportant design
features. of protective bedding layers are the provision of drainage to prevent the accumulation
of gas or liquid and the protection of the liner lrom being punctured. The drainage layer may
consist of sand, gravel, or other comparable granular material. Alternatively, it may take the
form of a geotextile (a fabric designad to provide tensile strength and serve as·a filler).
6-18
Among the probleins associated with granular drainage layers are the following:
• difficult to instan on slopes
• not stable on steep slopes
• vulnerable to disturbance by workers during construction
• can be eroded by wind or water during construction
• possibility of the liner being punctured by damaged or displaced pipes
These problems are avoided by resorting to geotextiles. Moreover, geotextiles protect
the liner from mechanical stresses.
Surface preparation should include removal of rocks (largar than 25 mm). roots, and
other debris from the surtace. Organic material should be removed so as to minimize settle-
ment and gas production under the liner. Soils that expand or shrink excessively should be
avoided because of the repeated stresses imposed on the liner by the shrinking and swelling.
Finally, the substrate soil surtace should be compactad to provide a firm and unyielding base
for the linar.
Because the actual installation of a flexible membrana liner is a complex and critica!
task, it should be done by a qualified and competent company under the supervision of the
manufacturar or one designated by the manufacturar.
6.3. GAS MANAGEMENT
6.3.1. Origin, Compositlon, and Volume of Gases
Gases (biogas) constitute one of the more important groups of products generated in
consequence of the biological degradation (biodegradation) of the organic fraction of the
wastes disposed in the landfill. For a brief period alter burial and covering, sufficient oxygen is
contained in the air entrapped in and with the buried wastes to permit the initial biological
6-19
degradation to be largely aerobio. The predominan! gases synthesized during this stage are
carbon dioxide (C02) and water vapor.
Compaction of the wastes and of the landfill cover should effectively block the entry of
air into the fill. As a result, the oxygen in the entrapped air is gradually depleted, and eventually
biodegradation becomes anaerobio. The shift to anaerobiosis is marked by the production of
methane (CH•) and e~. as well as an assortment of trace amounts of reduced carbon and
sulfur compounds. The ratio of CH. to C02 varíes, generally, the composition of the gas will be
on the order of 40 to 50% CH4, 30 to 40% C02, 1oto 20% nitrogen (N2), 1% oxygen (~). and
traces of sulfides and volatilizad organic acids. Typical composition of the gas is presentad in
Table 6-1. The gas may also contain volatile organic compounds that may have been dis-
posed with the refuse. A sample of the type of organic compounds found in a landfill is
California, United States, is given in Table 6-2.
The transition from aerobio to anaerobio decomposition and the latter's attendant
methane production proceeds as a series of phases. The first phase is the aerobio phase. lts
duration is the time required to use up the entrapped 0 2. This may be days or weeks. The
second phase begins as conditions shift from aerobio to anaerobio, obligate aerobes die off
and facultativa aerobes shift to their anaerobio mode, and C02, and toa lesser extent, hydro-
gen (H 2 ). are the principal gases produced. The third phase is marked by the gradual appear-
ance of CH4. Within the range of the ratio named in the preceding paragraph (40 to 60%
CH4:60 to 40% C0 2), methane production becomes constan! in the fourth phase.
Rate and volume of gas production are functions of wastes disposed and of the partic-
ular conditions prevailing in the landfill. Other factors that affect gas production in a landfill in-
elude temperatura, pH, moisture content, and size of the wastes as well as age of the landfill.
Because wastes and conditions vary markedly from one region to another, it follows that re-
portad rates and volumes encompass a wide range of values [5,7,8]. Thus, reportad gas pro
6-20
Table 6-1. Typical Composition of Landfill Gas [5]
Componen! Percentage
Componen! (dry volume basis)
Methane 47.5
Carbon dioxide 47.0
Nitrogen 3.7
Oxygen 0.8
Paraffin hydrocarbons 0.1
Aromatic and cyclic hydrocarbons 0.2
Hydrogen 0.1
Hydrogen sulphide•; 0.01
Carbon monoxide 0.1
Trace compounds• 0.5
• Trace compounds include sulfur dioxide, benzene, toluene, methylene chloride,

perchloroethylene, and carbonyl sulphide in concentrations up to 50 ppm.
6-21
Tabla 6-2. Trace Organic Compounds in Raw Landfill Gas, Mountain View Landfill, 1980 [6]
Concentration
Compound (m g/m:!)
1,2-Dichloroethylene 5.2
Trichloroethylene 10.4
Methyl isobutyl ketone 5.1
Chlorobenzene 0.4
Toluene 4.0
Tetrachloroethylene 4.5
Ethylbenzene 4.0
Xylene 2.3
6-22
duction in landfills in developed countries ranges from 0.064 te 0.44 m3fkg of refuse disposed
(1 te 7 scf gas/lb). Reportad rates range from 1.19 te 6.8 m3 gas/Mg/yr ofwaste disposed (42
te 240 scf/ton/yr). Most of the production occurs during the 20 years following landfill closure,
although production is most active during the first 5 years or so. Gas production, in gradually
dwindling amounts, may continua as long as 50 years.
Severa! models have been developed te predict the production rates of gas from land-
fills. Most of the models, however, require actual measurements of gas production in arder te
determine the values of constants for the models.
A relatively rigorous stoichiometric approach (i.e. relative te other approaches) for esti-
mating landfill gas production is described in Recovery, Processing. and Utilization of Gas from
Sanitary Landfills [4). This approach takes into consideration the two majar classes of material
that decompose te produce landfill gas. The first class consists of the easily biodegradable
fraction (e.g., food waste or garbage, garden debris). The second class includes the less
easily biodegradable fraction (e.g., paper, textiles, etc.).
The variables mentioned in the preceding paragraph, as well as others, have an effect
en the accuracy of models developed for predicting rates of landfill gas generation, especially
rates of methane production. Among the variables for rates of methane production are volume
of gas that escapes the fill, percentage of carbon that passes through the methane fermenta-
!ion route, and percentage

. of carbon that becomes a part of . microbial protoplasm. Cense-
quently, such models should be regarded only as being approximate indicators of expected
gas production trends.
Although most municipal wastes in LDCs have a high concentration of organic matter,
the wastes usually are not adequately covered and thus the gases readily escape.
6-23
6.3.2. Disposition of Gas
Gases generated in the fiii may be aiiowed te disperse and migrate beyond the con-
fines of the fiii without any effort being made to control, or they may be coiiected. Coiiected
gases may be put to SOI)'Ie use, may be flared, or may simply be vented into the environment.
However, the coiiection and use of these gases entails significan! capital and operating costs
that must be comparad to other energy sources.
Accumulated gases and uncontrolled dispersa! and migration can iead to the develop-
ment of hazardous situations due to flammability, asphyxiating properties, and trace organic
composition of the gases. The slightly positive pressure usually existing within a landfill permits
gases to flow uncontrolled from the fill to are as of lower gas pressure by convective gas trans-
port. Furthermore, gases with higher concentrations of C0 2 and C~ can diffuse into gases
with lower concentrations of the two gases. Finally, accumulated biogas (i.e., in the fiii) is likely
to be inhibitory to roots of plants grown on the cover.
In the absence of adequate gas control, landfill gases migrate to the atmosphere
through the landfill cover; or, they can migrate laterally through the soil around the fill until they
reach are as from which they cannot escape and as a result, accumulate. As long as the con-
centrations are relatively small, the gases only pose a nuisance; but when the concentration
(accumulation) reaches a critica! point, explosive levels of methane may be reached. (The ex-
plosiva concentration level·of methane is between 5 and 15% by volume. At higher concentra-
tions, methane simply burns.) Because of the possibility of gas accumulation, buildings on or
near landfills should not have underground· structures. lf such structures are present, they
should be thoroughly and continuously ventilated.
Accumulation of gases in the fill can be avoided through the use of a porous final cover.
Migration from the fill and the attendant hazards can be averted by providing an area of high
permeability vented to the atmosphere. Gases flow to the surtace of the vented are as where
they are diluted in the atmosphere to harmless levels (Figure 6-7). The areas take the form of
6-24
- S lo pe
\ A
'-Gas
Cavar
e all.
Figure 6-7. Dissipation of Biogas by Providing a Porous Area
6·25
boreholes, of gas wells, or of interceptor trenches installed around the borders of the fill (Figure
6-8). A more useful measure is to recover (collect) the gas and use it for fuel.
6.3.3. Collectlon, Upgrading, Utilization of Landfill Gas
6.3.3.1. Collection
11 methane recovery is planned for a new facility, certain features should be incorpo-
rated into the design of the fill. Some of the features are characteristic of modern landfill design
regardless of whether or not the methane is to be recovered. For methane recovery, the fill
mus! be effectively sealed off from the land and water environments. The steps involved in
providing such.sealing are the same as those described in Section 6.2. Old or existing fills
should be sealed to the extent economically and practically fe asible.
Gas recovery involves designing the fill such that the migrating gas can be controlled
and collected. Collected gas either can be used directly as a low-heat fuel, or can be.pro-
cessed (purified) to form a high-heat fuel. Collection is made possible by providing a combi·
nation of strategically spaced wells and areas of high permeability through which gases are
channeled to collection points. This is done by installing underground venting pipes and a
gravellayer between a liner and the waste, or grave! filled trenches. The gas is removed (i.e.
extracted) from the landfill by way of a piping or header system to transport the gas, and a suc·
tion pump to pull the gas from the fill through the headers [3,4,5] as shown in Figure 6-9.
Proper functioning of the gas collection system is ensured through the use of blowers.
The blowers are operated such that a partial vacuum is created in the headers and collection
system and the gas is pulled from the landfill. Although some gas will flow unassisted into the
collection wells because of the slightly elevated interna! pressure of the landfill, the flow rate is
too low to ensure proper collection performance. Blowers both increase the flow of gas from
the landfill and broaden the effective landfill area serviced by each gas well. The blowers can
be adjusted either: 1) to pull gas from the fill and discharge it at atmospheric pressure for dis
11·26
Sloge
Final Cover
-------- -------·-
. Gas
B
Cell
Gas _
------~ ------...-- Trench:
Figure 6-8. Dissipation of Siegas by Providing an Interceptor

·l
6-27
to-cm PYC Ploe
Wreoglna lo
K••o Out
No. 2 On••l a, ••• ,
1 5-cm PYC
Joint O•t•ll
Figure 6-9. Gas Collection Well
6-28
persion, flaring, or combustion; or 2) to compress the gas to higher pressures for distribution
or for further processing.
Gas can be recovered trom a landfill not originally designad for that purpose by way of
drilling a number of boreholes into the landfill at selected gas collection points, if the landfill has
been properly operated during its lifetime. The boreholes should be 0.66 to 1 m in diameter.
Their depth should be from 50 to 90% of the refuse depth. The boreholes are fitted in the same
manner as collection wells used in fills designad for gas recovery. These collection wells are
described in the following paragraph.
Collection wells are gravel-packed wells equipped with casings that extend the full
depth of the fill. The casings are perforated in the section exposed to the contents of the fill.
The casings must have telescopic connections between pipe segments such that connections
between segments are maintained despite the significan! and nonuniform subsidence
characteristic of landfills.
The wells are built by progressively backfilling gravel around the gas collection pipe.
The backfilled gravel (or a coarse substituta) serves as a highly permeable collection zone
through which the gas flows into the collection pipe for removal from the well. The gravel area
is covered with a gas-tight seal topped by backfilled soil to form a barrier against intrusion of
externa! air into the well .. Air intruding into a well (or into any part of the fill) would dilute the
collected gas and thereby lower its heating value and complicate purification. Moreover, in-
truding air can lead to the development of serious problems. With respect to dilution, the con-
centration of nitrogen in the collected gas would be increased and the quality of the gas would
be lowered correspondingly. A second, and perhaps more serious problem would come from
the presence of oxygen in the air thus introduced. The oxygen would inhibit the activity of the
methane-forming microorganisms. More importantly, it may raise the CH4 and 02 to explosiva
levels.
6-29
The arrangement of the collection wells is determinad by their respective capaclties as
well as by the characteristics of the soil cover and provisions for directing gas movement in the
fill. The dimensions of the fill area affected by a well is a function of the rate of pumping. For
example, in a 12m California fill having a gas well which was 6 m deep and was being pumped
at 2.83 mlfmin the negative pressure ranged from -5.1 cm of water at the well to less than .Q.8
cm at a distance of 30.5 m from the well. Advancing the pumping rate to 8.5 mlfmin brought
the respective negativa· pressures to -17.8 and -2.54 cm (9].
lt is importan! that the gas not be withdrawn at a rate great enough to pull air through
the cover and into the fill, especially if the cover material is relatively porous. Air thus intro-
duced into the fill leads to the problems described earlier.
6.3.3.2. Upgrading and Utilization
Unless the gas is to be used for simple space heating and household cÓoking, it should
be upgraded befare being put to use. Upgrading is especially essential if the gas is to be
used as a fuel for an interna! combustion engine, or is to be injected into existing transmission
lines.
Quality and content of landfill gas does not compare favorably with those of natural gas.
Moreover, its composition and other characteristics are more variable. With regard to the latter,
the heat and moisture contents and oxygen concentration of landfill gas may vary as much as
50% from day to day and season to season. The heat content onandfill gases ranges from
7,450 to 22,350 kJfm3; whereas the lowest heat content of natural gas is 37,260 kJfm3. Mois·
ture content is another problem. In landfill gas, it may be as low as 5% and as high as satura·
tion. Oxygen content varíes from trace levels to levels that are potentially explosiva. However,
the latter levels are reached very infrequently. Finally, the usually sizeable C02 and N2 con-
tents of landfill gas materially lower its heat content, and hence, the quality of the gas.
6-30
The utility of landfill gas can be increased significantly by upgrading it {the gas). Among
the uses for upgraded gas are on-site generation of electricity and/or injection into a public util-
ity transmission line. With respect to on-site generation of electricity, the gas can be used to
fu el an interna! combustion engine orto drive a gas turbine. lf the gas is to be "used in an in-
' is
ternal combustion engine, it is compressed to about 5 psig~ For a gas turbine, the pressure
increased to 150 psig.
Procedures are available for removing H20 {dehydration), CO;¡, and N2 from landfill gas,
and thereby considerably raising its heating value. For example, dehydration brings about an
1O% increase in heating value. Dehydration accompanied by CO:z and hydrogen sulfide (H 2 S)
removal results in a heating value of 22,360 to 26,000 kJ/m3 . Among the dehydration proce-
dures are in-iine gravity outflow; filtering; use of special solvents {e.g., glycol, polyethylene); ·
passage through molecular sieves or permaselective membranes; and subjection to heating,
air cooling, and refrigeran! cooling. Of these procedures, passage through a molecular sieve
combines a relatively low cost with high efficiency.
The triethylene glycol system (TEG system) is widely used for gas dehydration. Rea-
sons for its ex1ensive use are the high degree of hygroscopicity of glycols, their excellent
thermal and chemical stability, low vapor pressures, and moderate cost. Briefly, the system
operates as follows:
• Gas entering the system is compressed and bulk contaminants are removed in a
'knockout" drum.
• After compression and cooling to remove the greater part of the water, the gas is
passed through a triethylene glycol absorber/separator tower .
.• · Free liquids in the gas are removed as it {gas) passes through lower part of the tower
{separator section) and begins to ascend to the upper or absorber section of the
tower.
• In the upper section, the gas stream comes into contact with lean trietliylene glycol
on bubble-cap trays. ·
• Water, C0 2 , and H2S can be removed in a single operation by coupling the

Triethylene Glycol system with a hot potassium carbonate scrubbing system.
6-31·
A diagram of a dehydration process is shown in Figure 6-1 O.
Certain uses (e.g. space heating, household cooking) only require that HzS be re-
moved. Hydrogen suiÍÍde can be removed by passing the gas through a dry-gas scrubber that
contains a mixture of ferric oxide and wood shavings ("iron spongej. The removai capacity of
the mixture is 105 kg of sulfurfm3 mixture. The mixture can be regenerated by exposing it to
air. Doing so converts the ferric sulfide formed in the scrubbing operation to ferric oxide and
elemental sulfur. A schematic diagram of an iron oxide process is given in Figure 6-11.
6.3.3.3. Economic Feasibility Factors
In terms of economic feasibility, severai factors have a decisive part in determining the
advisability of recovering gas from a landfiil and putting it to use. Among the more important
factors are size and location of the fiil, permeability of cover material and surrounding soillayer,
climatic conditions, and proposed use of the gas. With regard to permeability of surrounding
soillayer, it is far more feasible to provide for an impermeable barrier between the landfill con-
tents and the surrounding soil while the fill is as yet in the design stage than to install one alter
· the fill has been completed. lf the lates! sanitary landfill design criteria are followed, permeabil·
ity of cover and surrounding soiilayer should not be a problem. Nothing much can be done
about the size and location of a completed fill or of one presently in use. The same can be
said of climatic conditions. Regarding utilization, if it involves a top quality gas, cost of up-
grading may be prohibitively high and technological intrastructure may be inadequate - as well
they could be in a developing country.
The mass of waste in the fiil should be sufficiently great to ensure an eventual total gas
output that wouid have a monetary and energy vaiue in excess of that expended on necessary
departures from conventional fill practice. The size of the fill must be great enough to ensure
gas production over a period ~ufficiently long to warrant the installation of equipment needed
for collecting, upgrading, and using the gas.
6-32
- - - - - - - -- --
Treated Gas A e id
To '
Recycle Gas Gas
Pump
E xpanslon Orive
Lean Salven! Turblne
Absorber E E
"'... ...
o o"' o
.e .e .e
Feed .," .,
., .,"
Gas u. u. u.
Rlch
Solvent
~:
Pump
Hydraullé:: Turblne
Figure 6-1 O. Diagram of a Glycol Dehydration Process
6-33
A Ir (
Compres sor r,
Feed Gas
' -'
Steam
W al er
/ ..... / .....
- w \ ,, '1/, lron
Oxide w
' '
,, '
-;;;
lron
Oxide
" Box Box
. )--? '-
..)-? 1,
~/ ,,, -
"7
j Product Gas
'
Figure 6-11. Schematic of an !ron Oxide Process
6-34
------~~-----~- ---
1t would not be advisable to utiliza a fill that is less !han 13 m deep. The completad fill
should contain at leas! about two million Mg al municipal salid waste at least [3). In the same
relerence it is stated that at the peak rate al generation, raw gas production lrom such a fill
would be from 29 to 34 m3fmin or 759 mmkJ/day.
1t is readily apparent that the proposed use al the gas exercises a decisiva influence on
economics and energetics. In a developing country, a sale use might be as a fuel in steam
generation or lor an interna! combustion engine alter a mínimum ol cleaning. Because al the
rellitively high moisture content and presence al corrosiva elements in raw landfill gas, on-site
usage al the gas is to be recommended.
6.4. PEST CONTROL
A carelully planned and-conscientiously applied pest control program is a key charac-
teristic al an acceptable sanitary landfill operation Pests not only are nuisances, they also are
potential hazards to public health. They are hazardous to human health because as a group,
. pests lunction as vectors lar several serious and not-so-serious diseases. Because al this
lunction, they often are relerred to as "vectors." Vectors likely to be encountered at landlills in-
elude several types al llies, mosquitoes, and rodents (e.g., rats, mongeese). The unlavorable
impact al the vectors is not limitad by the boundaries al the landfill operation, it can extend
over an appreciable distance beyond the fill. For example, an improperly managed landfill
could support a rat population within a radius al 5 miles (8 km) beyond the confines al the fill.
Since the working lace is the only area in which uncovered waste can be lound with a
well-managed landfill, it (working lace) also is the area most attractive to and supportive al all
types al vectors. Consequently, every effort should be made to reduce the size al this area.
To preven! fly emergence, the thickness (depth) al a daily cover consisting al adequately com-
pacted soil should be about 15 cm. In áddition, it is essential that the landfill be subjected to a
6-35
. regular inspection and a fly control program. The program should take local and regional
regulations into consideration.
Mosquito abatement is best accomplished by eliminating all standing water due to the
fact that the larval stage of mosquitoes takes place in stagnant water. Consequently, a pro-
gram of grading should be maintained for eliminating low spots on the cover of the fill. Waste
materials that hold water should be covered immediately so as to keep them from serving as
breeding sites for mosquitoes. Common examples of such materials are food and beverage
containers and discarded automo.bile tire casings.
6.4.1. Birds
Although they m ay not be classified as "vectors" in the strict sense of the term, birds are
discussed in this section because certain types become pests wtien taken in the context of a
landfill operation. Birds attracted to landfills for food can become a hazard to aircraft and
create a nuisance for operating personnel and neighbors. On rare occasion, certain species
(for example, seagulls) can serve as vectors for certain diseases by way of their droppings or
'
by serving as hosts to insectivorous vectors. As is true with problems arising from other pests,
the bird problem is best met by rapidly and completely covering all wastes. Although a number
of physical and chemical measures have been employed for controlling birds at a landfill, none
as yet have been found to be consistently successful.
REFERENCES
1. Northeim, C. M., et al, Handbook for the besign, Construction. and Operation of Sanitary
Landfills, draft copy Preparad by the Research Triangle lnstitute for U.S.E.PA Feb. 1987
2 U.S.E.P.A., Design. Construction. and Evaluation of Clay Uners for Hazardous Waste
Facilities, EPA/530-SW-86-007. PB86-184496/AS. NTIS, Springfield, VA
3. Haxo, H. E., et al, 'Uning of Waste lmpoundment and Disposal Facilities', SW-870.
U.S.E.P.A., Cincinnati, Ohio 1983
4. Ham, R. K, and 6 co-authors, Recoverv. Processing. and Utilization of Gas from Sanitarv
Landfills, EPA-600/2-79-001, U.S.E.P.A., Cincinnati, Ohio
6-36
5. Holmes, John R. Practica! Waste Manaqemenl John Wiley and Sons, lnc., New York,
1983.
6. · Flynn, N.W., M. Guttman, J. Hahn, and J.R. Payne. Trace Chemical Characterization of
Pollutants Occurring in the Production of Landfill Gas from .the Shoreline Regional Park
Sanitarv landfill. Mountain View. California. Preparad for the Pacific Gal and Electric Co.,
and the U.S. Department of Energy by Science Appfications, lnc., 1981.
7. Zimmerman, R.E., G.R. Lytynyshyn, and M.L Wilkey. Landfill Gas Recovery- A Technology
Status Report. NTIS #DEB4-001194, ANLJCNSV-TM-12, August 1983.
8. Wilkey, M.L, R.E. Zimmerman, and H.R. lsaacson. Methane from Landfills: Preliminarv
Assessment Workbook. Argonne National Laboratory Report ANLJCNSU-31, 1982.
9. Diaz, LF., G.M. Savage, and C.G. Golueke. Resource Recovery from Municipal Solid
Wastes. CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida, 1962.
6-37
Section 7
EQUIPMENT SELECTION
7.1. INTROOUCTION
7.1.1. Basic Concepts
The construction of a sanitary landfill requires proper equipment, suited to the work to
be done, and typically involves a large capital investmenl Equipment acquisition accounts for
a large fraction of this investment. Furthermore, equipment operation and maintenance usually
accounts for a large portian of the operating costs. Equipment selection must be in
accordance with the landfilling method, and with the amount and efficiency of the machinery to
be used in order to ensure successful operational and least cost procedures. The
requirements must take into account the handling, compaction, and covering of the solid
waste, as well as the construction of cells and the completion of general earth work. These
activities must be in accordance with the sequential scheme of the work scheduled. The
following basic items will be considerad: a) spare equipment, b) multi·purpose equipment, and
e) maintenance and repair.
a) S pare eguipment: The recommended rate of backup equipment capacity is about 30%.
This percentage is applicable to the total amount of work hours resulting from the
design of the landfill operation, considering a maximum of 20 hours per day for the
pertormance of heavy machinery. For instance, if the design specifies two machines
operating a total of 36 hours par day, it is recommended to increase the number of
machines to three. Although the purchase of spare equipment will strain the capital
costs, it will also assure the continuity of service and extend the useful lile of the
machines. The backup capacity suggested is relatad to the type and frequency of the
maintenance and repair operations.
b) Multi·purpose equipment: One way of balancing the cost of spare equipment is

through the use of multi-purpose equipment that is able to pertorm more than one task.
An example is a landfill compactar that can be utilizad for either compaction or covering
of solid waste, and to build haul roads. Another example would be a track·type loader
with a multi·purpose bucket, which can be used for earth-moving and/or to push and
compact solid waste. This strategy demands that the time requirement for each
particular task and equipment be carefully recordad, supplementing the requirement for
the spare equipment until the maximum useful hours for each piece of equipment is
7·1
completad according to each specific task. The careful description of the methodology
and schedule to be used will ultimately determine the equipment requirements. The next
step would be the selection of the different pieces of equipment, considering first all the
possible multi-purpose enes. ·
e) Maintenance and repair: This item requires detailed planning in order to satisfy the
need for continuous service. lt is recommended that these tasks be performed in the
field in order to avoid the inconvenience of hauling the equipment to the workshop.
Proper washing of all the rolling stock assigned to the handling of solid waste is
required on a daily basis. Washing will help increase the useful life of that equipment
and decrease potential friction resulting from solid waste blockage of the different
mechanical components of the equipment. lnspection, cleaning, and washing of the
machines' radiators is another task that shall be systematized for all equipment that
comes into direct contact with solid waste. This operation must be performed at least
once a week. The rest of the normal maintenance operations, described in the
corresponding equipment manuals and/or catalogs, must be programmed in advance
and performed according to the manufacturer's specifications. The repair operations
should include light mechanical jobs (that require no more than two days to be
completad). For that purpose, it is very importan! that all the necessary tools and a
complete set of minimal spare parts be readily available at the site. The latter might not
be necessary if a reliable supplier is able to provide the required parts within a
reasonable period of time.
7.1.2. Factors
In addition to the obvious factors of suitability of particular equipment to landfill
construction and operation and the probable multiple use of that equipment, three importan!
factors enter into equipment selection:
1) amount of waste to be landfilled and the type of materials to be handled
2) economic feasibility
3) availability of maintenance and repair facilities and skilled personnel.
Economic feasibility and maintenance and repair are especially importan! in developing
countries. However, failure to take into account any one of the three factors makes it virtually
impossible to operate a successfullandfill.
The importance of maintaining a steady flow of waste into the fill for the success of the
operation is fairly obvious. Maintenance and repair are importan! as well, with the exception of
the smallest of operations, a landfill involves a relatively large amount of materials handling (soil
and municipal waste). The handling begins with site preparation, continuas through operation
7-2
of the fill, and ends with the closing of the fill. Because practicality sharply limits the amount of
wastes and soils that can be handled manually, most operations must rely on mechanization.
Under certain conditions, it is possible to rely on manual labor and on suitably modified farming ·
equipment (i.e., tractors). Under the rigorous conditions characteristic of landfill operation,
even the most rugged equipment breaks down frequently unless it is conscientiously
maintained.
The need for conscientious maintenance takes on added significance in developing
countries because replacement parts often are difficult to obtain. The problem is increased
due to scarcity of skilled personnel.
7.1.3. Functions Served by Equipment

...
~
Basic functions served by landfill equipment fall into the following three categori,es:
1) functions related to soil (excavation, handling, compaction)
2) functions related to wastes (handling, compaction)
3) support functions
Based on the size of the operation, the same piece of equipment can be uséd for more than
ene of the three categories. Versatility becomes an essential consideration in equipment
selection for situations in which equipment is likely to be used for more than a single function.
7.1.3.1. Relativa to Soil
The excavation, handling, and compaction of soils used as liner and cover material are
considerations when determining the function of the landfill equipment. Procedures and
equipment for accomplishing those tasks differ only slightly from those used in other earth-
moving operations. Consequently, the degree of mechanization and sophistication of
equipment suitable for sanitary landfilling in a given situation would not differ markedly from
that which is characteristic of other earth-moving operations in that area. This limitation
extends to the procedural and equipment variations to meet specific requirements due to local
topographic and soil conditions. For example, wheeled equipment usually is satisfactory for
7-3
excavating soils in which sand, gravel, clay loams, and silt loams are the predominan!
constituents. On the other hand, tracked equipment would be indicated for the less workable
soils. Other variations may reflect seasonal changes in soil properties. H soil is to be moved
over distan ces shorter than about 100 m, loaders, dozers, etc. used to m ove waste in the fill
can serve the purpose. Other equipment must be used for distances longer than 100 m.
Spreading and compaction have been discussed in other sections. Types of equipment
are discussed in Section 7.2.
7.1.3.2. Relative to Wastes
Functions served by equipment relative to wastes are distribution, spreading, and
compaction. With small-scale operations, and those sharply constrained by inadequate
economic resources, equipment used for earth-moving is adequate for the waste handling
functions. Distribution can be accomplished by confining the unloading of colléction vehicles
to the immediate vicinity of the working face, and thereby combining distribution and
spreading. This dual function can be done by means of the bulldozer used to move, spread
soil, and for compaction.
The compaction function demands full attention because of .its many short- and long-
term effects on the operation of the landfill and rate and extent of settling, but mostly because it
is an importan! determinan! of landfill capacity (Figure 7-1 ). Heavy equipment specifically
designad for compaction would be more effective and efficient for this function than would be a
piece of lightweight equipment designed primarily for earth-moving. However, weight can be
significantly compensated by increasing the number of passes of lighter equipment over the
waste mass. Spreading the waste in thin layers in addition to increasing the number of times
the machine pass es over the layers compensates for weight, also. The number of passes
required to attain sufficient compaction also depends upon the moisture contenr and
composition of the waste.
7-4
\
.."'
c.
4
240 Kg/m 3
"'
u
o
o
o ..
-...
o
>,
1
3
.......
E
1
-"'"'
..r:::
..
QJ
"'
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;:¡:
"'C
.....QJ 2
u
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c.
E
o
u
.....
o
QJ
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:::>
o
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1 2 ·. 3
ióaste Co 11 ected ( Kg/Person-Ca 1endar=Day)
Figure 7-1. Relationship between Density and Volume per Hectare per Year
7-5
Landfill equipment must be rugged because operational conditions tor equipment used
at the fill are tar from ideal. Radiators tend to become clogged and damaged, and the body
and operating parts ot the equipment can be damaged by protruding or dislodged wastes.
Tires, even heavy-duty types, can be punctured or cut, which results in a short lite span. This
combination ot unfavorable factors emphasizes the necessity of maintaining a parts inventory

and an adequate repair and maintenance facility convenient to the fill.
7.1.3.3. Support Functions
With respect to the initial and subsequent construction phases ot a landfill, support
equipment would be needed for the installation ot environmental control measures such as
flexible membrana liners and covers, a le achate collection tacility, and gas vents.
Support functions during the operational phase include extension and maintenance of
roads te the working tace of the fill, dust control, and tire protection. Unless the collection and
transport vehicles are equipped with self-unloading teatures, support equipment might be
needed te assist unloading. lf labor is abundan!, the unloading can be done manually. This
would be the case with more primitive~collection vehicles. Generally, some of the support
functions (such as road extensi_on and maintenance) during the operational phase can be
supplied by the machine used for spreading and compaction.
7.2. EQUIPMENT TYPES: DESCRIPTIONS ANO SPECIFICATIONS
7 .2.1. Considerations
Factors which will be considerad in this section are closely related to types and
characteristics ot earth-moving machines themselves. One characteristic that should receivé
caretul consideration in equipment selection is the ability ot earth·moving machines to perform

multiple functions. More importantly, the selection should be based upon the primary tunction
of each piece ot equipment and its ability te handle those functions under the conditions
peculiar to the site. Considerations related to primary function include !hose imposed by the
7-6
soil, topographical, and climatic characteristics of the site; by waste characteristics, quantity,
' ' . .
and delivery rates; and by budgetary constraints. Possible off-site use is another
consideration.
7.2.2. Types of Equipment
The following paragraphs will deaJ with the main functions and characteristics of the
different types of equipment used at sanitary landfills.
7.2.2.1. Track-Type Tractors with Push-Biades (Bulldozersl
Function: To distribute and compact solid waste, as well as to perform site preparation,
provide daily and final cover, and general earth work. A photograph showing a
bulldozer is presentad in Figure 7-2.
Characterlstics
Bulldozers are equipped with metal tracks having variable standard widths, such as 457 . , •·••
mm (18 in.), 508 mm (20 in.), 559 mm (22 in.) and 61 O mm (24 in.). The tracks must be high
enough to allow for better size reduction of the solid waste and to avoid possible sliding. The
pressure exerted on the solid waste is achieved by distributing the weight of the machine over
the contact surface. The following tabla presents some typical values for these machines.
Area of Contact
Power Weight with Re¿use Pressu~
(HP) (Kg) (m ) (Kg/cm )
140 11,750 2.16 0.54

200 16,100 2.76 0.58
300 24,770 3.19 0.78
The degree of compaction of the solid waste depends on the pressure exerted. As
mentioned before, the thinner the !ayer of refuse, the more effective the pressure. Tracked
machines are not very efficient at compacting solid wastes due to their low ground pressure.
7-7
Figure 7-2. Bulldozer (Courtesy of Komatsu)
7-a
In oider to obtain maximum effidency fiom a track-type machine, it is very importan!
that it be equipped with arí adequate blade to push the material. The density of solid waste is
about 3 times les,s than that of soil; therefore, it is possible to increase the capacity of the
blade. The capacity of a blade can be increased by increasing its height. A steel screen can
be used to increase the height of the blade. A screen avoids interfering with the operator's
visibility. The dimensions of the blades vary with each model. For example, a typical 140 HP
machina would have a blade with the following dimensions:
Width (straight): 3.2 m.
Height (without screen): 1.13 m.
- Height (with screen): 1.60 m.

\
The push-blade is controlled through a hydraulic .mechanism. The estimated
productivity for a typical 140 HP modal, on flat surfaces, is on the order of 50 tonnes of solid
"
waste per productiva work-hour. On sloped surfaces the production will obviously decrease;
thus, for a recommended maximum slope of 30", production will be reduced to 30 tonnes per
hour for the same 140 HP model.
7.2.2.2. Steei-Wheeled Compactors '.•
Function: Spreading and compacting the incoming solid waste. A photograph of a

steel-wheeled compactor is presentad in Figure 7-3.
Characteristics
Compactors are typically equipped with a either a standard or turbo diesel engine. The
metal wheels usually have alternated inverted V-shaped teeth that allow them to concentrate
the weight on a smaller contact surface (than that for a track-type machina) and to exert a
greater pressure on the solid waste. The following table indicates the average pressure for two
types of machines.
7-9
Figure 7-3. Steei-Wheeled Compactor (Courtesy of lngersoii-Rand)
7-1 o
Power Weight Average Pr~sure
(HP) (Kg) (Kg/cm )
150 16,000 75
175 26,000 120
Compactors are more versatile and faster !han bulldozers. A typical 150 HP model will
have a productivity of approximately 75 tonnes per hour on flat surfaces. The productivity
decreases to about 50 tonnes per hour for a 30" slope.
Steel-wheeled compactors are equipped with a hydraulically controlled blade. The
blade has an additional metal screen to increase its capacity. The common dimensions of the
blade are as follows:
Width: 3.04 m.
Height (with screen): 1.88 m.
7.2.2.3. Wheel Loaders
'
Function: To excavate soft ground (i.e., ground otfering little resistance), load the
excavated material onto trucks, and pick up or transport that material to distances not
greater than 50 m to 60 m (for optimum etficiency). A photograph of a wheelloader is
presentad in Figure 7-4.
Characteristics
Wheelloaders generally are equipped with a diese! engine and fo_ur-whe'el drive. The
front axis is fixed and the rear axis can oscillate. Models vary in power, ranging from 65 HP to
375 HP. The capacity of the bucket varies from 0.8 m3 to 6m 3. The most commonly usad
models are !hose falling in the range of 100 HP to 150 HP.
Some characteristics of these models are presentad in the following table:
7·11
Figure 7-4. Wheel Loader (Courtesy o~ Caterpillar)
~12
-~
Bucket
Power Weight Cap~ity
(HP) (Kg) (m )
100 9,280 1.34- 1.72

130 11,550 1.72-2.68
On soft ground, a 130 HP machine with a bucket capacity of 1.91 m3 would be able to
excavate and load a dump truck ata rate of abou1160 m3/work-hour. On tougher ground, the
production would decrease, and this machine would probably need to be replaced with a more
suitable piece of equipment to perform the excavation work.
Wheel loaders are also able to perform efficient earth work with clay-like soil, such as
cell covering operations and preparation of sites to be landfilled.
7.2.2.4. Track-Type Loaders •,

)
;..;
Function: These machines can perform similar functions as the wheelloaders. Track-
type loaders are also able to excavate tougher ground. Their optimum material
transport distance does not exceed 30 m.
In emergency cas_es, track-type loaders can be used to handle (i.e, to spread and
compact) solid wáste. They can also be utilized to contour and level the cover material.
Characteristics
Tracked loaders are equipped with a diese! engine having power ranging from 65 HP to
275 HP. The following table presents some typical values for this type of equipment.
Are a of Contact Bucket

Power Weight with R~fuse Cap~city
(HP) (Kg) (m ) (m )
95 12,340 1.54 1.34

130 13,700 1.79 1.34-1.74
190 21,300 2.48 1.90-2.48
7-13
The bucket in track-type loaders is easily and quickly operated through a hydraulic
mechanism. Better efficiency and flexibility can be achieved with this equipment when it is
equipped with multi-purpose bucket This type of bucket performs four different operations
according to the position in which the bucket is operated.
The bucket has a stationary section and a moving section. Movement can be
controlled by the operator with the same lever control. The bucl<et can act as a:
a) Loader: opening the grapple will allow the material within the bucket to be totally
discharged.
b) Dozer: lifting the moving section will allow pushing and levelling of the material.
e) Scraper: in soft and/or clay-like soils the cutting action can be controlled with the
grapple opening.
d) Clamp bucket: can be used to lift materials like trunks and branches of trees. This
can be accomplished by holding the material between the grapple and the edge of
the bottom part of the bucket.
The versatility of this .equipment is necessary in sanitary landfills; especially when the
availability of equipment is lirnited.
7.2.2.5. Track-Type Excavators
Function: To excavate soil and load trucks, and to apply the daily or primary cover of
solid waste (for the trench method). This equipment can also be used for certain tasks
in earth work operations.
· Characteristics
The excavator is equipped with a diese! engine and a hydraulic system to control the
movement of the loading arms and that of the bucket.
The excavation cycle is composed of tour phases:
a) Loading of the bucket.
b) Oscillation when loaded.
.7-14
1 '
e) Discharge of the bucket.
d) Oscillation when unloaded.
"fhe length of time (in seconds) of the excavation cycle depends on the size of the
equipment and on the site conditions. Thus, when the excavation is more difficult or the trench '
is deep, the excavation procedure will be slower. The commercialliterature of the different
manufacturers available on the market indicate the calculation and/or estímate of the cycle
time, according te the eé¡uipment model and each particular site condition (e.g., type of seil,
excavation depth). The excavatien depth (measured frem the greund level) depends en the
re aeh ef the leading arms. The· fellewing table prevides se me typical val ues fer this type ef
equipment:
Maximum
Length of Bucket Depth ef
Pewer Weight Leading Arm Cap~ity Excavatien
(HP) (Kg) (m) (m ) (m)
135 22,680 2.44 0.75 6.4

195 34,020 2.90 1.18 7.3
325 56,200 3.20 1.94 8.5
7.2.2.6. Front-Shovel Excavators
Function: To excavate trenches for the placement of salid waste, and te perform the
daily or primary cever of these cells (without compaction nor levelling of the salid
waste).
Chsrscteristics
Front-shovel excavators are mounted en tracks and equipped with a diese! engine
having power ranging from 140 HP te 169 HP. The tracks are formed by shoes having a width
ranging between 666 mm (26 in.) or 762 mm (30 in.). ·
7·15
These machines are equipped with a boom that is operated mechanically. The length
of,the boom can vary from 10m to 15m. The operational tuming radius varies according to
the equipnient from 6.1 m to 13.7 m. Depths of excavation of up to 7.5 m can be reached,
depending on the type of soil and on the size and use of the bucket. The buckets generally
have a capacity of either 0.57 m 3 or 0.76 m 3.
The weight of a 140 HP equipment in operational conditions is about 20,500 Kg.
7.2.2.7. Motor Grader
Function: · The construction and maintenance of hauling roads, embankments,

drainage ditches and the profiling and levelling of cover material.
Characteristics
Graders are equipped with a diese! engine, rubber whe.els and power steering.
Typical weight and power for this type of equipment are presentad in the following
table:
Power Weight
(HP) (Kg)
125. 12,000
220 18;280
The standard blade for these machines has the following dimensions:
- Length: 3.962 m.
- Height: 0.71 m.
Thickness: 25 mm.
The blade can reach a maximum slope of 90", and is able to adopt different positions.
7-16
These machines can carry a scraper as an additional equipment. The scraper is used
te rip the ground or te mix soils. 1t has 11 teeth shaped as hooks, with replaceable ends.
The scraping depth varies according te the model from 0.15 m te 0.22 m.
The approximate earth moving capacities for loaders and scrapers are presented in
Table 7·1.
7.2.2.8. Sheeps Foot Compactors
Function: Compaction of soils and embankmenis.
Characteristics
Sheeps foot compactors can be either self-propelled or pulled by tractors (165 HP).
Basically, they are formed by two cylindrical drums with "leer that convey pressure te
the soil te be compactad. The drums can be ballasted with water. The average pressure
depends en the type of "loor used. There are several designs. Thus, for the case of two
cylindrical drums having the following dimensions:
Diameter: 1.53 m
Rolling width (2): 3.4 m
Number of "leer per drum: 120
• Weight of drum with water ballast: 12,600 Kg
The pressures exerted en the ground, according te the type of "foot'' would range from about
27 te 82 kg/cm2.
Since these machines have a mechanism that allows oscillation of the drums, uniform
compaction can be achieved even en irregular layers of soil.
7·17
Tabla 7-1. Approximate Earth Moving Capacities for Average Soils
Capacity of Units One Way Haul Distance - Ft.

(Cubic Yards) o 100 200 300 400 500 600 eco 1000
Cubic Yards/Hour
Tracked Loader
1 1/4 40 30 25 20 15
1 1/2 50 35 30 25 20 15
2 eo 60 45 40 35 30
Pulled Scrapers
14 190 170 150 125 100

12 165 145 125 100 75
7 90 eo 75 60 55
Self-Propelled Scrapers
20 400 3eo 340 300

14 250 240 210 1eO
11 170 160 140 120
7-1 e
7.2.2.9. Pneumatlc Tire Compactors
Function: Adapted to the compaction of topsoiis and sub-layers, especialiy when

ioamy material is present. High and uniform densities can be obtained throughout the
thickness of the iayers.
Characteristics
These machines can be either self-propelied or hauled by tractors. The load is
transmitted to the ground through !he contact surface of the tires, which form the roliing unit.
Typicaliy, these compactors have seven tires.
The baliasting of the equipment is done with wet sand (density = 2,000 Kg/m 3) which
can reach weights ranging from 13,000 Kg to 35,000 Kg. The operation is as iollows:
lnitially, low tire pressures are used in order to have greater contact areas and less
compaction resistance.
During !he compaction process, !he tire pressures are increased, reducing !he
contact area and, therefore, !he compaction pressure.
These machines have a device that aliows proper control of the pressure of the tires.
7.2.2.10. Self-Propelled Vibratorv Drum Compactors
Function: Adaptad to effectively compact soils, cover material foimed by normal soiis,
. granulated or clay-like. ·
Characteristics
Vibratory drum compactors have a metal drum on the front. The approximate
dimensions of the drum are: width, 2.15 m; diameter, 1.5 m. The compactors have pneumatic
tires on !he back.
The vibration system is operated by a hydrostatic engine directly connected to the
vibrator, allowing variations in amplitude and frequency, independent from the speed of the
7·19
propelling engine. The vibration frequency can be regulated to reach a maximum of up to
2,000 vibrations per minute.
The weight of the equipment varias according to the model (9,000 Kg to 12,000 Kg).
7.2.2.11. Drainage of Ditches
There are two types of equipment that can be used to perform this task:
a) Centrifugar pumps driven by internar combustion engines: Power of the engines varies
between 8 HP and 15 HP. lt is possible to obtain flows from 6 m3/h up to 30 m 3/h,
depending on the efficiency of the system.
b) Submersible pumps with electric motors: These pumps are recommended for the
handling of leachate. The range of flows for these pumps varies between 8 m3!h and
15 m3th. '
7.2.2.12. Rubble Shredders
The purpose of these machines is to shred large soil partieres in arder to obtain
adequate size distribution of the cover material.
These machines usually have power of 6 HP anda production rate of 2m 3th.
Shredders usually are operated by an internar combustion engine oran electric motor.
7.3. INSPECTION ANO MAINTENANCE
As previously indicated, the costs associated with operation and maintenance of the
equipment used in landfills account for a majar portien of total operation costs. Disregard to
both frequent inspection and a systematic maintenance program can lead to severe problems.
The problems can take the form of machinery breakdowns, inadequate compaction or
insufficient cover material. Breakdowns can be costly. Peor compaction and rack of cover
material can cause negative environmental impacts.
Consequently, it is extremely importan! to institute a program for inspecting the
equipment used on the landfill. Sorne of the equipment may require daily inspection and
7-20
others may only need weekly inspection. In addition, continuous operation and low frequency
ot breakdowns can only be achieved through the implementation of preventiva maintenance
program. The maintenance program should be based on guidelines provided by the
equipment manufacturers.
Facilities must be provided tor carrying out the various maintenance procedures.
Facilities include garages, tools, testing equipment, and a stock ot replacement parts.
Equipment manufacturers should provide a list of basic replacement parts and the name and
location ot a source tor additional parts. ldeally, the source should be located within the
country.
A summary of typical equipment needs as a tunction of waste generated per day is
presentad in Table 7-2.
REFERENCE
1. Bruner, D.R., and D.S. Keller, Sanitarv Landfill Design and Operation, U.S.E.P.A., Report
No. SW-65TS, 1972.
7-21
Table 7-2. Equipment Needs as a Function of Waste Generated
Daily Eguiement
Tonnage Quantity Type Weight (lb) hp
0-20 1 CD <15,000 <08

CL <20,000 <70
RTL <20,000 <100
swc N/A N/A
20-50 CD 15,000-20,000 80-11 o

CL 20,000-25,000 70-100
RTL 20,000-22,000 100-120
swc Smallest Available
50-130 1 CD 20,000-25,000 110-130

CL 25,000-32,000 100-130
RTL 22,500-27,500 120-150
swc As Available 150
130-250 1 CD 30,000-35,000 150-180

CL 32,500-45,000 150-190
RTL 27,500-35,000 150-190
swc 30,000-42,000 150-190
250-500 1-2 CD 47,500-52,000 250-280

CL Combination
RTL Combination
swc Combination
S
DL
WT
CD: Crawler dozer S: Scraper

SWC: Steel wheeled compactar RG: Road grader
WT: Water truck RTL: Rubber tired loader
CL: Crawler loader DL: Dragline
7-22
Seetlon 8
OPERATION
8.1. INTRODUCTION
This seetion presents an approach for the efficient operation of a solid waste landfill. A
detailed outline of all daily activities is the basis of an effective operating plan. The plan mus!
be sufficiently flexible te encourage manageriaJ ingenuity in reaching the objectives, and rigid
enough te support proper operations. An efficient operating plan implies equipment that is
compatible with the characteristics of the solid waste, the site conditions and the landfilling
method.
In this section, site operation is divided into two parts: 1) operational procedures that
do not depend en the method of landfill used; and 2) operational procedures that are specific
te the method of landfilling.
8.2. GENERAL OPERATING PROCEDURES

•
Operations factors that must be considerad for all types of landfilling include:
• Operating hours
• Site preparation and maintenance
• lnclement climate
• Environmental control
8.2.1. Operating Hours
Operating hours typically are set by the collection schedules. 1t is possible, however, te
modify collection practices te accommodate site operations. Generally, sites in the U.S. are
open from about 6:00 a.m .. te approximately 6:00 p.m. The hours of operation should take into
consideration local traffic conditions.
8-1
Operating hours may be modified based upon the quanüty of waste produced during a
certain time of the year. H the site is not open 24 hours per day, the gates should be closed
sufficiently early to allow for waste covering and cleanup. Containers (dumpsters) may be
placed outside the gata to allow for the disposal of small quantities of wastes after_operating
· hours.
Personnel should arrive at the facility early enough lo prepare the equipment and the
site prior to the arrival of collection vehicles. s'ome of the tasks that are carried out before the
arrival of the collection vehicles include: snow plowing (where appropriate), relocation of wind
fencing, maintenance of equipmeint, fueling,preparation of unloading are as, and cleaning of
roads.
8.2.2. Site Physical Maintenance
8.2.2.1. Site Preparation
As the working area gets filled and additional areas are required for filling, those new
areas should be cleared, excavated, and lined. Similarly, as the working areas are filled, a final
cover should be applied on them as soon as possible.
The sites must be preparad and constructed according to design specifications. Site
preparation and construction include:
• clearing and grubbing
• installation of liners and leachate collection systems
• erection of building structures
• installation of utilities
• constructions of roadway.s
• soil stockpiling
8-2
. - 8.2.2.2. Road Maintenance
. Maintenance of access roads at landfill sites is a continuous process. Road mainte·
nance can be, and often is, an expensive operation. Regardless of the type of surface (soil,
grave!, or pavement), the roads must be inspected and repaired frequently. Typical repairs in-
elude cleaning, adding or grading soil and grave!, filling holes, and cleaning drainage ditches.
Since róad maintenance can be a costly operation, it often is neglected. Lack of proper road
maintenance leads to equipment damage, unnecessary delays, and safety problems. A few
sections of well-marked rough areas can be left on sorne roads in order to control excessive
speed.
8.2.2.3. General Maintenance
All waste treatment and disposal sites require continuous maintenance. The site man-
ager should prepare a detailed maintenance schedule. Specific dates should be scheduled for
the performance of tasks. The types of tasks that are required include:
• the removal of litter
• maintenance of gate, fence and building
• maintenance of drainage system and final cover
• the preparation and upkeep of final site maps
As areas of the site are finished, a series of maps indicating phased filling should be
maintained and updated. The maps should identify areas used for special wastes, the fill depth
of th~ various areas, as well as other site specific features. An example is given in Figure 8-1.
8.2.3. lnclement Climate
The weather plays an importan! role in the successful operation of a landfill site. Long
periods of excessive rainfall, freezing temperaturas, or extreme heat can disrupt routine opera-
tion of a landfill. The relative amount of rainfall during site preparation has a direct impact on
the moisture content of the soil as well as on groundwater saturation levels. 8oth of these pa
8-3
(
Seguence 3
Sequence 1 Sequence í?
Q Excavation
S Ffll and Cover
~ Operatfon
Wj Seedf ng and ~la f ntenance

0 Storage of Cover
Figure 8-1. Sequence of Operation

rameters are importan! in the control of soil strength and permeability during construction of a
clay liner or other compactad soil components. Extremely low temperaturas (i.e., freezing con-
ditions during construction of the landfill site) also impact soil workability and permeability.
Temperatura levels also affect the installation of flexible membrana liners (FML) in particular
seaming requirements.
Climate can also have an impact on the performance and operation of the facility. This
is particularly true in less developed countries where heavy rainfall often results in extremely
'
muddy access roads and unloading areas thus leading to long delays. Extremely high precip-
itation also has an impact on the water table. An excessively high water table may increase the
groundwater pressure on the sidewalls of a trench operation resulting in unstable conditions.
One of the most effective means of dealing with high rainfall is to construct and maintain
drainage canals on the periphery of the site to divert water away from the wastes. In the event
that the site is relatively flat, leachate collection systems help to reduce sorne of the pioblems
associated with increased precipitation. However, if the collection system does not have the
capacity to deal with the extreme conditions, liquid pressure in the facility wi.ll increase. High
liquid pressure may result in migration from the site. Decreased soil density, which may cause
liner instability, may also result from heavy precipitation.
On the other hand, very dry conditions may make the soil hard to excavate or compact.
In addition, in the absence of moisture, organic matter does not readily breakdown. In arid
areas, evaporation from the ground is greater than rainfall. Consequently, very little or no
leachate is formad from the MSW after disposal. Landfills in arid and semi-arid regions may be
operated without liners and leachate collection systems. In fact, it has been indicated that the
best sites for landfills are in arid regions (1 0). Dry soil may al so lead to the formation of cracks
and increase the permeability of the soil. Freezing temperaturas may cause stockpiles soil to
freeze and become unusable. In extreme cases, very low temperaturas may affect the proper
operation of site equipment as well as main components of the leachate con:ction system that
8-5
1
are located above the frost line. Efficient operations require that operational problems of this
nature be anticipated and contingency plans be developed in order to address the problems
satisfactorily. In Tabla 8-1 are listed problems dueto inclement weather and their potential
solutions.
8.2.4. Waste Receipt and Vehicle Routlng
Every landfill site should maintain a controlled gate. A gate would enable operators to:
1) keep records of weights or volumes of incoming loads, 2) direct incoming vehicles, and 3)
reject materials that can not be disposed on the site. A sign which clearly indicates site regula-
tions, operating hours, user (tipping) lees, emergency telephone numbers, permit information,
and other relevan! data should be placad on the gate.
Monitoring the weights, or volumes, of residues received at the site allows operators to
assess the efficiency of the operation in terms of land use and compaction. These records·
would also allow the operator to predict, with a certain degree of accuracy, remaining site lite.
Remaining site lite can be calculated in conjunction with aerial' surveysó Aerial surveys maybe
unnecessary and too costly for certain locations. In addition, user lees can be properly and
accurately assessed by monitoring the quantity of waste received. There are various methods
to monitor the quantities of waste received. Most large, modem landfills utiliza a truck scale.
Although it is preferable to monitor weights, small sites may opt to record volumes. In the ab-
sence of a scale, weights may be recordad over a short term using a scale located away from
the site. The results of the survey can be used to develop user lees and evaluate waste receipt
over a year. This method does not take into consideration any changas in the waste stream.
8.2.5. Environmental Control
In most situations, regulations are established which require the inclusion of enviren-
mental controls to protect the environment from the potential negativa impacts of landfills. The
most commonly used types of environmental controls include impermeable barriers (liners),
le achate collection systems, and cover systems. The proper design and construction of these
/ 8-6
Table-~1~1nctementWeatherPractices ________________
Problem Solution
WetWeather
Access roads (muddy) • Add cinders, crushed stone, or demolition
debris
• Maintain a special working area that has
permanent roads
Unloading area (muddy) • Stockpile well-drained soils and apple as

necessary
• Keep compactive equipment off area by
unloading and moving refuse perpendicular
te area
• Grade unloading area slightly te permit
runo ti
Soil is wet/unworkable • . Maintain compactad, sloped stockpiles

and/or cover with tarpaulin
Soil permeability/density varíes from design • Do not compact soils in overly wet wea!her .... > t"''
• Cover soil
Leachate collection system ctogging • Aqd barriers for fines

from runoff ' • Periodic cleaning of pipe network
.,
OryWeather
Dry soils - unable te excavate and • Cover soil te preven! drying
increased permeability • Wet soil
Cold Weather
Soil (freezes) • lnsulate stockpiles with le aves, snow, or
straw
• Salt soil
• Continually strip and cut soil .
• Maintain well drained soiVsand
• Use hydraulic rippers en frezan soil ·
8-7
controls were discussed in Section ,5. Environmental controls are necessary to protect the en-
vironment during landfill operation and during closure. These practicas are described in the
following sections and are outlined in Table 8-2.
8.2.5.1. Leachate
Leachate is a liquid that results when rainfall or other type of liquid enters a waste dis-
posal facility and percolates through the wastes. Leachate typically contains high concentra-
tions of suspended and soluble chemicals that were originally part of the waste. The charac·
teristics of leachate vary from sita to site and depend on several factors, such as the type of
waste, moisture content, quality of the cover, climatic conditions, and others. The characteris·
tics of le achate from municipal salid wastes are presentad in Table 8·3.
The production and control of leachate is an importan! aspect of landfill operations be-
c~use the liquid may migrate from the boundaries of the facility and contaminate both ground
and surtace waters (1]. The rate of leachate production can be substantially reduced by cov-
ering the salid waste during facility operation with a material having a low-permeability.
Leachate production can be controlled alter closure by installing a final cover system that
minimizes the amount of liquid that penetrates the waste. Low-permeability liners (i.e., com·
pacted soil, flexible membranas) serve two main purposes in the control of the quantity of
leachate. A discussion on permeability and covers is presented in Section 5.
1) Uners preven! groundwater from entering the facility and contributing to the
leachate volume.
2) Uners preven! the le achate. from migrating outside of the disposal are a.
In most cases, leachate will be produced in municipal solid waste disposal facilities. Therefore,
these facilities generally are required to be equipped with leachate collection systems to pre·
vent the accumulation of leachate pressure on the liner. Leachate production, collection, and
treatment system operation are discussed in references. 2, 3, and 4.
B·B
6-8
"T1 t/) t/) r- ~m

~ : E: ., ~ :z
e
o ~ .eo e3:: g¡ .,
2. ~ ¡;; §- . -= e<
e" ~ Q. E: g_ C'"-
§. e 'ª Q ¡¡; ,. e -
... -= .. -<... .. -. -.
ñ = =
. --
= ¡ ¡¡¡
.
.
c.
..= = ..=
m =
!:
e
-e.
=
1 • - 1 1 1 1 1Safety Program
Malntaln Washrooms
• • • • • • • tor Personnel
Tralnlng of New
• • • • • • • • • • • • • Personnel
j Malntain Road Marklngs

·1· • • • and Trench Barriers
1• 1 1•1•1• 1• 1 1 1Malntaln Fenclng -r

"·
1.Apply lnseetlcides "'C'"
~
•... 1 • 1• • • •1•1 "'ce

1 Malntaln Bl.lffer ~ 1
N
f • • • • • • • and Grass
1 ·l·
• 1Proper E.qulpment Malntenance ...,
·~-..)" ·.~. • • • • • :::0
. <
Spray Water/Oilll.lquld -..,
e
• • • •• Asphalt :::0
3
1
.. :::0
"'
Trvc:k Wash Pad ....
• • (to clean trucks) ~
"'
ro
·1· Malntaln Grass Waterways, .
e
:::0
• • CIYersion Oltt:hes,· Rlp-Rap ..,o....
~
111
Final Gradlng of
• • • • • • Clsturbed Areas
• 1Chemlcal Masklng Agent

Workers Supplied wlth
• 1· • Aeratora
• 1• 1• • •1 1• •1 1 1 1 1• 1Cawr Solid Waste Cally

Water Clverted Away
• • • from Slte
1 1
Construc:t I.Dw-Permeablllty
• Liners and L.eachate
Collec:tion Systems
~ ~
~
- ~
-·- - ~- ~
~Q.nstrc:t ~~perm.eabillty .
- .•
··- ·- Final Cover System -
1 1·1 1 1 1 1 Extermination F'rogram
1 1·1 1 1
Tabla 8-3. Summary of Leachate Characteristics from Municipal Solid Wastes.[9)
Components Range of all values (mg/L}
Alkalinity (CaCOJ) o- 20850

BOD (5 day) 9-5461 o
Calcium 5-4080
COD o- 89520
Copper o- 9.9
Chloride (CI') 34-2800
Hardness (CaCo3) o -22800
lron- Total 0.2- 5500
Lead o -5.0
Magnesium 16.5-15600
Manganesa .06- 1400
Nitrogen-NHJ o -1106
Nitrogen-Kjeldahl o- 1416
Nitrogen-N~ o -1300
Potassium 2.8-3770
Sodium 0-7700
Sulfate (S04 =¡ 1 -1826
TOS o- 42276
TSS 6-2685
Total Phosphate o- 154
.Zinc 0-1000
pH 2.7- 8.5•
&Excluding incinerator residue.
8-10
8.2.5.2. Siltation and Erosion
lmproper grading generally leads to production of run-off containing high concentra·
tions of silt. Grades with a slope of2% to 5% should be maintained, i1 possible, where feasible
to promete surface drainage and at the same time minimiza flow velocities. Denuded areas
should be kept to a mínimum during site operation. Ongoing construction and maintenance of
sediment control devices (e.g. grass waterways, diversion ditches, rip-rap, sediment basins) are
critica! for an environmentally sound operation. During final closure, proper final grading,
seeding and maintenance of a final cover system help preven! long-term erosion and siltation
problems.
8.2.5.3. Mud
Heavy rains and snow melt during the spring can result in the production of mud. In
order to reduce the negativa impact that mud can pose on daily operations, access roads
should be paved or graveled. Another alternativa is to mix soils oflarge particle size such as
sand and gravel into clay soils in roadways where vehicle traffic is heavy. Mud can be tracked
onto public roadways by landfill equipment or collection vehicles and can result in significantly
poor public relations for sanitary disposal facilities [5]. ldeally, an area for washing should be
installed near the gate to the facility in order to remove the mud from transport vehicles. In
sorne cases, landfill sitas have specific areas that are used only during poor weather conditions
and when conditions in other aieas of the facility are muddy and would make operation diffi-
cult. Wet weather operation areas should be located as close to the main gate as possible in
order to reduce on-site travel.
8.2.5.4. Oust
Dust in a landfill site is generated by collection vehicles, and heavy equipment moving
over dry dirt roads and by the wind. Dust can also be generated during, the discharge, place·
ment, and compaction of dry waste materials or during the excavation and movement of dry
soils. In order to reduce the amount of dust generation, access roads sh~uld be graveled or ·
8-11
paved. As an alternativa, water or other environmentally acceptable dust control chemicals can
'
be applied to dirt roads on a sontinuous basis. The relatively common practica of applying
waste oils to roads should be discontinuad. Excavating or moving soils when they are damp
willlimit dust production. Similarly, dry waste materials should be slightly moistened prior to
disposal. Another means of reducing the total amount of dust generated from a particular
facility is to revegetate completad areas as soon as possible.
Landfills should be equipped with a water truck or trailer to moisten dirt roads and
working areas for dust control.
8.2.5.5. Vectors
Flies, mosquitos and rodents may be present at landfill sites. Vectors can be controlled
by frequently placing an adequ?te quantity of compactad soil over the wastes. lt has been
demonstrated that a daily cover consisting of 6 in. (15 cm) of compactad soil having a low clay
content will preven! the emergence of flies. However, even under the best conditions, a landfill
should have a regular inspection and fly control program. Mosquito control is best accom-
plished by preventing the accumulation of stagnant water anywhere on the site. The accumu·
lation of stagnant water can be prevented by filling low spots and placing cover soil over waste
materials.
Occasionally, rats arid mice may be delivered to the site with the solid waste. 11 harbor-
age is available in areas adjacent to or in some neglected portien of the site, extermination by
the local health department will be necessary. Employees at the landfill should be trained to
recognize burrows and other signs of the presence of rats and mice so that appropriate
measures can be taken.
8.2.5.6. Odors
There are severa! potential sources of odor at a landfill. Odors may be generated in the
following situations:
6·12
• when the waste is delivered
• from decomposing waste in place at the landfill
• from storage ponds and treatment systems
Odors generated by the refuse can usually be mitigated by rapidly covering the wastes and
ensuring that the cover is maintained intact.
Occasionally, loads of particularly malodorous materials may be delivered to the landfill.
Deliveries of these materials should be scheduled such that sufficient manpower and equip-
ment are available to immediately cover the waste. H not possible, malodorous loads can be
mixed or covered with other wastes in order to alleviate the problem. In extreme cases, lime
ar\d/or chemical masking agents can be used.
8.2.5.7. Noise
There are severa! sources of noise at landfills. These sources include operating equip-
ment and collection vehicles. Typically, the noise is very similar to that generated by any heavy ·· • ·¡;
construction activity, and is limitad to the site and to the streets used to transport the salid
waste to the site. In arder to reduce the total number of individuals exposed to the noise, every' .
•
effort should be made to route traffic through the least populated areas. In additicn, the site
can be isolated or surrounded by a buffer zone such that the noise cannot disturb anyone.
The installation of noise barriers such as earthen berms, walls, and trees can be very effective.
8.2.5.8. Aesthetics
In order to reduce environmental impacts and make the landfill acceptable, the site
should be designad to be as compatible with its surroundings as possible. During site prepa-
ration, it is important to leave as many trees as possible to form a visual barrier. Berms can
also be used to form visual barriers. The use of architectural effects at the entrance, confining
/
disposal to designated areas, and the use of attractive landscaping will assist in the develop-
8-13
ment of a sound operation. Additionally, every attempt should be made to minimiza the size of
the working area.
8.2.5.9. Birds
Birds, especially in landfills located in coastal areas, are attracted to landfills for food.
Birds can pose a serious hazard to aircraft and create a nuisance to operating personnel and
neighbors. In the U.S., criteria for the classification of waste disposal facilities and practicas in-
dicate that if a solid waste facility is sited within 10,000 ft (3,000 m) of an airport serving turbo-
jets or within a 5,000 ft (1 ,500 m) of any airport used by piston-type aircraft, the landfill shall be
operated so as not to pose a hazard to air traffic [6). The most effective control practice is
rapid and complete covering of all refuse. Noise production, distress calls, or similar me asures
can provide some temporary control.
8.2.5.1 o. Litter
One of the most frequent complaints from residents living near landfills concerns
blowing litter. Blowing litter can be substantially reduced by:
• Discharging the waste at the toe of the working lace
• Frequent and thorough cover of the lace and completad portions of the cell
• Application of water or damp waste to loads containing a high concentration of

paper
• lnstallation of portable or stationary fencing around the working lace.
Generally, despite the operators best efforts and control measures, the accumulation of
some litter is inevitable at a landfill site. The installation of a fence around the site will help to
contain litter and keep it from reaching adjacent property. Daily cleanups, particularly at the
end of the working day can limit the quantity of litter that can reach other property.
8-14
· 8.2.5.11. Fires
1
lgnition of combustible materials (open burning) should not be permitted at landfills.
However, there are severa! potential sources of tires at landfills. Soma of these sources include
receipt of hot wastes, sparks from vehicles, equipment tire, vandalism, and purposeful incinera·
tion for salvaging (i.e., removal ot insulation from copper wire). A good security program com-
binad with alert spotters can mitigate most ot the problem. Hot and highly flammable wastes
should be directed to specific areas in the landtill and wetted down or smothered with soJI or
water prior to disposal. Alllandtill vehicles should be equipped with fire extinguishers to limit
damage resulting trom equipment tires.
In the event that pumped water is not available, a water truck or trailer equipped with a
gas-powered pump should be. on-hand. There are severa! techniques available tor dealing
with tires. Fires near the surface ot the till can be excavated and extinguished with soil and/or
water. Deep tires can sometimes be smothered by placing damp soil on the surface of the till. ' ' ~
More commonly, however, deep tires will have to be thoroughly excavated and smother,ed at
the surface. Particularly large tires may have to be dealt with by experienced personnel.
8.2.6. Self Haul
Most disposal sites allow the transportation and discharge ot wastes by prívate
individuals. Typically, small vehicles comprise a considerable portien ot thetraffic. These
users (either small haulers or prívate individuals), usually untamiliar with practicas at the site,
can damage their vehicles, can cause delays at the working tace, and may cause accidents.
There soma options for dealing with selt-haul vehicles. Sell-haul vehicles can be di-
rectad to specific are as in the working tace away trom large collectión vehicles. Alternative.ly,
transter systems can be used. Transter systems commonly used are large selt-dumping trailers
(which are periodically towed to the working tace), dump trucks, and roll-off containers. Nor-
mally, a platform is constructed to unload small volumes ot waste into the large containers.
8-15
The transfer point should be located inside the gate and adjacent to a good road. This
area should be located at a'point where it can be watched by site personnel. lf utilization is
high, an employee may need to supervise and operate the facility. A resource recovery
operation can also be added if supervision is available. These areas have a certain amount of
problems, especially from abuse by the users. Utter is a common problem and fires may take
place in the container. Nevertheless, the value of sorne type of transfer system usually is
justified in reduced roadway costs, simpler and saler operations at the working lace, and
improved public relations.
8.2.7. Salvage/Scavenging
Scavenging or uncontrolled sorting through raw wastes to recover materials that may
be reusable is a common practica in most less developed countries. This practica is strictly
prohibited at the working lace of a landfill in developed countries because there is a high risk of
injury and a potential health hazard to the scavenger. Where regulations allow controlled sal-
vaging, it can be conducted away trom the working area by individuals under direct supervision
of the operator. Salvaging operations and storage must be confinad to a specific area or facil-
ity so that they will not interfere with the landfill operation. Strict controls must also be estab-
lished on the types of materials, storage, and removal frequencies so that nuisance conditions
do not develop. 1t is highly recommended that the individuals workihg in the salvaging area be
provided with uniforms, hard hats, masks, boots, and basic sanitation services. Additional in-
formation is provided in Section 5.
8.3. LANDFILL SPECIFIC OPERATIONAL PROCEDURES
There are three basic operational procedures that depend on the method of landfilling.
They are:
1) site preparation
2) traffic flow and unloading
8-16
3rwaste cornpaction and covering .
These procedures are presentad as a function of !he two basié methods of landfilling- area or
'
tren ch.
The sequence and method el operating a sanitary landfil!" is dictated by several lactors
that are specific te a site. So me of !he most importan! factors include physical site characteris-
ti es, types of .waste, and the rate of refuse receipt. However, there is not an "optimum• method
that is applicable for a given disposal site.
As has been previously indicated, the two basic operational techniques are the trench
and area methods. The primary difference between !he two is that !he trench operation em-
ploys a preparad excavation and as such, confines the working lace between !he two side
walls. The area method, en the other hand, does not use extensiva surface preparation.~ The
width of the working lace is, in theory at least, unlimited. A common approach of landfills is te
use both methods at difieren! locations or times. For example, initial disposal operations may.
employ a trench design and subsequently the are a method may be used on top of the trench.
There are some variations te the two basic methods. Some of these variations include pro-
gressive slope, progressive trench, and the cut and cover approach.
8.3.1. Area Method
. The area method typically is used in natural depressions, in preparad areas, or en top
of filled trenches. The subgrade may consist of either natural soil, a preparad surface using
liners or compactad soil or soil supplements. The use of either of these materials depends
upon local regulations and design preferences. A typical area fill operations shown in Figure 3-
4. Are a fills usually utiliza the land more efficiently than trench operations. Area fills, en the
other hand, require importad soil for liners and covers.
The primary objective in preparing a site for an area fill is te utiliza most of the available
soil that meets the design requirements. At !he same time, site preparation should keep te a
8-17
minimum disturbance of natural soil and vegetation. In order to accomplish these objectives, it
is necessary to conduct a comprehensive inventory ol the amount and type of soil available.
E.xcavations should follow a particular sequence such that the soil that is removed can
be used elsewhere on-site without stockpiling. This procedure eliminates double handling and
increased costs. A model has been developed to provide assistance in the planning of soil
movement [7]. However, it is frequently necessary to stockpile a certain amount of soil in order
to take full advantage of the various types. For instance, topsoil should be stockpiled for use
on roads, as daily cover, or for the construction olleachate collection systems or surface
drainage systems. Clay may be selectively excavated and used as liner material, dikes, interim
and final cover or, if necessary, used to supplement subgrades.
Soil that is stockpiled should be placed in appropriate areas, compactad, and appropri-
ately sloped to keep it as dry as possible. Soil should be stockpiled as close to the location
where it will be used as practica!. Stockpiles should never be-placed in areas where they will
interfere with traffic, cover soil that might be needed for other functions, or impede the function
of drainage control systems.
8.3.1.2. Traffic Flow and Unloading
The general procedure for managing the receipt of solid waste at the gate is discussed
elsewhere. This procedure is applicable to both methods.
The spreading, compacting, and covering of waste can be facilitated by controlling the
position of the collection vehicles while unloading. lf the collection vehicles are directed over
previously filled areas, the areas should be well compactad. When possible, demolition debris
and other dense rubble should be placed to take advantage of the drainage plan. Roads
should be designad and built such that they do not interfere with stockpiling or soil handling.
8-18
The working lace should be as narrow as possible wilhout interfering with normal oper-
ations. To lacilitate this, an operator (spotter) should be at the lace al the fill during operating
hours using a whistle, a bullhorn, or flags to direct incoming vehicles to the appropriate section
ol the working lace. Barricadas and markers may be used to delineate the area that is used a
given day.
tt i~ prelerable to keep the unloading area at the toe el the working lace. This is be-
cause spreading and compaction are easier and generally more effective when performed lrom
the bottom (see Figure 8-2). 11 the unloading is carried o.ut from the top, care mus! be taken te
preven! the reluse lrom being pushed over a steep working lace and little or no compaction is
applied until the end ol the day. Unloading at the toe generally reduces blowing litter. The
unloading area should be kept clean and leve! to preven! vehicles lrom being damaged pr
tipped. In small sites it may be necessary to provide an unloading area that is wider than the
working lace. At large sites, or at sites that process large quantities al wastes in relatively short
time spans, a portian al the unloading area should be set aside lar unloading trucks manually.
11 the lace of the fill is not sufficiently wide to allow for this process, manually operated vehicles
may be routed to the top ol the lift.
8.3.1.3. Compacting and Covering Salid Waste
Spreading and compaction operations should be aimed at maintaining proper cell den-
sity, height, slope, and width throughout the da y.
The compactad density of the salid waste depends upon two main variables. Com·
paction is a function of the thickness of the layers and of the number ol passes made by
equipment. Usually tour to six passes with wheeled or tracked equipment will provide sufficient
degree of compaction. Although additional passes do resutt in higher compaction, the return
lar the effort diminishes beyond six passes. An experienced operator should be able to know
when additional pass es will result in greater compaction. In arder to preven! soft spots in the
8-19
--
Figure 8-2. Unloading and Compacting Processes
8-20
fill area, excessively wet loads should be separated and mixed with dry materials before and
during spreading. The compaction sequence is demonstrated in Figure 8-2.
The final height of lifts usually is determinad by the grade plan for the facility, soil usage,
and operational limitations. In extremely deep fills with a larga number of lifts, the height of the
lift m ay be limited by the equipment. For instance, a lift may be limited to the maximum height
at which a scraper can provide complete coverage with ene pass. Typical heights for lifts
range between 8 and 16ft (2.4 to 4.5 m).
The relationships between density and the number of passes as well as the thickness
layer are presentad in Figures 8-3 and 8-4.
The slope of a cell should not exceed 20• or about 3:1 (horizontal:vertical). The slope
should be established with initial loads and maintained constan! throughout the day. So me
sites may operate effectively by using horizontal cells. However, sloped cells require less soil
for cover, reduce the area of exposed wastes, facilitate spreading, and encourage proper
compaction of wastes.
There are three types of soil cover: 1) daily, 2) intermediate, and 3) final. Each type de-
pends upon the thickness of the cover and the duration of exposure to the elements. Sug-
gested thickness for a range of exposures are presented in Table 8-4.
The stockpiling of soil and the method of application of the soil should be carried out
such that the cover will not be littered with refuse. This situation can be prevented by deposit-
ing the soil at !he top of the cell or adjacent to the lace. At the time that the cover is applied,
the soil spreading equipment should only travel over the soil. The spreading equipment should
not travel through refuse onto fresh soil be cause this tends to draw waste on top of the cover
material. The tires for the various types of equipment should be cleaned before.applying or
compacting soil.
8-21
>-
.....
¡¡;
z
w
Q
z 3 4 5 Ei 7 S 9 ·¡o
NO. OF PASSES
Figure 8-}~. Number of Passes and Landfill Density
>-
.....
¡¡;
z
w
Q
3 4 5 Ei 7 S 9 10
LAYER THICXNESS (Ft.)
Figure 8-4: Layer Thickness and Landfill Density
8-22
'
Tabla 8-4. Thickness of Cover Soil and Exposure Time
Cover Material Mínimum Thickness Exposure Timeal

On.) (cm)
Oaily 6. 15.2 O· 30 days
lntermadiate 12 30.4 30 • 365 days
Final 24 60.8 >365 days
a) Length of time cover material will be exposed to wind and rain.
'.
8·23
Scrapers and draglines are the most frequently used types of equipment for the appli-
cation of cover material. Scrapers reduce the amount of double handling. Unfortunately, the
tires may be damaged by the waste materials. Draglines can also be used for the application
of cover material. The use of draglines, however, requires additional grading and compacting
of soil. Regardless of the placement method, the cover should be compactad and snioothed.
Typically, two passes using appropriate equipment will provide sufficient compaction for daily
cover soil.
The main purposes for applying daily cover are to control vectors, litter, odor, water in-
\
filtration, and, toso me extent, tire. The solid waste should be compactad immediately prior to
placing the daily cover. Compaction of the waste willlevel the site and facilitate both covering
and subsequent operations by providing a smooth surface. Typically, a minimum compacted
thickness of 6 iri. (15 cm) of daily cover soil is sufficient to accomplish the objectives. The
thickness may exceed 6 in. (15 cm) if a greater depth is required to cover all of the waste.
Cover should be applied to the top and side slopes as cell construction progresses. This pro-
cedure prevents the litter and only the working tace would need to be covered at the end of the
working day [9].
lntermediate soil cover has the same general function as daily cover. The intermediate
cover, however, remains exposed to the elements for a longer period of time. The intermediate
cover may also serve as a temporary surface for traffic movement. The minimum compactad
depth for an intermediate cover is 1 ft (0.3 m). This cover should be placed as soon as possi-
ble on the lift surface, but kept a sufficient distance away from daily activity to preven! littering
from equipment moving over it.
Completed areas should be covered with a finallayer of soil as soon as possible. 1t is
generally recommended that the final cover have a minimum thickness of 2 ft (0.6 m). The
depth and type of soil to be used and the compaction requirements must be specified in the
B-24
facility design and operation plan. AH but the upper few inches should be compactad in order
'to reduce the soil permeability. Topsoil can be added to the surface of the final cover. Seed-
ing, mulching, fertilizing, and pH adjustment should immediately follow final covering. A recen!
EPA. publication provides use fui information on standard procedures for planting vegetation on
final covers [8]. A discussion on covers is presentad in Sectio~ 5. Soil used as final cover
should not be applied when it is too wet or frozen. A certain amount of soil should be saved
alter site completion to facilitate any grading that may be required to maintain an even surface.
Completion should be phased such that once the final cover is applied, no additional traffic will
be permitted to go over the completad area.
8.3.2. Trench Method
The trench method is most applicable on flat or gently rolling ground with deep soils.
The widths and depths of the trenches can vary substantially from site to site. A typical trench
operation is illustrated in Figure 3-3. Trench operations usually result in surplus soil and pro-
. ·:..
vide lateral confinement at the operating lace. Trench operations may require more land and .
equipment than area operations. In addition, trench operations may need extensiva soil
stockpiling and han¡jling'.
Generally the depth and width of the trench are specified in the design and operation
plans. The excavation of the first trench and even portions of latertrenches may require stock-
piling of large quantities of soil. The stockpiling must be conducted such that it will allow the
soil to be available for use as liner and/or cover material and to avoid interfering with
operations.
As previously indicated, the size of unexcavated areas between trenches depend upon
the depth of the trench and the characteristics of the soil. In general, the more cohesive the
soil the less area that will be required between the trenches. On the other hand, as the depth
of the trench increases, the more area between the trenches will be required.
8-25
The amount of soil handling and stockpiling can be reduced by following either of two
approaches. The first approach is callad the phased fill and covering. This approach uses soil
from a trench being excavated to provide cover for an adjacent trench that is in the process ol
being filled. Soil from the first trench must be stockpiled. The second approach is known as
the progressive trench. The progressive trench method uses soil excavated from one end ol
the trench as cover material lor waste depositad at the other end of'the same trench.
8.3.2.2. Traffic Flow and Unloading
The working lace in trench operations usually is more sharply defined than in area op-
erations. In the trench method, waste may be discharged from the side or from within the
trench. Operational procedures must be developed according to the landfill method. Stability
ol the sidewall is extremely important if the unloading is going to take place from the side ol the
trench. In addition, allowances must be made to prevent the vehicles from entering the
trenches. Typically, logs or poles are placed near the edge ol the trench. A spotter should be
present during unloading operations. 1t is prelerable to unload the waste lrom within the
trench. In this particular case, a ramp leading to the base ol the trench should be built and
maintained at a grade appropriate lor vehicle traffic. Contingency plans should be provided
during wet weather or when other situations make the ramp hazardous or difficult to use. The
same considerations dealing with traffic control lor unloading in the area method also apply to
trench operations.
Waste handling practicas presentad lor the area method also are common to trench
procedures. The walls in the trench help control the width ol the lace width and size ol the cell.
On the other hand, the walls of the trench can interfere with compaction if the side slope is too
steep for the wheels or. tracks to reach the side and still maintain blade clearance.
Narrow trenches may have a rapid build up ol refuse during peak periods. In this par-
ticular case, adequate compaction cannot be obtained if the refus_e is discharged on the lace.
8-26
In order to preven! this situation, it is best to at leas! loosely compact the refuse in the bottom
61 the trench, and spread and compact it thoroughly when time permits.
8.3.2.3. Covering and Compacting Solid Waste
Soil cover should be placed at the same times and depths as specified for the area
method. When an area fill is placed on top of a trench fill, the operation should be phased
such that.the area fill is completed as soon as possible after trench fill. This procedure.will help
in preventing soil loss and achieve the desired ratio of soil to refuse. Sufficient soil for cover
should be available so that are a lifts on top of trenches will have adequate cover.
REFERENCES
1.. Garland, G.A., and D.C. Mosher. Leachate effects of improper land disposal. Wast~ Age,
March 1975.
2. Shuckrow, A.J., A.P. Pajak, and C.J. Touhill. Management of Hazardous Waste Leáchate.
Preparad for the Municipal Environment Research Laboratory, Office of Research and ,
Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio (SW-871 ).
September 1980.
3. Lu, J. C.S., B. Eichenberger, and R.J. Stearns. Production and Management of Leachate
from Municipal Landfills: Summary and Assessment. EPA-600/2·84-092, NTIS P884·
187913, May 1984.
4. Bass, J.M. Avoiding Failure of Leachate Collection Systems at Hazardous Waste Landfills.
EPA-600/D-84/210,NTIS P884-2351 00, August 1984. .
5. Noble, George P.E. Sanitary Landfill Design Handbook, Technomic Publishing Ce.,
Westport, CT, 1976.
6. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Classification Criteria for Solid Waste Disposal
Facilities and Practices, Part IX. Federal Register, September 13, 1979.
7. Conrad, R. B., and E.K Hoffman. Transportation model applied to landfill design. J. Enviren.
Eng. Div. ASCE, June 1974.
8. Gilman, E. F., F.B. Flower, and LA. Leone. Standardized Procedures for Planting Vegetation.
on Completad Sanitary Landfills. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio
EPA-600/2-83-055, NTIS PB83·241·018, 1983.
9. Northeim, C. M., et al. Handbook for the Design, Construction, and Operation of Sanitary
Landfills. U.S. EPA, 68-02-3992-1/040, 1987.
1O. Keller, E.A., Environmental Geology. Second Edition, Merrill Publishing Co., 1979.
8-27
Section 9
LANDFILL PROCESSES
9.1. CHARACTERISTICS
J
Characteristics of a completad fill can be grouped according to three general headings: .
o type and nature of wastes in the fill
o phenomena associated with physical, chemical, and biological processes that occur
in the buried wastes
o fill design and conduct of the fill operation
The three characteristics are closely interrelated with respect to their effects on the
completed fill. For example, type and nature of the wastes determine !he quantities and char·
acteristics of products associated with physical, chemical, and biological processes which are
influenced by fill design and conduct of the fill operation. Moreover, they also determine thé .
extent andthe coúrse of the processes. Because of this interrelationship, all three are dis·
cussed under the single heading, "Processes".
Section 9.1 is closed with a discussion of characteristics that exert a majar influence not
only on the impact of the completed fill on the public welfare and quality of the environment,
but al so on the use intended for the completed fill and the attention that must be accorded.
Characteristics of concem may be grouped under the headings, 'density", •settlement", "landfill
emissions•, and "corrosion•.
9.1.1. Processes
Physical, chemical, and biological processes are discussed in this section. Of the three
types, the biological processes probably are the most significan!. However, the biological pro-
cesses are strongly influenced by the physical and chemical processes .
. 9-1
9.1.1.1 Physical
In general, significan! physical reactions in the fill are in ene of three very bread forms:
compression (compaction), dissolution, and sorption. Because settlement is an invariable ac-
companiment of compression, the two usually are discussed under the hyphenated heading,
'compression-settlement.' Similarly, dissolution and transportare closely associated phenom-
ena, but, not te the same degree as compression-settiement. All components of the buried fill
are subjected te the three reactions.
Compaction is an on-going phenomenon that begins with compression by machinery
operating in the daily fill activities and continuas after the wastes are in place. The continuing
compression is due te the weight of the wastes and that of the soil cover. Sifting of soil and
other fines is responsible for sorne consolidation. Settling of the completad fill is an end result
of compression. This settling is in addition te the settlement brought about by other reactions
(e.g., loss of mass dueto chemical and biological decomposition).
The amount of water that enters a fill has an importan! bearing on physical reactions.
Water acts as a medium for the solution of soluble substances and for the transport of unre·
acted materials. The unreacted materials consist of animate (living) and inanimate particulates.
Particulate sizes range from colloidal te severa! millimeters in cross section.
In a typical fill, the broad variety of components and particle sizes of the wastes provide
conditions that lead te an extensiva amount of adsorption. Of the physical phenomena. ad-
sorption is ene of the more importan! because it brings about the immobilization of living and
nonliving substances that could pose a problem if allowed to reach the externa! environment.
Adsorption is the adhesion of molecules to a surface. Adsorption could play an importan! part
in the containment of viruses and pathogens and of sorne chemical compounds. Adsorption
does have íts limits, one of which is its questionable permanency. One or severa! factors can
9·2
alter permanency. For example, it can be altered by the effect of biological and. chemical
dec'?mposition on adsorption sites.
Abso?ption is another of the physicaJ phenomena that takes place in a fill. 1t is signifi-
can! in large part because it immobilizes dissolved pollutants by immobilizing the water that
could transport them and suspended pollutant particulates out of the confines of the fill. Ab-
sorption is the process whereby substances are taken in by capillarity. The absorption poten-
tia! of a fill is a lunction of its fiber content. In developed countries, most of the absorption po-
. tential of landfilled municipal waste is attributable to its paper content; whereas that due to the
presence of other fibers (cotton and wool) is relatively insignificant. In developing countries,
absorption due to fibers in general would be minor in extent. However, certain crop residues
may provide sorne absorption potential. 01 course, chances are that those fibers would·be re-
claimed before they reached the waste stream. FinaJiy, it should be recognized that eventually
all absorben! material in a fill becomes saturated. Consequently, absorption may be regarded
as being only a delaying action as far as pollutant ralease is concerned.
9.1.1.2. Chemical
Oxidation is one of the two major forms of chemical reactions in a fill. The other form
includes the reactions that are due to the presence of organic acids and carbon dioxide (C02 )
synthesized in the biological processes and dissolved in water (H 2 0). Obviously, the extent of
the oxidation reactions is rather Jimited, inasmuéh as the reactions depend upon the presence
of oxygen trapped in the fill when the fill was made. Ferrous metals are the components likely
to be most affected.
Reactions involving organic acids and dissolved C~ are typical acid-metal reactions.
Products of these reactions are largely the metallic ions and salts in the liquid contents of the·
fill. The acids lead to the solubilization and hence mobilization of materials that·otherwise
9-3 .
would not be sources of pollution. The dissolution of C02 in water deteriorates the quality of
the water, especially in the presence of calcium and magnesium.
9.1.1.3. Bioloqical
The importance of biological reactions in a fiil is due to the following two resutts of the
reactions:
• The organic fraction is rendered bioiogically stabie, andas such, no ionger consti-
Mes a potential source of nuisances.
• The conversion of a sizeable portien of the carbonaceous and proteinaceous inateri-

ais into gas substantially reduces the volume of the organic fraction.
At this point, it should be remembered that a fraction of the nutrient eiements in the
waste is transformad into microbiai protoplasm. Eventually, this protoplasm will be subject to
decomposition, and hence it m-akes up a reservoir for breakdown in the Mure.
The wide variety of fili components that can be broken down biologically (biodegraded)
constitute the organic fraction of MSW. This fraction includes the garbage fraction, paper and
paper products, and •natural fibers• (fibrous material of plant or animal origin). Although the
organic fraction is the primary substrate for the biological reactions, certain inorganic compo-
nents may be indirectly affected.
Biologicai decomposition m ay take place either aerobicaliy or anaerobically. 8oth
modes come into play sequentialiy in a typicai fili, in that the aerobic mode precedes the
anaerobic mode. Although both modes are important, anaerobic decomposition exerts the
greater and longar lasting influence in terms of associated fill characteristics.
Aerobic: The greater part of decomposition directiy alter the wastes are buried is
aerobic. 1t continuas to be aerobic untii ali of the oxygen (02) in the interstitial air has been re-
moved. The duration of the aerobic phase is quite brief and depends upon the degree of com-
9-4
paction al the wastes and the moisture
. content (moisture displaces air from
. the interstices).
Microbes 'active during this phase include obligate as well as sorne facultativa aerobes. Ouring
this phase, temperaturas as high as 45 to 55"C may be reached in the interior al the fill.
Because the uftimate end-products of biological aerobic decomposition are 'ash," C02 ,
and H20, adversa environmentalimpact during the aerobic phase is minimal. Although inter-
mediate breakdown products may be released, their amounts and pollution contribution usually
are small.
Anaerobic: Because the oxygen supply soon is depleted, most of the organic matter in
a landfill eventually is subjected to anaerobic breakdown. This anaerobic decomposition is bi~
ologically much the same as that in the anaerobic digestion of sewage sludge. Microbial or-
ganisms responsible for anaerobic decomposition include both facultativa and obligate anaer-
obes. A noticeable difference between the aerobic phase and the anaerobic phase is the ab-
sence al a discernible rise in temperatura in the latter phase. Because of this absence, tem; ·-
perature in the buried (landfilled) mass gradually drops to that al the ambient.
Unfortunately, the breakdown products of anaerobic decomposition can exert a highly
unfavorable .impact on the environment unless they are carefully managed. The products can
be classified into two main groups: volatile organic acids and gases. Most al the acids are
malodorous and of the short-chain fatty-acid type. Examples are formic, acetic, propionic, and
isovaleric acids. In addition to chemical reactions with other components, the acids serve as
substrates for methane-producing microbes.
Finally, the two principal gases formed are methane (CH4 ) and C02. Gases in trace
amounts are hydrogen sulfide (H 2S), hydrogen (H2), and nitrogen (N 2). The adverse effects of
C0 2 are discussed in Section 9.1.1.2. Methane production, management, and recovery are
discussed in considerable detail in Section 6.3.
9-5
Environmental Factors: The natura, rate, and extent of biological decorriposition in a fill
are greatly influenced by the environmental factors that affect all biological activities. The na-
tura of biologicaJ decomposition determines the natura of the decomposition products. Among
other things, rate determines the length of time during which the completad fill must be moni-
tored and which must pass before the •reclaimed" area o. e., completad fill) can be put to use -
whether it be for recreation, agricultura, construction, or other purposes.
One of the ways in which decomposition affects use of the completad fill is through its
effect on rate and amount of settlement (reduction in elevation), in that settlement is a major
constraint on the use of the completad fill. Settling continuas until biological decomposition ·
has run its course. Therefore, the obvious conclusion is that the higher the rate of
decomposition, the sooner can the site be put to use.
The principal factors that influence biological decomposition in a conventional fill are
moisture, temperatura, and the microbial nutrient content and degree of resistance of the waste
to microbial attack. !'-" ideal moisture content in terms of decomposition is one that ap-
proaches saturation. Moisture is a limiting factor in a fill at moisture content levels of 55% to
60% or lower, because microbial activity is increasingly inhibited as the moisture drops below
the 55% leve! sludge can be added to increase moisture. For practica! purposes it ceases at
12%. Therefore, decomposition can be expected to proceed very slowly in fills in arid regions.
The activity of most microbes increases with rise in temperatura until a leve! of about
40"C is reached. For sorne types of microbes, the upper temperatura is on the order of 55 to
i
65"C. The former are termed "mesophiles," and the latter known as "thermophiles·. Sorne
mesophiles are high temperatura toleran! (facultativa thermophiles), and sorne thermophiles
are toleran! of temperaturas in the mesophilic range (facultativa mesophiles). Because temper-
aturas in tropical regions are more favorable, decomposition proceeds very rapidly and to a
greater extent in those regions.
9-6
With respect to nutrients, wastes characterized by a high percentage of readily pu-
trescible_ organic matter approach the ideal in terms of decomposition. Among the wastes that
fall in such a category are green crop debris, food preparation waste, marketplace produce
waste, and animal and human manures. An interesting point is that one is likely to find such a
combination of ideal decomposition factors in developing countries in humid tropical regions of
the world.
9.1.2. In-Place Oensity, Compaction, Settlement - The lnterrelation
9.1 .2.1 . Oensity
Representative densities of raw wastes are discussed in Section 5. Among the factors
that determine or influence in-place density (i.e., density atter the wastes have been deposited
in the fill) are:
• composition of the wastes
• operational procedure
• end-products of decomposition
• compaction ~pplied by machine during fill construction

• weight of cover material
• progressive settlement of the entire mass, resulting from the further increase in dén-
sity brought about by consolidation of landfill components, by the weight of the up·
per strata of wastes and the cover material, and by the decomposition of the wastes ,
Because of the effect of settlement, increase in density becomes a continuing phe-
nomenon. The in-place density of a properfy conducted, relatively deep fill can be on the order
of 900 kg/m3; whereas that of a poorly' compacted fill would only be about 300 kg/m3. In the
U.S.A., the usual range of density directly after compaction is on the order of 475 to 712 kg/m 3
(1].
9-7
9.1.2.2. Settlement
Settlement is manifestad by a decrease in volume of !he affected mass and subsequent
reduction in elevation. For several reasons, !he drop in elevation is not uniform throughout !he
fill. The lack of uniformity m ay be a serious constraint on !he use of !he completad fill. Un-
doubtedly, !he largar !he organic fraction and !he deeper !he fill, !he greater will be !he extent of
settling. Rate of settling depends in large part u pon that of !he decomposition of !he wastes,
and hence upon the factors that affect decomposition.
Because of the variations in the above factors and wide differences between operational
. procedures encountered in sanitary landfill practica, it is not surprising that a similarly wide
variation exists between reportad rates and the extent of settlement 01 !he total settling, usu-
ally about 90% takes place during the first year [1]. Another report mentions settlement of a
2Q-ft landfill was greatest during the first month, and uniformly very small alter the third month.
As for extent, a report on a fill in a region of moderate rainfall (> 11 cm/yr) and average temper-
atura, a 6-m fill settled 1.2 m in year-1. On !he other hand, a fill in a region of modest rainfall
(<6 cm/yr) but somewhat wármer average temperatura, a 23-m fill had settled only 0.7 m by
year-3, and a 14-m fill, only 0.4 m [1]. In 'Settlement of Landfill,' A. C. Cheney [2] states that
whereas no physical settlement will occur if the initial density exceeds 1,060 kg/m 3 , neverthe-
less a theoretical settlement of 40% due to waste decomposition processes is possible. How-
ever, he points out that with wastes 650 to 1,200 kgfm3 placement density, annual rates of 0.55
to 4.7% have been measured in practice.
9.2. MONJTORING
Ultimately, the rationale for monitoring is to detect adversa impacts of the landfill on the
adjacent air, water, and soil environments so asto be able to take !he remedia! measures
needed to counteract the impacts. This is done by: 1) establishing baseline environmental
data and characterizing the nature, extent, and magnitude of the impact; and 2) developing a
re medial course of action. lmpacts are indicated and identified by differences between the pre-
9-8
lahdfill and post-landfill qualitative and quantitative characteristics of the three environments, or
by the existence of gradations in quality and quantity with respect to proximity to the fill. Pro-
grams and methods for monitoring can range from minimal to quite extensiva in terms of ex-
tent, complexity, type, and costs. The minimal category would be sufficient for situations in
which the need for monitoring does not warrant an extensiva program. The only exception
might be situations in which technical and financia! resources are seriously limited, such as
may be true in many developing regions.
9.2.1. Groundwater
According to the general principies mentioned in the preceding paragraph, impact on
groundwater quality can be evaluated on the basis of difference between groundwater qualitY
(e.g., pH, dissolved solids concentration, chemical composition, presence, identity, and con-
centration of microorganisms befare and alter construction and completion of the fill). lmpact
of an existing fill on groundwater flowing under and around the fill can also be evaluated on the .
basis of difference between the quality of the groundwater befare it reaches the vicinity of the
fill and alter it has moved beyond the fill. Estimates depending upon groundwater flow presup-
. .
pose a knowledge .of the direction and velocity of the groundwater flow. Groundwater flow is
discussed in Section 4.2.6.
. Potential impact on groundwater quality can be estimated on the basis of the composi·
tion and quantity of leachate generated in the fill. Knowledge of leachate composition and rate
of production would also be of use in the identification of contaminants attributable to the land-
fill and in predicting the intensity of the contamination. To obtain such knowledge, it is neces-
sary that the fill be provided with a leachate collection and sampling system. The problem is
that even in developed nations, such installations are few and lar between. tf a leachate col-
lection system is available, then monitoring would consist in measuring rate of leachate pro-
duction and analyzing the le achate for items of interest. Examples of such items are physical
g.g
characteristics, the identity and concentration of toxic chemicals and chemical constituents ad-
'
verse to water quality, and of pathogenic organisms.
9.2.1.1. Monltoring Wells
Because sampling (collection and analysis) is a key element in a groundwater monitor-
ing program, method of sampling must be carefully considerad. In this connection, networks of
monitoring wells have an importan! part. A diagrammatic sketch of a monitoring well is
presented in Figure 9-1. TJ:le extent and sophistication of this network are determinad in part
by the purpose of the program and by !he economic and technological resoúrces of the region
that is to be served by the network. With regard to purpose, a monitoring well network for
gross groundwater quality indicators differs drastically from wells intended for detecting toxic
-
organic compounds or heavy metals. The wells must be installed at proper horizontal and
vertical positions near the landfill.
Appropriate methods for installing the wells are determinad on the basis of anticipated
nature of subsurface aquifer materials, site accessibility, availability of drilling water, desired di-
ameter and depth of the well, the nature of subsurface contaminants, and economic and time
constraints. (A list and evaluation of the many methods may be found in 'Guidelines for the
Land Disposal of Salid Wastes' [3).)
Of the various applicable criteria, all wells should at leas! meet these two criteria: 1)
water must flow freely into the well; and 2) downward migration of surface water or upward mi-
gration of undesired groundwater to the well-intake zone must be prevented. Basic elements in
the design of monitoring wells are the casing, filler pack, seal, annulus backfill, and grouting.
The elements are indicated in Figure 9-1. lnstallation is completed by well-development. Well-
development accomplishes two tasks: 1) the well is cleared of foreign materials introduced
· during drilling, and 2) the natural formation adjacent to the well screen is restored. Develop
9-10
p, u~:~~<.-::ive casing
r---~ wittl locking ~echanism
¡;-,M-- Vented C3¡:l
Pie:zumemr _ __, Annulus bac:lcfilled wittl

cut:in!!S or groUl:ed
casing
'.
Filmr paCk placed in an(lulus

Pie:zumemr te haight :>2ft abave screen
scn=en
Cap on bottom
of well screen
(Not te scale)
Figure 9-1. Example of a t1onitoring llell
9-11
ment may be accomplished by way of bailing, pump surging, air lifting, and combinad air lifting
and bailing.
Among the severa! methods ter drilling a monitoring well are hand-augered boring,
auger drilling, mud-rotary drilling, air-rotary drilling, and cable-tool percussion drilling [4). Of
these methods, hand-augered boring is the least expensive. However, it is best suited for
shallow borings (less than 4 m deep) that are only.S to 15 cm in diameter. Auger drilling is
suitable for depths of about 45 te 50 meters.
9.2.1.2. Collection and Analvtical Methods
With the use ot the installed and developed wells, it is possible te obtain samples that
are chemically representativa of the water taken in by the well. Consequently, attention must
be directed to:
• The physical extraction of the water from the well
• The preservation of the chemical integrity of the sample in transit te the place of
sample analysis
• The attainment of analytical results that are accurate and have a high degree of
precision
Among the severa! means of collecting samples from the wells are:
• Down-hole collection devices
• Suction-lift, positiva displacement, the gas-lift, and the gas-drive methods
• Gas squeeze or bladder pumps
• Jet or venturi pumps [1).
Among the pertinent sample parameters for analytical determination are:
• pH
• $pecific conductance
• Total dissolved solids
• Total dissolved iron
• Nitrate
9-12.
)
• Chloride
• Total organic carbon
• Total organic halogens
• Heavy metals
• Hardn~ss
The pH Jevel and specific conductance should be determinad in !he field.
Most of these tests can be carried out by Jaboratories at universities or !hose that
typically analyze potable water.
9.2.2. Surface Water
The necessity or advisability of monitoring surface water quality depends upon: 1) the
proximity of the Jandfill to surface water; and 2) !he drainage patterns between the fill and the
surface water. The approach followed in the selection of sampling stations, equipment, and
procedures should be similar to the approach used in the selection process for groundwater
monitoring. The stations should be located in areas that have !he greatest pote.ntial for con-
tamination. These areas include the pathways through which Jeachate can enter a surface
body of water. Flow patterns and seasonal variations should also be taken into consideration.
Equipment used for sampling surface water and the methods used to analyze the samples
should be consisten! with procedures selected for testing groundwater samples.
9.2.3. Landfill Gas and Migration
As stated in Section 6.3, landfill gas can escape by vertical and lateral migration. Obvi-
ously, if !he Jandfill cover is sufficiently permeable, gas can exit vertically, i.e., through !he cover.
lf the cover is impermeable (e.g., rain-saturated cover soil, pavement, or a clay or synthetic
membrane cap) this escape route is blocked. Because of this blockage, lateral migration be,
comes ti) e only avenue of escape.· The distances involved in lateral migration can be signifi-
can!, especially if the fill is adjacent to permeable soil strata.
Sampling devices should be Jocated near !he property boundary and offsite on !he
landfill side of structures in pathways most susceptible to gas migration. Simple gas probes
9-13
can serve as gas sampling devices. The technique used in the collection of the samples is
determinad by the type of sampling proba. Methane usually is monitored by means of a
portable meter. Methane gas concentration in facility structures, - and in structures not on the
facility - should not exceed 25% of the lower explosiva limit. (The lower explosiva limit is 5%
methane.)
9.3. USES
Use of the completad fill as a 'green are a,' for recreational purposes, and for agricultura
was discussed in Sections 5.1.4. This section, therefore, deals only with use for construction
and urban development.
9.3.1. Construction and Urban Redevelopment
Because of the many and often severa constraints associated with the construction and
utilization of structures erected on a completad fill, the use of completad landfills as sites for
construction and particularly for urban development generally should be discouraged in devel-
oped countries (5]. However, a growing land shortage is prorripting a more favorable recon-
sideration of the potential of such sites. The situation is different in developing countries, es-
pecial! y in those in which the migration of populations from rural to urban is extremely great.
Because of the migrations, all unoccupied land has become attractive. Such being the case,
the only recourse is to apply to the fullest possible extent, precautionary measures designad to
lessen associated hazards. Examples of proposed use of completad fills are described in two
World Bank Reports. They are: Swamp Reclamation in Tropical Monsoon Regions by Appro-
priate Refuse Landfilling: Case Study Evaluations in Thailand (6] and Study of Landfill and Re-
source Recoverv in Metropolitan Colombo, (Draft Final Report), preparad for the World Bank by
Environmental Resources Umited, June 1987 [7].
Constraints mainly take the form of problems associated with use of the site. Conse-
quently, a sizeable share of these problems are geotechnical in origin and nature. Of equal
importance is a group categorized as 'potential hazards'.
9-14
9.3.1.1. Geotechnical Problems
Settlement, a major geotechnical problem characteristic of all waste landfills, is ad·
dressed in Section 9.1.2. Not discussed, however, is the problem posad by the relatively low
bearing capacity of a completed fill. Despite the high degree of uncertainty characteristics of
determinations of the bearing capacity of completed fills, the fact remains that reported values
do indicate the prevalence of very low bearing capacities. Reported values range from 2443 to
2906 kgfm2. These rather low val ues apparently would restrict the construction of buildings on
the completed filfs to light·weight, single-story structures.
Solutions: The best course of action is to suspend the floor slab on sulfate-resistan!
cement piles. (The cement is of Class 4 or 5 (BRE 1981 )). lf the piles are made of materials
other than concrete, they should be protected by corrosion-resistant material so as to cope
with corrosive decomposition products in the filf.

.
·'
.
A light one-story building designed to accommodate settling may not require piling.
However, its foundations should be reinforced to bridge gaps formed by differential settling.
Continuous floor slabs reinforced as mats also can be used
Roads, parking areas, and walkways should be constructed of flexible and easily
repaired material.
9.3.1.2. Potential Hazards
An importan! feature of the hazard potential of landfilfs is the fact that the potential per· .
sists as long as decomposition processes continue. This persistence is due to the decompo·
sitien processes that take place in a fill. Unfortunately, the decomposition processes continua
long alter the site has been closed.
The three broad categories of potential hazards are landfilf gas production, chemical
contamination, and corrosion. In addition to the attention given in this section, gas production
9·15
'receives considerable attention in Sections 5. 1.3.3, 6.3 (Gas Management), and 9.1.1.3.
Chemical contamination also is addressed in Sections 3.2.1.1, 6.2, and 9.1.1.
Landfill Gas Production: As stated earlier, the rapid depletion of 0 2 entrapped within
the mass of buried wastes results in a rapid shitt in the composition of the landfill gas from a
preponderance of C02 to ene of CH4. The significance of this shift siems from the combustible
and under some conditions, explosive nature of CH4. The gas becomes explosive if its con-
centration is from 5 to 15% CH4 in air at the time of ignition. Be cause the rate of methane gen-
eration is extremely slow, methane production, per se, does not constitu1e a hazard. Conse-
quently, methane becomes a combustible or explosive hazard only when the gas accumulates
in a confined space within the fill itself or within a structure erected either on the fill or close to
it. In so me cases, pressure exerted by the buildup of landfill gases has been high enough to
force the gas through permeable strata in soil adjacent to an unlined fill.
Although not necessarily hazardous, the malodorous nature of some trace constituents
of landfill gas can be sufficiently intense as to constitu1e a problem. Examples of malodorous
constituents are esters and organosulfurs. However, high dilution factors and low generation
1
rates combine to keep malodorous gases from posing a problem in the use of the completed
fiiL
Corrosion: The hazard posed by corrosion is to building materials, u1ilities (pipes). and
other items related to construction. The corros ion potential is in the many highly chemically
active breakdown products found in decomposing municipal wastes. For instance, the mech-
anisms of attac~ on concrete include leaching of soluble materials, degradation of the binding
.
capacities of cement by chemical change, disruption caused by expansion of reaction prod-
ucts, and crystallization of salts within the concrete pores. With respect to u1ilities, metals are
subject to attack by the acids generated within the fill as products of anaerobic decomposition.
(Of course, steel reinforcement rods are subject to the same acid corrosion.) ·
9-16
Solutions: Procedures for preventing gas production from becoming a hazard at the fill
and its environs are described in Section 6.3. Measures described in this section are specific ·
to the use of the fill for construction and urban redevelopment. Wrth regard to construction on
a fill, the following measures should be taken:
• lnstall the !loor slab carefully so as to preven! cracking and to keep the concrete
from becoming porous.
• Do not allow cavities to develop under the slab.
• lnstall an impermeable plastic membrane within or beneath the !loor slab.
• Lay the slab on a !ayer of grave! or crushed stone. The !ayer may be actively or
passively ventilated.
• Build the structure above the surface of the landfill and incorporate a well-ventilated
subfloor area. Active ventilation involves the use of a pump capable of ensuring
severa! air changes per hour. Passive ventilation (i.e., •naturally occurring") is suffi-
cient in situations in which the rate of gas evolution is low.
• Do not install utilities by penetrating the !loor slab. Therefore, piping, conduits, etc.
enter the structure above floor-level.
• Strategically located methane alarms should be installed in the structure.
9.3.1 :3. Recommendations for Construction on Completed Fills
The following recommendations are based on criteria listed by Stearns and Petroyan
[8]:
• Construction and urban redevelopment should not be allowed on a newly completed

deep fill that has a large concentration either of industrial wastes or of freshly
deposited highly organic wastes.
• The fill should have been completed ten years prior to redevelopment.
• The completed fill should not be deeper than 1O m.
• The fill site should have a stable, low water table.
• The fill itself .should contain no toxic or hazardous wastes, particularly Jiquid wastes.
• The development should be in keeping with the site conditions.
• Expenditures on the development should be in keeping with the intended use of the
development.
9-17
Redevelopment need not be approached solely on a cost-effective basis. The ap-
proach also must be equally satisfactory on an environmental basis. Thus, adequate safety
measures must be taken into consideration in the design of structures.
9.3.3. Summary of Potential Uses
As stated in the other sections, all uses of completed landfills are subject to certain
constraints that remain in force untii the biodegradabie fraction of the buried wastes has been
almost completely decomposed, and chemical and physical processes going on in the fill have
reached a relatively high degree of stability, i.e., are approaching equiiibrium. Among the more
important of the constraints are those that arise from:
• The low-bearing capacity of the fill cover
• E.xtensive settling (especially the uneven settling)
• Presence of combustible and explosive gases
• The corrosive character of decomposition products and the interna! iandfill

environment in general
These processes and their associated constraints continue long atter the fill has been
completed. The duration of this period is a function of climate (rainfall, temperature), nature of
the buried w·astes, and design and operational features of the landfill. For example, it may be
as brief as two or three years in a developing country located in a humid, tropical setting and
longer than ten years in an arid environment.
The uses may be divided into the three general categories: open space, agricultura!,
and urban developmental.
9.3.3.1. Open Space and Recreation
Although •recreation' and 'open space' can be treated as separate entities, they can
also be regarded as mutually inclusive. Many reasons can be given for regarding recreation as
e
being the most beneficia! of the potential uses of a completed fill. In sorne cases, the com-
pleted fill probably provides the only site that will be available for recreation within the foresee-
9-18
able future. The list of potential recreational uses is extensiva. The type_s of uses largely re-
flects culture (e.g., cricket vs baseball), although open space would appeal to the widest spec-
trum. 1t is importan! to note that all constraints attending the construction and use of structures
apply to structures erected for recreational purposes. A photograph of a completad fill is
shown in Figure 9-2.
9.3.3.2. Agricultura
The completad fill can be used as pastura or cropland when reservations concerning
this use are taken into consideration. Among the agricultura! uses are grazing, crop produc-
tion, tree farms, orchards, nurseries, etc. In all cases, the cover should be deep enough to en-
sure that roots do not come into contact with the buried wastes. Not only would such penetra-
líen be inhibitory to the crop plant(s). whether it be grass or trees; it may also serve as an av-
enue for introducing harmful substances into the food chain and the environment. The precau-
tion becomes especially importan! when food crops are concerned. (Examples of depth are:. ;.
grasses - O. 7 m., shrubs, corn, alfalfa- 1.3 m, trees with laterally branching root systems - 1.3 -
2m. trees with tap root systems- >4 m)
9.3.3.3. Construction and Urban Redevelopment
Even though construction and urban development are low priority uses, it is highly likely
to oc"cur in developing cou~tries, especially in regions undergoing rapid or accelerated urban-
ization. For example, in Cairo, apartment buildings for the poor are built on landfills. In these
regions, vacant space for residential and commercial construction is becoming increasingly
scarce. Every effort should be made to observe necessary constraints associated with this
use.
9-19
/
Figure 9-2. Completed Fill

(Repeat Figure 2-2)
9-20
---REFERENCES-
1. Diaz, LF.,G.M. Savage, C.G. Golueke, Resource Recoverv from Salid Waste, Vol. 11, Final
Processing, CRC Press, lnc., Boca Raton, Florida, 1982.
2. Cheney, A.C., "Settlement of Landfill', Harwell Landfill Completion Symposium, Cockcroft

Hall, May 1983, HMSO, London.
3. "Guidelines for the Land Disposal of Salid Wastes", U.S. EPA Federal Report Register, 1985.
4. Northeim, C.M., R.S. Truesdale, S. N. Harkins, V.B. Menan, and S.L Winters, Handbook for
the Design. Construction. and Operation of Sanitarv Landfills, Draft copy, Feb. 1987, U.S.
EPA Contrae! No. 68-Q203992-1/040. Contractor: Research Triangle lnstitute.
S. Emberton, J.R., A. Parker, "The Problems Associaied with Building on Landfill Sites•, Waste
Management and Research, §{4):473-482 (Dec. 1987).
6. Swamp Reclamation in Tropical Monsoon Regions by Appropriate Refuse Landfillings:

Case Study Evaluations in Thailand. SEATEC INTERNATIONAL, The World Bank,
Washington, D.C. {1983).
7. Study of Landfill and Resource Recovery in Metropolitan Colombo, Draft Final Report
prepared for the World Bank by Environmental Resources Umited, June 1987.
8. Stearns, R.P., G.S. Petroyan, 'ldentifying and Controlling Landfill Fires", Waste Management
and Research, g:75-83 (1984).
. 9-21
·- Section 10 -
MANAGEMENT ANO RECORD KEEPING
1 0.1. MANAGEMENT RESPONSIBIUTIES
Ouality management is one of the more importan! factors that determine whether or not
a landfill operation will be a successful undertaking. Regardless of size of the landfill operation
and its technological level, the responsibilities of management are quite diverse and the spe-
cialties required are correspondingly numerous. The responsibilities cover three areas: opera-
tional, social, and fiscal. The operational responsibilities include:
• Maintenance of conformity with design and regulations
• Conduct of routine and other daily operations
• Provision of security
• Supply of maintenance
• Replacement of equipment
Social responsibilities include:
• Public relations
• Assurance of safety
• Hiring and training of personnel
The fiscal responsibilities include:
• Equipment and personnel record keeping
• Operational record keeping
• Environmental reporting
• Development and observation of budgets
• Financing
10-1
Generally, the size of the operation is the deciding factor regarding the advisability of
investing these responsibilities in a single individual or of entrusting them to a management
team headed by a single leader or authority. 1t is essential that functioning either as the sole
manager or as the head of a team, the leader should be adept and forceful in the management
functions, and especially be above reproach ethically.
For a large-scale sanitary landfilling undertaking at the technologicallevel of developed
regions, personnel and equipment are the two major management items of concern in terms of
importance and expense. Conversely, with small- and large-scale landfill undertakings at a
technological level befitting the resources of a developing nation, personnel becomes the key
item. The reason is that, in developing regions, labor usually is abundan! and equipment is
scarce and expensive.
1 0.1.1. Personnel
Number and types of personnel Oobs and positions) required for a sanitary landfill op-
eration are function of size and level of technology employed. The smaller the size of the oper-
ation, the fewer the number and types of personnel required. The number of personnel in-
creases almost proportionally to the size of the fill. But the ~ of personnel are not only de-
pendent upon size of operation but upon technology also. Therefore, as the size of the opera-
tion and the level of technology increases, the need for trained operators and position types for
those oper~tors (mechanics, bulldozer operators) increases. As a result, both the number and
types of personnel increase. But, if the level of technology is low, Jess equipment is used,
hence fewer trained operators are needed, thus reducing the number of types of operators.
1 0.1.1.1. Types
In moderately and in fully industrializad settings, types of personnel positions are for the
most parta function of the size of the facility. Thus, for a facility handling less than 50 to 70 Mg
'
per day, a single full-time operator probably could carry out the necessary operation of equip-
ment, recording of waste input, and performance of administrativa and maintenance functions.
1Q-2
____ ___.
At the opposite end of the size spectrum, a facility accommodating inputs in the hundreds of
Mg/day would require one or more supervisors, equipment operators, mechanics, laborers,
and check station atlendants. However, in a developing-region setting, equipment operator
and mechanic could be combinad to constitute a single position, and the number of positions
involved correspondingly becomes but a fraction of that in a developed setling. The number of
laborers required obviously would increase in proportion to size.
Supervisor: Responsibilities of a supervisor extend to all aspects of landfill operation,
particularly !hose pertaining to its management. Time not spent on supervisory duties can be
directed to other positions. The supervisor should have had experience in landfill operations
and should be fully conversan! with all that sanitary landfilling involves, such as aims and goals
and relevan! governmental regulations and guidelines. The supervisor should be familiar with
the use, servicing, and maintenance of all heavy equipment that may be used. In non-devel-
oped regions, the ideal would be that the supervisor be acquainted with basic engineering
•'
principies of landfilling design and construction, and be conversan! with environmental ~!otec
tion principies, especially those regarding sampling and analytical procedures.
:·<'"
Eguipment Operator: An equipment operator not only should be experienced with the
uses and capacities of the types of equipment used in the operation, but also should be able to
operate a variety of equipment. Familiarity with methods and techniques used in solid waste
landfill operations would be a distinct advantage - if not a requisita. Such an operator may be
difficult to find in a developing country, although the chances are improved by the fact that op-
erations involving even moderately advanced technology would be limited to metropolitan
setlings.
Check Station Atiendan!: Although the position, check station atiendan!, is a common
feature of landfill operations in developed setlings it is much less common in developing set-
tings. Nevertheless, a check station atiendan! could be an importan! functionary - perhaps a
10-3
minar bureaucrat - in a developing country. The reason is that in practice, such a functionary
not only may collect fees and keep a record of traffic and material entering and leaving !he sile,
but also can enforce regulations conceming ingress and egress of individuals, vehicles, and
materials.
Skilled and Unskilled Labor: The category, "labor,' applies to !he male and female
members of the work force (employees) engaged in !he physical and manual aspects of !he
routine operation of !he fill. Among the many functions of labor are collection of lilter, installa-
. !ion of drainage lines, performance of landscaping tasks, routine maintenance on buildings and
other facilities, and serving as 'spotter'' at the working lace.
Mechanics: Even in a developed country, !he full-time services of a mechahic generally
are not required at small fills. However, ene should be available for providing ne.eded equip~
ment maintenance without undue delay. The latter is particularly importan! in a developing
country. In such a setting, !he uninterrupted operation of a fill tnay depend upon !he function-
ing of a piece of equipment for which no replacement is available. Mechanics should be well
versed with maintenance and operation of heavy equipment.
Number: Employee requirements are site specific. Thus, number of employees re-
quired for the satisfactory operation of a landfill is mostly a function of the size and technologi-
cal level of the operation. The lower the technologicallevel, !he more direct is !he pro portien
between labor-need and size of the operation. In other words, a low-level operation is more
labor intensive !han is a high technology ene. For a developed country setting, it has been es-
timated that ene employee is needed for every 65 Mg of salid waste received each day (1].
With respect te type of landfill, trench operations gene rally are more labor intensive than are
area fills. Other factors are size of the operation, type of wastes received, site characteristics,
and operating hours.
10-4
1 0.1.2. Equipment
The selection of equipment is discussed in Section 7. In this section, we deal with cost
categories relativa to purchase, and with operation, maintenance, and record keeping.
10.1.2.1. Costs and Cost Recoverv
ltems of cost pertinent to equipment are !hose of owning and operating the equipment
and down-time cost. Resale value is !he major determinan! in !he recovery of equipment costs.
Owning costs include !he price of the equipment, related interest charges, laxes, and insurance
premiums. Dueto mark-ups, shipping costs, import and export duties (lees), commissions,
etc., owning costs in developing countries generally are substantially higher than those in de·
veloped countries. Although the financia! burden may seemingly be lightened in a developing
.,
country through the purchase of obsolete or of used equipment, scarcity of replacement parts
and increased maintenance and down-time costs render the savings illusory. Scarcity of parts
and increase in maintenance and down-time also considerably diminish the benefits of being
the recipient of donated pieces of equipment.
A range of costs for landfill equipment is presented in Table 10-1.
Operating costs include those for fuel (powering the machine), for preventiva mainte-
nance, for repairs, and for associated labor. The ítem "fuel costs' includes the price for the fuel
itself (i.e., diese!, gasoline) and that of lubricants.
Because the landfill operation must be continuous (uninterrupted), functions not being
filled by a malfunctioning piece of equipment must be performed by stand by equipment. This
is true because, by its nature, landfilling depends upon equipment. Even where it is plentiful,
manual labor cannot entirely compensate for basic equipment. Unfortunately, standby equip-
ment is an unaffordable luxury in most developing countries. Therefore, the entire operation
deteriorates during equipment downtime.
10-5
Tabla 1o-1. Capital Cost per Landfill Equipment
Approximate
Type Power Weight Cost
(hp) (kg) (U.S. $) .
Compactar <200 <18,000 140,000

200-300 23,000- 27,000 . 220,000
Track Dozer <100 8,000 70,000

100-200 14,000 - 20,000 138,000- 199,000
210-300 20,000-28,000 200,000 - 260,000
Wheel Loader <100 9,000 66,000

100-200 10,000 - 15,000 106,000- 140,000
<200 20,000 153,000
Track Loader <100 9,000 78,000

110-130 14,000- 16,000 102,000- 115,000
140-200 20,000 - 23,000 172,000- 185,000
Wheel Tractor 300-400 11 ,000 - 27,000 130,000 - 218,000
10-6
Resale is probably the major avenue of cost recovery. Resale val ue is the rate of de-
preciation and potential market value of a piece of equipment.
10.1.2.2. Operation and Maintenance
The full potential of a pie ce of equipment cannot be realized without a competen! and
well-qualified operator. lnasmuch as landfill operation is heavily dependen! upon equipment,
an efficiently functioning and environmentally sound operation depends on the realization ot
that potential. Ultimately, the competency and qualification of the equipment operator is a
major iactor in a well-run landfill. ldeally, the operator should have extensive experience in
equipment operation. New operators should undergo an adequate training program. In addi-
tion, all operators should have access to operation manuals for the equipment.
The cost for maintaining heavy landfill equipment is on the order of 15% of the original
capital cost per year.
The cost ot equipment maintenance is an expensive iterri that can be substantially low·
ered by the institution of a program of daily preventiva maintenance. Equipment maintenance
is a critica! aspect of landfill operations. Unfortunately, maintenance is a task that often is
overlooked, and in some cases ignored, in many LDCs. The lite span of equipment can be in·
creased by performing periodic and thorough maintenance procedures. Daily routine mainte-
nance involves such activities as checking water and oillevels, lubricating moving parts, keep-
ing bulldozer tracks and radiator clean, etc. This maintenance can b~ done by the equipment
operator, except in a very large operation. For a large operation, a full-time or part-time
mechanic may be assigned this duty.
A comprehensive, daily report should be completad for each piece of equipment and be
readily accessible. The report can take the form ofthe one shown in Figure 10.1. Suchdaily
record keeping is an assurance ot better maintenance and consequent lower maintenance
costs.
10.7
Manufacturers gene rally supply the equipment with a list of maintenance procedures
and their frequency as well as a suggested list of replacement parts. Very small jurisdictions
can rely on private enterprises for the maintenance and repair of the equipment. On the other
hand, medium to large (larger than 300 to 500 tons/day) siles should consider having a full-
time mechanic on staff for performing routine maintenance and minor repairs. Furthermore, it
is strongly recommended that the landfill include a garage and repair shop equipped with, at
the very least, basic tools and sorne spare parts.
REFERENCE
1. Flintoff, F., Management of Solid Wastes in Developing Countries, WHO Regional

Publications, South-East Asia Series No. 1, New Delhi, 1976.
10-8
Sl1'e:
Ne~lne:
Caa~l e1'ed Sy:
Mcur ~.,..,. Read 1ng:
B~CRE START 1i.G O<EOC
ljA'T'ER
~
E1«l. O IL
T1'WtS.
F1JEl.
WA'T'ER ""OE!) FROIIT'
EHG. O1L ""CED FROHT 8o W.'T'ER ""OE!l REAR
EHG. O1L "'CE!) REAR
8
TlWIS. O1L ""OE!l FROHT 'IRNIS. OIL ""OE!l REAR
HT!JWIL IC OIL AÍlOE!l
FROIIT'
o FINAL. CRIYE OIL 8
AF'T!R STARTII«> L.."YE!. ~OW€ Al() oro:x
EI«>IPE OIL o
'TIWIS. o
HT!JWIT..IC OIL o
AHr t.EAICS o
liRA ICES o
STEERIIG o
T'RAHSif 1S S 1OH
~
I'RESS~
GAUGES
SHII'TIIG
EIGIPE
~.
o
. O 1L PRESSl.f!E
""'T'ER TaCP.
8
o
.§
UIClE!e\RR 1AGE
l"RACC ACJUST.
Rou.ER WEAA
TIRES
SLACE o
CU!'TIIG EDQ!S o
H'roAAUt. JCS
fJUif'
JN:1(;S
8
o
aT!<eR
AIR CWH0RS
oo
IVLJ. a.EAH
l"RACC CI.EAH
oo
TIRES FREE r:F 14\.0 o
Figure 10-1. Equipment Inspection Form.
10.9
Section 11
ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS
11.1. BACKGROUND
The economic costs of individual disposal operations vary substantially from country to
country and within each country. The variations are impacted by local conditions, regulations,
as well as other factors not related to landfilling Q.e., assessments for funding recycling,
groundwater protection, etc.). Therefore, the coverage discussed in this section is limited ~o
the costs of the general components of landfill costs. An example of the extent of the variation
as a function of time in the U.S.A. is shown by the data in Table 11-1.
The data in Table 11-1 show how ttie costs for landfilling have varied over time. In the
1970s, the majar fraction of the costs for landfilling was that associated with site operation.
Since a large number of LDCs do not have regulations which require closure and post-closure
care, these costs would be similar to those. currently experienced in LDCs. As regulations and
other conditions changecf, in 1986 construction costs increased and operation costs de-
creased. In addition, post-closure care was added to the overall cost. More.recently (in 1990),
the costs due to construction and operation have been kept relatively constant. On the other
hand, a·new ítem unanticipated) has begun to make an impact on the cost of landfilling .
. Cost of landfilling depends in part u pon the type of waste disposed, size of the opera-
tion, availability of fill and cover material, and whether or not construction was phased. Phased
landfill construction is cheaper than construction of the landfill all at once. Varying site condi-
tions and regulatory requirements tor landfill construction are importan! factors in the variability
in landfill construction costs.
As for accurately determining the landfill costs in a particular area, the best approach is
to examine past and curren! landfill operations in that area. In each area, cost of landfill
11-1
Table 11-1. Changes in Landfill Development Costs 8 l
Typical Cost 1%1
ltem 199odl
Predevelopment 5.9 5 -10 7.0
Construction 12.3 25-35 35.0
Operation 75.7 40-50 36.0
Closure 6.1 1-5 3.0
Post Closure Care o 10- 15 11 .o
Unanticipated
-º -º a. o
100 .100 100
a) Profit is not included, 16-ha site, 1 million tons, 15-year sita lile.
b) lncludes 117 cm soilliner and leachate collection system.
( e) lncludes 150 cm clay linar (available en site) and 30-year post-closure.
d) lncludes 150 cm clay linar (available en sita), 3Q- mil synthetic linar, leachate collection
system, increased monitoring, $1.50 U.SJton lee.
Adaptad lrom Relerence 2.
. 11-2
disposal depends upon the cost ol the land upon which the lacility is sited, the design ol the
landfill, cost ol labor, and governmental regulations that must be met
Not only do landfill costs directly affect the total cost ol waste management, they also
have a bearing on the extent and nature ol the processing to which the wastes might be sub-
jected prior to ultimate disposal. In other words, the way that wastes are managed by commu,
nities generating the wastes is determinad to a considerable extent by the cost ol disposing of
those wastes. Regardless ol the developmental level ola nation, landfill construction and op-
eration costs are only a relatively small lraction ol the total disposal cost when and where land
suitable lor landfilling is available ata low cost. Obviously, under such a circumstance, land-
filling the wastes without pretreatment usually would be the least expensive, although not nec-
essarily the best disposal option. On the other hand, some lorm ol waste processing to reduce
amounts and volumes ol wastes destined to be landfilled most likely would be economically
justified in areas where land is expensive or unsuitable lar landfilling.
In most communities in developed countries, the cost ol operating the landfill is recav-
e red by means ol a user lee. The lee typically is known as "tipping lee.• Tipping lees generally
vary as a lunction ol weight, type ol waste, and availability ol landfill space.
11-1-1. Landfill Costs vs Total Cost of Solid Waste Disposal
The total cost ol waste disposal is the sum ol the costs lar each componen! ol the
waste disposal operation. The disposal operation begins with the collection ol waste lrom
residential and industrial generators and ends with final management ol the landfill site alter
closing (i.e., closure and post-closure). The total cost ol each componen! ol the waste dis·
posal operation is the su m of its capital and operating costs.
An outline showing the positions of the majar operations that precede the landfill opera-
tion is presentad in Figure 11-1. The three leading operations are collection, hauling, and
processing. Processing is optional. Collection involves the pickup of discarded materials from
11-3
Refuse co11ection
!
Hau1 in collection vehic1es
~ Trans fer
station
~
/
Processing ~
Hau1 in transfer vehic1es
~
Landfi 11 i ng Landfill construction
Figure 11-1. Waste 11anagement Components
11-4·
residential and industrial are as. Hauling is the transportation of the collected wastes either to
the landfill orto central collection orto processing locations. The actual burial of the wastes at
a landfill constitutes landfill disposal. In developing nations, collection represents the major
fraction of the costs for waste management.
11.1.1.1. Effect of Processing on Cost of Waste Dlsposal
Shredding and baling are two of the more common examples of processing. Either
process increases the density of the collected waste, thereby reducing the volume of the
waste. This expands the total capacity of the fill. Additionally, less cover soil is required. Ex·
panding landfill capacity and easing cover-soil requirements obviously lower landfill costs.
Removal of recyclable materials (e.g., scavenging, composting) is a form of waste pro-
cessing that equals shredding and baling in terms of reduction of amount of waste destinad to
be landfilled. The scavenging may take place before, during, or alter collection:
One way processing can reduce costs other than by volume reduction, is by upgrading
of the quality of the waste to a level at which exceptional landfilling measures are not required.
Examples of exceptional measures ~re those prescribed for "secure" landfill (see Section 5.3.3.,
Hazardous Wastes). AmOng the approaches to upgrading are detoxification of toxic wastes,
encapsulation or solidification of hazardous or toxic substances, and removal of particularly
objectionable characteristics of putrescible wastes.
The most typical unit processes used in LDCs include shredding and screening. Size
reduction and screening usually are associated with preparation of the waste for coinposting.
Size reduction is an energy-.and maintenance-intensive process. The process should be
carefully designad and operated so that it do es not become a burden to the overall process.
Waste processing, in order to recycle and reduce the quantity of waste landfilled, may be justi·
fiable in areas where landfill capacity is low and alternate sites are lar away (i.e., more than 50
km away).
11·5
11.2. CAPITAL ANO OPERATING COSTS
Among the principal capital costs are those of land, buildings and construction, and ve·
hieles. These capital costs usually are fixed costs in that as a rule, they are set, or fixed, during
the course of the landfill operation. Labor required for maintenance, fu el costs, and cost of
cover material emplaced during the operation of the landfill are all classified as operational
costs. Operational costs are variable in that they generally increase with increase in the rate
and magnitude of waste disposal.
11.2.1. Landfill Cost Models
The relativa costs associated with development, operation, and closure of a sanitary
landfill in the U.S. are presentad in Table t 1-2.
A major difficulty in developing a landfill cost model that reflects conditions and costs in
a developing country is the small amount of available data, and the few data to be found have
a questionable reliability. Such being the case, the logical approach is to develop and accu-
mulate reliable data on costs. This task can be considerably facilitated by following a suitable
model for calculating the costs involved in sanitary landfilling. Such a guide or model is pro-
posad by LE. Joyce [1]. The model is presentad in the form of a worksheet for calculating the
real cost of waste disposal. A worksheet is presentad in Table 11-3.
Although the model and worksheet are based on U.S.A. conditions, it can be adaptad
for use in developing countries. 1t can be adapted because it is based on generic rather than
specific principies. Costs as listed in the table can be interpretad as being "indicators' of
relativa costs.
The worksheet in Table 11-3 covers the development, operational, and closure costs
under specific headings:
o 'Pre-Development Costs"
o "lnitial Construction costs"
o 'Annual Operational Costs"
11-6
Table 11·2. Individual Component Cost Relative to Total Landfill Cos~l
Component Percent of Total Cost
Predevelopment 3.6
Construction Costs 35.5
Operation Costs 46.0
Closure 0.9
Long-term Care 11.5
Other 2.5
a) Adapted from References 2, 3, and 4.
11-7
Table 11-3. Worksheet for Estimating Landfill Costs
(620 ha, 200 ton/day facility)
Pr...O.velopment Costa c;tosure and Post Cloaure Costa
Siting the facillty (angineering, ~gaJ feea Thia uaumea the final cap on the landfill ll part of the cOst
& preliminal)' geotechnicaJ Wwutigation&) ' 75,000 while the landfiU ia openWng. The annual amount ahould be
S~o mapping ~opographie/boundaly aurvoys) aet asida during the operational ye~n of the l&ndfill.
& fina! gootechnical lrrvestigation 75,000
Engineering design & regulatory Coltl include the following:
pennit applieation 100.000
Legal & public hearing• 50,000 Engineering t... f~ preparatlon of a cloaure plan
l.and purch&M (620 h.¡ 250,000 Re;ulatory approvala of 1he cloture plan
Regulatory permitting faaa 5,000 FinaJ tite grading & re-vegetation
Adminiatrati'Ye 1uppon Hrvicea 25,000 Maintenance of eroaion & •ediment control facilities
Contingency 50,000 Maintonance o11&ndfill gu l)'ltem
Operation & m&intonance of leac:hate collection and
•Total Pr•Development Cost $630,000 treatment l)'l'tem
Leac:hate treab'nent at offsite troatment plant
lnttJal ConstructJon Costa
dAnnual Closure/Post.Oosure Costs $50,000
Entranee & acceA rcads ' 100,000
General aite excavation & land clearing 750,000
Erosion & lediment control facilitiu 50,000 Annual Cost
Uners & linar cushion system 550,000
0
Leachate collection & landfill gas Cap~al costs (a + b) $2.630,000
venting system 50,000 fAmortization of capital costs- ltraight
Leachate traatment system 100,000 tino depreciation ovar 20 yeat'l at 9% 285.000
Sita landaeaping 50,000 0Annual operatlng cost (e) 940,000
Scale cystem 50,000 hAnnualized ctoaure & po.st:-cloaure costa {d) 50.000
Sea!ahouae & office building 20,000 'rotal ennual cost ~ + g + h) 1,275,000
Equipment maintenance facility 75,000 1A.nnuaJ tona per year (200 tonslday x
Public convenience area 30,000 6 dayi/Week x 52 weekslyeat) 62,400 tone
Miscellaneoua 1H.e paving 30,000 "cost por ton Q+ D 20/ton
Mi$cellaneoua Oighting, gatas, aigns, etc.) 50,000 1Host communtty foe fcr caphaJ lmprovements
Constructlon angineering & quality mState or loeaJ fee
control testing 50J)00
"Total Tipplng Foe (k+ 1 +m) $20/ton
Subtotal 1,955,000
Contingency 45.000
Cost per Household per Month
brotallnHial Conatruellon Coat $2,000,000
0 $t ,275,000
Annual cost (i)
Annual OperaUonal Coats PPopulation 100,000 people
qCost por peraon (o + p) $12.75/yeat/person
Sito peBonnel & management $200,000 $1.06/mcnth/person
Facili'ty overhead ~ncluding building & 'Perscns par household 4.0
groundt, aite maintenance, electricity, etc.) 50,000 1
Cost por household (q x r) $425/month/housohold
Equipment operationa & maintenance 50,000
Equipment rental 150,000
Road maintenance '25,000
Routine environmental monitoring (ground
water, aurface water & landfill gas) 25,000
EnginHring aervicea 30,000
Sita & equipment lnsurance/cloaure bonding 50,000
On-going devalcpment & constrvction costs 250.000
Leachate tieatment ata municipal tewer tystem 10.000
Pr•trestment of leachate prior to diapos.al
into.municipaJ aewer tyl'tem 50,000
Unarrtícipated costa 50.000
C,.otal OporaUonal Coats $940,000
Adapted from Reference 1.
11-8
• "Ciosure and Post-Ciosure Costs•
• "Cost Per Household Per Month"
The costs listed in the worksheet assume a 2DO-ton/day facility designed to serve pop-
~~~v
ulations of 80,000 to 100,000 people, operating in the U.S.A The facility is situated on a 1ilt ha
site, of which 61 ha will be used for disturbed and non-disturbed buffer, 18 ha of which will be
designated as •non-disposal areas• (roads, etc.) The average excavation depth is about 3.1 m.
The costs also include a double lining system and a leacha_te collection and detection system.
'-
The facility operates 6 days per week, 52 weeks per year.
Although costs estimated by way of a model in which survey data are used may be in-
accurate, they do indicate potential magnitudes of construction and other landfill costs. As
such, they are useful in makin9 design decisions. and comparisons between various disposal
options.
Additional costs for landfilling are provided in Table 11-4. The data in the table are pre-
sented for landfill sites having 100, 200, 300, and 400 ha in total area. The items included in
Predevelopment are given in Table 11-5. Similarly, the items included in Closure and Post-Cio-
sure Care are presented in Table 11-6. These items are described in Tables 11-5 and 11-6 so
that users of this document can get an indication of the requirements of each phase.
11.3. LANDFILL EQUIPMENT COSTS
Capital costs of heavy equipment used for landfilling refuse constitute a major cost
componen! for the development of landfills. An indication of the magnitude of this componen!
may be gained from the data presented in Table 11-7. Because of the costs associated with
sanitary landfilling, the acquisition of a sufficient number of the appropriate equipment for the
efficient operation of a fill often times is not carried out in developing countries.
11-9
Table 11-4. Summary of Landfill Development and AnnuaJ Operating Costs in 1990
(U.S. Dollars)
ACTIVE LANDFILL AREA
ltem 100 ha 200ha 300 ha 400 ha
Predevelooment 340,000 410,000 480,000 550,000
Site Preoaration
"Ciay (on-site) 6,640,000 14,300,000 23,100,000 33,100,000

Clay (16 km haul) 6,300,000 17,100,000 27,100,000 38,600,000
Membrane/Ciay (on-site) 9,300,000 19,100,000 30,200,000 42,600,000
Membrane/Ciay (16 km haul) 10,100,000 20,700,000 32,700,000 45,900,000
Operations 175,000/yr 300,000/yr 415,000/yr 455,000/yr
Closure 1,100,000 2,200,000 3,300,000 4,500,000

1,600,000 3,600,000 5,500,000 7,300,000
Post-Ciosure 133,000/yr 241 ,000/yr 350,000 457,000
11-1 o
Tabla 11-5.. ltems lncluded in Predevelopment Costsa)
• Environmentallmpact Statement
• Feasibility Report
• Oesign and Plan of Operation
• Administration
a) Land costs have been purposely omitted.
11-11
Table 11..0. Jtems Jncluded in Closure and Post-Closure
Closure
• Earthwork
• Seeding
• Gas Collection
Post-Ciosure
• Monitoring (groundwater, gas, leachate)

• Leachate Treatment
• Site Maintenance
• Uability lnsurance
11-12
Tabla 11-7. Equipment Capital Costs
Approx. Approx.
Machina Type Flywheel Weight Weighta) Costb) Comments
(kW) (Mg) (Mg) (U.S. $)
Crawler Dozer <60 <6.8 8.6 25,000 Landfill blade

82-97 9.0- 11.3 14.4 45,400 Landfill blade
186-209 21.4-23.4 30.2 83,600 Landfill blade
Crawler Loader <52 <9.0 9.5 25,000 GPsc): 0.8 m3

75-97 11.3- 19.6 14.0 35,800 GPB: 1.5 m3
75-97 11.3- 14.6 14.4 38,200 MPsd): 1.3 m3
119-142 14.6-20.1 20.3 54,900 GPB: 2.3 m3
119-142 14.6-20.1 21.2 58,600 MPB: ,1.9 m3
Rubber-tired <75 9.0 7.7 25,000 GPB: 1.3 m3 . ,.,. ....,

Loader <75 9.0 8.1 25,000 MPG: 1.1 m3
89- 119 10.1 -12.04 9.5 39,500 GPB: 3.0 m3
89- 119 10.1 -12.4 11.7 43,000 MPB: 1.7 m3
a) Basic machina plus engine sidescreens, radiator guards, reversible fan, roll bar, and either a landfill blade,
general-purpose bucket, or multiple-purpose bucket as notad.
b) December 1990.
e) General-purpose bucket.
d) Multiple-purpose bucket.
Source: Reference 7.
11-13
As was mentioned in Section 7 'Equipment Selection', ttie two principal uses lor landfill
equipment are to move and compact wastes and to move and compact soil. Waste movement
and compaction are accomplished by spreading the wastes in layers on the working lace ol
the landfill and in doing so, compacting them to the desired density. The same piece ol
equipment is employed lor both tasks. Soil must be excavated and transportad to the working
lace ol the landfill lor daily cover. lmmediately upon dumping the soil onto the working lace, it
must be spread and compactad into a relatively unilorm layer.
Under U.S.A. conditions, the lile span ol mobile landfill equipment is generally estimated
to be about 5 years.(i.e., about 10,000 hours ol operation) [7].
In an industrializad nation, annual cost of maintaining heavy landfill equipment
(lubrication, tire repair, parts, etc.) is estimated as being 16% to 18% ol the original capital cost
ol the equipment. The actual cost in a developing country would depend very strongly upon
the age ol equipment, type ol equipment, maintenance procedures, as well as on the various
lactors peculiar to a developing country. However, the maintenance cost to capital cost ratios
in the two settings probably would be similar.
As with maintenance costs, luel costs vary with type and condition ol the equipment.
Obviously, they also depend upon the prices locally charged lor various components ol main-
tenance costs (e.g., luel, parts). Nevertheless, an indication of fuel consumption may be had
lrom the data reportad in Relerence 6. According to those data, total fuel consumption aver-
ages about 3,.5 liters luei/Mg waste disposed. At that rate of consumption, the fuel consumption
per piece ol equipment probably would be on the order ol 100 liters per day.
REFERENCES
1. Joyce, LE., 'How to Calculate Waste Disposal Costs', World Wastes, March 1989.
2. Glebs, R.T., 'Landfill Costs Continua to Rise,' Waste Age, Vol. 19, No. 3, March 1988.
3. Walsh, J., "More on Sanitary Landfill Costs,' Waste Age, Vol. 21, No. 4, April 1990.
11-14
·-------
'
4. Glebs, R. T., and T. Juszczyk, 'Ciosure and Post Closure Costs,', Vol. 21, No. 3, March
1990.
5. Hudson, J.F., P.L Deese, Optional Cost Models for Landfill Disposal of Municipal Wastes,
prepared for U.S. EPA, Cincinnati, Ohio, March 1985.
6. Wilson, D.C., Waste Management Planninq. Evaluation, Technoloqies, Clarendon Press,

Oxford, 1981.
7. Diaz, LF., G.M. Savage, and C.G. Golueke, Resource Recoverv from Municipal Salid
Waste, CRC Press, 1982.
11-15
by way of radio broadcasts, and public (official) announcements, and to some extent, by way
of the printed media and 'public education• programs.
Loss of Uving Space - Because of dense urban sprawt brought about by mass migra-
lían from rural to urban areas, vacant land in the urban areas has .become extremely scarce. \
Preferable areas have been taken over by business and the economically advantaged seg-
ments of the population to the extent that either no space is left for the poor, or the space is
undesirable for some reason. lnasmuch as the landfill must be sited not too far lrom the waste
generators, it often happens to compete with landlill. Regardless of the unsuitability of such
low-grade land areas, they are the last recourse for living areas for a significan! lraction of the
poor. Nevertheless, it may well happen that these unfortunates have. to compete with a landfill
undertaking for those sites. 1t is not surprising that a strong antipathy against any proposed .
landlill is aroused in those individuals.
Dispelling such a source of antipathy will be a difficult task. An obvious way is lo lind
other land for the dispossessed individuals, but this task is not always carried out, for various
reasons. A more realistic way lo cope with the problem is to design and operate the landlill
such that when completed, the site can provide living or recreational space, even though its
promised remedy is postponed lo a somewhat distan! future (Section 9.3.1.3). 'Selling" that
remedy to the affected individuals undoubtedly would be an almost insuperable task, despite
reliance upon the conventional means of making such an attempt. About the only course re-
maining is to keep the number of those potentially affected at a mínimum. Motivations in the
form of sacrifices lor the common good, preservation of the public health, patriotism, etc. have
little weight among a group lar the members of which mere survival is a pressing problem.
12.1 .2.2. 'Middle Class'
A middle class, as the term is delined in a developed country, either may be non,exis-
tent or may be very small in a developing country. As used in this section, the term is one of
convenience and is intended to encompass a wide segment that neither lits within the category
12-5
'peor", nor is financially endowed sufficiently to be categorized 'wealthy'. Thus, it includes in-
dividuals and prolessionals who are at the management and/or decision-making levels ol the
organizations for which they work. Examples ol the organizations are businesses and all
branches ol governmenl Also included are members ol the educational system, ol the health
care prolessions, inlormed concerned citizens groups, etc.
Causes ol the antipathy, and hence opposition ol the middle class are notas basic as
those ol peor nor as widespread. They are not as basic in that they do not concern survival.
However, so me are not lar removed Ir o m that extreme, in that they relate to loss ol living space
- space which already is extremely scarce. They are less widespread in that they are mostly
confined to individuals living or involved (e.g., own property) in the immediate neighborhood ol
\
the proposed landfill. The opposition lessens in proportion to distance trom the fill. Most ol
the causes are in the lorm ol perceived threats to :
• Health through contamination ol resources, primarily water, and lostering the

generation ol insect and animal vectors (e.g., flies, rats)
• Aesthetically and visually lowering the quality ol lile
• Adversely atfecting property values in general
The opposition arising from concerns about health and quality ol lile could be consider-
able il not entirely eliminated by showing that a properly designad and operated sanitary landfill
would not be a threat. However, the lears regarding reduction ol living space and lowering ol
1
property values would not be as easily allayed. The r'natter ol the reduction ol living space
could be taken care of to so me extent by way ol the same measures prescribed lor the peor.
Adverse effects on value of surrounding property would be much more difficult. 01 course, the
difficulty would be considerably less.ened il the proposed fill were to re place an open dump
operation.
12-6
The best course of action is to publicize the advantages of a sanitai)' landfill. Because
the greater percentage of the middle class is literata, •spreading the word" would be much
easier than it would be among the poor class. The printed media as well as the radio and
television could also be put to use.
12.1.2.3. Wealthy
Antipathy on the part of the wealthy probably would neither be as deep-seated nor as
strong as among the other two classes. Moreover, chances of members of this class having
any immediate contact with a fill usually would be remate. Any antipathy would arise from a
concern about deterioration of the quality of water resources in the area, endangerment of the
health of the public at large (i.e., beyond the vicinity of the fill), or of any nearby property mem-
bers may chance to own. Members of this class would dwell in the developed areas of the
community in which the quality of the environment would approach that in a developed'
country. Because the cultural (social and attitudinal) characteristics would be comparable to ., .. ~~.
those generally encountered in developed nations, measures taken to attract and engage their
participation in a present or proposed sanitary landfill undertaking would also be comparable.
Objectives: Although some of these objectives may be difficult to attain in many LDCs,
they are included here to guide the more advanced developing countries and to serve as a·
model for those less developed. Among the objectives of a public participation program for
this group and to some extent, for the middle or intermediate group, would be the following:
1. Making certain that the public has the opportunity to understand official programs· and
proposed actions, and that the government gives due consideration to the public's
concerns
2. Assuring official decisions on significant activities are not made without consulting
interested and affected segments of the public
3. Making certain that government action is as responsiva as possible to public concerns
4. lnforming the public about significant issues and proposed project or program changes
as they arise ·
12-7
5. Providing opportunities for public participation and stimulate and support participation.
These objectives can be accomplished through !he maintenance of communication
between !he landfill planners, designers, operators, and !he public.
Advantages Associated with Public Participation: In addition te the ádvantages
mentioned earlier, are these:
• lt increases likelihood of public agreement with the final plans
• lt is an effective method of providing useful information te decision makers, especially

where values or factors that are not easily quantified are concerned
· • lt constitutes assurance that all issues are fully and carefully considerad
• 1t ensures accountability by decision makers
• lt is an effective mechanism te force decision makers te take into consideration issues

beyond the project, but which nevertheless have an influence en it, albeit indirectly
, As would be expected, public participation is not without it disadvantages. Among
them are:
• A potential is created for confusion of the issues because many new perspectives may
be introduced
• Some uninformed participants may disseminate erroneous information
• Public involvement will add cost te the project
• Delays in the project because of public opposition and involvement of additional parties
• There is a strong possibility that the program might not involve the appropriate people
or that citizens will not develop an interest in the project until it is too late for changes te
be initiated
Nene of this list of disadvantages is great enough te outweigh !he many benefits asso-
ciated with an effective public participation program. The benefits are su eh that they facilitate
the formation of an effective decision making process essential te publicly accepted landfill.
12-8
Participants: Among the potentially more useful participants would be groups and indi-
viduals likely to be directly affected by the landfill. They would be strongly motivated because
they would have a personal stake in the success of the project_ Other useful participants would
be those who have demonstrated a serious interest in environmental affairs: In fact, their par-
/
ticipation should be encouraged in the process.
Among the organizations and individuals that could have a part of the program are the
following:
• Any interested members of the public
• Representativas of consumer, environmental, and minority associations
• Representativas of trade, industrial, agricultura!, and labor organizations ·
• Civic associations
• Public officials
• Governmental and educational associations
ldentifying and contracting these groups is only a first stép. Although some of these
'
groups are traditionally perceived as intransigent, gaining the support of these groups is not
easily accomplished at the planning stage of the landfill, before it becomes and emotional
issue. Moreover, gaining support early in the process can benefit subsequent program
activities.
Extent of Public Input in Relation to Stage of Project Development: Although useful at
al! stages in the development of a sanitary landfill undertaking, public input can be critica! at
certain stages .. For example, the first stage, the planning process, is a critica! stage. 1t is criti-
cal because it is the stage in which public input has the greatest potential for shaping the final
plan. For that reason it also is the time when involvement should be greatest. In addition, it is
the time for determining the limits to public and political acceptability. As a result of this early
input, !he public plays a constructiva rather than a reactive role in decision making. Appropri-
12-9
ate mechanisms for shaping and applying this input are public hearings, public meetings, and
workshops.
The site selection and design stage is the succeeding critica! stage [2). Although the
number of participants probably will be less than that in the planning stage, it nevertheless is a
very active stage. This stage is marked by tours and field trips in which special interest groups
.
can make their concerns known. Additional approaches in this stage are audio·visual presen-
tations, establishments of task torces for recommending design procedures in areas of partic·
u lar public concern. The torces could be part of an advisory committee consisting of residents
near the site. One or more formal public hearings is essential at this time.
A third critica! stage is the construction and operation stage. Although utilizable public
input is perforce limited in this stage, the input nevertheless is critica!, in that it is a means of
monitoring the quality of construction and operation.
REFERENCES
1. Northeim, C.M., R.S. Truesdale, S.M. Harkins, V.B. Menan, S. L. Winters, Handbook for the
Design. Construction, and Operation of Sanitary Landfills, prepared by the Research
Triangle·lnstitute for U.S. EPA, February 1987.
2. Star, A.M., 'Siting a Landfill: The First Step", World Wastes, 32(13):14, 16,18,20 (December
29, 1989).
1~-10
Appendix 1
CLOSING AND/OR PHASING AN OPEN DUMP INTO A SANITARY LANDFILL 1
1.1. BACKGROUND
One of the most common aspects of solid waste management in developing countries,
particularly in small municipalities, is the open dump. Most of these jurisdictions lack both the
technical and financia! resources to develop a sanitary landfill as it is known in the developed
nations. A possible solution to the severenegative impacts generated by an open dump is the
closure or conversion of the dump into a sanitary landfill.
The financia! and technological resources of the country and area where the open
dump is located, determine the extent to which the procedure followed in closing it, or in
·phasing it into a sanitary landfill operation, can or will conform with the "ideal". lf resources are
minimal, the extent of the conformity also is minimal. The rationale is that mínimum conformity
is better than no conformity.
Rarely would closure be a two-step operation in which upgrading the dump to the
sanitary landfilllevel would have to precede closure. The unfavorable conditions
(hydrogeological, topographical, proximity to densely populated area, etc.) that could
·necessitate conversion into a sanitary landfill before closure, perhaps also would render it more
desirable to transfer the wastes to another site for final disposal. However, both courses (i.e.,
two-step closure, trarisfer to another site) might be beyond the resources of. the area.
Nevertheless, if resources do permit, conformity should be at the ideal level, inasmuch as
benefits to be reached from closing the dump are commensurate with the degree o! conformity
with the "ideal". Obviously, there is a range between the two extremes, i.e. both with respect to
degree of conformity and to magnitud e of the two resources. Reflecting the two extremes of
conformity and resources, Appendix 1is presentad under the two headings, "Mi"nimal" and
"Ideal".
1-1
Closing an open dump can be either the final step of an open dump operation; or, it
can or will be the first step in the upgrading of an on-going disposaJ operation to the status of a
sanitary landfill. In both cases, the basic steps are identical. However, upgrading an on-going
operation involves a step or two beyond the basic steps. For convenience, the first case is
termed 'terminal closure• and the second case ís termed 'transition closure'.
1.2. TERMINAL CLOSURE
1.2.1. Mínimum Conformity

Mínimum conformity involves three main steps. Depending upon the topography, a
fourth step may also be added. The steps are:
1) consolidation
2) compaction
3) covering the wastes
4) construction of systems to divert and intercept run-off waters (when required by

reason of topography)(An example o! the bearing had by topography is a dump on
the top or on the side of a hill). -
1.2.1.1. Consolidation
Consolidation involves collecting scattered wastes and concentrating and confining
them with all the other wastes that had been dumped during the active 'lile" of the open dump
as a single mass in a defined area. This activity is done such that the site is tidied and thereby
rendered less objectionable. A tracked bulldozer or loader can be used for this activity.
1.2.1.2. Compaction
The reasons that give compaction its importance in sanitary landfilling also apply he re
(see Section 2.2). The consolidated wastes are compacted with the use of equipment much
like that utilizad in sanitary landfilling. 11 that type of equipment is not available, repeatedly
running a bulldozer equipped with tracks or any other piece of equipment similarly equipped
with tracks should suffice. Aside from being much less effective, the problem with using
1-2.
.
· equipment not equipped with tracks would be a tendency lo sink and stall in the waste mass,
especially if the thickness of the mass exceeds 75 cm (30 in.). This tendency would seriously
lessen the maneuverability of non-tracked equipment.
1.2.1.3. Cover
Of the steps listed earlier, the cover is first in terms of importance. lts importance
centers on its isolation of the wastes from the environmenl The isolation serves lo protect the
quality of the environment from being degraded by contrae! with the wastes. The cover is a
key element in the isolation of the wastes from the environment. As stated previously, the
cover lessens or removes the attractiveness of the wastes to vectors, rodents, and wildlife in
general. 1t not only removes the attraction, it also impedes or at least discourages their access
to the wastes. By doing so, it serves to protect public health. Finally, it effectively removes th"e
aesthetic affront that would be imposed by the wastes if they were not covered ..
Cover materials, specifications, and methods for applying them are the same as those
described in Section 5.
1.2.1.4. Diversion and lnterception Systems
The purpose of the diversion system is to preven! suriace water from reaching the
closed fill. The purpose of the interception system is to preven! leachate and water that has
been contaminated by contact with the disposed wastes from reaching a water resource. The
water in this case is that which flows off the suriace of the fill. Leachate may reach the suriace
because of the topography of the site, in that it might drain from its lower perimeter,
Diversion and interception can be accomplished with the use of ditches. Arrangement of
-
the ditches is illustrated by the sketch in Figure 1-1. Diverted water can be discharged without
having been treated. lntercepted water may have been sufficiently contaminated to require
collection and some treatment prior to discharge. Leachate would require treatment.
Treatment can be accomplished by way of a holding pond.
1-3
~ !)•!LE:vpo,.J
of
f[.,.# .,.¡
-- - - -
- - - 'DIV/Z.('SJOn
- · - ·- L..-i.-cef~on
Figure I-1. Arrangement of Diversion and Interception Ditches
1-4
1.2.2. Ideal Conformity
For ideal conformity, the contents ofthe open dump are 're-disposed' according to
conventional sanitary landfill procedure. This involves moving the wastes to a site preparad in
the same manner as for a sanitary landfill. The site preferably would be adjacent to the open
dump. Doing so would reduce the transfer process to a minimum. The wastes could simply be
pushed by means of a bulldozer to the adjoining site. Of course, the adjoining site would have
to meet all necessary conditions (hydrogeologic, etc.). The site would be preparad and lined
as for a new sanitary landfill (Section 5). Of course, if the adjacent site is hopelessly unsuitable,
another site would have to be found.
lf the trench method is to be followed, the excavation is done immediately adjacent to
the open dump, such that the contents of the dump can simply be pushed into the trench.
Unless the area and amounts involved are too large, a full !ayer of wastes can be depositad at
one time. Otherwise, each !ayer can be depositad in segments. Following standard sanitary
landfill procedure, each !ayer is duly compactad and properly covered. At the completion of
the transfer, the new fill is closed and completad in the manner described in Section 9.
Except for the excavation of a trench, the procedure is much the same with the area
and ramp methods and modifications thereof. In all cases, the procedure described for ·
sanitary landfilling in the preceding sections of this manual are also followed here.
1.3. CLOSURE AS A TRANSJTION TOA CONTJNUJNG OPERATION
Either the minimum or the ideal conformity closure can serve as a transition to a
continuing sanitary landfill operation. The ideal type of closure would be preferable to the
minimum conformity closure. In either case, the closed dump (ideal and minimum) is notan
integral part of the coniinuing operation. In other words, the continuing operation is treated as
a .new operation independently of the closed operation. Acceptable. sanitary landfill practica is
followed in the continuing operation.
1-5
1.4. LANDFILl MINING
Closing an open dump either with or without upgrading it to sanitary landfill status
presents an opportunity to interject landfill 'mining•.
1.4.1. Principies
\
The landfill "mining• concept involves the excavating of completad and closed landfill
sties followed by processing the excavated material to produce a soil conditioner and recycle
other useful materials (e.g., ferrous metal). The rationale is that through the biological
decomposition that takes place in a fill, organic wastes eventually are transformad such that
they can serve as a soil amendment somewhat analogous to compost. This material can be
separated by way of screening and further processed for use as a soil conditioner. Hthere is a
market for them, ferrous metals can be mechanically separated from the excavated material for
recycling. Thus a combination of a screen (preferably a trommel) with a magnetic belfwould
serve the purpose. Residue that can not be put to use is returned to the fill. Since the volume
cif this residue is only a small fraction of that of the excavated material, a significan! part of the
original volumetric capacity of the mined fill has been restored. Moreover, useful resources
have been recovered.
1.4.2. Historical Survey
Landfill mining made its first documentad appearance on a practica! scale in the 1950's
[1]. The process too k place at a facility operated to dispose of wastes generated in Tel Aviv,
Israel. The plant consisted of a series of conveyors and a trommel screen. The screen was
about 5.3 m (21 ft) long and 1.8 m (6 ft) in diameter. The screen had 2.5 cm (1 in.) openings
and had interna! vanes. The trommel was rotated at about 13 rpm. The presence of glass
shards in the recovered amendment limitad the use of the amendment to citrus orchards ..
Although adoption of the "mining' option seem~d te have been confined to the Tel Aviv
operation, interest in the option was briefly revived in the 1960's as a result of the efforts of a
solid waste management expert in the U.S.A. In 1982·1983, an adapted version of the concept
1-6
was proposed for application to the processing of waste disposed at the Metro Manila
Commission's Balut disposal site in the Philippines (2).
Recently (i.e., 1985), the concept has again begun to receive serious attention with the
result that several full-scale adaptations have been proposed, adopted, and are now being
implementad in the U.S.A (3). The primary incentive for the resurgence of interest is the
potential of "mining" as a means of "recycling" completad Jandfills - i.e., restoring their capacity,
·.
at Jeast in part.
1.4.3. Application to Landfill Closure and to Upgrading an Open Dump Operation

' operation,
The technology would be very similar to that described for the Tel Aviv
namely transfer of the excavated material via conveypr belt into a rotating trommel. Material
retained in the screen ("overs") would be moved to a salvaging area for removal o! recyclable
materials. JI economic resources permit, ferrous material would be removed by way 61 a
magnet. Otherwise, it, along with other salvageables, would be separated by hand. Material
that passed through the screen opening (soil amendment) would be further processed by way
o! vibrating, flat-bed screens to remove glass shards. All rejects (residues) would be returned
to the fill.
. 1.4.3.1. Places for Mining in Closure or Upgrading
· Simple lminimal) Closure of Open Dump: The point at which the mining process could
best be incorporated into a closure operation depends upon: a) whether or not the closure is
terminal or is a transitional step in an upgrading to sanitary Jandfill status; and b) the extent to
which the procedure followed in the closure conforms to the ideal. With a terminal-minimum
conformity closure, mining would take place at the beginning of the consolidation step. lf the
closure is terminal but ideal in conformity, mining would be the first phase of the transfer step.
JI closure is the first step in the upgrading o! an on-going operation to the sanitary Jandfill
status, mining would be a apart of the transfer step, as is the case with terminal, ideal closure.
1-7
Landfill mining is particularly attractive in old disposal sites which have received residential
residues. These residues typically contain a high concentration of organic matter.

e
REFERENCES
1. Shuval, H., •compositing Municipal Garbage in Israel", Tavruah, No. 5, July-Dec., 1958.
2. Cal Recovery Systems, lnc., et al, Metro Manila Solid Waste Management Study. Preparad
for the Metro Manila Commission, May 1982.
3. Collier Country, Florida, Feasibilitv Study- Landfill Mining at Collier Countv. Florida, Naples,
Florida September 1987.
1-8
Appendix 11
SMALL (MANUAL) SANITARY LANDFILLS
11.1. INTRODUCTION
With small operations (up to 20 tons/day), reasonable modifications can be made in the
application of the basic principies of landfilling. Reasonable modifications are !hose that can
be made without significantly adverse environmental consequences and detrimental effect on
the public health and safety. The ideal should be to adhere as closely as possible to the ele-
ments that distinguish sanitary landfilling ·1rom open dumping, namely:
1) spread and compact incoming wastes
2) cover the wastes with a 15-2Q.cm layer of soil at the end each day
3) top completad areas with a final layar of soil to a depth of about one meter
4) site and operate the fill such as not to endanger the public health and quality of air
and water resources
The manual sanitary landfill is a technically and financially viable alternativa for smalllo-
calities. A manual landfill only requires the use of heavy equipment for site preparation, the
construction of interna! roads, and excavation of cover material. All other required tasks can be
carried out manually. This would allow small communities to share or rent heavy equipment.
11.1.1. Permissible Modifications
11.1.1.1. Site Selection
Available sites may be limitad l:iecause of the probable need to select land that is unus-
. able or minimally usable for essential purposes such as housing, farming (food production),
and community facilities. At the mínimum, the site should be such that water resources are not
endangered in terms of deterioration of water quality. The site should be accessible to collec-
tion and transport vehicles of all types - from pushcarts to trucks. Umitations on distance be-
tween point of waste generation and sita of disposal should reflect this wide latitude of vehi-
cles. In general, site selection should follow the basic principies indicated in Section 4.
1
In the absence of a natural depression on the site, sorne excavation will be involved.
The dimensions of the excavation should be such asto accommodate the waste output from
the community. The amount of soil needed for covering the waste should be extractad through
manual or mechanical excavation. Otherwise, the soil should be acquired in sufficient quanti-
ties to guarantee continuous operation.
11.1.1.2. Other Modifications
Other modifications, particularly operational modifications, involve equipment and
equipment selection.
Equipment: Even in a developed country, the costs involved in awning and operating
a small bulldozer m ay be too high for a community that disposes ~~ only 20 tons or less per
day. The same would be especLally true for a community in a developing country. However, if
excavation and stockpiling of cover soil are necessary for preparing a site, a piece of heavy
equipment may be needed until the excavation and stockpiling are completad. Equipment can
be rented from another municipality or from a construction company. Daily operation of the fill,
i.e., spreading and compacting solid waste, can be done manually on with the use of a farm
tractor equipped with a blade or bucket. Unfortunately, the degree of compaction will not be
much, even if the wastes are spread in a thin layer befare being compactad. Poorer com-
paction means a larger fill area requirement.
Equipment Selection: The machine used in a one-machine operation must not only be
rugged and able to spread and compact the incoming waste and cover soil, it may also have to
be used to excavate trenches and cover material. The preferred type of machine would be a
track loader. However, if the machine will be used elsewhere part of the time, a wheeled loader
would be more suitable because of its mobility.
Dependability of the machina is a key requirement in a one-machine operation. The
reasons are obvious. Dependability is especially essential, if a replacement machine is not
2
immediately available in case of a breakdown, as would be the case in a developing country.
For further details regarding requirements, see Section 7.
The operation of a manuallandfill requires the equipment shown in Figures 11-1 to 11-3.
Typical use of the equipment is shown in Figure 11-4. At the end of the working day, al! tools
and equipment should be cleaned and repaired. Equipment that cannot be repaired should be
substituted immediately.
11.1.2. Methods
The topography of the site determines the selection of either the area, trench, or combi-
nation method. lf the trench method is selected, it is advisable that a sufficiently large trench
be excavated each time such that it can hold the wastes produced during a 30 day period.
11.1.3. Access Roads
.The sanitary landfill should be accessible by means of a good public, all-weather road.
This road should be connected to the working face by means of a simple, well packed road
with suitable drainage channels. The interna! roads should be carefully planned since they are
- .. ¡
continually moved and periods of wet weather can cause serious problems. Rainy weather can
lead to peor circulation of collection vehicles especially over completad cells since manual
compaction cannot achieve high densities. A method that has been used to alleviate this
problem is the construction of artificial roads. These roads can be built using boards or trunks
to form a plank of about 3 m by 3 m as shown in Figure 11-5. The trunks should be tied with
wire of about 2 to 3 mm in diameter. The planks are then covered with material thatwould im-
prove traction. The road is built as the fill advances. This allows for re-use of the planks as the
location of the road changes.
Drainage of Surface Water: Guidelines for building drainage ditches should follow
those presentad in Section 6. The ditches can be built manually and should be sized to meet
local conditions.
3
Pie k Pi tchfork
Shovel Hoe Spade
Rake Planks
Figure 11-1
4
--
---~
Figure 11-5. Typical Plank
.7
m.
-·-·- -....
-
Figure 11-4. Typical Use of [quipment

.-1/e.- / '
Figure 11-2. Reconditioned 55-gallon drum filled

with oil for use as compactor
Figure 11-3. ¡/heelbarrow
5
11.1.4. Canstructian Methad
The canstructian methad ta be used for a smalllandfill depends upa!" the same factars
as thase indicated in Section 5 al this report. Same of these factars include: tapagraphy of
the site, characteristics al the sail, and the depth al the graundwater table. The procedures for
building a fill using the area method are shown in Figures 11-6 through 11-13 and thase for the
trench methads re shawn in Figures 11-14 thraugh 11-17. In either case, the salid waste is dis·
charged fram the collection vehicle and distributed aver the base of the landfill ar aver a com·.
:
pleted cell. The distribution in carried out using rakes ar pitchforks inta successive layers 20 to
50 cm deep. The surtace and sides of the layers should be carefully leveled and the wastes
kept against the slope of the site or the finished cell. The wastes are then compacted by
means of a hand compactar until the cell is relatively unifarm and reaches a height of about 80
cm.
Distribution and campaction of the wastes should be conducted in horizontallayers.
the layers should be placed with a slope of 1 to 3. Once finished, the cell is covered with a
layer of soil on the order of 15 to 20 cm. The soil can be distributed with wheelbarrows or a
small tractor and then compacted as shown in Figures 11-11 and 11-17.
Typically, one individual candeal with 1 Otons of refuse per day. Thus a municipality
that generates 20 tons per day wauld require two laborers at the landfill. Since these individu-
als would be in clase proximity ta the wastes, they should be provided with baots, gloves, and
clean clothing (if at all possible). In addition, they should have access to sanitary facilities.
REFERENCES
1. Gobernación de Antioquia, Guia para ~iseño, Construccion. y Operacion de Un Relleno

San~ario Manual, Medellin, Columbia, April 1988.
2. Flintoff, F., Manaqement of Solid Wastes in Developing Countries, World Health

Organization, 1976.
8
~- ~\-
~~.:::::-_-----'-_-o----
Figure 11-60 Olscharge of 1/astes
Figure 11-70 Oistribution of Was
(llrea 11ethod)
o
~,
.
. ,_.•1 ,
Figure 11-Bo Compaction

Flqure 11-90 Extraction of So11 for f.nv<>r
? ..... ,.
J-' .... '-'- 1.
Figure 11-10 0 APP 11cation

o of eover Figure 11-11 0 eompac t"lon of eompleted
eell
.. . .
,J "' f. o
., ' l .•
~ .\'
•• -
~o
~ --
•• t.l ..
,j '. '-......, t---:--
.1
1·
"
1 1'
J
1
'--
~ ..1
-.._:::7.
.r-
.!-- \..A . .
o
' .
, e·
••
... ·..... :~ :.
r· -re 11-12o eonstruction of New eell Figure 11-13 0 eons t ruct1on

· of Gas Vent
•
.. . 1
'•
Figure 11-14. liaste Dlschargc (Trench 11ethod) Figure 11-15 .• Layerlng of Wastes
Figure 11-16. Oevelopment of Cell and Figure 11-17. Compaction

~pplication of Cover
CURSO INTERNACIONAL SOBRE DISEÑO Y
DISPOSICION FINAL DE RESIDUOS SOLIDOS
ESTUDIOS PREVIOS
Ing. Ricardo Estrada Núñez
Asociación. Mexicana para el Control

de los Residuos Sólidos y Peligrosos, A.C.
(AMCRESPAC)
PALACI J DE MINERIA, MEXICO D.F. 14-19 de Marzo de 1994

--Estudios previos
Contenido
Introducción
1.1 Definición de zona de influencia del relleno sanitario
1.2 Caracterización físico-química de los residuos que se depositárán en el sitio

1.2.1 Cuantificación de los residuos sólidos
1.2.7 Proyección de generación
1.2.3 Caracterización físico-química
1.2.4 Recepción de residuos sólidos
1.3 Estudios de exploración del suelo

1.3 .1 Estudios geológicos, geofísicos y geohidrológicos
1.3.2 Mecánica de suelos
1.4 Información meteorológica

1.4.1 Características fisiográficas de una cuenca
1.4.2 Precipitación
1.4.3 Evaporación
1.4.4 Infiltración
1.5 Estudios topográficos

1.5.1 Localización
1.5.2 Planimetría
1.5.3 Altimetría
1.5.4 Secciones transversales
1.5.5 Curvas de nivel
1.5.6 Volumetría
1.6 Estudios de impacto vial
1.6.1 Definición de rutas
1.6.2 Ingeniería de tránsito
l. 7 Impacto ambiental (preliminar)

1.7.1 Ambito legal
l. 7.2 Procedimiento de impacto ambiental
l. 7.3 Metodología de identificación y evaluación del impacto ambiental
Introducción~.
Una vez aplicada la metodología para el emplazamiento de relleno sanitario y definido el sitio
propuesto se iniciaran como en toda obra, una serie de estudios específicos, los cuales se
realizaran en el sitio seleccionado para la ubicación del relleno sanitario. El objetivo principal
'
de los estudios previos es verificar a detalle la factibilidad del predio para alojar sin riesgo
al ambi~nte esta obra de ingeniería, así como recabar la información necesaria para la
realización del proyecto. Con los resultados obtenidos se definirá y señalarán las
características que deben contemplarse en los proyectos ejecutivos de la obra.
.'
Con la finalidad de evitar problemas a los habitantes de las zonas circundantes al sitio
propuesto, por esta razón las autoridades locales programarán los trabajos de campo
informando a las comunidades los objetivos de los estudios que se realizarán en la zona.
Un factor que garantizá el buen desarrollo de los proyectos ejecutivos, es el mantener una
estrecha comunicación de los profesionales que realizaron los estudios básicos con los
encargados del proyeciO ejecutivo del sitio durante la realización de este.
Es impottante que se contemple de manera clara y precisa en los términos de referencia los
alcances que se persiguen en cada estudio que se realice, y se cumplan la totalidad de los
estudios comentados.
Es conveniente se cumplan la totalidad de los estudios preliminares que se detallan en el

presente documento, ya que si no se cuenta con los resultados de los estudios, no se estará
en posibilidad de diseñar un relleno sanitario confiable.
Una de las situaciones que se deben establecer, es la constante comunicación que se tendría
entre las autoridades locales y las compañías consultoras.
1
1.1 Definición de zona influencia del Relleno Sanitario
Las "zonas favorables" para la ubicación de rellenos sanitarios, se subdividen en: zonas con
altas posibilidades en terrenos duros y en zonas con altas posibilidades en terrenos blandos;
esta clasificación tiene por objetivo, dar una idea previa de las facilidades o no que el terreno
brindará a la construcción del relleno. En estas zonas es muy conveniente llevar a cabo
estudios de ·detalle que concluyan si puede existir algún riesgo al implementar en ellos los
rellenos sanitarios y que definan el tipo de estructuras que permitan profundizar en el
conocimiento del sistema natural, o en la evolución química o biológica que pueden seguir
los lixiviados en el subsuelo, si es que éstos llegan a penetrarlo; un ejemplo de estas
.estructuras son los pozos, con los cuales se tendrá un conocimiento directo y real de la
posición que tiene el nivel del agua subterránea, qué tipo de terrenos están por encima del
material que almacena el agua, qué grado de permeabilidad tienen, la comunic~ción que puede
existir entre relleno sanitario y acuífero, etc.; a partir de estas obras (pozos), se deberán
realizar monitoreos periódicos de la calidad físico-química y bacteriológica de las aguas
subterráneas, tanto en la zona saturada como en la zona nó saturada, a fin de conocer cuál es
su situación inicial antes de la implantación del relleno sanitario y evaluar si estas condiciones
iniciales van variando con el tiempo, estas prácticas permitirán evaluar también la capacidad
autodepuc1dora del terreno, todo lo anterior en el supuesto de que éste permita el paso de los
lixiviados. Estas y otra serie de investigaciones que permitan conocer mejor la estructura del
subsuelo, como los métodos geofísicos, permitirán definir mejor la bondad de un sitio para
ubicar en él, rellenos sanitarios.
Una vez llevado a cabo el análisis donde se establecen los criterios para la definición de las
zonas favorables, (fig. l.l.l) que como ejemplo fueron elejidos Tlalnepantla y La Paz, se
define la zona de influencia del sitio propuesto.
Como no todas las áreas contenidas en una localidad presentan las características antes
señaladas es importante tener como objetivo establecer una esquema de servicio con un
enfoque regional que redunde en la optimización y eficiencia del mismo sistema. En la figura
1.1.2 se pueden apreciar, además de las zonas favorables elejidas, la zona de influencia de uno
2
'-
•• i
'-. •
/
. . ZOS"S F-4.\"0RABLES
FIG. 1.1.1
'\
.._..;'
y·---~·--.J '
_j Sl~lBOLOGIA
/' • EST -'CIO:'\ESY TRA"5f'ERE:'\CIA
DE ES P.ROCESO
1 EXlSTESTES ·
3
t:! ZOS..\.5 FAvokA.aus
FIG. 1.1. 2
de los sitios.
1.2 Caracterización Físico-Química de los Residuos que se Depositanín en el Sitio.
Durante el diseño de un relleno sanitario, es parte importante establecer y conocer las

características físico-químicas de los residuos sólidos que serán depositados, así como de los
productos que se forman por la degradación de éstos y que pueden migrar fuera de la
vecindad de dicho sitio, como es el caso de los lixiviados y del biogás. El contar con estos
indicadores permitirá establecer las bases para el diseño de las obras complementarias que
garanticen el control y tratamiento que se aplicará en el sitio de disposición final.
1.2.1 Cuantificación de los Residuos Sólidos.
Antes de entrar de lleno en la caracterización intrínseca de los residuos, resulta importante

destacar que dentro de la conceptualización de un relleno sanitario deben considerarse y
analizarse cienos indicadores básicos de los residuos sólidos para su adecuada disposición
como son el tipo, la cantidad y el volumen de los subproductos que componen la basura
generada en las diversas fuentes municipales.
Con el fin de conocer las características cuantitativas de estos indicadores se lleva a cabo una
serie de análisis en campo de los residuos sólidos, relacionados con la cuantificación de
subproductos, el peso volumétrico y la determinación de la generación total y per-cápita. La
metodología empleada para la determinación de estos parámetros se apega a la establecida en
las normas oficiales mexicanas vigentes.
NOM-AA-61-1985
NOM-AA-22-1985
NOM-AA-19-1985
La composición de los residuos ha variado en los últimos años y esto se ha debido

principalmente a, los cambios en los patrones de producción y a los hábitos de consumo de
4
___ la_población. Actualmente la cantidad de subproductos inertes y de lenta degradación, que
componen la basura y que se depositarán en los sitios de disposición final, se ha visto
incrementada considerablemente, pero aun así en la ciudad México como en otras ciudades
en paises en vías de desarrollo, el porcentaje de subproductos orgánicos de fácil degradación,
como son los residuos alimenticios, alcanza más de un 40% del total de los residuos sólidos
que se genera actualmente.
Referente al. peso volumétrico de los residuos, se considera uno de los principales parámetros
a identificar, pues la importancia de conocer el volumen de los residuos que se dispondrán
en relleno sanitario es esencial para saber o estimar la vida útil de estos sitios.
Retomando el punto de los materiales que son resistentes a la degradación biológicas y

ambiental, esto rios lleva a pensar en el volumen ocupado por este tipo de residuos en el
relleno sanitario y que se ·mantendrán de esta forma por mucho tiempo.
Por ello la importancia de la recuperación de materiales para la reducción del volumen que
se dispone en relleno sanitario y alargar la vida útil de estos.
1.2.2 Proyección de Genemción.
Tomando en cuenta todo lo antes mencionado, en relación a la información arrojada por este
tipo de estudios se puede establecer una tasa de incremento anual de los residuos que serán
depositados en el relleno sanitario en los próximos años, es importante que con anterioridad
se hubiera realizado la proyección de población con la cual se podrá estar en posibilidad de
realizar la proyección de generación.
El objeto de las proyecciones de generación, permitirá determinar el volumen y la cantidad

de residuos sólidos que serán depositados en los sitios de disposición final y poder estimar
de e>ta manera la vida útil de un relleno sanitario, la proyección se recomienda se realice en
un periodo de 15 años. ·
5
1.2.3 Canlcterización Físico-Química.
Considerando la variación de las características que presentan los residuos según sea la fuente
que los genera, es importante el establecimiento y conocimiento de las características fisico-
químicas de los residuos a disponer.
Este análisis se lleva a cabo en un laboratorio especializado y es complemento de los estudios

mencionados en el inciso anterior. Los principales parámetros que se determinan por norma
son los siguientes:
Humedad Nitrógeno total

f
Cenizas Materia orgánica
Poder calorífico Hidrógeno
Carbono total Oxigeno
Posteriormente, durante la operación del relleno sanitario, se toman muestras de los residuos
enterrados a diferentes profundidades, así corno de los lixiviados y del biogás, productos que
se forman durante la estabilización y transformación de los residuos, y que son irnpactantes
de alto riesgo para el ambiente, por lo cual la importancia de conocer la composición y
cuantificar la magnitud de estos productos y de otros que se generan durante el proceso de
degradación.
Inicialmente el proceso es de tipo anaerobio, de corta duración y en el cual hay una elevación
de la temperatura y se genera bióxido de carbono, agua, nitratos y nitritos. A medida que el
oxig·mo disponibles se va agotando, organismos facultativos y anaerobios empiezan a
predominar, volviéndose más lenta la degradación y generándose corno elementos típicos de
esta fase anaerobia: ácidos orgánicos, nitrógeno, bióxido de carbono, metano y en menor
proporción ácido sulfhídrico.
Ahora bien, cabe señalar que uno de los irnpactantes más importantes es el biogás, 'formado
durante la fase anaerobia y cuyos componentes más significativos son el metano y el bióxido
6
---------
--de-carbono:-el-cuál pueCle emigrarfuera del sitio y provocar que se presenten incendios y/o
explosiones, además de que en combinación con el agua puede haber producción de ácido
carbónico, el cual es altamente corrosivo.
Otro de los. impactan tes de imponancia, son los lixiviados, la producción de estos líquidos
percolados se debe principalmente al paso del agua de lluvia a través de los estratos de los
residuos sólidos que se hayan en la fase de descomposición anaerobia arrastrando
componentes disueltos, en suspensión, fijos y/o volátiles. Estos elementos les dan las
características contaminantes por las elevadas cargas orgánicas y catiónicas, así como de
metales pesados presentes y que son peligrosos pese a la disolución que tienen al penetrar al
acuífero.
Los principales parámetros que se analizan en el laboratorio se muestran en la siguiente tabla.
PRODUCTO PARAMETRO
BIOGAS CH,, CO,, 0 2, N,, .

EXPLOSIVIDAD, TOXICIDAD,
TEMPERATURA, FLUJO
LIXIVIADOS METALES PESADOS,

COMPUESTO ORGANICOS,
OXIGENO DISUELTO, pH, ·
CONDUCTIVIDAD,
MICROORGANISMOS
7
1.3 Estudios de Exploración de Suelos
Los estudios geológico, geohidrológico, hidrológico y geofisico, se engloban en un sólo

aparrado dado que la exploración del suelo para determinar las características del mismo se
'
realizan paralelamente.
Este tipo de estudios se realizan por medio de sondeos para la toma de muestras o análisis
realizados con los datos obtenidos del sondeo. Hay sondeos de distinto tipo y para propósitos
diferentes, los que a continuación enlistamos:
Métodos Explorntorios de Car.icter Preliminar
a) Pozos a cielo abieno, con muestreo alterado e inalterado

b) Perforaciones con posteadora, barrenos helicoidales o métodos similares
e) Métodos de lavado
d) Métodos de penetración standard
e) Método de penetración cónica
f) Perforaciones en boleos y gravas (con barretones, etc.)
Métodos de Sondeo Definitivo
a) Pozos a cielo abieno, con muestreo alterado e inalterado

b) Métodos con tubo de pared delgada
. e) Métodos rotatorios para roca
Métodos Geofísicos
a) Sísmico
b) De resistencia eléctrica
e)" Magnético y gravimé.trico
8
-.-. -.-r.J.l_._Estudios~Geolózicos,-Geofisicos-y-Geohidroló&icos--- -~~-
Los estudios geológicos y geofísicos de detalle se apoyan en el marco geológico regional

además de la geología local y geología superficial, la geofísica permite conocer las
caracteíristicas físicas y la homogeneidad de las unidades, conformando los datos de la
geología local. La principal ventaja que representa utilizán métodos geofísicos es el costo en
relación a los sondeos, el cual, en los estudios geohidrológicos aportan el conocimiento del
modelo de flujo del agua a través de las formaciones geológicas superficiales y del subsuelo
tomando en consideración el aprovechamiento hidráulico.
Las unidades hidrológicas correlacionan las rocas que afloran regionalmente, apoyándose en
los estudios geológicos y geofísicos, calculando el tiempo de infiltración al nivel de saturación
determiando la profundidad el nivel estático/flujo de agua subterránea. En la figura 1.3 .1.) se
oberva un mapa hidrológico del aguas superficiales de la precipitación media anual realizado
a partir de la precipitación en la zona de estudio.
o COIEfiCIDfn DI IXUIIIIIIIII:NTO 01 0. '""
p. IUICIJI•CA 61b. L..t.ICI o.t TU:tOCO.

T lUIIII"A .. IO.
• &IU 0'1 NO"t'RTO.
FIG• 1.1.1.1
PAS:IFIITACION EH LA ZONA CE ESTUDIO.
····~· 1: •••.•••.
Figura 1.3.1.1
9
La figura 1.3.1.2 presenta una sección transversal del flujo de agua subterránea en la región.,
Información básica que se obtendrá para la realización del proyecto ejecutivo.
---- -===- =
131 =-:::.:...--
~ :::-:-_~
i
1
- ~..:.=- 1
-
5="·-
----- --·
...... --· 1
------
----~-- -'-·
1[
-·--·-
·-·-·-
:.:.::.·.::~·
Figura 1.3.1.2
1.3.2 Mecánica de Suelos
Los trabajo se inicarán cpn la visita al sitio por parte de un ingeniero especialista con el
objeto de definir el número de sondeos de penetración, la excavación de los pozos, las calas
explorat<'fias. Así mismo, se programarán los ensayos de laboratorio para determinar las
propiedades, índices y parámetros representativos del comportamiento del subsuelo.
Los pozos a cielo abierto serán en dimensiones suficientes para que un individuo pueda
acceder a él para extraer las muestras; ésto es, entre 1.5 y 2.0 mts de lado, con profundidades
hasta de 6 mo al nivel de una capa impermeable, si las condiciones lo permiten; ya que estos
apoyarán los estudios geológicos.
El número de pozos recomendados serán como mínimo los siguientes:
10
--·-A•u del 'sitio
Hasta 5Ha 3
De 5 a 20Ha 5- 6
De 20 a 40Ha 8-9
Más de 40Ha 11 - 15
En estos pozos se pueden formar muestras alteradas o inalteradas de los diferentes estratos
que se haya¡¡ encontrado, anotando los datos necesarios para su identificación; banco, fecha,
pozo y profundidad. Las muestras alteradas se tomarán de cada uno de los pozos y las
inalteradas se tomaran uno como minimo, de cada uno de los estratos encontrados eri el sitio.
Las muestras alteradas son porciones de suelo que se protegerán contra perdidas de humedad
introduciéndolas en botes o bolsas emparafinadas. Para las muestras inalteradas deberán
tomarse mayores precauciones, generalmente labrando la muestra en una oquedad que se
practique al efecto en la pared del pozo, la muestra debe protegerse contra perdidas de
humedad,· envolviéndola en una o más capas de manta debidamente impermeabilizada con
brea y parafina.
Derivado del sondeo y la toma de muestra se determinarán los parámetros que a continuación
se enlistan:
Clasificación visual y al tacto .

Contenido orgánico total
Granulometria
Capacidad de intercambio catiónico
Límites de consistencia
pH
Clasificación de suelo
Porosidad
Humedad
11
Permeabilidad
Capacidad de carga
Capacidad de compactación
Compresión triaxial
Profundidad de los mantos fréaticos
Estratigrafia.
Estabilidad de taludes
Peso volumétrico
En la figura 1.3 .1 se puede apreciar la ubicación de los puntos donde se ralizarán los sondeos,
cubriendo el sitio con secciones transversales y longitudinales procurando que la ubicación
de los sondeos cubrirán la configuración del sitio.
1
.
i.
~·
11
l.,
l.
!Í
.,
,. 1
,,¡i 1
!.
.... ·-.
···-
~
•·•
·········
•••• >O ••••
c-t·
•.•. 1'.
•·.
"·'····
Figura 1.3.2.1
12
----~==:!E~nlj!l~~-~figura_ 1.3 .2.2 se ¡>resentan algunas s~c_ciones_trans:versales_obtenidas_a_travéscdeJos-~--~
estudios de mecánicas de suelos.
SEeeiON A - A '
~,-------------------,-----~~------~
: 1
. = ~-~--~--~----~.~-~---L----~----1-----~~~
.
: "'
- --- ., .
.·. --:--- -.!...:... •••• ~.

... ii
-l.,'----~-:...--¡--
',
1~
1
>4
=
-
L_____________________________________~----------~--------_j
Oo«C •'X •IX •JIIC *CIO •XC .... .. ~
-
"-"
S E e e 1 o N B - B
,--- --- ~
=
\
1•!1.:
_y
-
=
\' 1 !
= ·~ ... "" -~ -~ •>«

- .... - •G
·-
··--·-··--
Figura 1.3.2.2
1.4 Información Meteorológica
Debido a la complejidad de los procesos naturales que intervienen en los fenómenos

meteorológicos, es dificil examinarlos mediante un razonamiento deductivo riguroso. No
siempre es aplicable una ley física fundamental para determinar el resultado meteorológico
esperado. Más bien, lo que parece razonable es partir de una serie de datos observados,
analizarlos estadísticamente y después tratar de establecer la norma que gobierna dichos
sucesos.
13
Lo anterior establece la necesidad de contar con registros de varios años de las diversas
componentes que intervienen en los problemas meteorológicos.
En la República Mexicana las principales fuentes de información son la Comisión Nacional

del Agu~. la Comisión Federal de Electricidad y la Secretaria de Agricultura y Ganadería.
En general, cada análisis de una zona es único y las conclusiones cuantitativas de su análisis
no pueden extrapolarse a otro problema. Esto ha ocasionado que muchas veces se juzgue un
método de cálculo en forma equivocada, al no tenerse en cuenta sus limitaciones en cuanto
a aplicabilidad. Conviene establecer primero la bondad del método, ya que, aunque el
problema por analizar no tenga las mismas condiciones para las cuales fue deducido, puede
proporcionar un resultado cualitativo de gran utilidad, siempre y cuando se sepa interpretar.
Meteorología es la ciencia que estudia los fenómenos que ocurren en la atmósfera, tales corno
viento, precipitación, temperatura, etc. El comportamiento de esos fenómenos en un
determinado lugar y por ·un cierto tiempo se llama clima. La meteorología es una rama de
- la fisica, debido a que la atmósfera es una mezcla de gases, donde la interrelación entre
temperatura, presión y volumen sigue las leyes de la dinámica y termodinámica. Además, está
relacionada con la geografia, ya que la latitud, altitud, localización y topografia ·de áreas de
tierra y agua, afectan las características y distribución de los elementos meteorológicos sobre
la superficie terrestre.
1.4.1 Caracterisdcas tisiognificas de una cuenca
La cuenca de drenaje de una corriente es el área que contribuye al escurrimiento y que

proporciona parte o todo el flujo de la corriente principal y sus tributarios. Esta definición es
compatible con el hecho de que la frontera de una cuenca de drenaje y su correspondiente
cuenca de agua subterránea no necesariamente tienen la misma proyección horízorúal.
La cuenca de drenaje de una corriente está limitada por su parteaguas, que es una línea
irnaginana que divide a las cuencas adyacentes y distribuye el escurrimiento, originado por
14
~===:;l:a-:-;p:-;r:ec·ipitaci"on, que en caaa sistema ae corrientesfluye nacía el punto de.salida-.d~e"l_a_c_u_e~n_c_a_~~---~
El parteaguas está formado por los puntos de mayor nivel topográfico y cruza las corrientes
en los puntos de salida.
Muchas veces se requiere dividir las grandes cuencas para facilitar su estudio. Las subáreas
o cuencas tributarias estarán a su vez delimitadas por parteaguas interiores. En general estas
subdivisiones se hacen de acuerdo con las estaciones hidrométricas existentes en la zona.
No necesariamente se analiza con el mismo criterio una cuenca tributaria o pequeña que una
cuenca ·grande. Para una cuenca pequeña, la forma y cantidad de escurrimiento están influidas
principalmente por las condiciones fisicas del suelo; por lo tanto, el estudio hidrológico debe
enfocarse con más atención a la cuenca misma. Para una cuenca muy _grande, el efecto de
almacenaje del cauce es muy importante, por lo cual deberá darsele también atención a las
características de este último.
Es dificil distinguir una cuenca grande de una pequeña, considerando solamente el tamaño.
En hidrología, dos cuencas del mismo tamaño son diferentes. Una cuenca pequeña se define
como aquella, cuyo escurrimiento es sensible a lluvias de alta intensidad y corta duración, y
donde predominan las características fisicas del suelo con respecto a las del cauce. Así, el
tamaño de una cuenca pequeña puede variar desde unas pocas hectáreas hasta un limite que,
para propósitos prácticos, Chow considera de 250 km'.
El escurrimiento del agua en una cuenca depende de diversos factores, siendo uno de los más
importantes las características fisiográficas de la cuenca. Entre estas se pueden menc1onar
principalmente su área, pendiente, características del cauce principal, como son longitud y
pendiente, elevación de la cuenca y red de drenaje. A continuación se describirán las formas
de calcular las características ftsiográficas, según su uso.
En algunos casos, como por ejemplo al valuar la pendiente de la cuenca, se indican diversos
criterios, no con el fin de resaltar el concepto, sino con la idea de obtener diversos resultados.
Esto es de gran Importancia, pues, como se verá posteriormente, muchas veces se requiere
-. 15
determinar una relación entre las características del escurrimiento y las características
fisiográficas de una cuenca y, conociendo varios valores, se escoge el que proporcione mayor
aproximación a la relación. Lo anterior implica la inconveniencia de agrupar, por ejemplo, los
metodos para valuar las pendientes, ya que cada uno proporciona un resultado diferente. Es
necesario tomar .cada criterio como un factor más de lás características fisiográficas de una
cuenca. A partir de la definición del sitio se realizará la restitución fotogrametrica con la cual
se podr<i realizar la configuración del sitio con respecto a la cuenca en la figura 1.4. 1.1. En
la cual se oberva un modelo de configuración del terreno por computadora.
~1
.•
Figura 14.1.1
A n~a de una cuenca
El área drenada de una cuenca es el área en proyección horizontal encerrada por el parteaguas.
Generalmente esta area se determina con un planímetro y se expresa en kilómetros cuadrados.
16
Peniliente de una cuenca
Existen diversos criterios para valuar l.a pendiente de una cuenca, dependiendo del uso
posterior que se le vaya a dar al resultado o bien al criterio que lo requiere.
Criterio de Alvom
Para obtener la ecuac10n que proporc1ona la pendiente de la cuenca por este criterio, se
analiza primero la pendiente existente entre curvas de nivel. Analizando la faja definida por
las lineas medias que pasan entre las curvas de nivel, se tiene que para una de ellas la
pendiente de su area tributaria es:
DL
S
, =---
A
donde:
A: área de la cuenca. en km'
D: desnivel constante entre curvas de nivel, en km

L: longitud total de las curvas de nivel dentro de la cuenca, en km
S,: pendiente de la cuenca
Crite1io de Ho11on
En este criterio se traza una malla de cuadrados sobre el plano del área de la cuenca en
estudio. la cual conviene orientar en el sentido de la corriente principal. Si la cuenca es de
250 km' o menor, se requiere por lo menos una malla de cuatro cuadros por lado; si la cuenca
es mayor de 250 km', deberá incrementarse el número de cuadros de la malla, ya que la
aproxi:nación del cálculo depende del tamaño de esta.
Una vez hecho lo anterior, se mide la longitud de cada linea de la malla comprendida dentro
17
de la cuenca y se cuentan las intersecciones y tangencias de cada línea con las curvas de
nivel. La pendiente de la cuenca en cada dirección de la malla se valúa como:
N,D ND
S< = y S, = '
L, L,
donde
D: desnivel constante entre curvas de nivel

L,: longitud total de las líneas de la malla en la dirección x, comprendidas dentro de la
cuenca
L,: longitud total de las líneas de la malla en la dirección y, comprendidas dentro de la
cuenca
N,: número total de intersecciones y tangencias de las líneas de la malla en la dirección x,
con las curvas de nivel
N,: número total de intersecciones y tangencias de las líneas de la malla en la dirección y,
con las curvas de nivel
S,: pendiente de la cuenca en la dirección x
S,: pendiente de la cuenca en la dirección y
Finalmente, Horton considera que la pendiente media de la cuenca puede determinarse como
N D sec e
L
donde
L: L, -'- L,
N: N
·'
+Nr
e: ángulo entre las líneas de la malla y las curvas de nivel
18
Como resulta demasiado laborioso determinar la sec e de cada intersección, Horton sugiere
- - - -
--~-~usar~un~valor-promedio-de-l-:-5'7c-En~Ja-práctica;-y-para-propósitOS-de-comparación-;--es-------c--
igualmente eficaz ignorar el término sec e. o bien considerar el promedio aritmético o
geométrico de las pendientes S, y S, como pendiente de la cuenca.
Criterio de Nash
Análogamente al criterio de Horton·, se requiere trazar una malla de cuadros sobre el plano
topog~áfico de la cuenca, de manera que se obtengan aproximadamente 100 intersecciones.
En cada intersección se mide la distancia mínima entre las curvas de nivel y la pendiente en
ese punto se considera como la relación entre el desnivel de las curvas de nivel y la mínima
distancia medida. Así, se calcula la pendiente de cada intersección y su media se considera
la pendiente de la cuenca.
Cuando una intersección ocurre en un punto entre dos curvas de nivel del mismo valor, la
pendiente se considera nula y ese punto no se toma en cuenta para el cálculo de la media.
Al emplear este entena, es posible construir una gráfica de distribución de frecuencias de las
pendientes medidas en cada punto, mostrándose así la distribución total de la pendiente en la
cuenca. Conviene hacer esta distribución sobre papel semilogaritmico, donde en el eje
logarítmico se- tiene la pendiente de la superficie, y er\ el otro, el porcentaje de área con
'-
pendiente igual o mayor que el valor indicado.
Elevación de una cuenca
La vanación en elevación de una cuenca, así como su elevación media, puede obtenerse
fácilmente con el método de las intersecciones El mapa topográfico de la cuenca se divide

en cuadros de igual tamaño, considerando que por lo menos 100 intersecciones estén
comprendidas dentro de la cuenca. La elevación media de la cuenca se calcula como el
promedio de las elevaciones de todas las intersecciones.
19
Red de Drenaje
Otras caracierístícas importantes de cualquier cuenca son las trayectorias o el arreglo de los
cauces de las corrientes naturales dentro de ella. La razón de su importancia se manifiesta en
la eficiencia del sistema de drenaje en el escurrimiento resultante. Por otra parte, la forma de
drenaje proporciona indicios de las condiciones del suelo y de la superficie de la cuenca.
Las características de una red de drenaje pueden describirse principalmente de acuerdo con
el orden de las corrientes, longitud de tributarios, densidad de corriente y densidad de drenaje.
Orden dt! las Comentes
Antes de hablar del orden de las corrientes, conviene ver su clasificación. Todas las corrientes
pueden dividirse en tres clases generales, dependiendo del tipo de escurrimiento, el cual está
relacionado con las características fisicas y condiciones climáticas de la cuenca.
Así, una corriente puede ser efimera, intermitente o perenne.
Una corriente efimera es aquella que sólo lleva agua cuando llueve e inmeaiatamente después.
Una corriente intermitente lleva agua la mayor parte del tiempo, pero principalmente en época
de lluvias: su aporte cesa cuando el nivel freático desciende por debajo del fondo del cauce.
La corriente perenne contiene agua todo el tiempo, ya que aún en época de sequía es
abastecida continuamente, pues el nivel freatico siempre permanece por arriba del fondo del
·cauce.
Densidad de Dl'enaje
Esta caracte.ristica proporciona una información más real que la anterior, ya que se expresa
como la longitud de las corrientes por unidad de área, o sea que:
20
~~---t~----------------~-----~~-------
0, = ~~-
donde
A: area total de la cuenca, en km=
L· longitud total de las comentes perennes e intermitentes en la cu~nca, en km

D,: densidad de drenaje por km
Pendiente del Cauce
El perfil de un cauce se puede representar llevando en una gráf>ea los valores de sus
distancias horizontales, medidas sobre el cauce contra sus cambios de elevaciones respectivas.
En general, la pendiente de un tramo se considera como el desnivel entre los extremos del
tramo dividido, por la longitud horizontal de dicho tramo.
H
S=-----
L
donde
H· desnivel entre los extremos del tramo del cauce, en m

L longitud horizontal del tramo del cauce en m
S· pendiente del tramo de cauce
1.4.2 Pn~Cipitación
, La precipitación es una componente fundamental del ciclo hidrológico y se ha tomado como

el inicio del análisis de dichas componentes. En este inciso se explican las nociones de
meteorología, con el f¡n de mostrar la diversidad de elementos que influyen en la
precipitación, lo que, en la mayoría de los casos. no permite generalizar métodos de análisis.
21
para zonas ajenas a las que los originan. Ademils, se examinan diferentes métodos de
procesamiento de los datos de precipitación para lograr su' utilidad practica.
Tipos de precipitación
Precipitacióp es el agua que recibe la superficie terrestre en cualquier estado fisico,

proveniente de la atmósfera. Para que· se origine la precipitación es necesario que una parte
de la atmósfera se enfríe hasta que el a1re se sature con el vapor de agua, origmandose la
condensación de vapor atmosférico. El enfriamiento de la atmósfera se logra por la elevación
del aire. De acuerdo con la condición que provoca dicha elevación, la precipitación puede ser
por convección, orografica y ciclónica.
Aparatos de medición
La precipitación se mide en términos de la altura de la lamina de agua y se expresa

comúnmente en milímetros. Los aparatos de medición se basan en la exposición a la
intemperie de un recipiente cilíndrico abierto en su parte superior, en el cual se recoge el agua
producto de la lluvia u otro tipo· de precipitación, registrando su altura. Los aparatos de
medición se clasifican .de acuerdo con el reg1stro de las precipitaciones en pluviómetros y
\
pluviógrafos
Los reg1stros de pluviógrafos se pueden transformar y obtener el hietograma de las diversas

tomermentas medidas. El hietograma es una gráfica que indica la variación de la altura de
lluvia o de su intensidad con respecto a un intervalo de tiempo, el cual se escoge
arbitra:iamente, siguiendo ciertas convenciOnes.
Actualmente se emplean pluviógrafos de registro directo en cinta magnética, pudiendo

combinarse la recopilación de datos con el uso de las máquinas electrónicas. Aun mas, se
estan empleando aparatos que trasmiten directamente sus registros a una estación central, sin
'
que se registren en los aparatos. Tamb1én se han desarrollado técnicas para usar el radar con
el objeto de determinar el area de la distribución de la intensidad de precipitación, combinado
22
con estaciones pluviométricas o pluviográficas.
Para conocer la distribución y la precipitación media de una tormenta en una determinada

zona, se requiere de varias estaciones pluviométricas o pluviográficas, localizadas convenien-
temente.
Precipitación media sobre una zona
En este caso se requieren conocer la altura de precipitación media en una zona, ya sea durante
una tormenta, una época del año o un periódo determinado de tiempo. Para hacerlo se tienen
tres cti terios.
a) Promedio aritmético. Para calcular la altura de precipitación media en una zona

empleando el promedio aritmético, se suma la altura de lluvia registrada en un cierto
tiempo en cada una de las estac1ones localizadas dentro de la zona y se divide entre el
número total de estaciones.
La prec1sión de este criterio depende de la cantidad de estaciones disponibles, de' la

forma cmo están localizadas y de la distribución de la lluvia estudiada. Es el criterio más
impreciso, pero es el único que no requiere del conocimiento de la localización de las

estaciones en la zona en estudio.
b) 1\létodo de Thiessen. En· este criterio, es necesario conocer la localización de las

estaciOnes en la zona bajo estudio, ya que para su aplicación se requiere delimitar la zona
de influencia de cada estación dentro del conjunto. Para determinarla, primero se trazan
triángulos que ligan las estaciones más próximas entre sí. A continuación se trazan lineas
bisectoras perpendiculares a los lados de los triángulos, las cuales forman una serie de
polígonos; cada uno de ellos contiene una estación.
Cada polígono es el área triburana de cada estac1ón. Entonces, la altura de prec1pitación
media es
23
n
~ hpi A i
i= 1 n Ai
hp = = ~ hpi
A ¡=l A
donde
A: área de la zona, en km'

Ai: área triburaria de la estac1ón i, en km'
hpi altura de precipitación registrada en la estación i, en mm
hpm altura de precipitación media en lá zona en estudio, en mm
n: número de estaciones localizadas dentro de la zona
e) Método de isoyetas. Para emplear este criterio se necesita un plano de isoyetas de la

precipitación registrada en las diversas estaciones de la zona en estudio. Las isoyetas son
curvas que unen puntos de igual precipitación. Este método es el más exacto pero
requiere de un cieno criterio para trazar el plano de isoyetas. Se puede decir que si la
precipitación es de tipo orográfico, las isoyetas tenderán a seguir una configuración
parecida a las curvas de nivel. Por supuesto, entre mayor sea el número de estaciones
dentro de la zona en estudio, mayor será la aproximación con la cual se trace el plano
de isoyetas.
Para calcular la altura de precipitación media en una determinada zona, se usa la ecuación
anterior, pero en este .caso Ai corresponde al área entre isoyetas, hpi es la altura de
precipitación media entre dos isoyetas, n. el número de tramos entre isoyetas.
Deducción de datos faltantes.
Muchas veces se requieren los registros de una determinada estación, los cuales están
incompletos_por uno o varios dias, o inclusive por años.
24
)
- --
--
·-- ·-s i_se-neéeslta-c-or;:;pletar-un-registro-al-que-Ie-falta-uno-o-varios-días~ se pue-de· enípl~e~ar~u-=n-=o~---~~
.\
de los dos criterios que se basan en registros simultaneas de tres estaciones que se encuentran
·distribuidas lo mas uniformemente posible y curcundando a la estación en estudio. a) Si la
precipitación anual normal en cada una de las estaciones auxiliares difiere en menos de 1O
por ciento de la registrada en la estación en estudio, para estimar el valor o los valores
faltantes se hace un promedio aritmético con los valores registrados en esa fecha en las
estaciones auxiliares. b) Si la precipitación anual normal de cualquiera de las tres estaciones
auxiliares difiere en mas del 1O por ciento de la registrada en la estación en estudio, para
valuar un dato faltante se usa la ecuación
hpA, hpB, hpC: altura de precipitación registrada en las estaciones auxiliares
hpx: altura de precipitación faltante en la estación en estudio
pA, pB, pC: prectpitación anual media en las estaciones auxiliares
px: precipitación anual media en la estación en estudio
Ajuste de l'egistros de precipitación
Cuando se desee saber si el registro de una determinada estación ha sufrido modiftcaciones

que pueden ocurrir por una alteración en la localización de la estación, en sus condiciones
adyacentes, o bien al cambiar de operador, se puede usar el método de la curva masa doble.
Este método permite ajustar los registros de precipitación de tal manera que se puede
considerar que la estación medidora no ha sufrido cambio alguno desde el inicio de su
operacton
25
El método de la curva masa doble compara la precipitación anual acumulada en la estación
por analizar con la precipitación media anual acumulada en un grupo de estaciones cercanas,
de preferencia del orden de diez. En un plano coordenado, en el eje de las abscisas se lleva
el valor acumulado de la precipitación anual de la estación en estudio, y en el eJe de las
ordenadas el valor acumulado de la precipitación media anual de las estaciones circunvecinas.
La acumulación puede haéerse del último año de registro hacia adelante. Uniendo los puntos
se obtiene la gráf1ca llamada curva masa doble. Sie el registro no ha sufrido ninguna
alteración, se obtendrá una linea recta; un cambio de pendiente indicará que se debe ajustar
el registro, siendo dicho ajuste proporcional al cambio de pendientes.
Aunque el método se basa en precipitaciones anuales, en zonas donde exista una marcada
variación dl!rante las diferentes estaciones del año, conviene hacer el análisis para las mismas.
1.4.3 Evaporación
El agua regresa a la atmósfera a través de las acciones combinadas de evaporac10n

sublimación y transpiración. Estas acciones son esencialmente modificaciones de un solo
proceso. La evaporación es el proceso por el cual las moléculas del agua, en la superficie de ·
un recipiente o en la tierra húmeda, adquieren suficiente energía cinética debido a la radiación
solar, y pasan del e··:ado liquido al gaseoso.
Un aumento en la temperatura del agua origina una mayor evaporación, ya que se incrementa
la velocidad de las moléculas del agua y disminuye la tensión superficial.
La sublimación difiere de la evaporación solo en que las moléculas del agua pasan
directamente del estado sólido al gaseoso. La transpiración es el proceso por el cual el agua
absorbida por las plantas regresa a la atmósfera en forma de vapor.
Durante la evaporación, el movimiento de las moléculas de la superficie del agua produce una
presión, denominada presión de vapor. Esta es una presión parcial del vapor de agua en la
26
----
----~atmósfera;-ya-que-enllha mezcla ae gases, cada gas ejerce una presión parcial, ·Ia cual es
indispensable de la de otros gases.
Si en un espacio cerrado se considera a p como la presión total del aire húmedo contenido
en ese espacio, y a p' como la presión debida al aire seco, la diferencia e ; p - p' será la
presión de vapor ejercida por el vapor de agua.
Para propósitos prácticos, la máxima cantidad de vapor d.; c:;;ua que puede existir en cualquier
espacio dado es una función de la temperatura, y es independiente de la coexistencia de otros
gases. Cuando un espacio dado contiene la máxima cantidad de vapor de agua, para una
temperatura dada, se dice·que el espacio está saturado, y la presión ejercida por el vapor de
agua en ese medio se denomina presión de saturación. La temperatura a la cual se satura un
espacio Jonde se conoce con el nombre de punto de rocio. Cualquier disminución de esa
temperatura origina la condensación.
Tratando de ver el proceso en conjunto, puede considerarse que parte del vapor de agua
liberado por evaporación de la superficie del agua, puede retornar a esta, una vez que se
condensa. Cuando el numero de moléculas que escapan de la superficie libre del agua es
igual al número de moléc.~las que retorna a esta, el espacio se satura y se alcanza ún
equillbrio entre la presión ejercida por las moléculas que escapan y la presión atmosférica.
Esto implica que la evaporación es mayor que la condensación si el aire sobre la superficie
del agu:1 no está saturado . '
. Factort>s que afectan a la 'evapor"ación
De acuerdo con lo anterior, se puede decir que la evaporación está relacionada con la
diferencia entre la presión· de vapor de la masa de agua y la existente en el aire sobre la
superficie de la misma, temperaturas del aire y agua, velocidad del viento, presión
atmosf~rica, y calidad del a1re.
27
Diferencias en la presión de vapor
Si se considera que e, es la presión de vapor del agua, y e, la presión de vapor del aire sobre
la superficie del agua, se puede decir que la evaporación es proporcional a e, - e,.
Cuando el aire es mas caliente que el agua, su presión de saturación e, es mayor que la de
la superficie del agua (e, > e.), y la evaporación continúa hasta que e, ; e., lo cual ocurrirá
antes de que el aire llegue a saturarse. Sin embargo, si el aire es más frio que el agua, se
tendrá que e, < e. y la evaporación continuará hasta que e, ; e;, lo cual ocurrirá antes de que
el aire llegue a saturarse. ·Además, se el aire es más frío que el agua, se tendrá que e, ; e.,
existirá un estado de sobresaturación (e, > e,), o la condensación ocurrirá en el aire.
Temperatura
Este aspecto y el anterior están íntimamente relacionados ya que la presión d.e vapor depende
de la temperatura La cantidad de emisión de moléculas de la masa de agua está en función
de su temperatura, ya que a mayor temperatura, mayor será la energía molecular liberada. La
evaporación no depende de la temperatura de la superficie del agua, sino del resultado directo
del incremento en la presión del vapor con la temperatura.
En la siguente figura se muestra la variación entre la temperatura del aire y la presión de

saturación.
28
Viento
El viento es un elemento efectivo para remover las moléculas que se desprenden de la

superficie del agua debido a la evaporación, lo que origina variaciones en las características
de la masa de aire que se envcuentra sobre esta. Puede, así, traer masas de aire caliente, lo
cual origina un aumento de evaporación; si la masa de aire es frío, puede disminuir la
evaporación e, inclusive, favorecer la condensación.
29
El efecto del viento sobre la evaporación es mayor en grandes masas de agua que en
pequeñas. Esto se debe a que una vez que el viento desplaza el vapor de agua que se
encuentra en e! aire sobre la superficie del agua y se altera la evaporación, se requieren
variaciones ,muy grandes de velocidad para que se altere apreciablemente la evaporación
existente. En el caso de pequeños recipientes, un incremento pequeño en el viento puede ser
suficiente para remover el vapor de agua que se está generando. En extensas áreas de agua,
pueden requerirse velocidades grandes y movimientos turbulentos de aire para que se
incremente la evaporación.
Presión atmosférica
La presión atmosférica están tan íntimamente relacionada con los otros factores que afectan
la evaporación, que es prácticamente imposible estudiar los efectos de sus variaciones bajo
condiciones naturales.
La evaporación puede disminuir con el incremento de altitud. El número de moléculas de aire

por unidad de volumen aumenta con la prestón. Consecuentemente, ante presiones altas hay
más oportunidad de las moléculas que escapan de la superficie libre del agua choque con las
del aire y retomen al liquido
Calidad del agua
La cantidad de evapóración, menor en agua salada, disminuye conforme se incrementa el peso

especifico
Medición de la evaporación
Como la evaporación es de gran importancia dentro del ciclo hidrológico, se han hecho
grandes esfuerzos tendientes a establecer un método que permita medirla en forma directa.
Obviamente, lo primero que se ocurre para determinar la evaporación en lagos y recipientes
es usar la ecuación de equilibrio, y medir el gasto que entra y sale, la lluvia y el agua que se
30
infiltra .. Sin embargo, el agua que se infiltra no se puede valuar, y los errores al medir los
otros factores pueden exceder a la evaporación. Por lo tanto, este procedimiento no se puede
aplicar para valuar la evaporación.
La medición del grado de evaporación de una región se puede hacer en forma directa usando
un evaporimetro. El evaporimetro más usual consiste en un recipiente circular de lamina
abierto en su parte superior, de aproximadamente 1.20 m. de diametro y 0.26 m. de alto.
El rectptente se llena de agua hasta un nivel arbitrario y se mide la vanación del nivel
después de un cierto tiempo, usualmente un di a. Para medir el nivel del agua se introduce
dentro del recipiente un cilindro de reposo que contiene un tomillo con vernier. La diferencia
de. niveles proporciona un índice de evaporación en la región.
Como la evaporación esta relacionada con los cambios atmosféricos, además del evaporímetro
se acostumbra instalar otros aparatos que permitan registrar distintos datos meteorológicos.
Los elementos meteorológicos más importantes son el movimiento del atre, su temperatura
y la de la superfici.: del agua, humedad atmosférica y precipitación.
El problema que plantean las mediciones de evaporación efectuadas con el avaporimetro es
su explotación a la zona donde se quiere conocer esta componente. En el caso del almacenaje
en una pres~ o un lago, el principal problema es la variación de la 'masa de agua almacenada
con respecto a la contenida por el avaporimetro. Puede decirse que la evaporación registrada
por un evaporimetro es mayor que la evaporación que puede sufrir una masa adyacente de
agua. La relación de evaporaciones se conoce con el nombre de coeficiente del evaporimetro.
Este coeficiente es variable y, usualmente, más alto en invierno que en verano; además, los
coefictentes de evaporación mensual varían más que los de evaporación anual, pudiéndose
considerar que lo coeficientes medios oscilan entre 0.70 y 0.80.
Fomllllas de evapomción
Exite una gran diversidad de ecuaciOnes para·valuar la ·evaporación, las cuales se pueden
31
agrupar en:
a) Ecuaciones empincas obtenidas a partir de relaciones entre datos de evaporimetros y

elementos climiuicos.
b) Ecuaciones basadas en consideraciOnes teóricas de cambios de energía.
Las ecuaciones del primer grupo se basan en la ley de Dalton, modificándola de acuerdo con
los factores que afectan a la evaporación.
Las del segundo involucran hipótesis basadas en evidencias experimentales o coeficientes, los
cuales se deben valuar empíricamente.
Ecuaciones empíricas
Como se vió al principio, la evaporación es proporcional a la diferencia entre la presión de

vapor de agua, e.. , y la presión de vapor del arre, e,, que se encuentra sobre la superfrcie del
agua. Esto se puede expresar, según la fórmula de Dalton, como:
E = k(e, - e,)
donde k es un coeficiente de proporcionalidad. Esta ecuación es valida, cuando el agua y el

aire están a la misma temperatura.
Esta ecuación se ha usado como base de· una gran variedad de expresiones. Así,· para
evaporaciones mensuales se puede usar la fórmula de Meyer, la cual se expresa en la forma:
V,
E = c(es · eJ 1 -i- ---.
16.09
32
aonile
e: Constante empírica que tiene un valor aproximado de 38 para evaporimetros y pequeños

depósitos, y de 28 para grandes depósitos
E: Evaporación mensual, en cm.
e,: Presión de vapor del a1re basada en la temperatura media mensual del aire y en la
humedad relativa en la cercanía de los depósitos pequeños. Para depósitos grandes, los
datos se deben recabar a 1O m sobre la superficie libre del agua. La presión de vapor se
expresa en pulgadas de Hg.
e,: Presión de saturación del vapor correspondiente a la temperatura media mensual del aire
si. se trata de depósitos pequeños, y a la temperatura media mensual del agua, para
depósitos grandes. Se expresa en pulgadas de Hg
V,: Velocidad media mensual del viento registrada a 10m sobre la superficie, en Km/h.
Para evaporaciones diarias, Honon propone la ecuación
E = 1.016 ('Pe,- e,)
donde
Las variables tienen el mismo significado que en la fórmula de Meyer, sólo que ahora se usan
valores diarios en lugar de mensuales.
Esta ecuación sólo sirve para pequeños depósitos. Para grandes depósitos, el valor encontrado
de E se multiplica por
'1' - 1
( 1 - P) + P
'1' - h
33
donde
h Humedad relauva
P: Fracción del tiempo durante el cual el viento es turbulento
'P: Factor de viento. ec. 6.4
Basándose en un correlación gráfica coaxial, Linsley encontró, para valuar la evaporación en

función de parámetros meteorológicos, una relación general de la forma:
E ~ e (e,- e,)(baV" •. )
donde a, b, e y n son constantes a determinar basánilose en los valores conocidos de los

parámetros meteorológicos. que en este caso son e,, e, y V., y el valor de la evaporación E.
Ecuaciones basadas en cambios de ener¡:ía
.Siendo el movimiento vonicoso el principal mecanismo por el cual el vapor de agua es

removido de la vec1ndad de la superficie sujeta a evaporación, existen numerosas expresiones
para deterimnarla basándose en consideraciones de transporte de masa por camb1os
·turbulentos. De estas expresiones, la ecuación de Thornthwaite-Holzman ha dado resultados
satisfactorios. Suponiendo una condic1ón atmosférica adiabática y una distribución logaritmica
en la vert1cal de la velocidad del viento y de la humedad, esta ecuación puede expresarse
como
210.43(e 1 • e,)(V., ·V.,)

E
(T • 459.4) In (h,lh¡}'
donde
E Evaporación, en cm/h
Presión de vapor, en altura inferior h 1 y en la superior h:. respectivamente, sobre la
34
---~-----superficie~del~a-gua, en pulgaaas aeHg.
T- Temperatura media del aire entre .h 1 y h,, en °F
Y,,,Y,,: Velocidad del viento para h 1 y h,. respectivamente, en Km/h.
Otro enfoque para calcular la evaporación se conoce con el nombre del método del balance
del calor, y aunque existen diversas expresiones,. estas son dificiles de aplicar por los
problemas que se presentan al tratar de valuar algunos de los parámetros que intervienen.
1.4.4 Infilh'llción
Infiltración es el proceso por el cual el agua penetra en los estratos de la superficie del suelo
y se mueve hacia el manto freático. El agua primero satisface la deficiencia de humedad del
suelo y, Jespués, cualquier exceso pasa a formar parte del agua subterránea.
-
La cantidad máxima de agua que puede absorber un suelo en determinadas condiciones se
llama capacidad de infiltración. Durante una tormenta sólo se satisface la capacidad de
infiltración mientras ocurre la lluvia en exceso. Antes o después de la lluvia en exceso, la
capacidad de infiltración está liga'da a la intensidad de lluvia.
Factores que afectan a la capacidad de infiln-ación
La infiltración puede considerarse como una secuencia de tres pasos: entrada en la superficie,
trasmisión a través del suelo, y agotamiento de la capacidad de almacenaje del suelo. Además
de estos factores, se deben_ tener en cuenta el medio permeable y el flujo.
Enh'llda en la superficie
La superficie- del suelo puede obstruirse por el lavado de finos y el impacto de gotas de agua.
lo cual evita o retarda la entrada del agua dentro del suelo; por este hecho, un suelo con una
buena red de drenaje puede tener baja capacidad de infiltración. La vegetación tiene una
influencia importante en este aspecto
35
Trasmisión a través del suelo
La rapidez con que el agua penetra en un suelo depende de su capacidad de trasmisión, la

cual varía para los diferentes horizontes del perfil del suelo; una vez que este se ha saturado,
la capacidad de infiltración está limitada por la menor trasmisión del agua infiltrada que tenga
el suelo.
Si la entrada del agua en la superficie del suelo es menor que la trasmisión mas baja de
cualquier horizonte del suelo, la infiltración quedará supeditada.
Agotamientp de la capacidad de almacenaje del suelo
El almacenaJe disponible en cualquier honzonte depende de su porosidad, espesor y contenido

de humedad. La naturaleza y magn1tud de la porosidad del honzonte del suelo depende de su
textura, estructura, contenido de materia orgánica, penetración de las raíces y muchos otros
factores.
La infiltración que ocurre en el inicio de la tormenta está controlada por el volumen, tamaño
Y. continuidad de los poros no capilares, ya que proporcionan fáciles trayectorias para el
movimiento del agua. La capacidad de almacenaje afecta directamente a la cantidad de
infiltración durante la tormenta. Cuando esta última cantidad está controlada por su trasmis1ón
a través de los estratos del suelo, esta irá disminuyendo conforme se agote el almacenaJe de
los estratos superiores al estrato que tiene la menor trasmisión.
Caracte1üticas del medio pe•meable
Para el suelo, la capacidad de infiltración está relacionada con. el tamaño del poro y su
distribución. En las arenas, los poros son relativamente estables, aunque durante una tormenta
se puede formar una mezcla más densa; sin embargo, este cambio en las arenas es
relativamente lento comparado con las arcillas y los limos.
36
----~En"suelos-en-esta-do seco con cantiaades apreciaoles aelimo ·o arcilla, es posible tener poros
relativamente largos que. pueden desmtegrarse durante una tormenta. Dichos suelos
normalmente contienen material coloi.dal, el cual se hincha cuando está húmedo; así, un
cambio en l_a permeabilidad de la masa es más frecuente que en las arenas. Por otra pane, el
impacto de las gotas de agua compactan el suelo y ocasionan que panículas muy pequeñas
de limo y arcilla penetren en los poros del material, sellandolos y reduciendo la inftltración.
Las modificaciones del tamaño del poro y su distribución son comunes en el campo, dependen
principalmente del contenido de materia orgánica del suelo.
Características del flujo
Otros grupos de factores que afectan a la infiltración, aunque en grado menor, son aquellos
que modifican las características fis1cas del agua. Uno de los cambios más imponantes en el
agua infiltrada es su contaminación, que, en la mayoría de los suelos, ocurre en menor o
mayor escala, debido a las arcillas finas y los coloides. Esto afecta en forma directa a la
infiltración,, ya que el material en suspensión que lleva el agua infiltrada bloquea los poros
del suelo por los cuales pasa
La temperatura y viscosidad del fluido también afectan a la cantidad de agua que se mueve
a través del suelo.
Medición de la infiltración
Para medir la infiltración de un suelo se usan los infiltrómetros, que sirven para determinar
la cap:,cidad de infiltración en pequeñas áreas cerradas, aplicando anificialmente agua al
suelo.
Los infiltrómetros se unen con frecuencia en pequeñas cuencas o en áreas pequeñas o
experimentales denÍro de cuencas grandes.
37
Cuando en !l" área se presenta gran variación en el suelo y vegetación, esta se subdivide en
subáreas relativamente uniforme, de las cuales, haciendo una serie de pruebas, .se puede
obtener información aceptable.
Siendo la infiltraCión un proceso completo, a partir de los infiltrómetros es posible inferir la

capacidad de infiltración de cualquier cuenca en forma cualitativa y no cuantitativa. La
aplicación más favorable de este equipo se obtiene en zonas experimentales, donde se puede
valuar la infiltración para determinar tipos de suelos y ~ontenido de humedad.
lnfiltrómetros de car.:a constante
Estos infiltrómetros permiten conocer la cantidad de agua que penetra en el suelo en un área
cerrada, a partir del agua que debe agregarse a dicha área para mantener un tirante constante,
que generalmente es de medio centímetro.
Los infiltrómetros de carga constante más comunes consisten en dos arcos concéntricos, o
bien en un solo tubo. En el pnmer tubo, se usan dos arcos concéntricos de 23 y 92 cm de
diámetro, respectivamente, los cuales se hinchan en el suelo varios centímetros.
El agua se introduce en ambos compartimientos, Jos cuales deben conservar el mismo tirante.
El objeto del aro exterior es evitar que el agua dentro del aro interior se expanda en una zona
de penetración mayor que el área correspondiente. La capacidad de infiltración del suelo se
determina a partir de la cantidad de agua que hay que agregar al aro interior para mantener
su tirante constante. E! segundo tipo consiste en un tubo que se hinca en el suelo hasta una
profundidad igual a la que penetra el agua durante la medición, Jo que evita que el agua se
expanda. En este caso se mide el agua que se le agrega para mantener el nivel constante.
Aunque estos aparatos proporcionan un método simple y directo para determinar la cantidad
de .agua e¡ u e absorbe el suelo con estas condiciones, sólo considera la infiltración del uso del
suelo, vegetación y algunas variables fisicas. Esta forma de medir 'la infiltración puede
cambiar con respecto a la real, porque no toma en cuenta el efecto que producen las gotas de
38
. _ _ lluvia.sobre.el suelo, como son la compactación y el lavado de finos. Por otra part~._t-ªmp_o_co·~-=--~~
considera el efecto del aire entrampado, el cual se escapa lentamente. Además, es imposible
'
hincar los arcos o el tubo sin alterar las condiciones del suelo cerca de su frontera; el área
afectada puede ser un porcentaje apreciable del área de prueba, ya que esta es muy pequeña.
Métodos para Calcular la Infiltración
Todos los métodos disponibles para determinar la capacidad de infiltración en una cuenca
están basad?s en el criterio de la relación entre lo que llueve y lo que escurre. En la práctica,
resulta complicado analizar detalladamente el fénomeno y sólo es posible, con Ciertas
limitaciones, para cuencas pequeñas donde ocurren tormentas sucesivas.
Los métodos ·que permiten obtener la infilrtación de una cuenca, para una cierta tormenta,
requieren del histograma de la precipitación media y de su correspondiente hidrograma. Esto

implica, que en la cuenca donde se require valuar la infiltración, se necesita, si desean hacer
análisis horarios, por lo m.enos un pluviógrafo y una estación de aforos en su salida. En caso
de contar únicamete con estaciones pluviqmétricas, sólo se podrán hacer análisis diarios.
Los criterios que se analizan en este inciso permiten conocer la infiltración producida por una
tormenta, una vez que ha terminado el escurrimiento. Debido a esto, se considera que
·donde
F: volumen de infiltración
P: volumen de precipitación
Q: volumen de escurrimiento directo
En esta ecuación ·se considera que en F también están involucrados la intercepción y el

almacenaje por depresiones ya que no es fáctible medirlos; además, en esta forma se valúa
39
todo el escurrimiento directo, que es de mterés fundamental, ya que permite determinar la
cantidad de agua que escurre con respecto a la de lluvia.
El primer criterio que se verá está relacionado con los coeficientes de infiltración. El uso de
tales índices no constituye una aplicación racional de la teoría de la infiltración, pero los
resultados, que son de tipo empírico, son de gran utilidad práctica; aunque existen diversos
índices, aquí sólo se verá el índice Q>. el cual puede considerarse como de inlfiltración media.
A continuación se presenta un criterio debido a Horner y Lloyd que permite obtener la curva
de la capacidad de infiltración media en cuencas pequeñas cuando se dispone de una serie de
tormentas sucesivas. Finalmente, se analizará el criterio de Honon para obtener la capacidad
de infiltración media en cuencas grandes.
lndice de Infiltración Media
Este índice está basado en la hipótesis de que, para una tormenta con determinadas
condiciones iniciales, la cantidad de recarga en la cuenca permanece constante a través de
toda la duración de la tormenta. Así, se conoce el histograma de la tormenta, el ín~ice de la
infiltración media, <1>. es la intensidad de lluvia media sobre la cual el volumen de lluvia es
igual al del escurrimiento directo observado.
Para obtener el indice <1> se procede por tanteos, suponiéndose valores de <1> y deduciendo la
lluvia en exceso del histograma de la tormenta. Cuando esta lluvia en exceso sea igual que
la registrada por el hidrograma, se conocerá el valor de Q>.
40
tl=>. ~n :n:n
....... "( . f i
hp
1
, -- t. ~n bor&ti
Determinación del índice
Segun la figura, el valor co_rrecto de <!> se tendrá cuando
donde
h,: lluvia en exceso, deducida de volumen de escurrimiento directo, Y,, dividido entre el
área de la cuenca, A.
.ill,: llu'-ía en exceso en el intervalo de tiempo ,ot,. deducido del histograma de la tormenta
Debe señalarse que, como la lluvia varia con respecto al tiempo y el indtce <!> es constante,
cuando la variación de la lluvia .ill,, en un cierto intervalo de tiempo ,ot, sea menor que<)>, se
acepta que todo lo llovido se infiltro. El problema se presenta cuando se desea valuar el
volumtn de infiltración, ya que si sé valua á partir del índice<)>, se obtendrá por este hecho
~ 1
un volumen mayor que el real. Para calcular el volumen de infiltración real, se aplica la
ecuación siguiente
F = (hP - h, ) A
donde
A: área de la cuenca
h,: altura de lluvia en eúeso
h,: altura de lluvia a la tormenta, la cual es la suma de los t.hP,
Obtención de la cun·a de capacidad de inliltrnción media.
En una cuenca pequeña, si se tiene una serie de tormentas sucesivas y se dispone .del
hietrográma. e hidrográma correspondientes, es posible obtener la curva de la capacidad e

infiltración aplicando el criterio de Horner y Lloyd.
Para cada tormenta se obtiene, de su hietrográma, la altura de lluvia, h,, y, según el

hidrográma. la lluvia en exceso, h,. a que dio lugar. A continuación se calcula el volumen de
infiltración, F, expresado en lámina de agua, que, de acuerdo con la ecuación
F = (hp-he)A
_lo mismo que en la ecuación anterior sólo que todos los volúmenes están expresados en altura
de lámina de agua, tenemos que
F
hf = ---
A
En la formula hr es una infiltración med1a. Para obtener la capacidad de infiltración media
para cada tormenta, f, el valor de cada h, d~berá dividirse entre el tiempo promedio en que
42
ocurre la infiltración en toda la cuenca.
~~---~~~~--~~--~~~-
En este criterio se acepta que la infiltración media se inicia cuando empieza la lluvia en
exceso y c~ntinúa durante el lapso después de que esta termina. En ese momento, si la
tormenta cubre toda el área, la infiltración continúa en forma de capacidad e irá disminuyendo
conforme al área de detención del escurrimiento disminuye. Horton considera que el periodo
equivalente durante el cual el mismo volumen. de infiltración residual ocurre sobre toda la
cuenca es igual a un tercio del periodo de tiempo que sucede desde que la lluvia en exceso
finaliza hasta que cesa el flujo sobre tierra, el cual se puede detectar al analizar el hidrográma
correspondiente.
Según lo anterior, el tiempo promedio en el cual ocurre la capacidad de infiltración se expresa
como:
.donde
d,: duración de la lluvia eri exceso, en h

t duración de la infiltración, en h
<>t: periodo de tiempo desde que termina la lluvia en exceso hasta que cesa el flujo sobre
tierra, en h
Por lo tanto, la capacidad de infiltración media será
f = h,Jt
donde
h,: altura de infiltración media, en mm

t duración de la infiltración, en h
43
/
Una vez conocido el valor de f para cada tormenta, se lleva a una grafica en el punto medio
de cada periodo t. Al unir resultantes se obtiene la curva de capacidad de infiltraciÓn media.
Capacidad de infiltración en cuencas grandes
Para cuencas donde no se acepta que la intensidad de lluvia es uniforme en toda el area,
Horton propone un criterio para calcular la capacidad de mfiltración media, f,, que se tiene
para una tormenta cualquiera.
Este criterio supone la disponibilidad de registros de lluvia suficiente para representar su
distribución satisfactoriamente, y que al menos uno de los registros se obtuvo a part1r de un
pluviógrafo. Esto implica estimar que la distribuciÓn de lluvia registrada en el pluviógrafo sea
representativa de la distribuciÓn en toda la cuenca. Por otra parte, considera que el
escurrimiento superficial es igual a la diferencia entre la precipitación y la infiltración que
ocurre durante el periodo de la lluvia en exceso; o sea que se desprecia la infiltración antes
y después de la lluvia en exceso. Entonces, el valor de f, que se encuentra es tal que
multiplicado por la duración de la lluvia en exceso y restado de la lluvia total para el m1smo
periodo, pr~porciona el escurrimiento superficial total.
La estación pluviografica recibe el nombre de estación base y las pluviométricas se llaman
subestaciones. Con el fin de tener un criterio de calculo general para la cuenca en estudio,
convier,e transformar a porcentajes la curva masa de la estación base. Una vez· hecho esto, se
suponen alturas de lluvia y, a partir de la curva masa en porcentaje, se obtiene la variación
respecto al tiempo. A continuación, se inventan capacidades de infiltración media y se deduce
para cada altura de lluvia supuesta su correspondiente lluvia en exceso.
Lo antenor permite obtener graficas de alturas de lluvias totales contra alturas de lluvia en
exceso, para diferentes capacidades de infiltración media. Asi, conocida la altura de
precipitación media en la cuenca para la tormenta en estudio, y su correspondiente altura de

lluvia ,,n exceso a partir del hidrograma del escurrimiento directo, es posible obtener su
capacidad de infiltración media.

. Si se observa, este criterio es similar al del índice de infiltración media, solo que ahora los
· -tanteos se llevan-a-gráfícas;-que-en-el-caso--de-te_n_e_r_Dffa-tormenta con una auracion grande
es muy conveniente, ya que se disminuye el tiempo de cálculo. Por otra parte, permite
disponer de una gráfica que relaciona para cualquier tormenta su lluvia en exceso, su lluvia
total y su correspondiente capacidad de infiltración media.
1.5 Estudios topográficos
Una vez delimitado el lindero del terreno que ocupara el relleno sanitario se procederá a
realizar el le,'antamiento topográfico para obtener una conceptualización adecuada· de la
configuración del lugar.
Los trabajos de topografía son determinantes para la elaboracrón del proyecto ya que con ellos
se determina la capacidad del sitio, así como su vida útil, además de todos los elementos
necesarios para el diseño y la operación del relleno sanitario.
En los trabajos de topografía se deberán de considerar las siguientes actividades: ,.
Localización: Se determinará con una poligonal abierta desde el eje de la via que se
' .
tenga de acceso, uniéndola con el área del terreno. Señalando las vías
principales de acceso desde la población, y su ubicación con relación
a la misma.
Planimetría: La poligonal cerrada que limite el sitio, se unirá a la abierta que se

trazó desde el acceso, dando a las dos orientación astronómica.
A !ti rnetria: Para realizar esta fase del trabajo, se determinará un punto que srrva
como banco de nivel, y que se pueda localizar fácilmente,
Se colocaran mojoneras en cada uno de los vértices de la poligonal ·
para que sirvan de bancos auxiliares de nivel.

Establecidos los bancos de nivel, se procederá a correr una nivelación,
45
con puntos nivelados a cada 20 m como máximo y. menor en caso de
encontrar algún accidente topográfico.
Secciones: Las secciones se deberán realizar perpendicularmente a las

nivelaciones y abarcando 20 m a cada lado.
Para mayor claridad la representación gráfica de los planos, estará en
escalas verticales mayores que las horizontales.
Curvas.de nivel: Las curvas de nivel se harán a cada 0.5 m para terrenos planos a cada
1 m para sitios sinuosos, hondanadas profundas y valles escarpados a
cada 5 mts.
Volumetria Con base en las secciones se calculará la volumetria del terreno, lo

que dará por resultado la vida útil real del terreno elegido. El
'
procedimiento del cálculo puede ser con cualquier método reconocido,
de preferencia con tablas calculadas en computadora,s.
La escala que más frecuentemente se utiltza varia de 1.100 a 1:500 la definición de la escala
variará de acuerdo al tamaño del previo una vez realizada la topografia se estará en
posibilidad de realizar la ubicactón de las principales característtcas del sitio como se muestra
en la figura 1.51.
46
¡~-; ~
- --====1-;-- -·'.
-----~-- -! ! ;
~--~'---=---·~'-·~---
; :
-·----- -=---~--
: 7 --1~---~
1
j
_, <
'
---~-
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----.,
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---====---. --.
Figura 15.1
1.6 Impacto vial
Mitigar el impacto vial que pueda ocacionarce al implementar una serie de obras como las
que requie~e un relleno sanitario, es un requerimiento indispensable para el optimo
funcionamiento de dicha obra, para ello es necesario tomar en cuenta las s1gu¡entes
recomendaciones:
1.- Utilizar en forma adecuada y congruente de la infraestructura vial existente.·

2.· Elegir la o las rutas principales que deban utilizar las unidades de transferencia hasta el
sitio dé disposición final.
3.- Evitar que el proceso de transportación de los desechos soiJdos cause el menor impacto
negativo. tanto en la infraestructura vial existente como en la imagen urbana y social.
-1.- Elegir rutas opcionales así como horanos y tipos de transporte, en función de
47
contingencias que puedan presentarse fuera de rutina, como son: eventos civ1cos,
políticos, deportivos, sociales y de desastre, incluso.
5.- Minimizar el impacto vial realizando obras complementarias como son la adecuaciones
geomét'ricas, semaforización, señalización, etc.
Para solucionar esta problematica, es necesario realizar estudios y mediciones vehiculares,

1
para tener un conocimiento detallado de la infraestuctura existente en la zona, con el fin de
formular las propuestas de solución mas adecuadas.
1.6.1 Detenninacion de rutas
La minir.Iización de impacto vial tiene consideraciónes de muchas categorías, como lineas de
trafico, topografía. consideraciones para la población y para el ambiente.
La ruta debe estar de acuerdo con la lrnea que seguiría la parte principal del trafico como si
tuviera una opción libre, que no es necesariamente la distancia más corta entre los puntos.
Puede prefenrse. para transitar, una ruta larga que de un buen servicio de trafico a estaciones
de transferencia o finales de ruta de recolección a lo largo de la ruta y en la que puedan
circular vehículos de transferencia.
Con objeto de llegar a la solución precisa y suficiente es conveniente señalar las rutas de
accesibilidad al sitio, a partir de las estaciones de transferencia o los fines de ruta. anotando
a la vez, un inveterio general de sus secciones. numero de carriles, capacidad, y cruceros

conflictivos suceptibles de modificación y adecúación, permitiendo a la vez, establecer el
horizonte de vida útil en cada uno de los casos en particular.
Esta es una consideración importante para determinar el estado actual de la zona, en donde
aparece la información relativa a los arroyos y banquetas; así como accidentes topográficos
y/o físicos, existentes, complementandose con la ubicación de postes, señales, árboles Y
retornos.
48
1
1 Posteriormente es indispensable la definición de la o las rutas principales a seguir a partir de
los centroid~s_ de referencia o de las estaciones de transferencia, ademas del diseño o
---adecuación de aquellas que sean seleccionadas, ya sea que se encuentren obsoletas o en
deterioro, tanto en su sección transversal como en sus cruceros conflictivos y hasta su
estructura de pavimentos. Por lo anterior se debe considerar, en algunos casos, la necesidad
de aumentar la capacidad del camino, repavimentar, .modificar geométricamente, tanto en su
alineamiento vertical como horizontal, verificar y adecuar la señalización y semaforización,
así como reforzar el equipamiento urbano existente.
De esta forma se logrará la optimización en todos los rubros que se mencionan anteriormente.
Para tal efecto es conveniente la implementación del plan en varias etapas y en diversos
frentes para obtener el funcionamiento integral que se pretende. ·
1.6.2 Estudios de ingerúeria de tránsito.
Para determinar las condiciones de funcionamiento de las alternativas de recorrido propuesto,

se efectúan aforos vehiculares en las principales intersecciones. Los aforos nos' indican el
comportamiento de los movimientos vehiculares y direccionales, en las horas pico .
.
Estos aforos vehiculares se determinan considerando 16 horas de observación,
determinándose la hora máxima de demanda vehicular durante el día, con la clasificación de
acuerdo al tipo de automóviles, autobuses y camiones que circulan. Realizando las gráficas
de variación horaria y determinación de el volumen vehicular a cada 15 minutos durante las
16 horas.
El resultado de los estudios referidos, es la elaboración del proyecto de vialidad integral, en

el que se decriben los por menores de las rutas, así como las gráficas de volúmenes de
transito y aforos direccionales que representan la cantidad de vehículos que transitan en las
principales avenidas, su tipo y dirección durante un periodo de tiempo de 1 hora. Como se
presenta en figura 1.6.1 y 1.6.2 a este comportamiento se le tendría que agregar los vehículos
de limpia que tendrán que circular por estas vías con lo que se determinará el impacto por
49
tránsito' que ocasionará el sitio de disposición
\
final.
AFORO VEHICULAR
'';TERSECCION: AV. ALTA TENSION • AV. RIO BECERRA
FECHA: 2 DE ABRIL DE t 991 HORA: 12:30 • 13:30 AFORO: J.C.M.
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51
IIITERSECCJON
DELEGACION ' DIA DE LA SéiWIA
·COORDENADAS FECHA HOAA DE INICIO
CONDICIONES ATIIOSFERICAS l DEL PAVIMENTO
CJRCULACION NORTE-SUR CJRCULACION SUR-PONIENTE

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T~SITO EN EL ACCESO TRANSITO EN EL ACCESO

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52 a!SERVADOR - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ' - - - - - - - - - -
l. 7 Impacto Ambiental
El procedimiento de impacto ambiental es el camino a seguir para llevar a la consecución de

un estudio o manifestación de. impacto ambiental que permita soportar la toma de decisiones
respecto a la autorización o no del proyecto en cuestión.
Manifestación de Impacto Ambiental (1\IL.\)
Se elabora previamente a la ejecución del proyecto y se define como el documento mediante

el cual se da a conocer, con base en estudios, el impacto ambiental, significativo y potencial
que generaría una obra o a·ctividad, así como la forma de evitarlo o atenuarlo en caso de que
·sea negauvo.
1.7.1 Ambito legal
El procedimiento de impacto ambiental como figura jurídica, es incluido en la Ley General

de Equilibrio Ecológico y la Protección al Ambiente (LGEEPA) el 28 de Enero de 1988. La ,,
-cual hace mención sobre la reglamentación de las disposiciones de la Constitución Política
de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos que se refieren a la Preservación y Restauración del
Equilibrio Ecológico, así como a la Protecc1ón al Ambiente, en el Territono Nacional y las
zonas sobre las que la Nación ejerce su Soberanía y Jurisdicción.
1.7.2 . Pmcedimiento de impacto ambiental
Definamos ¿qué es el procedimiento de impacto ambiental 0 . Es una serie ordenada de pasos

que habrán de seguir tanto las autoridades de gobierno como los responsables de la ejecución
de una obra o actividad y consultores privados (que contratan estos últimos), la cual se
describe en el siguiente cuadro.
Las Manifestaciones de Impacto Ambiental, pueden ser de 4 diferentes grados de profundidad
53
- Informe Preventivo
- Modalidad General
- Modalidad Intermedia
- Modalidad Especifica
Estos niveles de profundidad dependen de
1.- Las características de apoyo, su magnitud, extensión, vol limenes de obra y de operación,
procesos, materias primas, en insumes a utilizar, riesgo de procesos, etc.
2.- Ubicación del proyecto (características del Medio Físico, Biótico, Socioeconómico).
Los estudios de Impacto Ambiental se componen básicamente de:
a) La descripción del proyecto, describiendo
1.- La Etapa de Planeación

2.- La Etapa de Construcción
3.- La Etapa de Operación
4 - La Etapa de Mantenimiento
5.- Los Proyectos Futuros y Complementarios
6.- La Etapa de abandono.
b) La descripción del Medio
1 - Físico
2 - Biótico
3 - Soctoeconómico
. 4 - Otros factores (Culturales, Políticos, Económicos).
e) Las regulaciones de uso de suelo y la compatibilidad del proyecto con su entorno
54
~-~-~~=d)-I.::a-ioentificación_y_cuantificación_de_impactos-Adversos-y_Benéficos·--~-~--~-----
'-
e) Las medidas de:
- Mitigación
- Compensación
f) Los efectos
- Inevitables
- Irreversibles
- Acumulados
- Indirectos
- Resid.uales
g) El escenario ambiental modifocado.
h) Las con el usiones y recomendaciones.
1.7.3 Metodología de identificación y evaluación del impacto ambiental
Las metodologías de evaluación de impacto ambiental son herramientas que ayudan a la

identificación. medida, interpretación, y/o comunicación de los diferentes impactos
ambientales que se asocian a un proyecto a actividad que se vaya a realizar en un cierto
espacio-tiempo. Su implementación tiene cono finalidad principal la previsión de las posibles
afectaciones negativas que puedan surgir en las diferentes fases de un proyecto y la
evaluación de las diferentes alternativas del mismo.
Entre las metodologías que más comúnmente se utilizan en esta fase del proceso en esta fase
del proceso de E.I.A. se pueden señalar las listas de chequeo, matrices y redes: estas
metodologías deben considerar cuatro aspectos básicos:
55
Que incluyan todos los aspectos "clave" del ambiente y del proyecto o actividad en
cuestión.
Que sirvan como guías para la busqueda-generación de información básica del ambiente
y del proyecto.
Que puedan servir para la evaluación de alternativas sobre una base común.
Que se puedan utilizar en la evaluación de las medidas de mitigación en térmmos de

costo-efectividad, de los diferentes impactos negativos detectados.
1
Listas de chequeo.- Se pueden utilizar IÍstados de los factores ambientales locales que puedan
ser afectados por el proyecto, los cuales por medio de un signo convencional se pueden
resaltar, otro tipo de lista puede incluir un cuestionario el cual se llena con las respuestas de
la población adyacente, y una variante mas de factores ambientales con información relativa
a la evaluación medida y predicción de los impactos.
Matrices de Interacción.- Este tipo de matrices muestran generalmente en un eJe horizontal,

las actividades-acciones del proyecto y en un eje vertical los factores ambientales implicados
en la evaluación. La matriz utiliza para identificar impactos al observarse de manera
sistemática; las interacciones entre las actividades del proyecto - elementos del medio: si se
mfiere que componente(s) del medio enlistado, se coloca una marca en el respectivo cuadro
de intersección con la cual se va a identificar al impacto.
Después de la identificación del impacto (se puede usar una linea diagonal en el cuadro
correspondiente), se puede describir la interacción en términos de magnitud e importancia,
entendiéndose la primera en un sentido de extensión o escala y la segunda en términos del
efecto (ecológico) en los elementos del medio.
Impactos en las diversas fases del proyecto (preparación del sitio, construcción, operac10n.
etc.). La matriz producida finalmente puede contener a manera de resumen a los diferentes
56
~~---impactos-identificados, y a algunas de sus características-categorías nominales tales como_____
impactos: benéficos o adversos; reversibles o irreversibles; reparables o irreparables de corto,

mediano o largo plazo; temporales o continuos; locales, regionales o globales; directos o
indirectos; sumatorios, sinergisticos o antagónicos, etc. Estos ju.icios de valor o características
se deben establecer con el trabajo de un equipo multidisciplinario en interdisc.iplina
Redes.- Se consideran como variantes de las matrices de interacción anteriormente señaladas,

mediante estas se intenta integrar las causas y consecuencias de los impactos al identificar y
manejar interrelaciones entre acciones causales y factores del ambiente alterados.
Los análisi~ ¡JOr medio de redes en la E.I.A., son particularmente útiles para identificar
impactos secundarios, terciarios y de orden superior que pueden surgir a partir de un impacto
iniciaL
Para intentar hacer una evaluación lo más objetiva posible es necesario considerar:
1.- El estudio detallado de las características del medio y su equilibrio dinámico antes de la
presión ejercida por el proyecto (estadiO cero).
2.- El estudio de la evolución de las características ambientales con la supuesta
implementación del proyecto.
3.- El estudio del "eventual" equilibrio tras la operación del proyecto.
Manü de impacto ambiental
La elaboración de matrices de impacto ambiental es una técnica desarrollada por Leopold Y

cuva funcion es identificar los impactos que podría ocasionar la implementación de una obra
o actividad.
Las técnicas de análisis son varias y ésta se presenta como ejemplo a ser utilizado por el
57
proponente: su ejecución no es obligatoria ya que, como· se ha mencionado para la
identificación de impactos en la cual se deJa abierta la posibilidad de utilizar la metodología
que más se apegue a las características del proyecto.
El primer paso para la elaboración de la matriz consiste en identificar las interacciones

existentes, para lo cual se deberan tomar en cuenta todas las acciones necesarias para el
. .
desarrollo d,el proyecto, asi como los factores ambientales que puedan resultar afectados para
cada una de las acciones previstas
Su formación se lleva a cabo colocando en columnas (forma vertical) las actividades previstas
en· las diferentes áreas que puedan sufrir efectos ambientales. Esto puede hacerse sobre un
papel cuadriculado de manera que se facilite la intersección de las actividades con las áreas,
e identificar en el cuadro respectivo el posible impacto ambiental.
Las alteraciones sobre el medio ambiental pueden ser positiva o negativa y varían en cuanto
a la magnitud del mismo. Por lo tanto, en la elaboración de la matriz es importante evaluar
qué impacto es más importante que otro; la evaluación de. este tipo se lleva a cabo usando
técnicas numéricas en donde se aplica una escala de 1 a 1O, representando este último la
magnitud mayor y el l la menor; asi como criterios ponderativos en donde se as1gnan
categorías .como: significativo, poco significativo, considerable, etc. e incluso el
desconocimiento del efecto.
Con el fin de que el proponente elabore la matriz de impacto ambiental a continuación se

· enlistan una serie de acciones y áreas que podrían verse afectadas, sin que ello implique que
se deberan aplicar a todas las acciones mencionadas. Es importante que se elabore la misma,
considerando las características propias de cada proyecto, ya que incluso puede darse el caso
que el presente listado no incluya efectos peculiares inherentes al proyecto en cuestión.
58
j
ETAPA DE SELECCION DEL SITIO
Prueba de suelo
Pruebas geológicas
Pruebas geofisicas
Pruebas topográficas
ETAPA DE PREPARACION DEL SITIO
Deslindes Desmontes
Limpieza Quema
Excavaciones/dragado Ni velaciones/relleno
Demolición Desecación
Despiedre Uso de explosivos
Colocación de escolleras y diques Obras sobre corrientes
Campamentos provisionales Caminos de acceso
Maquinaria y equipo Servicios
Almacenamiento Puentes provisionales
Emisiones- de humos y polvo Residuos sólidos
Residuos liquidas Ru1dos
Recursos humanos Otros
ETAPA DE CONSTRUCCJON
Infraestructura Servicios
Bancos de material Emplazamientos industriales y de edificios
Líneas de transmisión Barreras incluyendo vallados
Canales, revestimientos de t>.lodificaciones al drenaje
Escolleras y diques Cruce de corrientes
59
Estruturas en al tamar Estruturas en al tamar
Estruturas industriales Tuneles y estructuras subterráneas
Recursos humanos Bodega de almacenamiento
Requerimiento de energía Operación de maquinaria y equipo
Residuos sólidos Requerimiento de agua
Ruidos Residuos líquidos
Des:ino final de infraestructura Emisiones de humos y polvos
Rehabilitación
ET AP.-\ DE OPERACION
Dragado de mantenimiento !\lanteni miento

de estructura y equipo
Requerimiento de energía Requerimiento de agua
Utilización de recursos Operación de maquinaria
naturales del área y equ1po

Equipo de transportación Recursos humanos
Desplazamientos del personal Infraestructura
Servicios Almacenamiento
ManeJO y dispos1ción final de 1-.laneJO y disposición

residuos líquidos final de residuos sólidos
Emisiones a la atmósfera Fallas de operación .
Fugas y derrames Explosiones accidentales
Creac1ón de zonas verdes
ACTIVIDADES CONSECUENTES AL PROYECTO
Comunicaciones y transportes Infraestructura
Urbanización Desarrollo industrial
Desarrollo tecnológico Empleos y recursos humanos
Reforestación
60
--~~~~-COLUMNA-HORIZON:¡:Ab
MEDIO NATURAL
AGUA
SUPERFICIAL
Alteración del Jecho Características gravimétricas

FluJo Calidad del agua
SUBTERRANEA
Flujo Interacción con la- superficie

Calidad del agua
MARINAS
Variaciones superficiales Variaciones en la batimetría

Calidad del agua
SUELO
Características geológicas Características geomorfológi_cas

Características topográficas Asentamientos y compactación
Calidad del suelo Uso actual
Uso potencial Area inundable
ATMOSFERA
Miccoclima Calidad del aire
61
PAISAJE
Cualidades estéticas Atractivo turistico

Valor ecológico Valor histórico
Valor cultural
FLORA TERRESTRE
Estrato herbáceo Estrato arbustivo

Estrato arbóreo Asociaciones vegetales
Especies de interés ecológico Especies de interés comercial
FAUNA TERRESTRE
Invertebrados Reptiles
Aves Mamiferos
Especies de interés ecológico Especies de interés comercial
FAUNA ACUATICA
Zooplancton Invertebrados
Peces Anfibios
Reptiles Aves
Mamiferos Especies de interés ecológico
Especies de interés comercial
FACTORES SOCIOECONOMICOS
Tenencia de la tierra Economia regional
Empleo y recursos humanos Infraestructura y servicios públicos

J
Salud pública Educación
62
--------- - --
-------Costumbres-y-calidad-de-vida-----------Gen tros-recreati vos
Areas de interés científico. Migración poblacional
cultural o patrimonial Reubicación poblacional
Pérdida de valores culturales.
Monitoreo ambiental y de salud
A. INTRODUCCION
Un tema de creciente importancia dentro de la evaluación de impacto ambiental y salud (El A)

incluye la conducción de estudios de monitoreo ambiental tanto previos como posteriores. El
monitoreo ambiental se refiere al grupo de actividades que proporcionan información
ambiental química, física, geológica, biológica y otras requeridas por los especialistas en este
ramo.
Debido a que se ha adquirido mayor conciencia de la importancia del monitoreo ambiental

-a lo largo del tiempo de vida de un proyecto, se ha enfatizado la planeación e implantación
de programas de monitoreo.
Los componentes incluidos en la amplia definición del monitoreo ambiental abarcan:

planeación de recolección 'de información ambiental que cumpla con los objetivos específicos
y con las necesidades de información ambiental; el diseño de sistemas y estudios de
monitoreo; la selección de sitios de muestreo; recolección y manejo de muestras; análisis de
laboratorio; el almacenamiento y reporte de los datos; el asegurarse de la calidad de los datos;
así como el análisis, interpretación y el poner la información al alcance de aquellos que toman
las decisiones.
B. DEFINICIONES
Existen varias definiciones de monitoreo. Una de las más ampliamente aceptadas corresponde
a la reunión intergubemamental de 1971, preparatorio de la conferencia de Estocolmo de
63
1972. En esa reunión se definió el monitoreo como "un sistema continuo de información, de
mediciones y de evaluaciones para propósitos definidos". El hecho más importante a notar
bajo esta definición, es que el monitoreo debe llevarse a cabo para "propósitos definidos".
Estos propósitos deben ser vistos dentro del contexto de la administración ambientaL
Existe con frecuencia cierta confus1ón en cuanto a la diferencia entre monitoreo y vigilancia.
En ciertos casos, la vigilancia se toma .como el monitoreo llevado a cabo para observar
tendencias, más que como apoyo de objetivo administrativo especifico. sin embargo, en
estudios epidemiológicos, la vigilancia ambiental o de salud, tiene un significado mucho más
específico.
Harvey ( 1981) llevó a cabo una análisis extenso de la terminología usada en relación a
monitoreo. Ha demostrado que los térm1nos monitoreo y vigilancia pueden significar cosas
bastante distintas para diferentes usuarios. El uso más común aparenta se amplio, abarcando
tanto el monitoreo descriptivo, orientado a problemas. como el monitoreo reglamentario.
C OBJETIVOS DEL MO!\ITOREO
·Los principales objetivos que persigue un sistema de monitoreo ambiental, posterior .a la

implementación del proyecto, incluven (ivlarcus, 1979):
l. Proporcionar información para la documentación de los impactos que resultan de una

acción propuesta. Con esta información es posible hacer una predicción más confiable
de los impactos con otras acctones similares.
' Ad,·ertir a las agencias involucradas y/o al grupo tomados de decisiones, de impactos
adversos no anticipados en el estudio de la El.-\ o de cambios bruscos en las tendenctas
dé los Impactos previamente evaluados
3. Proporcionar un sistema de información inmediato, cuando un indicador de impactos._

previamente seleccionado, se acerca a su n1vel critico.
64
---~4 ____ I'ropurcionar-información-para-determinar-la-loc-alización;-nivel-y~tiempo-en-q~e-se-~~---
presentan los impactos de un proyecto. Las medidas de control involucran una
planificación inicial y, a la posible instrumentación de reglamentos y medidas, para
asegurár su cumplimiento.
5. Proporcionar información que pueda usarse para evaluar la efectividad de las medidas de
mitigación instrumentadas y para verificar los impactos predichos y, por lo tanto
validar, modificar y/o ajustar las técnicas de predicción utilizadas.
D. NIVELES DE MONITOREO
Se pueden cubrir extensiones geograf1cas di'rerentes dependiendo de la naturaleza del

o
problema en cuestión y de la jurisdicción. estos niveles pueden ser los siguientes:
Locales: Se extienden entre O y 100 Kilómetros como la contaminación del
a1re.
Regionales Se extiende entre 100 y 1,000 Kilómetros, como la contaminación de
ríos.
Continentales: Se extiende entre 1,000 a 10,000 Kilómetros como la contaminación
del mar.
Globales: Se extienden más de 10,000 Kilómetros como el calentamiento de la
atmósfera por la acumulación de monóxido de carbono y otros gases.
E. PERIODOS DE MONITOREO
Una característica del ambiente es una variabilidad en espacio y tiempo y esto con frecuencia
dificulta separar, los diferentes procesos que pueden estar funcionando, cada uno con sus
propia escala de tiempo y variación. Probablemente el ejemplo menos comprendido y el más
complejo s~a el de la evaluación de los cambios climaticos. Existe un número de ciclos en
operación: estacional, anual, manchas solares, cambios en el campo magnético, etc.
65
Tomando en cuanta algurios.de los aspectos mencionados y las etapas de desarrollo de un .
proyecto podemos diferenciar los sigwentes periodos de monitoreo dentro de una EIA.
Prevto a la construcción del proyecto

Durante la etapa de construcción y montaje de equipo
Mtentras se opera y mantiene la obra
Posterior a la vida útil del proyecto
F. CLASES DE MONITOREO
Varias clases de monitoreo ambientaiy de la salud se han estado poniendo en práctica entre
ellas se mencionan las Siguientes:
Monitoreo de identificación
Monitoreo de asociación
Monitoreo de trayectoria
Monitoreo de exposición
• de alimentos
• al agua potable
• a k! contaminación del aire
• de la piel
• de objetivos (órgano blanco) .
G. TIPOS DE MONITOREO
Dentro de los tipos de monitoreo se incluyen los vínculos a las fuentes de contaminación del
ambiente físico y del natural.
Monitoreo de fuentes de contaminación

• Monitoreo de emisión
• Monitoreo de proceso
66
-----~------M o ni to'reo-biológic?-
Monitoreo Organismos bioaculadores
H. PLANIFICACION DEL MONITOREO EN UNA EIA
El monitoreo descriptivo que apoya la identificación y estimación, de riesgos o impactos, se

encuentra en una etapa relativamente temprana de su desarrollo y se requieren esfuerzos de
importancia para asegurar el progieso en esta área.
Para planificar el monitoreo dentro. de la EIA, se recomienda tomar en cuenta las siguientes
situaciones y acciones:
Recopilación de diversidad de datos provenientes del monitoreo ambiental, recolectados

en forma rutinaria por parte de agencia gubernamentales y por el sector privado. Estos
datos necesitan ser identificados, compilados e interpretados.
Como los programas de monitoreo ambiental son costosos, debe hacerse el esfuerzo pór
utilizar programas de monitoreo existentes y modificarlos apropiadamente.
Debido a la superposi-ción de responsabilidades en muchas agencias gubernamentales, en

cuanto al manejo y monitoreo ambientales, resulta necesario coordinar la planificación
del monitoreo ambiental.
Una necesidad básica en programas de monitoreo ambiental, es la interpretación cientifica

de la información recolectad-a. Frecuentemente la información se compila pero nunca se
interpr~ta en relación a la calidad del ambiente sujeto a monitoreo.
Nunca se podrá recopilar la suficiente información para responder a todas las preguntas
que puedan presentarse en un programa de monitoreo ambiental. Es necesario extender,
por lo tanto, los datos del monitoreo por medio del juicio profesional.
67
También debe definirse con anticipación quienes seran los responsables en llevar a cabo
el programa de monitoreo elaborado.
68
..
PREDICCION DE BASURAS Y ESPACIO PARA RELLENO SANITARIO·
PARA EL MUNICIPIO DE "EJEMPLO"
ANO HA BIT. K/H/0 COBERT T/D M3/ANO MJACUM.

1993 650,000 0.90 0.60 351 136,013 136,013
1994 666,250 0.91 0.65 394 152,541 288,553•
1995 682,906 0.92 0.70 439 170,065 458,619
1996 699,979 0.93 0.75 487 188,636 647,255
1997 717,478 0.94 0.80 538 208,304 855,559
1998 735,415 0.95 0.85 591 229,125 1,084,684
1999 753,801 0.96 0.90 648 251,155 1,335,839
2000 772,646 0.96 0.90 671 260,008 1,595,847
2001 791,962 0.97 0.90 695 269,173 1,865,020 1 •
' 1
1
2002 811,761 0.98 0.90 719 278,662 2,143,682
2003 832,055 0.99 0.90 744 288,484 2,432,167
j
2004 852,856 1.00 0.90 771 298,654 2,730,820
. !
2005 874,178 1.01 0.90 798 309,181 3,040,001
2006 896,032 1.02 ·0.90 826·' 320,080 3,360,081
2007 918,433 1.03 0.90 855 331,363 3,691 ,444
3,691,444
NOTAS: 1. SE SUPONE UNA POBLACION METROPOLITANA DE 650.000 HAB EN 1993.

2. SE SUPONE UNA GENERACION PEA CAPITA PROMEDIO DE 0,9 1</D,
. 1
CRECIENTE EN 1% ANUAL.
3. SE SUPONE UNA COBERTURA PROMEDIO DE 60%, CRECIENTE EN UN 5%
ANUAL HASTA ALCANZAR UN 90%.
4. SE SUPONE QUE LA DENSIDAD DE LA BASURA EN EL RELLENO ALCANZA
0,8 T/M3.
Sectlon 12
PUBUC PARTJCIPATION
/ 12.1. INTRODUCTJON
Recent developments and trends have made the public realiza that its well-being is inti-
mately tied to the quality of the environment, and that attaining and maintaining a quality com-
patible with its well-being requires the elimination of all offenses to the environment. One of the
serious offenses is the indiscriminate disposal of society's wastes. Because the environment
has such an importan! bearing on the public's well-being, and indiscriminate waste disposal is
detrimental to environmental quality, it is beginning to demand a more active role in waste
management. As a consequence, the public has significantly expended its formerly negligible
role in decision-making regarding Jandfills, as well as other waste management facilities. Con~
sequently, attention is being given to the exploration, adaptation, and adoption of public in-
volvement mechanisms and activities. ldeally, therefore, a public participation program should
be established to actively involve citizens in all phases of developing publicly owned or oper-
ated landfills, including site selection, design, operation, completion, and use alter closure.
Sorne social and political structures may not allow or be accustomed to the active par-
ticipation of the public in the decision making process. lnstitutionally, many LDCs are not or·
ganized for active public involvement. Nevertheless, it is recommended that the public take
.
part in the landfill development process or at the very least by kept well-informed of the plans.
Uninformed groups can disrupt the development of waste management facilities (i.e., transfer
stations and landfills) which can have severa negativa impacts on the overall waste
management system.
12.1.1. Definition and Principies of Public Participation
Public participation can be best explained, and perhaps even be defined by describing
the relation between public attitude and public manifestation of its attitude. The relationship is
12-1
-
diagrammed in Figure 12-1. In part A of the figure, the gradation of attitude !ro m one extreme
to another (i.e., from antipathy through neutrality to favorable (desirable)), is separated by the
horizontalline from the corresponding gradation of manifestation (i.e., from opposition through
indifference to promotion). The clase interrelation between the gradations is indicated by con-
necting (broken line) arrows. The relation between attitude and manifestation is further illus-
trated in parts B and C of the figure. As illustrated in part B, there is a direct relationship
between opposition and antipathy. In part C, promotion is also shown to be directly relatad to
.favorable.
From the relationships diagrammed in the three parts of the figure, it appears that an
effective way of securing public participation in a landfill project is te preven! the development
of antipathy te the project. Any existing antipathy should be dissipated. On the other"hand,
only removing antipathy is not enough, inasmuch as it would merely be replaced by the
intermediate stage, indifference or disinterest. Although with regard te a landfill project,
indifference or disinterest would mean no opposition, it would also mean no positiva input for
bringing the project te fruition. lt is at this point that motivation and incentive come into play.
They constitute the moving force needed ter advancing public attitude te the favorable leve l. 11
its attitude towards the landfill project is favorable, the public is willing te provide the input
necessary ter the success of the project.
Although the presentation that tollows is geared te developing countries, rriuch of it is
also applicable te developed countries.
12.1.2. Disslpation of Antipathy
In this section, the "public" is divided into three groups entirely en the basis of position
in the economic hierarchy and relativa influence en decision-making regarding public under-
takings - specifically those concerned with salid waste disposal. The three groups are:
• Financially Distressed (the Peor or lmpoverished)
• Middle (lntermediate)
12-2
1 'r ' 3 • 1 fl.eÚ',re ~ fJitvtt:tj'1'ú.1 "''''"'/t;;t..;.~
' 1 •
A·
A1Ít"itJJ}E
,.
13.
1
• Financially Secure (Moneyed, Wealthy)
We emphasize that our division has no implication regarding importance to or in the
social"fabric. For convenience of presentation in the discussion that follows we refer to thé first
1
class as "The Peor", the second class as "Middle", and the third class alternatively as the
"Wealthy" and the "Moneyed".
12.1.2.1. Financiallv Distressed
Of necessity, survival is the major concern of the peor. Consequently, any perceived
threat to survival arouses antipathy to the source of that threat. The threat may be in the form
of an increase in danger to lile and limb, a serious hazard to health, and/or a loss or diminution
of livelihood and essentialliving space. Thus any undertaking, existing or proposed, can
arouse antipathy il it is perceived as constituting ene or more of these threats.
The threat perceived in a landfill operation is not so much against lile and limb, as it is
against means of livelihood, essentialliving space, and possibly, health.
Loss of Uvelihood - For individuals whose principal means of livelihoód is scavenging,
another landfill is a threat, and hence cause of antipathy, if it eliminates or even curtails scav-
enging in any way other than to regulate it. The obvious way te remove that cause is twofold: .
• Do not prohibit scavenging at the site other than to confine it to a designated area and
impose regulations needed to ensure accident prevention and prevent interference with
the efficient operation of the fill (Section 5.2).
• Assure the scavengers that asid e from the regulation needed to protect the safety ol the
workers and the public-at-large and te efficiently operate the fill, no steps will be taken
to eliminate scavenging.
'
lt m ay be difficult to dispel the suspicion almost universally held by the general public regarding
governmental regulations. Suspicion can be dispelled by showing the scavengers the plans
and designs, and/or requesting input from their leaders. Word of that assurance can be spread
by word-ol mouth, by way ol scavenger associations, contractors, and others in the industry,
12-4
CURSO INTERNACIONAL SOBRE DISEÑO Y
DISPOSICION FINAL DE RESIDUOS SOLIDOS
DETERMINACION DE PARAMETROS DE
DISEÑO PARA LATINOAMERICA
::
Ing. Jorge Sánchez Gómez
Asociación Mexicana para el Control

(AMCRESPAC)
PALACIO DE M!NERIA, MEX!CO D.F. 14-19 Marzo de 1994

DETERMINACION DE PARAMETROS DE DISEÑO PARA LATINOAMERICA
l. GENERALIDADES
No obstante la importancia que en todo el mundo han cobrado los asuntos ecológico-ambientales;
y a pesar de la mayor utilización que en la última década, el relleno sanitario ha ~enido en
América Latina como método de disposición final de residuos sólidos; el "tiradero a cielo
abierto", sigue siendo la forma más común de disponer los residuos sólidos, como informa la
Oficina Panamericana Sanitaria dependiente de la Organización Mundial de la Salud (OPS/OMS),
la cual reporta que únicamente el 30% de la basura generada en América Latina, se dispone
sanitariamente (alrededor de 75,000 Ton./día) (1). Así mismo, con base en un estudio realizado
en 17 ciudades de esta región con más de un millón de habitantes, señala que tan sólo el 35%
de la basura generada, se dispone en rellenos sanitarios de buena calidad, el resto se dispone en
sitios controlados y en tiraderos a cielo abierto (l): Sin embargo, a pesar de cifras tan poco
alentadoras, se debe mencionar que para la misma región de Latinoamérica, dicho organismo
reporta para la década 1980-1990 un avance sustancial en la utilización del relleno sanitario (2),
aún cuando se haya dado mayormente en las grandes concentraciones urbanas.·
Por otro lado, en países con mayores recursos, problemáticas ambientales diferentes y con niveles
tecnológicos mucho más desarrollados; el relleno sanitario, sigue siendo un elemento fundamental
en sus sistemas de control de residuos sólidos, como lo demuestran las cifras de la Tabla No. 1,
donde se observan las tendencias de utilización que en países con alto desarrollo en el manejo
de los residuos sólidos, tienen las diferentes alternativas de tratamiento para el aprovechamiento
de estos residuos, en relación con el uso del relleno sanitario.
1
TABLA No. l
TENDENOAS DE UTILIZAOON DEL RELLENO SANITARIO Y DE LAS TECNICAS

MAS COMUNES PARA EL APROVECHAMIENTO DE RESIDUOS SOLJDOS, EN
PAISES CON ALTO DESARROLLO EN MATERIA ABIENTAL
PAIS RELLENO OPCIONES DE APROVECAMIENTO DE LOS COMENTARIOS

SANITARIO RESIDUOS SOLIDOS
INCINERA COMPO~ RECICLt. OTRO

CION TEO JE
E.U.A. 73% 14% 1% 12% -- ALTA DE~A DEL
RELLENO SANITARIO.
JAPON 27% 25% 2 °/o 46% -- GRAN PARTE % DEL

RECICLO SE UTILIZA
PARA INCINERACION.
•.
SE INCLUYE EN RECI-
CLAJE ESCOMBROS Y
OTROS MATERIALES.
ALEMANIA 52% 30% 3% 15% -- UTILIZACION IMPOR-

TANTE DEL RELLENO
'
SANITARIO Y ELEVA-
DO % DE RECICLO
FRANCIA 48% 40% 10% <3% -- IMPORTANTE UTILIZA-

CION DE COMPOST A E
INCINERACION
SUECIA 40% 52% 5% <4 o/o -- INTENSIVA UTILIZA-
CION DE LA INCINERA-
CION
REF.: (2), (3) y (4)
2
Con base en las cifras de la Tabla· No. 1, se pueden establecer los sig¡¡ientes comentarios:
· a) El relleno sanitario es todavía utilizado en Francia, el cual tal vez sea el único país donde el
composteo ha encontrado su mejor y más importante utilización; y en donde la incineración
'
es una práctica importante para el tratamiento de los residuos.
b) En Japón y Suecia, países líderes en el empleo de la incineración de residuos sólidos para

generación de energía eléctrica, el relleno sanitario es todavía utilizado.
e) En países considerados "Campeones del Reciclaje", como son Alemania y E.U.A., es

curiosamente donde el relleno sanitario tiene un altísimo porcentaje de utilización.
Considerando los comentarios antes señalados, queda claro que un relleno sanitario, es obra de
ingeniería no exclusiva de países altamente tecnificados, ni dependientes de economías bien
desarrolladas; por otro lado, es posible conjugarlo sin ningún problema con las difere!ltes
alternativas de tratamiento que existen en la actualidad. Por consiguiente, es posible concluir que
lejós de que la utilización del relleno sanitario haya entrado en decadencia, o que esté siendo
sustituido por las distintas alternativas de tratamiento empleadas en la actualidad; se debe
considerar como una infraestructura que puede ser compatible con cualquier esquema de control
de residuos sólidos, propia· de países en vías de desarrollo, o con alto nivel de tecnificación y
desarrollo.
Ahora bien, considerando la variación de las características que presentan los residuos sólidos
según sea la fuente que los genera; a partir de su composición, se definirá la vocación o el tipo
de aprovechamiento que deben dárseles. Es decir, sería muy costoso y poco racional incinerar la
basura de mercados, mientras que los resi-duos generados en tiendas de autoservicio donde abunda
el plástico, el papel y el cartón, no son los más adecuados para la fabricación de composta. "Lo
anterior invita a establecer un sistema integral para el adecuado control de los residuos sólidos,
donde se conjuguen las alternativas de tratamiento más adecuadas para los tipos de basura que se
generen, puesto que es racionalmente imposible, que una sola opción de tratamiento se aplique por
3
igual a· los diferentes tipos de residuos sólidos. Partiendo de este concepto, se puede afirmar que
el relleno sanitario viene a ser la columna vertebral de cualquier sistema, ya que por cuestiones
de diversa índole, no siempre es viable la implementación de todas las alternativas de tratamiento
que se requieren, por lo que se deberá contar con uit sitio que reciba aquellos excedentes de
residuos que no sea posible darles algún tratamiento para su aprovechamiento, amén de que las
propias opciones de tratamiento que se apliquen, siempre generarán un cierto rechazo que también
deberá ser dispuesto; de manera tal que el contar con un relleno sanitario, permitirá ordenar
paulatinamente los sistemas de control de residuos, hasta el nivel de organización que se pretenda
alcanzar, ya que siempre se tendrá un sitio para recibir todo aquel residuo que no pueda ser
manejado de otra manera.
Tomando en cuenta todo lo antes comentado, en el futuro, el relleno sanitario será vital para el
ordenamiento de los sistemas de control de residuos sólidos; por lo que para su aceptación plena
por la población en general y las agrupaciones civiles, quienes normalmente son sus principales
detractore~. debe contemplarse no como un sitio que genere problemas de contaminación ·
ambiental, sino como una instalación controlada que confine tanto al biogás como a los lixiviados,
para que no puedan migrar más allá de su vecindad, buscando siempre mejorar su funcionalidad
operativa y aprovechar el combustible que genera acelerando su estabilización. Es por todo esto,
que cualquier relleno sanitario deberá contar con los sistemas operacionales y con los mecanismos
y dispositivos de control que le permitan operar en forma segura y adecuada, evitando alterar su
entorno, contaminar el ambiente o dañar la salud pública en general; amén de crear entre la
población, una percepción favorable y por ende una buena opinión de la función que cumple un_
relleno sanitario.
4
2. CRITERIOS RECTORFS PARA UN DISEÑO ADECUADO Y UNA.RAOONAL FUNOO--·- · ·
La buena o mala operación de un relleno sanitario, depende de las medidas de control que se estén
aplicando, amén de ser en muchos casos indicador del nivel de afectación ambiental con el que
se esté deteriorando la vecindad del sitio. Por tanto, para evitar o disminuir la alteración que los
impactantes generados en un relleno sanitario puedan tener sobre su entorno, es imprescindible
aplicar en las diferentes etapas que demanda el emplazamiento de este tipo de obras, una serie de
criterios rectores cuyo objetivo fundamental sea prevenir la contaminación por residuos sólidos.
Estos criterios, deben establecer el sendero por donde debe dirigirse el diseño, la funcionalidad
conceptua: y los programas de control y monitoreo que necesita un relleno sanitario para operar
adecuadamente.
Para el diseño, los criterios rectores que deben cumplirse son los siguientes:
Definición de las secciones más adecuadas para la preparación del sitio, que aseguren una
mínima estabilidad en las zonas más críticas ..
Considerar en el diseño, el tipo de impermeabilización más adecuado para la base y las paredes
del sitio.
Determinación de la capacidad de campo de los residuos sólidos por disponer.
Cálculo de la producción de lixiviados (potencial y real).
Cálculo de las necesidades de agua para la estabilización vía anaerobia de los residuos.
Estimación de la producción de biogás.
Determinación de los gastos de diseño de los escurrimientos pluviales, para el dimensiona-
miento de la infraestructura hidráulica necesaria para su manejo.
Tomando en cuenta que la aplicación de los "CRITERIOS RECTORES" antes señalados, son el
camino más viable para propiciar una urgente mejoría en la tecnología aplicada actualmente para
el diseño y operación de rellenos sanitarios; se debe iniciar la implementación de tales criterios,
5
justamente a partir de la fase de planeación y diseño, para que tengan continuidad en la operación
y también durante el monitoreo ambiental.
Ahora bien, considerando que los impactantes de mayor riesgo que puede generar un relleno
sanitario, son el "biogás" y los "lixiviados", cobran mayor importancia los Criterios Rectores que
dentro del diseño se refieren al control de tales impactantes. Por esta razón a continuación se
describen los Lineamientos Técnicos más significativos que deben ser tomados en cuenta en el
diseño del relleno sanitario. Estos Lineamientos se presentan en dos vertientes, una que· se refiere
a la Estimación de parámetros para la medición de estos impactantes; y la otra que establece las
recomendaciones de más importancia para el diseño de los sistemas de impermeabilización
necesarios para mantener confinados dichos impactantes, dentro del relleno sanitario.
A) DETERMINACION DE PARAMETROS BASICOS DE DISEÑO.
a) Cálculo de la Capacidad de Campo de los Residuos Sólidos.
La capacidad de campo se define como la cantidad de agua que pueden retener o absorber los
residuos sólidos antes de lixiviada. Para la determinación de la capacidad de campo
experimentalmente, los ·residuos sólidos por disponer en el relleno deberán empacarse dentro
de un lisímetro, compactándolos en capas hasta alcanzar el peso volu.métrico deseado. A
continuación se agrega agua al lisímetro hasta alcanzar el nivel superior de los residuos ya
compactados, con el fin de saturar su capacidad de absorción. Después se realiza un drenado
del Iisímetro, hasta que se alcance un escurrimiento mínimo, lo cual ocurre normalmente hasta
después de 48 horas de drenado.
La capacidad de campo de los residuos sólidos, se determinará entonces mediánte el empleo

de la siguiente expresión:
6
ec. (!)
Donde:
C: Capacidad de campo de los residuos sólidos, (% de humedad/base seca).

H: Humedad de los residuos sólidos antes de realizar la.determinación de la capacidad de
campo, (% en peso).
PV 1: Peso volumétrico de los residuos empacados al inicio de la experimentación, (Kg/1).
·Si: Volumen de agua de saturación dellisímetro, (litros).
Di: Volumen de agua drenada del lisímetro, (litros).
V 1: Volumen ocupado por los residuos sólidos compactados dentro del lisímetro, (litros).
d: Densidad del agua, (Kg/1).
F: Factor de ajuste de la capacidad de campo, debido a la disminución que en algunos
.j
casos puede sufrir este parámetro, por efecto de la compactación de la basura en el

relleno sanitario. En ocasiones este factor puede despreciarse cuando la humedad y
,,. '
contenido de materia orgánica no son representativos. Aunque hay experiencias en

Latinoamérica donde se ha observado que la capacidad de campo disminuyó por efecto
•
de la compactación en el relleno sanitario hasta en un 30%, debido a que la basura
generada en esta1 gran región, presenta un contenido importante de materia orgánica
y un alto% de.humedad.
b) CálcJlo de las Necesidades de Agua para la Estabilización Vía Anaerobia de los Residuos.
No se consideró en este análisis, la humedad generada por la d"scomposición anaerobia que

se da al inicio de la biodegradación, debido a que el porcentaje de materia orgánica que se
llega a estabilizar es menor al 1%.
Para el cálculo de la humedad requerida para llevar a cabo la descomposición anaerobia de

los residuos sólidos, es necesario considerar la reacción estequiométrica siguiente:
7
eaHbOcNd+(4a-b-2c+3c)/4H 2 0 - - • (4a+b-2c-3d)/8eH,+
+(4a-b+2c+3d)/8e02 +dNH 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ec. (2)
Para balancear esta ecuación, se considerarán los coeficientes incluidos en la Ref. No. 1, los
cuales se listan a continuación:
e= 43.02%
H = 5.96%
o= 49.09%
N= 1.93%
Tomando al carbono como base, se obtienen los siguientes coeficientes relativos:
e= 1
H = 1.66
o= 0.86
N= 0.038
Afectando la ecuación No. 2 por los coeficientes anteriores, se tiene:
eH( 1.66)0(0.86)N(0.04)+(0.19)H20 - - • (0.52)e0 2+

+(0.48)eH,+(0.04 )NH 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ec. (3)
De esta ecuación No. 3, se obtuvo la siguiente relación entre el "eHON" y las necesidades
de agua para el proceso anaerobio:
(O.l9)H 20 3.42
Ro = --------------- =
eH( 1.66)+0(0.86)+N(0.04) 27.98
8
Ro -·e,¡:¡
Ro, - Ro-'k
Donde·
k: 0.'0 de maieria orf;anica en bas~ seca contenida en los residuos.
Por otro lado. la fracción d~ mat~ria orgánica ~n base seca. cont~n1da en la basura está dada
por la siguiente expresión·
MÓ = [ (!'-.!!! oo•pv•v)-(P\··v·H•o.&/1 OO))"{ 1-(z.!lOO))] ec. ( 4)
Ro: Requerimientos de agua para la degradación de los residuos sólidos.
Ro,: Requerimientos de ag~a para la degradación de la materia orgántca en base seca

contenida en los residuos sólidos.
Donde:
M: Fracción orgánica presente en la basura, (% en peso).

PV: Peso volumétrico de los residuos sólidos en el relleno sanitario, (Ton.!m').
V: Volumen unitario de relleno sanitario,(! m 3).
H: Humedad propia de los residuos sólidos, (% en peso).
Z: Fracción de cenizas contenida en la Mat. orgánica en Base seca,(% en peso)
MO: ~-latería orgánica en base seca, contenida en 1 m 3 de basura.
Considerando la relación "Ro,", así como la ecuación No. 4, la cantidad de humedad necesaria
para ia digestión anaerobia, se describe a continuación:
9
/
11 = [ ~10] • [ Ro, ] ee ( ~ \
lTon M. orgámc~ [Ton de

1 • '
H,Ol
<; (.~n base seca c_on ) ¡requerida --·
11·:nida en l m' ! )para deg:adar '
l_sle basura j p Ton. de M. r,
!orgártica en
/base seca. j
H' = H, id ee ! 6\
Donde:
H,: Toneladas de H:O, para degradar la materia orgánica en base seca contenida en m'
de basura.
H': m' de H,O, para degradar la materia orgánica en base seca presenta 1 m 3 de basura.
-
d: Densidad del agua, (Ton/m 3 )
e) Cálculo de la Humedad Lixiviable Proveniente de la Precipitación Pluvial.
Este parámetro, podrá obtenerse mediante la aplicación del l\1etodo de Balance de Agua
desarrollado por C.W. Thornthwaite, según se describe a continuación:
c. 1) Determinación de las Evapotranspiraciones Potenciales Corregidas.
Se determinarán mensualmente, a partir de las temperaturas mensuales promedio,
empleando para ello la siguiente formulación:
EPj = 1.6 (10 Tjll)" ec. (7)
ij = (Tj/5 (' 14 ec. (8)
12
10
I = :E ij -·~-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·- ............. -. -.-.-.-ec~(9)---
J=I----~
ex = 0.49239 + 1,792 • lOE- 05 (I)- 771 • lOE- 07 (1"2) + 675 • lOE- 09 (1~. (.10)
Donde:
EPj: Evapotranspiración potencial mensual sin corregir, (mm).

Tj: Temperatura media mensual, CC).
1: Sumatoria de los índices mensuales de calor, (adimensional).
IJ: Indice mensual de calor (adimensional).
ex: Coeficiente que está en función de la sumatoria de los índices mensuales de calor
(adimensional).
r No. del mes considerado.
' - .
Los valores de "EPj" calculados para cada mes, se corrigen por medio de un coeficiente
mensuaJ "K", que toma en cuenta el número de días y el número real de horas entre la
salida y la puesta del sol.
c.2) Cálculo de la Humedad Potencial de Infiltración.
También se hará mensualmente, realizando el siguiente balance, para cada uno de los
meses del año:
!Pj = Pj - (CEj • Pj) - EPj . . . ec. (ll)
Donde:
IPj:. Humedad potencial de infiltración mensual, (mm).

Pj : Precipitación media mensual, (mm).
CEj: Coeficiente de escurrimiento mensual (Adimensional).
ll
c.3) ·Establecimiento del Balance de Agua.
Se realizará a lo largo de los meses del año, para la cubierta diaria del 'relleno sanitario,
a partir de las siguientes consideraciones:
- Cuando la precipitación m'ensual es igual o superior a la evapotranspiración potencial

mensual, se producirá un exceso en· el aporte de agua a la cubierta de suelo, exceso
que al ser absorbido, alimentará la reserva de agua almacenada por el mismo suelo.
- Si la altura de precipitación mensual es inferior a la evapotranspiración potencial

mensual, sucederá que la evapotranspiración real, consumirá totalmente la
precipitación, generándose por tanto, un cierto déficit el cual es cubierto con las
reservas de agua del suelo hasta su agotamiento. Si la reserva del suelo es suficiente
para satisfacer dicho déficit, la evapotranspiración real será igual a la
evapotranspiración potencial, por lo que se cae dentro de la consideración anterior;
mientras que si por el contrario, la reserva de suelo resulta ser insuficiente, entonces
la evapotranspiración real queda ligada a las precipitaciones mensuales, agotándose
/
las reservas de suelo y estableciéndose por tanto, un déficit en el almacenamiento de

agua en el suelo.
El parámetro resultante de este análisis, se expresa en los siguientes términos:
W = [ mm H,O 1 año ] ec. ( 12)
(\
d) Cálculo de la Producción de Lixiviados.
Este cálculo se realiza básicamente a partir de la tasa de humedad lixiviable proveniente de
12
---~~laprecipitaciÓn pluviaCia cualse obtendrá a partir del balaiice descrito en el inciso anterior.
De acuerdo con lo anterior, se tendrá:
L = [SU* W * 10] ........................................ ec. (13)
Donde:
SU: Superficie del relleno sanitario expuesta a la lluvia, (Has.).

W: Humedad lixiviable proveniente de la precipitación pluvial, (mm/año).
L: Producción anual total de lixiviados (m 3 H,O/año).
La expresión anterior No. 13, se aplicará cuando la basura haya sido totalmente degradada
y cuado la capacidad de campo de la masa de residuos haya sido agotada, por lo que
cualquier cantidad de· agua que penetre a la masa de basura, se infiltrará sin que sea
• 1
retenida por esta última, hasta aparecer en el fondo del relleno sanitario. Cuando no se de
la condición de·'estabilización total de los residuos sólidos, la expresión No. 13, tomai~ la
forma siguiente:
L' = L -{~ ; ;;,ij * ((M/1 00)-(H*O.S/1 00))*

i=1 j=1 I
• (1-(z/100)) • Ro/d *Fij }} .................................... ec. (14)
Donde:
P;; = [PV • (S, • 1000 • E;)]: Factor para identificar las secciones constructivas .del
relleno sanitario.
13
S,: Superficie de la Etapa "i" del relleno sanitario, expuesta a la lluvia, (Has.).
E;: Espesor de la capa "j" del relleno sanitario, (m.).
F,;: Porcentaje que engloba el remanente de materia orgánica por estabilizar, que se halla
en la fracción "ij" del retreno sanitario. (Decimales).
L': Producción anual total de lixiviados, (m 3 H 20/año), para cuando el relleno sanitario
no está totalmente estabilizado.
e) Determinación del tiempo en que aparecerá el lixiviado.
Para este cálculo, se hará un balance de los siguientes parámetros: capacidad de campo de"los
residuos, humedad propia de los residuos, humedad para la degradación anaerobia y humedad
lixiviable debida a la precipitación pluvial.
~
APACIDAD HUMEDAD HUMEDAD PARAJ
DE CAMPO DE PROPIA DE + DEGRADACION
LA BASURA LA BASURA ANAEROBIA
TIEMPO EN (CC) (HB) (HD)
QUE APARECERA
LIXIVIADO
(T)
J
~
HUMEDAD
LIXIVIABLE
(HL)
Desarrollando· cada uno de los términos indicados, se tendrá:
CAPACIDAD DE
CAMPO DE LA =( PV* A*(! -(H/1 OO))*C] ; en (Ton. H¡O/ m. basura)
BASURA
(CC)
HUMEDAD
PROPIA DE = [ PV* A *H/1 00 ] ; en (Ton. H 20/m. basura)
LA BASURA
(HB)
14
---Ht'~1EDAD PARA
DEGRADACION
.ANAEROBIA
¡HDí
Hl'\~EDAD
Ll\:1\'!ABLE = [ Wi!OOO•A): en (m' H,Oiaño)

iHL}
Donde
A: Superfic1e unitaria de relleno sanitario, (l m=)
Agrupando los terminas se llega a la siguiente expresión
T = [ ( CC - HB + HD ) 1 HL ] ec. (15)
Por tanto, [T] estara dado en (años/m. Basura), ya que nos indicara el tiempo que le tomara
al lixiviado recorrer un espesor de 1m. de basura.
f) Estimación de la Producción de Biogas
Para determinar la cantidad de biogas que se genera por la descomposición anaerobia de los
resic''JOS sólido.s, se debe utilizar la reacción estequiométrica ya balanceada identificada como
ecuación No. 3, la cual describe dicho proceso de descomposición. De dicha ecuación, se
obtienen las siguientes relaciones entre el "CHON" y los principales subproductos generados
a partir de la reacción.
- Re! ación-para el metano.·
15
.J
i.
((148) CH, 7 68
R,; - - - - - - - - ---------------; ---------; 0_27'
- Relación para el bióxido de carb0;-1,_,
(0 52) co, 22.8S

R-=-- = ----; 0818
2í.98
Con base en estas relaCiones, la expresiCin para el cálculo de los volúmenes de metano (CHJ
y bióxido de carbono (CO,) contenidos en el biogás, se desarrolla a continuación
BcH, = [ MO ] • [ Rt ] ec_(!6)
~en Base Seca que

!roo "" "'''""}
Jrn eH, pro
ducido por 1
contiene 1 m' de - Ton. de !11at.
~asura · !Orgánica en -
LBase seca
BCH- = [ MO ] • [ Rt ] ec. (17)
ITon CH, pro-

lro, ""' "'''";']
~en Base Seca_ que ducido por 1
contiene 1 m' de - Ton_ de Mat.
~asura .
B) ESFUERZOS DE TRABAJO A CONSIDERAR EN EL DISEÑO DE SISTEMAS DE

ll\IPERMEABILIZACION.
Los esfuerzos de trabajo más comunes, que se presentan en los sistemas de

impermeabilización con membranas artificiales que a últimas fechas se consideran como parte
fundamental de un relleno sanitario, se ilustran en la Fig. No_ 2 y se describen a
continuación:
16
a) Esfuerzo de Tensión por el Peso Propio de la Membrana.
A partir del Detalle No. 1 del Diagrama de Definiciones de la Fig. No. 2, se establece el
siguiente sistemas de fuerzas:
. . ec. (18)
Desarrolando los términos de esta expresión, se tiene:
R2 = R sen a: ...... . ........................ . ec. (19)

F1 = R 1 tan 'f, = (R cos a: ) tan(', ............................. . ec. (20)
R = Ym * (H*sen a:) • e ec. (21)
Donde:
e: Espesor de la membrana· artificial, (m.).

Ym: Peso específico de la membrana artificial, (Ton./m 3)
'E'•: Angulo de fricción interna del suelo que sustentará la membrana artificial.
17
Fig. No. 2
DIAGRAMA DE DEFINICIONES PARA ANALISIS DE ESFUERZOS DE TRABAJO DEL

SISTEMA DE IMPERMEABILIZACION
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UI(UIIIIIO · ·~· ......... , •• , ···""'· 01 · · - ....... , •.•.
l)t fl••h DI ltloto• f'UI &\111 ..... 1111~
. . . . . . .tl.ltl' •• tt .11\0 011 . . . . . . . .
.. ...... ........... ...... . ...._.,.........,. .............. .

t IIHI~ . . . . . . M fi((IM
1 ..... , .. 1
......... , ... , . . . . . l.
.,, ......
... ······-··... -,._,..............
t : , • .,,,,.,. ..... ,,..,,.,M-. •. ~~U laua
:::~::.·~,";:~.~=~.:.·;:o,
let:tt...OO. ta.J.
1 ~ ~
. , , tt.lll•/& utiii>O .1 o& ...... ,,., 1.1 IU l.l
~ ---..H., H .... ,o, ¡l...,./•. J.
· Elesfuerzo de tensión estará dado por la siguiente expresión:
E¡
\jt¡ = . . . . . . . . . . . . , .......................... ec.~2)
e
Donde:
~t¡: en Ton./m 2
E¡: en Ton./m
e: en m.
Cabe aclarar que este tipo de esfuerzos. de tensión, presenta su mayor solicitación, justo
después de haber concluido la instalación de membrana y antes de iniciar con la disposición
de los residuos.
b) Esfuerzos de Compresión Debido al Peso de los Residuos sobre la Membrana.
Considerando el Detalle N_o. 2 del Diagrama de Definiciones de la Fig. No. 2, el esfuerzo

de compresión quedará definido por la siguiente expresión:
\j, = E, ..... : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ec. (23)
Dom~e:
.......... ec. (24)
19
Donde:
yR: Peso volumétrico de los residuos sólidos dentro del relleno sanitario, (Ton./m 3).
YL: Peso volumétrico de los lixiviados, (Ton./m3 ). •
. '•
Ys: Peso volumétrico seco de los residuos sólidos, (Ton./m 3).

' h: Humedad propia de los resiudos sólidos, antes de su disposición dentro del relleno
sanitario, (% en peso).
Este tipo de esfuerzos alcanzarán su condición de !~abajo más crítica, justo al término de la
vida· útil del relleno sanitario, que es cuando se trendrá una mayor carga de residuos sobre
la membrana.
e) Esfuerzo de Tensión Generado por la Fricción Debida al Crecimiento Vertical del Relleno
Sanitario.
Con base al Detalle No. 3 del Diagrama de Definiciones que se presenta en la Fig. No. 2,
se puede formular el sistema de fuerzas siguiente:
E, = F, - F2 ..... ec. (25)
Desglozando los términos de esta expresión, se tiene:
F 3 = R, tan PR = (R3 cos «)tan PR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ec (26)

F2 = R, tan Ps = (R 3 cos «) tan Ps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ec. (27)
R3 = YR • (Y:.*L 1*L 2) ....••.................................. ec. (28)
Donde:
pR: Angulo de fricción interna de los residuos sólidos.
20
\
. '
--~--======~E~l~·:e:_sf'.:u:.'e~r::_zo~d:::e~la~tensión quedará .definido-por-la-siguiente-ecuación'-- - - - - - - - - -
... ec. (29)
Donde:
\j t 2: en Ton .1m 2
E3 : en Ton./m
e: en m.
Se debe mencionar que este tipo de esfuerzos, se presentarán casi permanentemente durante
toda la operación del relleno sanitario, incrementando su magnitud y haciéndose más criticos
conforme se incrementen los paquetes de basura.
· d) Esfu~rzo Cortante Debido al Asentamiento del Relleno por la Estabilización de los Residuos.
El Detalle No. 4 del Diagrama de Definiciones de la Fig. No. 2, muestra la fuerza que se
deben considerar para el cálculo del esfuerzo cortante.
\jc• =E,= P 1 tan 't'• = (P cos a) tanfR . . . ...... . ec. (JO)

p = YR (H- H) ........ . .... . ec. (JI)
Este tipo de esfuerzos, normalmente se presentan una vez que la vida útil del relleno sanitario
ha concluido, pero sobre. todo cuando dicho relleno se encuentre en plena fase de
estabilización.
e) Esfuerzo de Flexión por Asentamientos Diferenciales que se Presentan en el Piso del Relleno.
Consultando el Detalle No. 5 del Diagrama de Definiciones de la Fig. No. 2, se puede
21
establecer el siguiente sistema de fuerzas:
(E, • cos a,) - (S,+ S2) =O ec. (32) .

s, + s,
E,=·------------- ec. (33)
cos a,
Desglosando los términos, tenemos:
S, = (yR • H) tan 'f'R ec. (34)

S 2 =(y, • H) tan 'fs ec. (3 S)
El esfuerzo de flexión quedará expresado por la siguiente ecuación:
\""=E*L
\J f l .. ec. (36)
Donde:
~,: en Ton./m
E,: en Ton./m 2
L: Longitud de la membrana que se ve afectada por la fuerza de flexión.
Estos esfuerzos, aunque pueden presentarse en cualquier momento, incluso al iniciar la

opención del relleno sanitario, es más factible que se presenten al término de la vida útil de
esta obra, debido a que la carga de los residuos sólidos sobre el suelo será mucho mayor.
Estos asentamientos, normalmente son debidos a fallas en la compactación de los materiales
que soportarán al relleno sanitario, aunque en ocasiones estos asentamientos tienen su origen·
en fallamientos de capas más profundas, sobre todo en zonas con suelos calcareos.
22
CURSO INTERNACIONAL DE
RELLENOS SANITARIOS
MEXICO D-F- DEL l4 AL l8 DE

MARZO DE l994
MITOS Y REALIDADES SOBRE LOS

RESIDUOS SOLIDOS /
M- ~~ e_ ARTURO DAVILA
VILLARREAL
1
Los vendedores de soluciones mágicas
al problema de los residuos sólidos
pararán en el basurero de la historia
I.- INTRODUCCION
Es importante aclarar desde este inicio el significado que
estoy utiliz~ndo de la palabra mito, es la propuesta de una
solución que esta.basada en una serie de mentiras, con o sln
conocimiento de ello, que ocasionan esperanza y que terminan
en frustración o en resultados contrarios a los que se
buseaban inicialmente.
La idea de elaborar este documento nace de la infinidad de
comentarios que he escuchado acerca de la frustración de
muchos colegas del área de los residuos sólidos y de mis
experiencias de más de 20 años, en el sentido de que muchas
"soluciones mágicas", sobre todo copiando patrones
extranjeros de otras sociedades con otro tipo de problemas,
son escuchadas por personas que tienen el poder de decisión y
que al final de la jornada adquieren un mito regularmeñte a
costos muy elevados, limitando los recursos para el avance en
el control de los residuos sólidos y peligrosos.

\
revolotean en cada cambio de 'goolerno,

' . .
con las nuevas
autoridades y algunos mas persistentes que duran mas allá do
uno o varios periodos gubernamentales.
Aqui se comprueba el porque se le ha otorgado el nombre de
mito en el sentido ya aclarado en el primer párrafo,
agradezco a un sinnúmero de colegas que me han dado la veta

de la i.nspiración para la consecución de este documento.
Quisiera dedicarlo a todas aquellas personas que envueltos en
un afán de participación ecologista verdadero y a las
autoridades de buena fe que se ven sorprendidos por las
'lrgucias de los vendedores de "soluciones mágicas" al

problema de los residuos sólidos y peligrosos, sin mas
finalidad que la de proporcionar una voz de alerta para
eliminar ilusiones, elefantes blancos y endeudamientos en el
futuro.
Agradezco a todos aquellos amigos y enemigos que por el paso

de la vida me han dado la oportunidad por sus consejos o
criticas participar con aciertos y errores en esta
ul traintere.sante área de los residuos sólidos y peligrosos,
para ellos este documento a manera de extremaunción.

3
___:.;:=====:.IE:''lLdÓcum-ento~prcesenta-los~mi-tos~mas~conocicos~qúe~h-a~he;c~li~o~·====--~---'
dc;ho en paises en vías de desarrollo y la realidad que hay
atrás de los mismos.

'
Con carifio y recuerdo para mis amores, amigos y maestros.
I I.- Ai·iTECEDENTES
D2sde mi primer contacto y hasta la fecha me ha tocado vivir
i.'.l'a serie de procesos y situaciones que se han desarrollado
d2ntro del área de los residuos sólidos, mas en los de tipo
·;;1Unicipal que en los peligrosos hasta ahora, estos procesos
en su mayoría están encaminados a implantar soluciones de
sociedades desarrolladas a nuestros paises, estos procesos
solo han dejado frustraciones, endeudamientos y han impedido
avanzar de forma rápida en la aplicación de sbluciones
acordes a nuestros recursos.
Así, me he topado con una serie de propuestas de ''soluciones
mágicas'', algunas, que han sido llevadas a la práctica, han
resul tacto en fracasos que en nada ayudan y como perjudican
con el tiempo, desgraciadamente la memoria de los eventos
negativos no perdura, en ocasiones dichos eventos se repiten
y se alcanzan los mismós resultados desgraciadamente.

4
·por lo · tanto no queda otra oportunidad que di vulgar los

e-y_-rores, (horrores), cometidos y los· resultados de esas
11
Soluciones mágicas 11 , que en este documento las presento como
mitos, siempre con la esperanza de que en el futúro se evite
la venta de estos mitos a costa de la tributación de todos.
III.- RAZON DE LA EXISTENCIA DE LOS MITOS
Son tres las razones principales para que se produzcci o
genere un mito en el área de los residuos sólidos, la primera
el afán ecológico puro, sin analizar la factibilidad técnica
o económica de la propuesta por parte de algunos grupos
ecologistas; la segunda, la voracidad económica desmedida de
compradores y vendedores; y la tercera, el desconocimiento de
algunas variables , que intervienen en la propuesta que
acarrean consecuencias funestas.
IV.- PRINCIPALES MITOS Y SUS REALIDADES
Uno de los temas principales que encierra una serie de mitos
que giran alrededor del área de los residuos sólidos en los
últimos cinco años es sin duda el relacionado con el
reciclaje, sobre todo cuando es enfocado de una manera
simplista.
Desde ese tiempo se ha desatado un furor por el reciclo ele
los subproductos, algunos grupos ecologistas han apoyado la

5
~~~~~idea-y-:L.a--ven-como-una-so·lución~a-l---pro5lema, sin -embargo
desde uno de los puntos de vista _que se enfoca, que "la
_basura es dinero'' es una falsedad que se ha demostrado con el

tiempo.
En las siguientes cuartillas tocaremos los principales mitos
~¡ue a continuación enlisto: 1
1.- La basura es oro
2.- La separación domiciliaria como fuente de ingreso
3.- Toda la basura es reciclable
4.- Las plantas de reciclo composta
5.- El abuso de la información y otros mitos
4.1.- La basura es oro
ror mucho tiempo, se ha mencionado que la basura es oro, esta
aseveración por lo regular se ha basado por la riqueza que
algunas personas han amasado durante su vida en el manejo de
los residuos sólidos.
Esta situación ha sido extrapolada sin razón a todo el ámbito
de los residuos sólidos, sin embargo. la realidad es que los
residuos se convierten en oro cuando existe en su
aprovechamiento la explotación del hombre por el hombre o
esta incorporada la utilización de bienes gubernamentales
para beneficio de terceros.

6
-. c~-:-2-.- -La sepa.ración domiciliaria como fuente de ingreso
E~t2 punto es el que mas ha sido utilizado par los grupos
'ccoloc:ristas, si bien es cierto y estoy convencido que el
aumento del reciclaje de los subproductos provenientes de los
:c,2siduos sólidos ayuda en mucho a la preservación de los
r2cursos naturales y trae otros beneficios, el enfoque que en
oce.;;ir.,nes se ·le ha dado, que sería una fuente de ingresos
de la casa habitación es un mito mas del
iJmbiente4
A continuación presento un análisis de esta situación,
consideremos los siguientes ba~os básicos, seis habitan tes
!.Jor casa, 650 gramos por persona por día de generación, que
los reciclables representen un 30 porciento del total
generado, cabe aclarar que estoy considerando todos los
reciclables con demanda en el mercado o sin demanda, por lo
tanto tendremos lo siguiente:
6 habjcasa X 650 Grjhab-día X 7 djsem. X 0.30 de reciclables
Generación semanal de reciclables = 8.190 Kilogramos
El precio ponderado para la venta de los subproductos en
l·lé?:ico es de o .12 Nuevos centavos por kilogramo por lo que
"cenclr.i.amos un ingreso total por semana de 0.98 = 1.00 nuevo
peso, que llevanrlo]_o al a~o tendríamos 5} nuevos pesos, este

7
·~~----~~.ing:c.eso~anua-l~representa-un-ingreso d·e un 1"2 porcien·to de· un
salario mínimo mensual, lo anterior denuestra e; u e los
Sllbprcductos en forma unifarnili~r no tiene ningún atractiVo
econónico.
·1.3.- Todos los residuos sólidos son reciclables'
Desde hace tiempo algunos grupos ecologistas han propalado la
de la 11
no generación de basura" en la casa
habit~ción, esto por supuesto es un mito, primero porque no
todos los residuos sólidos en la actualidad es reciclable, ya
que eso que llamamos basura esta compuesta por mas de 70
elementos de muy variadas características, los promotores
argunentan que todo lo no orgánico es reciclable y lo
·orgánico hacerlo composta.
l-le pregunto en una ciudad de un millón de habitantes se
generan solo por residuos sólidos domiciliarios 650 toneladas
diarias, de estas un 55 porciento es orgánica, por lo que
tendrenos 357.50 toneladas diarias de composta una vez que se
inicie la producción.
La experiencia recomienda un promedio de 10 metros de áreas
verdes por habitante, por lo que necesitariamos 1000
hectáreas en una ciudad de este tamafio, si lo recomendable es
colocar 10 toneladas de composta por hectárea en pastos dos
veces por·año, necesitaremos 20,000 toneladas por año, y si

8
res~o?.
?or ctro lado viendo desde el punto de vista optimista que
to~o lo de~ás es reciclable, tendríamos 292.5 toneladas
c1 iaric:s ele subproductos, las que se convierten en 106,000

·;~~)i!2lc.C.as ar.uales, me pregunto, ¿está la induStria con la
c~pacidad de absorber para reciclar esta cantidad anual?.
~qui vale la pena hacer varias reflexiones, hasta la fecha la
Céeparación ele los subproductos por parte del generador, no
tiene un atractivo económico, solo puede resultar cuando
e':iste una gran participación de los habitantes ele una

comunidad completa, esto es muy dificil de alcanzar.
Por otra parte es muy común y por cierto muy atractivo el
llamado , de la conciencia ecológica del reciclo, sin embargo
es necesario ver y analizar las posibilidades de mercado en
la zona donde se realizará un prógrama de reciclo, ya que Sl
el programa tiene ·éxito, será muy común que la oferta del

subproducto en un tiempo corto rebase la demanda del mismo,
derrumbando los precios de éstos por la sobreoferta.
No todos los subproductos en la actualidad tienen una demanda
en el mercado donde existen las industrias recicladoras, los
de mayor demanda son: el cartón, papel lir.1pio, periódico,

9
------------
------~-.~--pa:p·e·r-ue ar-cnivo y computadora, vid:::-io, aluminio y otros no
m2tdlicos y fierro,.
Todos estos subproductos en los residuos sólidos generados en
la casa habitación solo representa en el mejor de los casos

un 15 porciento del total y no el treinta con los que efectué
los anjJisis para estar en el lado mas optimista.
~a pena de tomar ejemplos de algunos paises
desarrollados, en los que se tiene que subvencionar el
reciclaje, pagando mayores costos del programa que lo que
perciben por la venta de los subproductos y en muchos casos
éstos van a parar a un relleno sanitario.
Por lo tanto antes de iniciar un programa de reciclaje en una
localidad es de suma importancia el elaborar un estudio que
tome en consideración todos los factores involucrados, con la
finalidad de establecer las dimensiones del mismo de forma
correcta y no llegar a resultados que todavía nuestros
pueblos se pueden dar el lujo.
Por supuesto que el reciclar tiene una serie de ventajas
entre las que destacan, preservación de materias primas
v;írgenes renovables o no, ahorro de energía, ahorro en los

costos de producción y creación de fuentes de trabajo, estas
son algunas ele las principales y comunmente son utilizadas
por los vendedores de ••soluciones mágicas''.

10
-----~~cace-=-lli-e·n-c·i-on~a~r que uno de-los grandes bG:neficie.iios en el
proces') del reciclaje ha sido la industria, ya CjUe con la
i. ~~ ;:: :)j:-pGrac i ón de los subproductos ·como materia prima,

,-[i:_c~T,inuyen sus costos de producción, situación que no se
refleja en la disminución de los costos al consumidor y ha
~~ntenido un monopolio y un férreo control de precios de los
l.tis~los pará su beneficio, no obstante algunas veces se visten
Ge benefactores últimos del ambiente.
4.4.- Plantas de reciclo composta
Las plantas de reciclo composta fueron a principios de la
d~cada de los setentas la ''panacea'' en México, se instalaron
'tres con tecnología suiza y otra con tecnología italiana, en
las Ciudades de Toluca, Monterrey, Distrito Federal y
Guadal a jara y a finales de la década de los ochentas, se
it1stalaron otras cuatro, localizadas otra vez en Guadalajara,
ya que la -anterior fue cerrada, en oaxaca, en ~lérida y en
Villahermosa, de todas ellas han cerrado, con excepción la de
Guadalajara, la que trabaja con números rojos.
Los vendedores de estas plantas fueron muy hábiles en la
presentación de las bondades de las plantas, sus análisis
se basaron en una recuperación alta de
subproductos, usando los resul tactos de los análisis físicos
que proporcionan las cantidades de subproductos reciclables

11
--~~~"""'"ien los residuos sólidos y por supuesto a la 'lenta total de la
ccr.:posta.
gc,ncho fue precisamente ese, sin enbargo nunca se
consideraron los factores reales de recuperación de los
s~bproductos en bandas y que la demanda por el composta nunca
so igualo a la oferta de producción del mis~o.
r_cs resultados fueron si mi lares en todos los casos, al tos
costos ele operación y mantenimiento; al tos porcentajes de
rechazo, bajos factores de recuperación de subproductos y
prácticamente nula demanda del composta, todo lo anterior
convirtió en pozos sin fondo a las plantas ya que siempre'
trabajaron con números rojos.
4.5.- Abuso de la Información
Otra purte importante de los mitos es el abuso de la
información sobre los residuos sólidos desde el punto de
vista técnico como político social.
Uno
. de los problemas graves a que se enfrenta el área del
control de los residuos sólidos es los miles de "expertos"
que nos encontramos cada día, opinando con gran autoridad
sobre el problema y sus soluciones, las cuales están basadas
en una o varias vi,..-encias que han tenido co~ una visita al

12
~~~~~~~~-,e:-:t.r-2-njero u liojeando un 1-ibl:o ·regularmente edi t2do en el
De lo 2nterior salen muchos horrores que en ocasione~ ponen
en peligro un buen proyecto o echan a andar un mal proyecto,
asi pcdemos encontrar a los que opinan que en el mundo
desarrollado no hay rellenos sanitarios, que la incineración
es la mejor solución porque viajaron a Japón, que todos los
~ateriales contenidos en los residuos sólidos son reciclables
v últimamente que la generación de energía y la pirolisis es
lo recomendable.
Por otro lado cada qulen dice sus cifras sobre la generación
de los residuos sólidos, así se puede uno encontrar
generaciones desde 500 gramos por persona por día hasta los
que mencionan 1500 gramos, en lo que respecta a los residuos
peligrosos todavía es peor el asunto ya que te puedes
encontrar variaciones en la generación del país de hasta el
100 porciento.
Otro problema del abuso de la información es en la
información técnica ya que las opiniones fáciles que en
ocasiones se proporcionan son derivadas de experiencias de
oídas, así podemos encontrarnos que dan información sobre
pesos volumétricos en los rellenos sanitarios de 650
kilogramos por metro cúbico, siendo que es fácil alcanzar
pesos volumétricos de mas de 800 kilogramos por metro cúbico.

13
1
~acolectores de carga lsteral rectangular o tubular ·llevan de
c:::i nc.o a seis tor.elc.C.:::s por vi2je, nunca en mi vida
p~ofesional los he visto de mas de' cuatro y media toneladas.
C2 todo el punto antericr se puede desprender la realidad de
l,,, fc<I·ta de infornación confiable y estadísticamente valida
c;c:a ¡co;rni ta acercarnos lo mas posible a la verdad ccn la
f .i.:c:1l idad de que los resultados de las acciones tornadas
resuelvan el problema planteado.
A ultimas fechas esta muy de moda las plantas de tratamiento
la fabricación de pellets para posteriormente
incinerarlos y g_eneración de electricidad, el gancho
principal es que el cliente compra la electricidad a precios
mayores que lo que ofrece la gubernamental.
Finalmente una reflexión sobre este terna, no siempre todo es
verdad o todo es mentira, se debe hacer una recopilación de
la información, analizarla y evaluarla detalladamente y
resolver en consecuencia.
CIUDAD DE MEXICO ·~
Servicios Urbanos DDF ,~ •
-"-'------ ---- ~ o
·~--------~--~------------~--
CURSO INTERNACIONAL DE DISEÑO DE DISPOSICION

FINAL DE RESIDUOS SOLIDOS
( RELLENOS SANITARIOS )
1994
ASPECTOS SOCIALES DEL MANEJO DE LOS

RESIDUOS SOLIDOS ·
LIC. ROSALBA CRUZ JIMENEZ

ASPECTOS_SOCIALES DEL MANEJO DE-LOS RESIDUOS SOLIDOS
Lic. Rosalba Cruz Jiménez
El manejo de los residuos sólidos es un conjunto de servicios de intrínseca naturaieza

social. Esto es, pocos servicios públicos pese a su composición "pública" presentan
y requieren tan altos niveles de participación social. El manejo de la basura conlleva
un hecho social. Cada persona, cada familia, una colonia .. una ciudad, participan
directa o indirectamente en la génesis, desarrollo y posterior disposición de sus
desechos.
La generación de residuos es un hecho individual que deriva en un proceso

acumulativo que involucra a la sociedad en su conjunto. Todos los elementos de la
sociedad tienen roles y funciones bien definidas de participación en torno al manejo
de los residuos sólidos tanto individual como colectivamente. De los patrones de
comportamiento personal se afectan las magnitudes, de las conductas de grupo se
definen sus componentes y de todos depende su impacto en el ambiente.
Pese a esta cualidad social inherente, el manejo de los residuos sólidos no ha

mostrado una orientada participación de la sociedad de manera generalizada. Diversas
son las modalidades y manifestaciones de participación que se requieren. De manera
individual, es necesario actuar para generar menos residuos
En la casos cuando se han dado manifestaciones importantes, éstas se refieren a

aspectos particulares con características muy específicas, que convendría analizar
como estudio de caso a fin de identificar modalidades que han dado resultado y bajo
que condiciones éstas se han generado.
Por io anterior se concluye que todo elemento de política de mejoramiento del manejo
de los residuos sólidos debe tomar como uno de los elementos básicos la orientación
de participación social.
Se pueden distinguir tres etapas en la participación ciudadana en relación al manejo

de los residuos sólidos. La forma más avanzada de estas etapas es la participación
individual, la actitud conciente de cada persona en favor de una racionalidad en la
generación de residuos, buscando -generar la menor basura posible o quizá
orientándose hacia el ideal ecologista de no generar residuos. En esta etapa se
encuentra ubicado también el proceso de selección o separación en la fuente.
Esta etapa en la actualidad tiene pocas posibilidades de éxito si se le considera como

un hecho generalizado. En la mayoría de las ciudades en las que ya se puede hablar
de esta etapa se manifiesta como hecho3 poco sistemáticos y más bien de carácter
zonal, regional o local, sin poder extender todavía su alcance al entero de las
localidades.
1
---Una-segunda ·etapa de transición, pero muy -importante-ejercicio cívico urbano;-lo,---
co-nstituye la participación social-de grupo,- orientada a. fortalecer y mejorar los
vínculos de la ciudadanía como grupo con los servicios inherente al manejo de los
residuos sólidos. En general esta etapa se orienta a superar el reto que representa la
aceptación de la infraestructura del servicio en un entorno determinado. El fenómeno
mundial relacionado con las siglas NIMBY, no en mi patio, ha sido uno de los factores
que mayormente han condicionado la evolución del servicio o en su caso han
incrementado su costo a límites que ciudades de economías en desarrollo difícilmente
pueden sufragar.
Este nivel como paso intermedio en la actualidad constituye la forma de participación

social más importante, en ciudades que como la nuestra que empiezan un proceso de
desarrollo, en donde la infraestructura básica se convierte en la plataforma de
despegue de toda política o de la instrumentación de acciones de mejoramiento.
Esta etapa representa un reto a las autoridades e implica transformaciones de fondo

tanto en los conceptos como en la definición de sistemas y procedimientos.
Lo anterior significa un cambio en las prácticas administrativas y una revisión a las

condiciones del manejo de los residuos sólidos.
El primer obstáculo que enfrenta la participación ciudadana es la asociación peyorativa

de la basura en su manejo. Efectivamente, a lo largo de los años en nuestras ciudades
el manejo se había mantenido en condiciones de rezago con respecto a otros servicios
urbanos. Presupuesta!, administrativa y operativamente no se consideraba como
servicio prioritario, lo que institucionalmente condicionó su manejo y sus impactos en
el entorno social y en el ambiente.
En el caso de la ciudad de México la memoria urbana registra hasta hace muy pocos
años las grandes montañas de basura en los tiraderos, el desprendimiento de olores
y gases, la proliferación de fauna nociva en su alrededor, las escenas de ventas de
subproductos. Situaciones semejantes se grabaron en la población en torno a las
antiguas estaciones de transferencia.
Ante este panorama toda acción de exhortación de cambio se enfrentaba a la

resistencia natural de la ciudadanía, convirtiéndose la participación de grupo en un
rechazo total a sus nuevas construcciones y a la operación de las ya existentes.
2
- ---Por-otra-parte, existía una firme convicción de-cambio:-l:os-grandes requerimientos
anioientales de la Ciudad de México, la dinámica Urbana y la existencia de grandes-
déficits a nuevas formas de manejo y administración, en donde la conformación de
infraestructura básica representaba el papel mas importante. Y éste constituía
paradojicamente el mayor concepto de oposición de la ciudadanía.
Derivado de lo anterior, fué necesario instrumentar políticas o acciones concretas para

lograr el apoyo ciudadano para estas acciones que actualmente constituyen uno·de
los elementos variables mas importantes en el manejo de los residuos sólidos de ésta
capital.
Esta concepción implicó lo siguiente:
Considerar el manejo de los residuos sólidos como prioritario, eliminando

la asociación peyorativa de la basura a las prácticas institucionales,
presupuestales, administrativas, etc.
Conferirle al manejo de la basura características ambientales, sanitarias,

de funcionalidad y de imagen urbana.
Iniciar acciones para conformar casos ejemplos de operación controlada

con las características antes señaladas para contar con efectos
demostración efectivos.
Establecer compromisos y responsabilidades específicas de las

autoridades; y derechos y obligaciones de los habitantes.
Establecer un mecanismo de trabajo social urbano para atender las

demandas, dar respuesta a dudas y en general explicar el contenido y
alcances' de las acciones específicas a diferentes niveles, individual,
familiar, grupal, regional, etc.
Formar comites de vigilancia ciudadana para controlar los impactos al

ambiente, los efectos en el entorne urbano; la funcionalidad vial y la
imagen de las instalaciones.
Todas esta consideraciones se sustentaban en una efectiva convicción política de

mejorar el manejo de los residuos sólidos asumiendo compromisos que definitivamente
deberían instrumentarse, viéndose resultados en el corto plazo que paulatinamente
lograrían la aceptación de la población a la infraestructura básica.
3
. . /~.-.....·.
·--Grandes fueron los esfu_erzos_de_concer_tación,_múltlples_demandas_que_atender_y·--~·--____
responder, pero finalmente, los habitantes de la ciudad de México y las autoridades
han ido ejercitando nuevas formas de relación en el manejo de los residuos sólidos y
con ello se ha venido confo;mando la infraestructura básica para alcanzar nuevos
estadios de desarrollo y así contar con la plataforma para atender formas más
avanzadas de participación social.
Finalmente, la tercera etapa de participación se refiere al nivel inicial de ubicación y

concientización del problema, a la etapa de conocimiento básico a la aceptación y
disposición para conocer el problema.
Esta es una fase que paralelamente se ha trabajado a nivel de unidad básica y de

alguna formé! de comunicación masiva.
Es por ello que a continuación se presenta una muestra de los mecanismos utilizados
para estimular la participación de la población en el apoyo a la construcción y
operación de estaciones de transferencia.
\
Un ejemplo de caso podría ilustrar este proceso, para lo cual mencionaremos la
construcción de la Estación de Transferencia Tlalpan.
La Ciudad de México esta constituída por 16 delegaciones políticas que en conjunto

suman una extensión de 1499 km2 con una población de 8'235, 744 habitantes.
Al sur de la ciudad se localiza la delegación Tlalpan, la cual cuenta con una superficie
de 312 km2, que la convierte en la Delegación más extensa, y representa 20.8 % del
territorio del Distrito Federal. Limita al norte con las delegaciones Alvaro Obregón y_
Coyoacán, al este con Xochimilco y Milpa Alta, al sur con el estado de Morelos y al
oeste con el estado de México y la delegación Magdalena Contreras. Los principales
componentes climáticos como la temperatura y la humedad están condicionados por
la presencia de sierras Ajusco y Xitle, sitios que por su riqueza forestal constituyen
reservas de fauna y flora y actúan aunque cada vez menos, como equilibradores del
clima dentro de la cuenca del valle de México. Estos sitios son parte de la reserva
ecológica considerados como parques nacionales.
La delegación comprende 8 pueblos, 7 barrios, 143 colonias, que integran 104,292

viviendas. El 70% del territorio pertenece a comuneros, el 17% a particulares, el1 0%
al Gobierno Federal y el 3% a ejidatarios. Tiene una población de 484,866 habitantes
que generan alrededor de 681 toneladas día de residuos sólidos.
4
__ En-la-década -de los 80's esta delegación presentaba una problemática de gran
----~~envergadüra-araloergar un tiraaero a cielo aoierto en las inmediaciones deiAjusco, lo
que condicionó por años el manejo de los residuos; además de contar con una
recolección ineficiente motivada por los largos recorridos que realizaban los ·camiones
recolectores- hasta 34 km de ida y vuelta -, ya que por carecer de una estación de
transferencia, se veían obligados a depositar sus residuos en las estaciones de
Xochimilco y Coyoacán.
'AL RELLENO
SANIT~RIO
/'
i ZONA
\ B
~ZONA'\
~ A . , __ _ ' ,.·
XOCHIMILCO,."'
/
/
/ ---
'
/
/
E T ·- ESTAC:ON DE
TRANSFERENCIA
En este sentido, las autoridades de Departamento del Distrito Federal iniciaron un

análisis sobre la problemática existente en donde se determinó la necesidad de
construir una estación de transferencia.
Es así como se realizan los estudios preliminares que permiten identificar que la
ubicación más adecuada para la construcción de la estación, es en el kilómetro 5.5 de
la carretera Picacho-Ajusco por las características topográficas que presenta este
lugar, como son: un gran sistema de elevaciones de origen volcánico con un alto
grado de fractura, acumuiación de roca volcánica que forma depósitos de gran espesor
y en general las texturas son del tipo francoarenoso, la consistencia suelta
pulverulenta y friable cuando los suelos estan muy secos.
No obstante ·en sus inicios de edificación se empiezan a dar manifestaciones sor.iales

en contra de su construcción, participando en estas desde asociaciones de colonos,
padres de familia hasta grupos ecologistas que pertenecer. a estratos socioeconómicos
distintos y la existencia de una escuela privada que condicionaba su instalación.
5
----~Esta-situación-obligó-a-las-autoridades-a-llevar-a-cabo~un-amplio-programa-de-difuSioñ_-_-- - -
Y concertación con los distintos grupos sociales, que consistió desde pláticas
personales, visitas a escuelas, programas de radio y juntas locales con apoyo de
material didáctico: láminas, maquetas, trípticos, entre otros, explicándoles claramente
en que consistía la instalación de este tipo de infraestructura. Asimismo, se les otorgó
información respecto a los beneficios adicionales que obtendrían con obras
complementarias como pavimentación de calles, incorporación de un tercer carril vial
en la carretera Picacho-Ajusco, áreas arboladas, estacionamiento para el Colegio de
México, etc; además de concientizarlos de que se requería mejorar los sistemas de
manejo de los residuos que se estaban convirtiendo en un grave problema-en la zona.
Derivado de lo anterior se creó un comité de vigilancia integrado principalmente por

representantes de los distintos grupos involucrados, el cual tenía como finalidad llevar
a cabo la supervisión y vigilancia de las emisiones al ambiente, el funcionamiento vial
y los aspectos al entorno.
Bajo este contexto se definió la construcción de la Estación de Transferencia Tlalpan,

con ·1os criterios y especificaciones acorde a los requerimientos de operación y a las
demandas ciudadanas.
La Estación de Transferencia Tlalpan con una capacidad instalada de 700 toneladas

día, comprende una superficie total de 25,000 m2 de los cuales 15,000 m2 se
destinaron a áreas verdes y a la creación de un pequeño bosque que, junto con los
árboles de la zona, demandaron la plantación de 1,000 árboles así como de cientos
de plantas y flores.
Para evitar posibles encolamientos de vehículos recolectores fuera de la estación así

como para agilizar el tráfico vehicular, se construyeron 5,000 m2 de vialidad interna.
L<l estación cuenta con instalaciones totalmente cubiertas con lámina multipanel;
muros de block para amortiguamiento de ruidos; tolvas para la descarga de residuos
con dispositiv:Js atomizadores para contrarrestar la emisión de polvos y olores;
sistemas de depuración de aire; sistema hidroneumático para lavado y riego y
cisternas de agua potable y de agua tratada para riego y lavado, elementos técnicos
y ecológicos de avanzada que le dá una presencia urbanística más estética acorde a
las características de la zona.
Además, cuenta con barda perimetral, rampas de entrada y salida de recolectores,

taller de mantenimiento, área administrativa, estacionamiento y sanitarios.
Posterior a la Estación de Transferencia Tlalpan, y siguiendo los mismos criterios

empleados, se construyeron las estaciones Alvaro Ohregón y Central de Abasto 11, así
como la rehabilitación de las existentes en Coyoacán, Venustiano Carranza, Miguel
Hidalgo y Central de Abasto l.
6
ESTACIONES DE TRANSFERENCIA
·-.
ALVARO OBREGON
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~ N6Cof~StrA' PIUTR.IfTTIIHóttrJ
, PRo8LéHl
- COffC5NT({ItTO ~ RtFIUTO ro~~1c.o 6 !iOCtVO
- OC..UU $ION/
- INC{l0~7A2t0tfl l:llf C¡I(<.(I,ONIITI é ~Ot.FATI
- f(l.5c.tPITffZIOrtó HéTA LU
- flflR71C6lt,ó 6R.O'n0tA/"Ié tfét t,I~C/IIHó

- Cfl.ó~(;ITA P>IOtOrTICA
AD50fl81 MENTO
4_wo,~· =. _
-.-·.~--a o-~~-
. . - ....
~ X/M - KC::'fn.
10~ - r-e.+r..r~ 1:;,
q~
-1\Z.S
&
®
UX:WlAW - eL\ lo i ·h;)
AC..lCO
~
'V
- 0..'-''olo útni'C<J
- o..v.:J...a 4CLh'c.o
t
-~ z. 1 : l.:>
10 1
1
1 ''
1
10 ..
..
10'Z.. 10~ 104-
~ e fn~ eco/e)
10
®
LtXlVIADo
2
~eTANlGa-10
..,
,_
,,'•1 1
1
1/
10 ,1
Average, minimum and maximum concentrations in
leachate, the number of analyses, the number of
landfills and the period of analyses.
Component unit average range
~C.oc:> mg/1 5424 1 -68330
pH 6.8 4,7 8,4
Cl mg/1 743 26 7122
NH 4 -N mg/1 237 6 1410
N03 mg/1 218 o 1740
Kjehldahi-N mg/1 438 3 2250
so. mg/1 842 36 5865
As ¡..tg/1 51 o 499
Cd ¡..tg/1 4 o 140
Cr ¡..tg/1 67 o 1750
Cu ¡..tg/1 30 o 830
Hg ¡..tg/1 1 o 26
Ni . ¡..tg/1 92 o 1050
Pb ¡..tg/1 - 394 o -30300
Zn ¡..tg/1 720 o -30000
Ba ¡..tg/1 556 o 7810'
Fe mg/1 417 1 2300
Ca mg/1 787 33 3677
Mg mg/1 177 20 729
Na mg/1 2988 1640 4335
K mg/1 1813 1450 2190
PAH ¡..tg/1 2 o 10
EOCI ¡..tg/1 29 o 450
8lie O'¡L. mg/1 1386 o -30200
Ar. solvents ¡..tg/1 1042 7 - 2550
1500
........
"'
E 1200
.S
----
~--900- -~
o e
..e:
u
o
<lJ
600
e::
N
u
e:: 300
o
u
o
o 10 20 30 40 50
"leoching time" in yeors

1500
........
O"
E
1200
e:: Cl
<lJ
900
o,
..e: •
u
o
~ 600
e::
u
e::
o 300
u
Zn. Cd
o
o 130 260 390 520 650
"leaching time" in yeors

0.60
\
•
........
O"
0.48 Zn
E
e::
<lJ
0.36
o
..e:
u
o
~ 0.24
.S
u
e::
o 0.12
u
0.00
o 400 800 1200 1600 2000
"leoching time" in years

Concentration of sorne components in leachate versus time (calculated').
Precipotatoon
1 1 1 1 Soil
Grolfldwater Table Leachate
~Leachate Atteruation So.bSU'face Movement
Wídened .Joints
Permeable Sandstone
lrrpermeable Shale
lnterrelation between climatic, topographic, hydrolic, and geologic factors 1n terms of

~ leachate travel and groundwater contamination
preciP•tat•cn
'f 'f 'f 'f 'f 'f 'f 'f 'f~'f··'f-'1'-'f- 'f 'f 'f
evaoorat1on
................................................................
rnorutoring well
Wlttl~
3 filters LI"'Sa tll' a t ed zone
Schematic diagram of key aspecís of a completed landfill

0.80 4
e
o 0.60
u
..........
u 0.40
0.20
0.00
o 1 2 3 4 5
e d
VIVo
Breakthrough cuNes:
1) convective flow;
2) convective flow + diffusion/dispersion (CI");
3) 2 + adsorption; 4) S+ microbio/ogical degradation;
f
5) + precipitation. :(..
C=effluent concentration; C0 =influentconcentration; V=total
.effluent vo/ume: V 0 =lotal wateNolume in the column.
Distribution ratios of Cd, Fe and Ni in poor humic sand and rich humic
sand
Metal Humic-poor sand Humic-rich sand
Cd 0.21 1.86
Fe 0.73 1.59
Ni 0.38 2.47
1
V=-
. hi
€
v· = effective {pore)flow velocity of groundwater (m/yr)

i = hydraulic head gradient in the aquifer
k =hydraulic conductivity (m/d)
Next the transport of a pollutant along a streamline in the aquifer can be

calculated. For the migration of a solute front the following equation is
used:
v.1 = v*( 1 )
1 +R;
=
v; migration velocity of solute front (m/yr)
R; = distribution ratio, representing the distribution of solute i over
solid phase (adsorption) and soil solution {1 + R¡ = retardation
factor)
Average-, mlnlmurn- en mnimum coneentrallons of tome p1remeto,. In groundwater near
landfill ªiles
Parameter Unlt no. Average Mlnimum Maxlmum
Cl m~ 3978 335.28 0.70 18200.00

~coo · mg/1 3650 202.01 0.00 57756.00
EC ~S/ cm 3378 1238.37 5.00 30400.00
N -· kjeldahl mg/1 3028 20.53 0.00 1250.00
pH 2986 7.60 2.90 711.00
Sulphate mg/1 2544 109.51 0.00 4550.00
Nitrate mg/1 2430 5.79 0.00 760.00
Total phosphate · mg/1 1863 2.50 0.00 325.00
NH,-N mg/1 1796 17.29 0.00 1170.00
Zn ~gil 1693 183.60 0.01 34000.00
Ni ~gil 1661 25.81 0.00 1300.00
Cr ~gil 1592 38.81 0.00 34000.00
Cu ~gil 1579 24.72 0.00 3500.00

Pb ~gil 1550 19.43 0.00 700.00
~Ja mg!l 1422 102.91 2.40 15000.00
'
K mgil 1418 23.70 o 00 1720.00
Cd ~gil 1390 179.13 0.00 45300.00
As ~gil 1338 26.92 0.00 2350.00
Hg ~gil 1135 1 18 0.00 211.30
Bicarbonat.e (hardness) mgil 1131 415.46 0.00 18000.00
EOCI pgll 907 3.80 O. 10 395.00
Total hardr,ess mg!l 828 559.94 0.00 3575.00
Ca ~gil 685 24726.54 1.60 620000.00
f.l ;¡ mgil 680 448.48 O. 10 150000.00
Nitrite mgil 679 1 80 0.00 670.00
Fe u gil 610 10791.31 0.00 350000.00
Mn ~gil 475 712.24 o 00 18000.00
Fluoride mgil 431 O. 16 0.01 .24.00
Benzene ~gil 372 4.13 o 00 231.1 o
Toluene ~gil 364 25.54 0.00 3500 00
Ethylbenzene pgil 359 6.08 0.00 231.30
Cyanide (total) CN ug/1 352 1405 o 00 1000 00
o·, m· en p-xylene pg'l 348 15.16 o 00 800.00
Naphtalene ~gil 286 4.99 0.01 270.00
BOD mg!l 279 519.24 0.01 20300.00
Ammonia as N mg'l 225 24.86 0.01 1250.00
Ba ug/1 224 197.76 5.00 2750.00
Alpha-HCH pgil 217 1 08 0.00 3000

Ave..,., mlnlmum- en maxlmum coneentratlona ol aome par~meter~' In grounclwater near
landfill 1h1 o
Para meter Unlt no. Average Mlnlmym Yaximum
Fluoranthene ¡.gil 217 2.78 0.00 220.70
Gamma-HCH ¡.lf'l 215 1.82 0.00 60é00
HCB ¡.gil 213 1.02 0.00 54.00
Bénzo(b )fluoranthene ¡.gil 212 1.49 0.00 221.10
Benzo(a)pyrene ¡lgil 211 1.50 000 221.30
Benzo(g .h .i)perylene ~gil 21 1 1.43 0.00 221.50
B enz o( k)fluorant hene ~gil 208 1.43 0.00 221.20
Tetrachloroethene (per) ~gil 207 4.62 0.00 232.70
lndeno(1 ,2 .3-cd)pyrone ¡lg/1 199 1.55 0.00 221.60
Oibenzo(a.h)anthracer.e ¡lgil 181 1.61 0.00 221.40
Total organic carbon mg C/1 181 56.44 0.00 392.00
Benz(a)anthracene ~gil. 180 1.89 0.00 220.90
Chr¡sene ¡lgil 179 1. 72 0.00 221.00
Trichloroethene (tri) pgil 178 4.83 000 232.60
Pyrene ug 1 1 175 1.72 0.00 220.80
An:hracene ¡l '}'1 171 3.00 0.00 220.60
Phenantrene ¡lgil 170 1.89 0.01 220.50
~·Jitía!e "!" Nitrite ~gil 163 o. 16 0.00 4.30
Acena¡:h:ene pg.'l 162 2 02 0.00 220.20
Fluorene u gil 162 1.98 0.01 220.40
Di eh lorc.;..-2thane pg/1 161 1.90 0.1 o 22.00
~.linera! oil (total) mg11 152 37347 0.01 16600.00
Trichloromethane (chlorooform) ¡l\)/1 147 5.64 0.09 232.20
TetrachiOíOCarbon (te~ra) uQII 143 5.95 O. 1O 232.30
Acen2;:htylene uQII 134 2.17 0.01 220.30
Beta·HCH ¡lgil 132 0.43 0.00 2.00
0.0.0 u gil 132 0.21 0.00 1.00
0.0 E uQII 132 0.24 0.00 3.80
O.O.T uQII 132 0.21 0.00 1.00
1.1.2-trichloroethane ug/1 126 3 07 0.20 232.52
Endrin ¡lg/1 126 0.45 0.00 2.00
Propylbenzene pg'l 122 4.61 0.00 231.40
1.1. 1·lnchloroelhane _ug!l 117 5.20 0.20 232.51
Phenol u gil 108 3.65 0.20 67.00
Alpha-en.1osulfan ug/1 105 1.33 0.00 o 5.00
Co ug'l 105 36.18 1.00 700.00
P-number 105 0.16 0.00 2.20
Oieldrin ¡lg/1 104 0.54 0.00 2.00

Avor-s ,.., mlnlmum- en rnexlmum concentretJone of aom• peremetere In grounew-.r _ ,
laneflll s~. .
~ ~
Para meter ~
Unit no. Average Minlmym MaxlmLim
.
~
Dichlorophenol (total) ¡lg/1 4 . 0:01 0:01 0.01

..
-
Phenitrothion
e 1O-aroma tes .
¡lg/1
¡lg/1
4
3
2.00
13.33
2.00
5.00
2.00
30.00
Camphor ¡lg/1 3 26.00 1.00 47.00
Chlorophenols (total) ¡lg/1 3 0.50 0.50 0.50
Dichloroethene ¡lg/1 3 o 50 0.50 0.50
Organochloro-pestic1des (total) ¡lg/1 3 0.50 0.50 0.50

.
o- m-·and p-cresol ¡lg/1 3 0.50 o 50 0.50
Pcs·s (polychlorobiphenyles) ¡lg/1 3 0.40·. 0.40 0.40
Trimethyl bicyclo heptane ¡lg/1 3 101.00 47.00 200.00
Plasticizers (total) ¡lgil 3 0.30 0.30 0.30
Acetone ~gil 2 117.05 0.00 234.1 o
Cineole .u g/1 2 20 50 17.00 24.00
i·butano! _u-:¡'1 2 177.31 120.00 234.61
Li ug'l 2 0.10 910 0.10
r.lethylprcpanol u gil 2 46.00 25.00 67.00
Trimethyl cyclohexanemethanol ~gil 2 190.00 5000 330.00
T r~rr.et hyl cyc loh ex a nol ll gil 2 5.50 1 00. 10.00
2 (3H) benzothiazolon ¡lgil 1 60 00 60.00 60.00
Benzen epropano icac id pglJ 1 9000 00 9000.00 9000.00
Boril!.'n u gil 1 7700 7700 7700
9L:tan0r:e (total) ·.~ e: 1 1 1 1500.00 1500.00 1500.00
Dichi...:·rce:~ane (total) .U .;¡JI 1 232.40 232.40 232.40
C·'.me:~~~:i;:·e r.ta non e pg/1 1 15 00 15.00 15.00
Endasul!3r. (~ota!) ll gil 1 0.01 0.01 0.01
Formal-:!ehyde ~911 1 0.07 0.07 0.07
Hexanol ¡lg/1 1 70 00 70.00 70.00
m- and ,c-ethyltoluene pg/1 1 0.07 0.07 0.07
r..le:hane. thiobis pg/1 1 85.00 85.00 85.00
~Aethanamine. N.N-dimethyl _u gil 1 34 00 34.00 34•00
Methylethyl~etone (~ 2-butanone) pg/1 1 500.00 500.00 500.00
p-isopropy !toluen e u9'1 1 0.12 0.12 0.12
Pentanone ug/1 1 120.00 120.00 120.00
Pesticides and Pcs·s ll gil 1 0.01 0.01 0.01
Sulphite m gil 1 99.00 99.00 99.00
Free carbon dioxide mg'l 1 130.00 130 00 130.00

Avel'8g•. mlnlmum- en maxlmum concentratlonl ol 10me peramele1'8 In groundwater RNr
landllll 11tee
Pera meter Unil no. Average Mlnlmum Maxlmum
Trichloroethane (total) ~gil 13 18.81 1.00 232.50
T etrachlorobenzenes ~gil 12 0.03 0.01 0.10
2. 3.4-trichlorophenol ~11'1 11 0.01 0.01 0.06
2.3.5-lrichlorophenol ~gil 11 0.01 0.01 0.08
2. 3. S.6-tetrachlorophenol ~gil 11 o 03 0.01 0.10
2 .3.6-trichlorophenol ~gil 11 o os 0.01 0.40
2.S-dimethylphenol ~gil 11 1.19 0.10 12.00
3-chlorophenol ~gil 11 o 21 0.10 1.20

3.4-dimethylphenol ~g// 11 O.S9 0.10 s.oo
3.4.S-trichloropheno/ ~gil 11 0.01 O.ot . 0.06
Sediment 11 3.20 0.20 19.00
m-cresol ~gil 11 027 0.20 o.so

p-e resol ~g'l 11 0.18 0.10 o.so
2 .3-dimethylphenol ~gil 10 0.12 010 0.30
3. 5-dimethylphenol ~gil 10 0.10 0.10 0.10
Epsilon-HCH ~gil 10 0.01 0.01 0.01
m-ethylphenol ~gil 10 o 10 0.10 0.10
o-ethylphenol ~gil 10 o 32 010 2.30
p-ethylphenol ~gil 10 0.10 0.1 o 0.10
Suspended solids 10 142.74 2 90 590.00
Trihalomethanes ~gil 9 1.63 1.00 3.80
2-chloroelhylvinyl ~gil 7 o 57 O.SO 1.00
2 .3-dichlorophenol ~gil 7 0.04 o 01 0.10
2. 5-dichlorophenol ~gil 7 o 02 0.01 0.10
2.6-dichlorophenol ~gil 7 002 0.01 0.10
3.4-dtchlorophenol ~gil 7 0.07 0.01 0.40
3.5-dtchlorophenol pgll 7 0.14 o 01 0.90
Bromoform pg/1 6 o 20 0.20 0.20
Bromodichloromethane pg/1 6 o 2·:l 0.20 0.20
Dibromochloromethane ug/1 6 o 20 0.20 0.20
T etrachloroethane ~g/1 6 0.20 0.20 0.20
T etrahydrofurane ug'l 6 133.92 2.40 4SO.OO
T ric hlorofluormelhane ~g/1 6 0.20 020 0.20
Ag ~gil 5 134 00 110.00 190.00
Be pg/1 S 382S.94 S.70 11900.00
C9-aromates ~gil 5 14.60 10.00 23.00
Phenthion ~gil 5 0.05 0.05 0.05
Sn ~gil S 18.00 10.00 50.00

Avo~. mlnlmum- en mexlmum concent,.tlono ol oome pe,.metars in groundwater near
landflll 11111
Porometor Unit no. Average Minimum lillllhftURI
-0rtho,phoaphate m gil 32 032 0:01 us

·1.1-dichloroethene ~gil 30 0.84 0.20 1.00
1.3-dichloropropene (trans) ~1}'1 30 0.84 0.20 1.00
1.2-dichloroethene (trans) ~gil 29 0.86 0.20 1.00
Mevinphos ~gil 29 1.97 0.05 5.00
2-methyl-4.6-dinitrophenol ~gil 28 10.00 10.00 10.00
4-nitrophenol ~gil 28 10.00 10.00 10.00
Azinfos-ethyl ~gil 28 10.00 10.00 10.00
Azinfos'methyl ~gil 28 5.00 5.00 5.00
Enthion ~gil 28 2.00 2.00 2.00
Methidathion ~gil 28 2.00 2.00 2.00
Methylphenol (cresol) ~gil 28 5.14 5.00 9.00
Sulfide m gil 28 1.20 0.00 8.95
4-chlorophenol ~gil 27 26.32 0.10 220.00
Aromatic solvents (total) ~gil 27 1.55 0.13 14.40
2.6 dimethylphenol ~gil 26 6.19 0.10 78.00-
Dimethylphenol (total) u gil 26 6.19 0.10 78.00
Disulfoton ~gil 26 1.63 0.05 2.00
1.2-dichloroethene (cis) ~gil 25 3.36 0.20 54.00
2.4-dínitrophenol ~g/1 25 20.00 20.00 20.00
Chlcropyrifcs ~gil 25 4.01 0.05 5.00
1.2 -dichloropropene )Jgil 24 1.00 1.00 1.00
1.2-dichloropropene (cis) ~gil 24 1.00 1.00 1.00
1.2.34-tetrachlorobenzene ¡Jg/1 24 0.50 0.50 0.50
1.2.3.5-tetrachlorobenzene ~gil 24 0.50 0.50 0.50
1.2.4.5-tetrachlorobenzene ~gil 24 0.50 . 0.50 0.50
Endosulfansulphate pg!l 24 2.00 2.00 2.00
Endnn aldehyde pgil 24 5.00 5.00 5.00
Nitrophenol (total) pgil 24 1.32 0.50 5.00
Oily components 'pg/1 24 100.00 100.00 100.00
Dimethylethyl benzoate pg/1 20 16.67 2.00 100.00
Cholínesterase inhibitors pgil' 19 0.10 0.02 0.90
Oxygen mg 0/1 18 6.91 0.30 12.50
Phenols (watervapour-volatlles) pg'l .17 26 01 0.50 205.01
AOCI jJQ./1 16 2344 5.00 75.00
Cr -VI pgil 15 070 0.50 300
PAH. 6 of BorneH u gil 14 0.15 O. 10 0.50
Organophosphor-pesticides. (total) ~gil 13 0.27 0.05 1.00

Av.,.,._, ·mlnlmum- en rM.IIt!!utft o-ntrtti011a el • - pal'll-lers in groundwater near
landtlll 11tea · ··---::"'~
Pan~ meter l)nil no. Avt~rage Uinimum Uuimwn

Dena-HCH ~fil 39 1.44 0.01 2.00
PCB 28: 2.4-4' -trichlorobiphen. ~fil 39 0.72 0.01 1.00
PCB 52: 2 5-2'5' -tetrachlorobiphen. ~fil 39 o 72 0.01 1.00
PCB 101: 2 4.5-2'5' -pentachlorobiphen. ~fil 39 0.72 0.01 1.00
PCB 118: 2 4-3'4'5' -pentachlorobiphen. ~fil 39 o 72 0.01 1.00
PCB 138: 2.3.4-2'4'5' ·hexachlorobiphen. ~fil 39 0.72 0.01 1.00
PCB 153: 2.4.5-2'4'5' -hexachlorobiphen. ~gil 39 0.72 0.01 1.00
PCB 180:2.3.4.5-2'4'5' -heptachlorobiphen. ~gil 39 0.72 0.01 1.00
Pentachlorophenol ~gil 39 3.59 0.01 5.00
1.2.3-trichlorobenzene ~fil 38 0.43 0.05 1.00
1.2.4-trichlorobenzene ~gil 38 0.43 0.05 1.00
1.3.5-lrichlorobenzene ~gil 38 . 0.43 0.05 1.00
Alpha-methyl- slyrene ~gil 38 0.64 0.50 2.00
Mesilhylene ~gil 38 0.83 0.50 5.00
Monochlorobenzene . pg/1 38 0.56 q5o 1.00
1.2.3-lrichloropropane ~gil 37 1.43 1.00 5.00
Drchlorovos pg/1 37 206 0.05 5.00
m- and p-cresol ~gil 37 . 10.50 0.25 160.00'
2 .4-dichlorophenol ~gil 35 4.00 0.01 5.00
Phenols ~gil 35 64.41 0.10 1000.00
Non-volatile hydrocarbon fraction mg/1 35 0.20 0.10 2.30
1.2-dichloropropane ~gil 34 0.86 0.20 1.00
A"trazine ~gil 34 1 .43 0.05 2.00
Propazine ~gil 34 1.43 0.05 2.00
Simazine pg/1 34 1.43 0.05 2.00
T erbutryn ~gil 34 1.43 0.05 2.00
Volatile hydrocarbon fraction mg/1 34 0.09 0.05 0.90
1.3-dichloropropane ~gil 33 1.00 1.00 1.00
Bromophos ( -elhyl) ~gil 33 170 0.05 2.00
Bromophos (-methyl) ~gil 33 170 0.05 2.00
Diazinon ~gil 33 1. 70 0.05 2.00
Oimethoate ~gil 33 1.70 0.05 2.00
Mala!hion ~gil 33 170 0.05 2.00
Paralhron-ethyl pg/1 33 170 0.05 2.00
Parathion-methyl pg/1 33 170 0.05. 2.00
Pentach!orobenzene ug/1 33 0.37 0.01 0.50
PAH ( 10 "Leidraad lbs") ~gil 33 0.36 0.03 3.77
Al ~gil 32 1893.92 0.30 19700.00

Averag•. mlnlmum- en muimum cencent,.tlon• of 1ome par-ters in groundwater near
Jandftll 1it..
Pera meter M@Xi _ _

Unlt no. Average Minimum ·-------
Heplachloroepoxide ~(#'1 102 0:55 0.00 2.00
Heplachloro 11 (#'1 101 0.56 0.00 2.00
Anorganic carbon mg C/1 99 169.08 53.00 478.00
lsopropylbenzene 11\VI 92 0.92 0.01 15.00

Slyrene ~gil 92 0.51 0.01 3.60
Sb 11gil 89 9.85 0.02 212.20
PAH (total) 11gil 81 5.1 1 0.04 220.00
V 11gil 79 54.54 1.00 580.00
Se 11gil 70 6.63 2.00 212.30
Chlorobenzenes (lolal) 11gil 69 0.27 0.01 .10.00
Bela-endosulfan 11g/l 68 2.06 o 00 5.00
Temp€rat ure 'C 68 12.63 7.00 18.50
1.2-dichlorobenzene ' .u gil 61 0.49 0.01 6.90
1.3-dichlorobenzene 11gil 61 0.45 o 01 4.00
1.4-dichlorobenzene u gil 61 . 0.44 0,01 3.40
isodrin u~'l 58 o 00 0.00 0.01
1.2.4-lrimelhylbenzene u gil 56 3.74 0.08 51.00
EOX u gil 56 2.32 0.10 36.00
1.3 5.-trimethylbenzene . )Jgfl :;:; 1.06 o 02 12 00
Di eh lorobenzenes pg'l 55 0.39 0.05 7.50
1.2-dichloroethane pg/1 40 10.53 0.20 232.42
t.-~ o 11g/l 49 3.18 2.00 14.00
1 .1-dichloroethane pg/1 48 5.72 0.20 232.41
o-c~escl .u gil 48 0.91 o 25 3.90
2. 6 -d ic hlo roobe nzo nit ril (d ic hloben il) 11g/l 47 o 00 0.00 0.00
Oil (wilh IR) 11 gil 46 277.24 50.00 7400.00
Telodrin 11gil 46 o 00 0.00 0.01
Volatile halogens (VOX) pg/1 46 26.01 0.00 265.00
2-nitrophenol pg!l 44 6.45 025 10.00
ethylphenoles u gil 41 1.99 0.25 15.00
2. 4-d·,mel hylph enol _u gil 40 5.29 0.10 20.00
2-chlorophenol 11 gil 39 3.63 o. 10 5.00
2.3 .4 .5-tetrachlorophenol ~g_!l 39 3.59 0.01 5.00
2.3 .4 .6-letrachlorophenol pg'l 39 3.59 0.01 5.00
2.4. 5-lrich lorophenol pg'l 39 3 59 0.01 5.00
2.4 .6-trichlorophenol u gOl 39 3.59 0.01 5.00
4-Chloro-3-11"ethylphenol ¡Jgil 39 4.07 0.10, 17.00
Aldrin 11gil 39 1.44 0.01 2.00

Landfill site
Start: 1980
Yearly tonnage: 100.000 ton
Area filled with waste: 15 ha
Waste compósition: 34% MSW, 45% Demolition waste, 17% Industrial waste, 4% Sludges
Dislance between waste and groundwater: 70 centimeters
1 .4 fll)
O rn
oubbla
'm
paot
4 . .::.1 • .,.,
t (1.~, rn
c'-y
IH on
'
~IU .., '''
Reference values for groundwater in the Netherlands.
Parameter Concentration in Concentration in Concentration

groundwater. groundwater. in
groundwater
A·ltvel B ltvtl e ltvtl
800, nig/1
COD, mg/1
Cl, mg/1 100.00
pH
NH,-N, mg/1 2.00 1000.00 3000.00
Nitrate, mg/1 5.60
N-Kjeldahl. mg/1
P-total as PO; . mg/1 3.00 200.00 700.00
As, 119/l 10.00 30.00 100.00
Cd, iJg/l 1.50 2.50 10.00
Cr, ¡.Jg/1 1.00 50.00 200.00
Cu, 119/l 15.00 50.00 200.00
Fe. 119/l
Hg. ¡.Jg/1 0.05 0.50 2.00
Ni. ¡.Jg/1 15.00 50.00 200.00
Pb, ¡.Jg/1 15.00 50.00 200.00
Zn, ¡.Jg/1 150.00 200.00 800.00
EOCI. ¡.Jg/1 1.00 :5.00 70.00
A·level: "Background concentration"

B level: Concentration wh1ch requires further investigation
C level: Concentration which requires an investigation for remedia! action
Concentration of some parameters in leachate and groundwater near a landfill site
( 1980-1986).
Parameter Concentration in Concentration in Concentration

groundwater, groundwater, in
upatrum downatream lea eh ate

BOD, mg/1 3.30 3.49 392.50
COD, mg/1 69.33 92.13 1111.25
Cl, mg/1 1641.50 2504.79 699.75
pH 6.88 6.84 7.43
NH,-N, mg/1 21.33 22.86 100.00
Nitrate. mg/1 0.13 0.06 o 09
N-Kjeldahl. mg/1 21.50 23.88 113.50
P-total as PO; . mg/1 0.53 1.26 1.41
As. pg/1 6.15 11.57 46.60
Cd. pg/1 0.40 0.48 0.53
Cr. pg/1 9 20 12.00 16.63
Cu. pg/1 144.10 i 98.35 34 90
Fe . .ug/1 55.40 68.58 5.95
Hg. ug/1 0.20 0.20 0.17
Ni. _ug/1 15. 17 20.27 65.07
Pb. ug/1 51.45 31 .16 17.00

Zn, pg/1 49.30 158 62 709.33
EOCI, pg/1 0.50 0.38 82.55
- - - - - - - - - - -'- - - - - - - - - -----
-
. 1) ~A !Y P¿ t Á/ G VV E f.. ¿.,s' ) ~ "'A, L .:i ~ .L S
z.) ~e>HFP.Rc'soi\J
~
'Vtlt.T/·1 UF STREAN v.,Jet..LS
-
--* SÚ~A.I'/'P¡CAW'T Z>t FP'Er?éNCéS {A VEI("16E:, Sf'~v o_
. ~~V-~
13E"íwff"l\/' Wét.L.S
••
--;.....;;;;:,::;;;. e utr P ~ R·, S. o !V w ilt1
vAfZlAÍL,ON {_AVI-R.AG~, S"íAN'D. 'd:::IE"V· _:j

wiíH -r,·N~ oF AN .Iwt>iviooAL WeLL
,..u
::;> C: N O U e~ ~
.,.,QÍ~
\..' .
COVERitJG p.
Lo rv G ? é P.. 1o D
Corc:entr a t1on
Alarm lor 1 Obs«va t 10"1

X+~ --~--------------------
Alarm fa 2 ccn;.eeutive observa tiO"''S

-------------0---------
Alarm lor 5 consecutiv• cbs«vaticns
x•s -B--------------rr----·--
0
0 0
no o
EJ o o D(H:Joo o " ' .
o O · Expected averao,t
in U"leffected we/1
Ti<re (yearl
Period of establiah'rent Contr~ periOd
An example of a control chart for a specific well and parameter; X=average background
concentration; S=standard deviation.
-------,----,-~
Sample ColfeCtTon and Analvtical Methods
With the use of these wells, it is possible to obtain samples that

are chemically representative of the water taken in by the well.
Consequently, attention must be directed to:
e physical extraction of the water from the well

• preservation of chemical integrity of the sample in transit to the ,
place of sample analysis .
e attainment of analytical results that are accurate and have a
high degree of precision
Among the means of collecting samples fro~ the wells are:_
e down-hole collection devices

• suction-lift, positive displacement, gas lift, · and gas-drive .
methods
• gas squeeze or bladder pumps
7
• jet or ven tu ri pumps.
Among·· the · pertinent sample parameters for analytical

determination are:
e pH .
• specific conductance
• total dissolved solids
• total dissolved iron
e nitrate
• chloride
• total organic carbon
·• total organic halogens
e heavy metals
• hardness
Decision !O Landf; 11 ;ng Landf1llong
establi91
starts ends mayoe
landfill
\I/ 1,
'1'
1 - 2 years
1\
2 - 5 years
- 10 .Years time
Start collect'ng
Esteblosh Rev•se Reevaluat&
baCkgCV"d
control P'OQ'"am control progam control progam
data
lllustration of the time phase of a groundwater control monitoring programm; the time
estimates presented are.given for illustration purposes only.
No elarm '!!
~
'!!
~
§
!i
u
o
" 6
Owck llhase
lnvesliQIIIion llhase
tn..est,9ot:• IOcation
lllustration of the action phases related to a groundwater monitor programm.

~~ _Protective casing
with locking mechanism
Vented cap
Cement plug to
set protective casing
Piezometer Annulus backfilled with

------P.>I
casing cuttings or grouted
Bentonite seal >- 60 cm thick
P1ezometer Filter pack placed in anrulus to

screen height > 60 cm above screen
Cap on bottom
of well screen
Monitoring Well (not to scale)

=============~F- -~----- ~
l tiil! J¡
Building,~ Gastreatment
:
1 1
(optional) .
- - - , - · _j
Temperoture controlled
Explosion 1 flame trap
,.P.r,oxed •.
·
;~~-'ªwer '.1 Gosflow
as a
1¡:-it=""'=r _ f ~': borrior _ ._ _
Differential pressure ! .
monitorin9
Goscollection
wi!h dewotering
igure l. Example of a safety conce¡.t for a landfill gas utili.zation plant (Müller
nd Rettenberger, 1986).
rr=
Smelling compounds
Propane.
G~a~s~~~~~~~
Purified gas
On-site Fleet
~~gf
Figure 11.47.
Upgrading · of landfill gas lo natural gas· and end·use as ve hiele fu el
Adapted from Henrich and Ross, 1983.

--~-- _______ Table-I1.21------
-----~- Majo r-1 and lill-gas-end-uses,-their-Ji mi tations-an d-there'quire-:-d-lan <ifi 11 gas
· treatme¡¡ts
Landftll gas application Rt:4uired landfill gas limitations .

treatment (!) ·.
t{iüéct. héá.t \:bií~§r) _~ ~

ñ 11:1 ¡¡;¡;¡ ¡ 1 ~~¡¡ rt
(mOdera te distance)
~~-¡1
~ñefuel ·
~~---··-_:.. ~~~-]
Dehydration (thorough) Can be transponed (moderate .

Partial COz removal distance) and mixed with natural
(+ halocarbons) gas at low ratios
Dehydration (raw) Can be transponed vía pipeline

(mOdera te distance)
Dehydration (raw) Can be transponed (mciderate

Partial COz removal distance) and mixed with narural
gas at low ratios i
(1) besidcs particle removal
Modified from Ham et al., 1979.

.·
l
Gas drain
10m
5m
Leachate drain Bottom liner
Figure 2. Possible design of a horizontal gas extraction syst~m (Boll et al., 1988).
76 cm _,
.. .
/ , . ·:· :<::: . :/ /
·/
•. . -·:::: v. 1
• t/ 1
~ . /
/ 1·.· '_:,'.~_:\~. :/
o'< ··• ~e
~' ··¿
.. /, o 11 ~2
/¡ '...
=· l ¿ v-- 3
76 cm 1 • 1
1 1 ...
/ .-.
.,...·.- .. ,L -1 ., 4
/
.. .....
. 5
ooo "
305 cm / oo \)00
v1 t:J
/ D 6
~ OQ v
0a'V o €
~ o Ooo 'o o
1
lo v
¡,
.. 150 cm / a, 7 8
~ 12
er ~
~.
/
·~ 1 +
E)\..../ Gl
13
/ 4--- 9
~ v 10
/[ll . o
30cm/DO
. CJO 0o V oo/
_..-:a.o o o o
/7//'////'
Cross section mo1sture trap .
Figure II.40
· Moisture trap construction tci .drain !he condensa te from a landfill gas
· · .collection pipe system
From Bard et al., 1985, by counesy of the authors .
. '
188-l (
2. SITING
Many of the abuvc-dcscribed prublems c<tn he avuidcd if thc Jandfill is Jocated in an appropriate
area. Of coursc adcquate siting may be difficult in countrics with a specific geol<,gical situation
(e.g. high ground water tables, mountains). Bul it should be aimed at the following rccummcnd<t-
tions to be n:spccled.
No dumping uf waste into lakes, rivcrs, ponds or into the sea. The water will be pullutcd
duelo dissolving of diffcrent cumponents of thc wastc supported by biological proccsses.
These may takc: place under acrohic and/or an<terohic conditions, where !he anaerobic
pruccsscs may stay fur a ccrtain pcriud of time in the acid phase. The inurganic
compuncn1s may cithcr he uxidizcd or reduced. Up toa ccrtain degree, with the ditTerent
stages of hiological degrada! ion !he ¡¡mounl of soluble components increases. Also under
optimum dcgradation cunditions humic- ¡¡nd fulvic-like componcnts are produccd and
solubilizcd. Organic nitrogcn is convcrtcd into ammonia which may be oxidizcd in:c
nitra le.
Landfills should no! he locatcd in valkvs whcrc the slupes of lhe hills and the bol!om of
the val ley are the borders of the landfill. As <1 conse4ucnce of such a locatiun the surfacc
water from thc muuntains or hills m<~y now inlo the landfill. Under this conditiun alsu wa-
ter out uf the mounlain m<~y pcnclr<tlc into thc: landfill. Althuugh a lot of tL·chnical
measure.~ can be taken 10 avuid these prohlems <~s drains on the slope and thc channelir.g
of !he nvcr/ditch by mcans of a pipe undcrneath ¡¡ l<tndfi\1, it has been shuwn in many
cases thalon a long term thesc mcosurcs do nol wurk S<tlisf<tctorily and remcdiation is vcry
difficultlo achicvc if at al\.
Landfills should not he locatcd on slccp slopcs where sliding of thc landfill may occur.
Landfills should not be locatcd in <treos wherc cround water is used for drinkinQ water
supolv.
I...1ndfills should he sited in arcas of low rrccipil<tlion ralcs.
Landfills shou\d be located in arc<ts with appropri;Hc natural soil oualitv.
As a conclusion !hose arcas should he favorcd whcre !he suhsoil is of low permc3bility, where no
surface water can enter the \andfill and wherc thc ground water table is eithcr very low and/or the
quality of the water is too poor 10 use it for drinking w¡¡lcr (e.g. h1gh natural salt contcnl). wndfills
should preferably no! be bui\t in pits bulas mounds so that a natural drain of the kachale out of the
landfill can take place.
·or course often not allthcsc aims can he mcl duc to spccific arca situations. But it should be kcpt in
mind that a \andfi\1 stays at its posilion furcvcr <tnd long-tcrm prohlcms will occur.
3. LANDFILL DESIGN
If the natural soil is not of low pcrmeability it shou\d be tried to huild in a !ayer of cJ¡¡y or similar
material or lo upgrade the existing 4uality of the soil hy mixing il with appropriatc material (e.g.
bentonite) lo decrease the permeability. lf thcre are significant fissures in the natural sotl of \ow
permeability, if possib\e, the surface \ayer (30-50 cm) shou\d be removed and buill in again undcr
control\ed cnnditions. In any way thc \ow-pcrmcablc natural soil should be adequatcly sluped so
that the water has the chance to drain off on the bottom of thc \andfi\1 stte by gravtty (scc Ftgun: 1).
On top of the gradcd soil coarse inert material shou\d be pfaced in order 10 function as a dewalcring
system. If this kind uf material is nut av<tilablc and a\so pipes cannot be emplaced rigoles should be
placed on the bottom of the landfill that transpon thc \cachate outside the landfi\1. The distance
between these rigoles should be as short as possible; al lcast they should extst evcry 30 m. The
.. . ..
Condensate d rain
~~~
b) ~
LFG recovery \fe ll
:::::(> Landfill gas flow

+ -.. Condensate collection
Figure II.39.a + b
Condensed water collection in a landfill gas !·ecovery header
Adapted from Rovers c.• al., 1977 .

..
- .
GROUNOPLAN
collection pipe (or ditch)
E
o
o
N
..
------~~~----~---------
"'·--·--·--·--·--
--r---- . -. ----------------- ----.
. .. ¡
A
L ·-·
.-
·--·T'
. .
...... . .·.
..
.:·
1 drainage laye:-:
d.~ 50 cm
lo- ) - -· -
"
- _j
' K
f
~ mi:.
gravel l 6 / 32 (j'1'7'!
1
~- oer forated
1. ·rT -r ~r~l+ Tjljl .. í--1
. -r
~
-
collection pi e e
. .
¡.
1
; (o r
1
di te:-, )
EI
collection manhole
SECTIOi~ ~-A
- 30 m
l.
- ..
. - : ..
.. ·... . ........ ' ..
subsoil
--'--'---'----'---'----·
; . ....
-
Figure l. Example of a drainagc system for lc~chat<.:

SJI A LLO w lAJJoF tLL
-
/ - ~-- - -. - -~ ..
...
·~
/
1
/ ' \
'\
'
•
• ¡ ¡ ¡ \
--
'
1
¡
•
r
·.
Ieachate is collcctcd cithcr in m~nholcs conncctcd hy pipes or - if this is not possihlc - in ~ ditch
that surrounds thc l~ndtill. Thcsc mc~surcs can he rcaliLcd much casicr if thc Jandlill is a mourid.
Surface water should he capturcd hy mcans of di te hes in ordcr to avoid iLo; contact with thc wastc.
lf virgin soil had hccn removed at thc Jandfill h~sc this soil should he storcd asidc thc Jandfill. Aftcr
the landfill is complctcd this material can be uscd as fin~l covcr.
The slopes of thc landfill mound should not cxccc)l 1:~ othcrwisc sliding or foundation failurc may
take place. In arcas with high prccipit~tion ratcs (during thc yc~r or day) possihlc eros ion prohk:ms
should be avoidcd hy covcring thc surl'acc with grass m othcr adc'-!uatc planL\; in addition ditchcs
should bc built in supportcd with gravd or stoncs to tr~ns¡)()rt thc surfacc water out of Jandfill; no
mixing with thc k:ach;uc should t~kc pl~cc.
4. LA'IDFILL OPERATION
4.1 Emplaccmcnl or ~la ver of composted rduse ~S" IJrstlirt
Enhanccment of ~nacrohic processes e~n he achicved if landfills ue opcrated acrohicly for a ccr:ain
pcriod of time. ThJS e~n - partly - he achieved ir the rduse is not compactcd or is placcd in thin
layers without covcr (highly compactcd). Enhanccmcnt is documcntcd h~· thc early decrcasc of
organ1c cunccntrations in the lcachatc.
A<; a rcsult or dir!Crcnt invcstigations (Stcgmann anu Spendlin. 1'.i:-\'1) tl1·e l'ollowing cnnccpt tm a
full-scalc landtill h<Js hecn dcvcloped. Thc rirst !ayer nr lanurill should he prepan.:d in such a way
that thc pollutcd lcachatc !'rom thc lirts ahovc can he <1naerohicly trcatc<.l 1n this are<J. In or<.lc: Lo
achicvc this thc rirst !ayer of rdusc ( 1.5-1 m height) must not he compactcd, so that rcadiiy
dcgradahlc organic waste componcnts can <.lccompnse acrohicly. l<:3chate rccirculation should he
pracuccd in a conlrulled w<Jy. The ratc ot rccircui<Jtinn shnuld he moderate in ordcr to avoid
anaerohic contitinns. After 1 ycar or placcment. the usual l:mdfill nrer<Jtion c<Jn st:HI. Thc disaJ-
vantage or this proccdure JS th:H a high !cacha te prnductinn ratc will result during thc first y~:1r; i~
addit1on, odors m:; y occur and vcrmins may develop. For thcsc rc"'nns it 1s much more cffcctivc if
already comrosted \lSW is emrla~cd as a rirst lirt or ahout 2m. This is a normal pro;;ct.!J.;rc·for
ncw landrills in Gcrmany today: if this has hcen done. the opcrat:on of landtill ;;an procccd
immediately aftcr the l<lyer or compost has hcen huilt in. On tnp or thc ~ompost from MSW, th;;
rdusc should he ~ompacted in thin l<~yers (:!:.10 ~m\ sotllat tllc \15\V is e~u:<lly wc:ttc:d ~~u s;m,c
2CfOhiC íJfOCL.:SSC:'\ moy li1kt.: pl(!t.:C in thc ~urracc (l_fC:L .
A\ a conse~ucnee olthis kind or <lneration;the

. -
lilllowinL! rcsults cm he cx:xc:cJ:
.
The C<>necntration nr thc mgani~s in the leachate is expectcd lO he sery low. S() that ~ncrgy
rc~u1rements ror the aemhie lcachatc treatment are redu~~J.
Gos is produced duelO the anaerolm: UL'L!r:lU<ltinr. olthe le:<eh:.tc Jr.siue the comrost !ayer.
Contrullcd lcachat~ recir~ulatinn will rcsult in equ:d wc:ting of thc MSW and in :m
evaporation loss or lcaehale.
Ir lca~hate of this ~uality !caves thc land!ill 1n an uncontrollc<J way thc c:wironmcntai
Jam<1ge is signilicantly lowcr.
4.2 Lcachate re~ir~ulation
Rccirculation· of the lc~~hatc on top of thc Jandl'ill with thc aim Lo evaporatc as m u eh !cach~tc as
poss1hlc should he consi.d~.:rcd. In this case thc proportion or the lcach:Hc lh:H cvaporales r.1ay only
he partly trcated (lor odor control); i!' lcach<~te originaLes rrom an old J¡¡ndlill, pretrcatmcnl may no!
he ncccssary. For this prnccdure the climatic situation is of grcat import~ncc. lf thcrc is a large
l~goon availahlc (c.g. J'or hiological lcachale trealmcnl) water can he storcd and n.:circulal~on
should only tak¡; plocc Juring times ni' high evaporo! ion ralc. During r~.:circulation thc distributton
of thc kachate should he done cqually over the Jandl'ill surl'acc. Th<: amounl of kachalc hcmg
-------,
..........
''
/ ---- ' ...... ,..... ----- ....., '
't /
/
' ,, /
/
''
1\ 11 1
. 1
1 ' 1
\ 1
--o,--- - 1 - 1 - - - . ¡A--- -
1
-
1
- -.--,o,-- - 1
1
\ \1 1' ,, 1' 1
' v--7"',-,,
¡ / \ '{
r .),.......-,,- . . . . /
1 ' 1
,,......-r-
/ ' ' " ...... , /
// ~/
/ ' /
'
-~¡--
/ )."'
\ '...¡
1 ....... '_ -- \'" " / 1 / ..... _, ¡ __ ........ ,
¡\ ' 1 ' 1 . }
1 1 \ 1 b' 1 1 1\
-1-
1 1
~- - -C4-- - :-:
........__·,¡a
1 - - - -l
't
~-
't ~S \
\ /\ 1'
/ ' ..... ..... ____ ..,.../
/ ' '...... ---- //
/ '
Figure 11.33
Flowsheet of well spacing according to the equilateral triangle method
. 1
From Shen, 1980b, by courtesy of the author.

r = radius of influence
S = 2a = 2 (r cos 30°) = 1.732 r
Assum!. r = 35 ± 25 mdepending on the propenies of the in-place wastes
'
1
------~--;
' ,,1
! 1 .
i
'
--1-
¡
1
i
\
J. ¡ 1
~----
¡
\
1
1
¡
...... ····--- ;.
-----~
\
• 1 '\..- 1
1
~/r-·-:--
'
•
- 1
J
i
' 1
1 ·· ...
:zm~l=~~ij~~:::Top of landfill-clay seal
flexible coupl in gs
~--~~~~---To compre~or
Condensate to
knockout · pot
.J
3
seal
Q9 m
Figure 11.30
Head for land!ill gas extraction well with flexible coupling to the gas
coll<:ction header
From Blanchet, 197r:í, by courtesy of the author and with permission from Penn Well
· Publishing Co. ·
Unpolluted soil should not be landfilled unl<:ss it is ncccssary for intcrmcrliate and/or final cover lf
soil cannot be uscd it should be intcrmiucdly stored scparatcly. Rubble should not be landfilicd
togethcr wtth MSW. lt should be atmcd al rcustng as much of thts matenal as possible for road
construction, cte. by mcans of simpll.: sicving and crushing techniques. The non-usable fincr
fraction could also he uscd as covcr material for low-dcnsity landfills.
Sewage sludgc should be rccyclcd · on land if thc quality is appropriate. lf the sludgc 1
contaminatcd and has to be landfilled, it should be hiologically stabihzed (aerobicly ar anaerobicly)
and if possihlc dcwatcrcd. Thc sludge should then be landfilled in cassel!es in arder not 10
negativcly inOuence the stability. Thc sludgc may also be thoroughly mixed wilh the waste in
adequatc proportions (no! more sludge than waste rclatcd to thc inhabitants).
Julky waste should only be landfilled aftcr thc reusable part.s have heen selcctcrl. This can be done
by unloading the hulky wastc on an arca adjaccnt lo the landfill whcrc people and/or thc operator
and/or organizations cte. m ay have the possiblity of selcction. Thc non-usable rc:;iducs can then be
landlillcd atthe cnd of the da y. so thatthe "rccycling arca" looks e lean.
Vcry oftcn wood is landfilled. This should be avoidcd by scparating it from the waste stream. The
wood can be reused for éooking or he shrcdded and uscd for diffcrent purposes (c.g. asan additive
10 organic waste t"or comrosting. for landscaring). Wood pretrcatcd by means of fungicidcs etc. hos
to be landfillcd if it eannot he incincratcd in MSW incincratm~.
6. CONCLUSIONS
Landfills in cconomically dcvcloring countrics an; oftcn in a vcry bad condition. A main reason for
cnvironmcntal impact is oi"tcn had siting. In addition, cmission control is not practiced and the ·
opcration of thc landlill is poor. Ltndfills in economically devcloping countrics should be planncd
and orcratcd in a controll<.:d way.- whcrc low cost proccdun:s should be implcmented; the spccific
situation in the country has always lo he rc.,pectcd. Landfill opcratars should have a coorcration
with a Univcrsity or Rcscarch lnstitute cspccially for monitoring assistancc. Thc following mai
aspccL'i should he respcctcd:
Landfills should he locatcd in aprropriatc arcas (no surface- and ground water infiltration,
low rainfall r<Jtcs, not on stccp slorcs, prcfcrahly low soil pcrmcability, etc.).
Ltndfills should rrct"crahly he huilt as a mound, so that lcachatc can !cave thc landfill hy
natural gravity.
Thc hase should rrdcrahly be of low permcahility with adequatc slopes and drainag~
systcm.
Thc installation of a fir.a.lii"t of composted MSW rcsults in rclatively low organic leachate
concentratio,ns.
Lcachatc rccirculation shOuld be practiccd in a controllcd way; simple lcachale treatmenl

systems as lagoons may be used.
MSW should he adcqualely comraclcd or covered wilh adequale material in arder lO avoid
lirc.'i.
LFG has lo be conlrolled and can he ulilizcd l(lf encrgy produclion:
Landfill dcsign has lo rc:;pcctthc slabilily of a landfill.
Revegetalion of complclcd landfills and surface water control ha ve lo be, implemenled.
Therc are also in cconomically dcveloping countri.es many possibilitic:; in wasle avoidancc
and rccycling to which should be givcn high prionly. .
. J
Sompling point
Flexible lubing
Monhole
Volve
.1
Gas flow control
Gas extroction pipe
11 1
1 1 1 .
1 1 '
'
Figure 3. Gaswell hea&
' .
10:00 to 11:00 • Social and Ecological Aspects (PAHO Representative)
11:00 to 12:00 • Prcviou.~ Studies (AMCRESPAC Rcproscnlalive)
12:00 to 12:30 · • Coffee Break
12:30 to 14:00 • lnterprcting Site Characteristics in Sanitary Lll.Í'Idlill Design (Dr. Ham)
14:00 to 14:30 • Round Tablc Discussion
14:30 to 17:00 • Lunch Break
17:00 to 18:00 • Physico-Chenúcal Aspects of Biogas (AMCRESPAC Represcntative)
18:00 to 19:00 • Water Balance and Leachatc Quantity (Dr. Lechner)
19:00 to 20:00 Waste Acceptance. Exclusion, and Special Wastes (Speaker Ncedcd)
20:00 to 20:30 • Round Table Discussion
WEDNESDAY, March 16
09:00 to 10:00 De~ign Implcmcntation and Construction (Mr. Vnsuki)
10:00 to 11:00 - Gas Ge~eration and Control (Dr. Stegmann)
11:00 to.l2:00 Leuchate Managcmcnt and Liners (Dr. Cossu)
12:00 to 12:30 - Coffo:e Break
12:30 to 14:00 Ground Water f'rotection (Mr. Beker)
14:00 to 14:30 Round Table Discussion
14:30 to 17:00 - Lunch Break
17:00 to 18:00 • Sanitary Landfill Oper.tlion: Equipmcnt and Personnel (Mr. Ornebjcrg)
18:00 ro 19:00 • Control Systems for Operation (AMCRESPAC Representativc)
19:00 to 20:00 • Landfill Closure and Long-Term Care (Dr. Diaz)
20:00 to 20:30 Round Table Discussion
... ~ .. ;• . ......
: -.' .... .. ·.
_
~ - ·.:··
1'-:c:f--~~~~ Pi pe
>/
.=-1/----~ F1ne soil backtill
-~~~~1 mpervious SE-2!
¡:\;11 1~·\:¡
1
¡=.:·:·:11 .:.:·:·, SI o t t ea· or

l:.::.l 11¡.-;~·•':T-.'j- - -
!:.\JII .:,\·j pertorated p1pe
i:.... ¡ 1 ~."j
(·.:·}: ·=/·:J _Gr a vel· bac kf 1ll

r=··:.J 1 1(·=··: - - -
.::.11 ¡· .".
1··:.: 1 .... :,.
1·.:=.:· ,., ··.:=.:

Cap
1··:.:q·.'--T:'¡j------
••• 1 ;. •
--'·---.L..''..._;·.'-'-:~·'...
:..:_··-'-'·.
Figur( 1!.25 .
Generalised design of a landfi.ll gas extracti0n wcl!
Fron1 Anonymous, 198Ig, by counesy of E M CON Assoc.
'
n:circulatctl sho~ltl he simtlar to the a\'era~e weekly natural cvaporation ratc. Lcachatc rectrculatton
shoultl nol he procticetl in the working phosc tluring thc upualion hours. For thc distrib~tion also
tank vchiclcs -.as they are usetl in agrieulture to Jistrihute manurc on th.: fi.:ltls -are appropriate.
Sine.: thcrc may be trae.: organics in the lc;;chatc th;ll shuuld nol he incorporatcd in thc humc.n bmJy
' spraying shoultl he avuideJ. In many elim:llie wnes controllcd rccirculation uf thc biologícally
treated lcachat.: may be very advontageocs.
4.3 Lcachate treatmcnt
lf no spccifíc re4uirements hove to he respcetcJ (c.g. restdu;;l COD) thc collcctcd !cachc.tc shou!J
be trcatcd biologically. As alreody mentiuned, dependen! upun the climatic sítuation cor.trollcd
leachatc rccircul;úion should he consiJerd.
lf a first lift of eomposteJ reluse "as empl<tccJ thc eoncentraltons of tle>:rodahk mc:c.ntc
componcnLs will he rci;llí,·cl\ low (BOD, wneullr<~liL'i1s oi' ahoul < 100 - 1000 -ml!}l) with COD
conccntrations around ~llll - .>lllJ(J n,cc.·l (ckcr<~datton r;ne ahout l)()',é.): hut thc ammonia
conecntralions wtll he relatt\'cly htgh (;;r,;unJ 1111111 mg/1) (scc also Stcgmann and Spendlín, ILJS'.i).
Thc.sc valucs Jrc cnmmc'n in undi!utcJ lc:~ch;Jtc !"rom l:tnlHilb in Gcrm~1ny.
Bio!ogical lcach:ttc lrc;l!mcnt c;tn Llk:c rl:t(C tn :tCll\';tl!,.'d sluJ~c rLints nr in l;tgoons (scc :t!sD
Christcnscn, Cossu anJ Stct;m:tnn (cJ;-..), JlJ'J~). L:l):;<Hll1S may ht.: :trpruprtatc in cconomic:dly
dcve!oping cuuntncs t'Pr Jc;tch:1!c trc;l!rncnt sincL· thís is :1 stmp!c tcchnology th:d cm hl: us..:d Íí:
most cases. Dcpcntknt u¡:x_,n thc siLL' ni thc l:tilJ!"ill :1" \\el! dS clim:tt1c cunJit1on:-- 3nd ',h¡,: spcciLc
situ3tion (lcachate qu:illl). Jcp1h olthc ll:~oo11 ele.) Jhe l::,;lloll 111:1)' etther he :Htti'tcialll' ;¡cr:,:eJ llr
no!. Durinl! thc trcatmcnt tn thc l:i!..:,Pc'r~ thc f-30[), \\·i!l he furthcr rcUuccd ;tnt.J niirit'icatinn m:tv
<xcur. In g'Cncr;t! phDSfihílrus h:t:-- t¡J~hc ::Ll~L·d tn thc k:tch:l!L' tn ovcrcomc P~JL·ficicnc:y. I!' lhcrc-;.ir~
Jnoxic zoncs in ihc l:l:..!,lltl11 :il~t' dr....:nltritt...::tti(ln :n:t\' tlcL·ur. In :tdditHm t!-:r....: n!-1 v:tll1c \v~l1 ;¡s...: > 7.)
JnJ thc sulfiUcs will !~e t':\tdtL\:J. TlK·rc -.~ i!l bL· ir.llfl~ :tr:d l.';líh(lJl:llt.: prcCJiltl;llion. Thc S!LC n¡' th::
!ag<HHl dcpcnds vcry much or~ thL' c!im:!t:,..: si!LLHitJrl ...... \~·h~...-rL· in cn!J c!1rn::tc~ thr....: l:~s\Hlr. w:ll f:-c..:¿:....·
3nJ un!y vcry littlc Ucsr<iJ:tti( 1 J1 \>..111 Ltkc pl.t~.."C dLntr>.:; th,Js¡_: pcrioJs.
Thc cfilucnt of thc !:H..:\1nn rruv he fur;hcr lrl·:Hcd rn :t cuntrolkJ \-..ct !rtnd whl·:-c rccú n1:1v he
pLmtn.l. A!'tcr this plly'Siuln~ic;t.l up~r;1J1n;; 11! t~1L' qu;!llt;.· k:tch:llc n~::\· he dt:--ch::r!:;cd ::1:0 :1::~:..:r:d
watcrs \'-'Íthout c!U~ing l.ktrimcn!::l c!'kt..:t~.
In orJcr to control thc lc:tch:i.\c ~impk ;!:l:il~trL':tl mc;tsu:c:~~c;;ts shDulJ b;..: ~l:;Jc. E.::;.:!;<.: p!-l :ts w¡_:IJ
as nl!LIIl'· ;~nJ nitr1t \';ilur....::-- c:tn he mc:t:--~~ct.l h;. u:--tn.:; tnJic:tt<H p:~pcr. !·!l·~c thc CI'Dpcr.:Hion \\ :th J
nc:trhy Uni\·crsity or Rt..:sL":líCh Inst!tut~..· (.\! :1 ~c-.~·:tgc trc:nmcnt pl:1nt shut.::J h;.; Jtni-..:J 0-i.
At IJr~cr landfills Q<!S cxtrilelion "·'lc·m, ,h,JUIJ he in,lllilcJ :~nJ the ~''' shou!J he u,;uJ tu 1.:"''1
cncrgy. A ver y gooJ cxamplc lnr a· simple S"' ulii:L<lliLlll "Jc,cribcd 1~:: PeniJo \1untetro ( 1'iLJJ ).
How a gas cxtraction system norm:dlv is tn\lltllcJ "dcscrihcJ clsewhcc (Anonvmous, 19'11). But
thc.';c systems might ntÍt he appltc<~hl~ in cscrv ""'e
so th:~l simpicr sy\lcms sht.JuiJ be Je,·elupell.
lmport<~nt is thilt the m« in prtneiplcs are re,pccteJ:
no air shuuiJ he suckcd intothe Ltndltllttr tr;tnsport:Hion pipes:
lanJfills sclllc Juring lhctr ltlcttme hv more th:tn 20% Jcpencc~t "fl'"~ thc k1r.d uf re!Üse
l:tndlllicd and thc de~rcc Di' initi;d cllmpactlltn reached:
landllll g;,s is eorrosive:
landllll Qas is water-saturolcJ and conJens::te will be protlucell duc to t!~c tcmperature
drop of i'he landtill gas:
·-.
______ Q!:_w,.Íhe.optimum_gas extractivo:_-n_'ra:_t:::e:::'(~m:_'3=':h:·l-:_).'.:,

- - - - - - - - R ";-the-radi us-ofin fl uence-(m);-
================== ___ .
D, the refuse densiry (dimensionless), and
h, the height of the refuse !ayer.
~------Extraction well
a)
Extraction wel\
,/
1 1mpt>rmeable cover
Gasfl~ -- - -- ... - lRefuse
-(
r
3-Q cyli ndrical
lines l_ iso-pres!;ure con tours
-~ Screen
- --- f--
/~
1
b) .. ~ 1 .
. 7// ' / / /" / /,~ Impermeable s\ratuiT'
Figure IL31
ls6 pressure curves upon landfill gas pumping from the extraC't.ion well
a. Zone of sucking influence in unconfined conditions
b. Zone of sucking influence in confined c0nditions
From Ciernen t. 1981, by counesy of -:he author:

neither for intermediate nor for the final cover of the landfill. This rule should also be obeyed at
small landfills; otherwise a landfill gas extraetion system should be installed and operated, where
the gas is sucked by means of a blower.
Simple techniques should be used also for analyzing LFG-quality. Again there should be a
cooperation with a University ora Researeh lnstitutc. On the landfill simple devices as the "Orsat"
should be installed instead of sophisticated gas chromatographs. ·
4.5.Codisoosal
This subject will not be discussed in detail in this paper. It is obvious that in economically
developing countrics codisposal might be necc.>sary due to the lack of sccure industrial waste
incinerators and/or landtllls. But ít should be kept in mind that no toxic, liquid and volatile w<Jstc
should be codisposed. Whenevcr it is practiced tl should be done in a ccntrolled way, so that no
industrial wastc conccntration takcs place; in most cases a mixture of :'-.1SW with selected industrial
waste ís thc best solution. If thc industrial wastc is biodcgradable no majar problcms are cxpccted if
it is somehow mixcd wtth thc MSW (see <Ji so Anonymous. 1991 ).
'4.6 Waste Disposal Tcchniqucs
Fin:s are ver y oftcn obscrvcd on landfills. wherc 'thc waste is not compacted to high dcnsi;ics hy
rneans of compactors. Air cntering thc landfill will initiate composting proccss~; as a rcsult
ternpcraturcs up lo 70'C may dnclop. lnsidc thc landflll ;;n;¡crobtc dcgrad<Jtton takc:.s place wherc
r.:cth:mc is pruJuccrJ. In combination with c~t;llytic píoccsscs sclf-ignition mJy nccur ;md thc fir~
may pcnctr;¡tc into thc landtill whcrc dueto thc hish tcmpcraturcs ;;nd the ahscncc of ;¡ir pyrulysts
proccssc.> mav take place. Thcse fires Clnnol he cxtin,:uishcd bv water . .In contras!, duc to "n
Jf!CfC:lSC in muisture contenl anJt:roh.ic biologicl! proccsscs may be cnhanceJ \vith incrtJsing
mclhanc proJuction ratcs. A' a conscqucnce high comp:Ktion oí the w3ste should be achtcvcd: if
no adequatc cquipmenl is ;waililble. so that nnly low comp:1ction r:nc·s can be reached. mc:<surcs
should he L;ken tu a'n;d air pcnctration into thc l;md!ill. Thts can be :lChic,·cJ if dcily cover is uscd:
3S C<''·cr m~!lcri:d sniL compost and ruhblc and undcr c~rtJin circumst<<.r:ccs slags líum powcr rL.mts
may he uscd. Of coursc no ncw rrohkms shuu!J he initi:1tcd. t.t;. if clay·llkc m~ilcri;ds Jrc
cmpLh.:cJ J¡fi"icult driving in \VCt conditions. ur dust f;,_\rm~~tion during Jry pcrioJs may t~kc place.
5. W.·\STE :\\'O !DA:\ CE A.'\D RECYCU:\G
Also in cconomically devcloping countrics thcre is a src:ll potcnti:ll for w:lSIC <1\0idancc and
rccycling. This can be concluded from the pcoplc oftcn scz:n on lanJ;'iils selccting matcri:!ls. F<Jr
sc,cral rca:wns (Jccidcnts, emissions, fires, cte.) landftlls should neo< be opcn for thc puhlic.
Perhaps this kind of waste rccycling could be pr"cticcd in ¡¡ contmllcd way, whcre 'authorizcd
pcople select thc reusable materials out of thc wastc bcfore it is lanJtll!cd. Sttc-spectfic simple
sys<ems should be devcloped. The selection of reusahlc matcrials m ay ~e much easier if thc \15\V
ts stevcJ so thatthe fines, which in general contain no reusable materia h. are scparatcd.
Anothcr option m ay be the installation of small and simple recycling J~cas distrihuted all over the
C!ty and countrysidc, where pcople bring materials as bottles, plastíc m;ncrial, metals, <:!C. ar.d may
get patd for it. Doing so, a scparate ccllation takes place and a secondary market may develop.
Such a systcm was in operation in a simple but.effutive way in the forrr.er DDR (GDR). lf possible
also containers can be used, where people bríng matcrials for recycling.
;o.,'on-polluted vegetative waste from homcs, food industry, etc. shou!d not be disposed of in
landfills but separa te! y ccmposted using simple .windrow systems. By this means in many ccuntries
great amount of waste can be reuscd as compost in agriculture etc. Again this should be done in a
controlled way where University and/or Research lnstitutes may analyze the compost for pollu-
tanLS.
Figure 1. General scheme for a gas extraction and utilization plant (Müller and
Rettenberger, 1987).
1 1
LfG- QUALlTY O..ncl QúANTlTY
• Du.e: -ID GI.V\C\evobic cle8'1QclOLI-:DVl_pvoc.e~Ses Cl/80tníc.

mQ~e:J icJ ¡V"I boGas COYIUe.·deot
• GQSC.O'tl\(X>Sl~OVl~ 50-GS 0 /o CJ~<; j so-35.9/a C.D¿

l cle..¡pe.v-.ol.e~"~l- Dli'\ WC\.s~e. Compos¡ kov,.)
· ~ 1J-~o&.u.c.·liov¡ pc>J l:o1-1 depfuols 01\ tJnde. Co~'l'1f'o5a-iot,

· ( "'/().'A~e.. : A2G - 2oo ~Y\?;./ t Ts)
CCJ-\1\ ke. eoJecdc\Je.J. 0o..,

C-: Cc.,~e.h~ 1 heet~h~ udL,e, 1c.crn¡noVle~-1ls
0--1 l"•>U~~nct i"< +es~ l~Sivv1dei.S 1 ~e.JJ l€!ds .
• LFG ~~r).,,ic. O.v1J G.l1 oY (f'"'ntc. liace. Ccr···en~eVlJS'

(,ov-¡ to.i 1'1S
.r .e.. ha.l~e.lt\C'J~ ~d10Cr.:I.-J6ohs; cwoma.h'c)) u2 ~
Ü\SCUSS!ON ~
• DeSj'tClrlc\-:,·~\ t~ d~\~C\Jc~.!t)le. MS\J- ~cd-\ov¡ L-..Ro~/.j)

~h l~j~\¡ .. t.J.~,-:;, : "' ~ h•o1. .-Jhs
iv. !O.vvl ~·l\ ~ <'..> 0, {;)e.J-1. -r ~
VALUB. Oí=' Fi2LD T8Sf5
• (ce~ p-1 ~:-&u~:.}; .:V. --(eJ<:.s .::::;;;.-•• 1 o ~ h: v'n e r\ ~ e._ ,r eo.{

• r,·nc:-JiQ.lt\c.e..s
C-l',-~
Cü,_,Le.cwJ·,¿J.
n . (t.)~\fu
· kbl! 1 e.v/.¡c,cJítl>'J
"
U&..c.u.L~'
~\Cti. ( 0\"\T) D ~: ~~·· '··; )'(:1; ,, .: , ) .9~ fc·l fJ i..<.Q.• ••:¿;, z:
•
. '
'
Table 1. Concentration range of halogenated hydrocarbons rn landfi 11 ga:

(Müller and Rettenbergerl 1987).
11
. 11
Gas Formula eoncen t rat1on range
1 1
Trichlorbfluoromethane CCI 3F 1-84

Dichlorodifluoromethane CCI 2F2 4-119
Chlorotrifluoromethane CCIF 3 0-10
Dichloromethane CH 2 CI 2 0-6
Trichloromethane CHCI 3 0-2
Tetrachloromethane ,-- CCI., 0-0;6
1 1111-Trichloroethane C2H3CI3 0.5-4
Chloroethane C2H 3CI· 0-264
Dichloroethene C2H2CI2 0-294
Trichloroethene C2HCI 3 0-182
Tetrachloroethene C 2CI4 0.1-142
Chlorobenzene C6H 5 CI 0-0.2
~E.DlC.TlON út- GASPQOOüC.\IGN
• DE.GQADÁTtON · f¡" d· .C)'.l ole-~ Q.¡ \'le h'es

- d.C. -=: l<c e_ su.bsk~~ ll"'; "'"'S)
eH:. ·
The principie equatíon of biological degradation ia given in

equation (4):
( 4)
GsT = gassum at the time T (m 3 (STP)/t HSWJ
Ge = total gas amount
T = time in years
k = coeffícent =- ln (0.5)/To.s
·----...----..,____._ _,...._-+---!---+-----
TIME:.
TIME..
'
1
.. ,_
- 1 (V/ i
' 1
1
-1
1'
1 '1 0 ...0 1 1-u
.i : ;
1 • 1
.. '
1
•
~4 1
1' ' 10
-·-· -r • ' i 1 1 -
1
l..._. 1
.,, !:r>.
u-- ' 'G>
!-)- ~ ...... lu
(¡. T -~J :P, l_
(/) 1 -
:;;:-:-:.: -- '
~ ·- \:' ·~
;c....
i ·t- (<• .---· ·-< '1
~-;.:- 1~
··!"' ~- o
---¡::;-
o--..'
----·r-
¡ ,-,
i ,...~-:
-\"· c-... >'. <:::::::
·~ o 1=- -
" ·"' :-0 1 T
\ . .., 1.;::. '~¡·
C.'. "
V
v, 5rl
¡1~ :>J-¡ '..- -'0
~ '"):' ' rr- ' (" -::J
~ '> .J
V\ /·' .r ~ ' '...:.¡ i G)
J -, ' ~... r ~ '-:'1 i
- !. -:r ,, ~~' -::P
. u·-.
V ... 1
~.P
!L ·"'-..' / 5 ·u
.... ,...
" / - N' .'(r
¡_..): 1
1 n ·O
1 1 :: ~
·-
J
.r c.
-~ < 1 ~·
"1 e
1 V"l r.
~ V'¡ ".--
('" -·j
v G
.! 1
1 ,' ,J .... :.! C·
Cl 1
~ '··]
~ G
:::; ~
;>
o 0
,... e¡
!~ . ' '(1'"¡ ¿
\) 1 {~ ('
X 1 ~ ,- ~
~---. - '.
ó"- <r, 1;:;
,, 1 I!
L-
oe :_¡-,
·- ~--
• _ ) _1
-· -~
-/
J
e.--- ....... -¿
1 ..., " _,
c_.n \.'• ¡TI
>
,S' .1 ~
' . 1
'3 :.
!U rr- 8'
;~
,...
::r 1
u
'r
1
'<
lf\
!¡:-
.. ¡ \
j
1'
ENVtQONME.NTAL IMPAc.r AND H-AeAQüs
• Jtoce. 04~Cthic.s 1 (02. ().'i\Cl c~4 0.-Je. cl~a~ih~ 4-e.

ocone.. l~yev
• Ti Qc.e. OJ ~Ctnic.s O.nc.l 0.'.1 O"i 6Cln(C..S. mQ~ be ~~ ic. .

a~r~J.. ~ov-..;e. Cl'l€. (Q.V'C.ÍVIOscnic_ ( f.e. Vihyle (hlo'l;c.l.e l bccl;\e.J
• LFG rnCt~ Qccu.ml.A.\o..k lh Shc.fls) bo.se.melf\~S p;pe, l
().lrt J. mi_).., cJe. ~vOL.ltJh SoL! ; ~p!os;ve. rn;x.u..-~e.s m~
bcU l J. Ll¡O e0/1.{ lYI O.iv ! S-)$"(~ )
'U-G d-Jive.s O.lv o(} (f.e.iVJ mMh0les, ~rsoil) 1 l.)hi~

vdo.Jes in O'tLJSe.lrl cl.e0~Ls (plo.... ~s 1 people)
l~i C.O.VJ k:e biolo.jic.cd/~ oleE va.cleo{ ~ O'K~~e.V) ckpl&:o~,;¡
1
( ~\Lt + 2. Oz. --9 2 g¿ O + L.O¿
· lJ:G 'ts oclo'l ou.s

[;N 1-tANCG MEJ'JT OF OEGQACATlo,,:; ~oc.ass~~
1~ '"\1-{-i:: &At\JDPil:.b
• LQo..c..hoJe. Rec.i'lc.c...LO<.ko~-, 2
· Ae.-Job~c. 'he.\-tta..4m~h 1-
. k'ompos~ LO..'Je."
~(~\:",2f-1~J(~;:D~ .-Ms"
) :JJ".Ja.. ~ ~~ F ~JI: ~,L._.
COMPOS-1
. L1N E:.•¿, /S:-o L

1
· \~ttl.-. Pol[uJ-io..-. ?c~enhc.l o( Msv

· V.ne.qu.c..\ WoJu Uish.;l,v..~oh ins:;J~ tAv{.),::.l LL
L0t\J~i= Q\JGJ-JCES: :
· LCt'(lc18tt ha, k be ope.~c.Jec! oue..~ 'Je~~loYI~h""'<
Mk h'>'"~cl. ~l\eJ.
-
• MS.\J
• 1
.
oh.ot...l.d. be
eJ..!';~V.ln ,.,l,.ov..lJ. l;).t. d.ev-dlü()~cJ..
T'{d.L..c,G-{
.Jo rni~e. dd.

lo.\'lc,t~l\ ~ /l 'tW.u.c.l..:D..., O~ WC.t k
· M$l) r¡\,o t.J.J. ~ () H.I-H.c..lt.ct. l h
1
cl'l del ~ rtdu.c e. f.t--{)
emiC..<:.~<>V'\ pvkn.kc.l
o
11)
""'
E E E E
00 00 o
Nv Nv o
11)
,.--,
1 1 1 ~ o
........
~
o
11)
N
o
o o o o o o o o o o o
o o o o o o o o o
o
U')
o..,. o
..., o o o..,. ...,o o o
"' "'
[ ¡j5w ] 8S:J [ i/6rf ] XO'V
o
11)
""'
-E E E E
00 00 o
Nv N..;- o
11)
,.--,
1 1 1 1 o
........
~
o
11)
N
o
o o o o o o o o o
o o o o o o o
o..,. ...,o o o 11) o 11)
"' ~ ~
,, [ ¡j6w ] 1:) [ ¡j6w ] N- 17 HN
Abb. 7.9: Langfristiger Konzentrationsverlauf der Parameter Cl, CSB, TKN
und AOX
1 i
;¡;..
O"
O"
4000 5000
-.1
20 m 20 m
'D
40 m 4000 40 m
~
~ 3000
¡::
e:>.
;:l
r
"'
;:l
"E (Jl
2000
"E
o> 3000
;J> OQ '--'
"' 2000
'--'
o-· Q)
X "'
::::. Vl
OQ
(1)
u 1000 u ' 1
.... 1000 1
;¡o::
o
~ o
.....
o ' .....
(1)
;:l
....
~
1500 4000
"'
o·
~
20 m 20 m
;:l
"'< ~ 40 m 40 m
....(1) ~
3000
¡;;
..., "E
(Jl 1000
¡::
e:>.
(1)
....
~
\
"::t
(Jl
2000
'--'
'"O z \
"'.... 1 500
X
o<( "'
"'3(1) I
"<!" '" 1000 . ' ' .....
o z ' ..... ..... ..... .....
.... .....
.
()
o o
.() o 250 500 750 o 250 500 750
(/)
c:o t [ o ] t [ o ]
.....¡
;¡o::
z
e·
""'
N
a
Cd, Cu,Hg,
Pb,Zn
1 10 100 1000 10000
Zeit (Jahre)
Abb. 1: Abgeschiitzte Zeitspannen, bis umweltvettriigliche Frachten im Sicker-

wasser einer Siedlungsabfalldeponie erreicht werden (Baccini und Belevi,
1992)
r-·
j
e-t -RE~CTOR
'
·
''RELLENO,,
L.tQUfl)O ·
{ lluv \ &) GAS
~OLIDO
(bo.sute.J
/
601..100
.....•
o.tf'e
-~
L.\QUtOO
(li)(\V\O.do)
So7 za.
OYj_ tUl lea.
$ot.:da
o~ta.nu · i>t-9
clls úo 11:.
IJle~o
(C~
PttocessQS __D_f~~'=-D.R.OL I_SI -
' '(c6 H,o Os)n.. T. r\ Hz.O ~ nC" '-~12 ob

P~oeessos FEQME.NT"ATIVOS
e~ H 1 2.0~ ..... H~o -.. 2CH~COOH + H2 + C02
e~' l-taz 06 ----..' C.! H7 COOH + 2. H2 + 2 C0.2
. e~ H '2. o~ C2 ~.sOH
• PRocessos Ac.e toGeNf'-'>S

Cz. Hs COOH . + 2. H2 0 ---. CH 5 COOH + C02 ... ~ H2
C~ ~7 COOH 4- ·2. H zO --+ 2 CH~ C.OOH -t 2Hz ..-
C¿Hs OH +Hz. O • CH~ C.OOH + 2 H2

·. -t4 ~zO · ·
CE. Hs CooR- • ~ CH3 cooH + H2.
• PROCrf:SSOS _ Me..TAN06EN ICOS·

4 H2. +COz ____.. C H 4 + 2 f-lzO
eH~ cooH -•• CH-4 + C02
Rlf)O,Ct.O~ DE S\JL.P'ATeS
' 2.- +
4 H2 + 504 -t H -+ HS- +4+12.0
. CH 3 C.OOH + 5042 - • COz. +H5-+ H-CO.i' + H2 0
C~ H7 COO H .-r 5042 - +- H +--+ 4 CH.3 C.OOH -+ HS-
OXIGENO
1.0
••
\~ 0.2
-
e
g 0.0
.1
~ 4 5 6 7. 8 9 10 .
pH
-10C0
100
10
J
~-
~...-------
-1.0
24oo 1(1'/e .i04
0.10
2.0 4-o ~·o.sJ

.30
2.0
10
10
20 40
Chemial and Biologial Characteristics of undfi/1 Leachate 67 .
100
L~hote
'
¡ VFT (volot fat acíd¡
¡·
L.c>chote
Phose 1 D m 1:9 V
Figure 1. lllustration of developments in leachate.and gas in a landfill cell
(Christensen & Kjeldsen, 1989).
Tabella .8. Parameai caratterisúci della qualitl del pen:olato in rela:r.ione alla fase di
degradazione del rifiuto (Ehrig, 1989)
Parametn Fase Acida Fase Metamsena SLJbile

pH 4.5+7.5 7.5+9
. B005(mJVI) ~ · 2G+550
a>D(mJVI) 60()(}+6()0()() S00+4500
S04(mJVI) 7()+1750 1()+420
Ca(mJVI) 1()+2500 2()+600
' Mg(mJVI) 5()+1150 4()+350
Fe(mJVI) 2()+2100 3+280
Mn(mJVI) 0.3+65 0.03+45
Zn(mJVI) 0.1+120 0.03+4
Sr(mg/1) 0.5+15 0.3+7
Tabella 9 Parametri caratteristici delb. qualitl del pen:olato che non presentano
differenze fra le fasi di degradazione del rifiuto (Ehrig, 1989) ·
Parametri Uni!! di misura lntervalli di variazione
a (mJVI) 100 + 5000

Na (mg/1) 50 + 4000
K (mJVI) 10 + 2500
Alcalinil! (mgCaCOJII) 300 + 11500
NH4 (mJVI) 30 + 3000-
Norg (mJVI) 10 + 4250
NtOI . (mJVI) 50 + 5000
NO) (mJVI) 0.1 + 50
N02 (mJVI) o + 25
Ptot (mJVI) 0.1 + 30
CN (mJVI) 0.04 + 90
Aox• (J.tgCI/1) 320 + 3500
Fenoli (mJVI) 0.04 + 44'
As (J.tJVI) 5 + 1600
Cd {J.tJVI) 0.5 + 140
Co (J.tJVI) 4 + 950
Ni 20 + 2050
. Pb
{J.tJVI)
{J.tJVI) 8 + 1020
Cr (J.tJVI) 30 + 1600
Cu (J.tJVI) 4 + 1400
Hg 0.2 + 50
!l!IIQ>
•Composti organici alogcnali
o o
MATER\ALES
-r
· • ARC\LLA 10 c.mj5
• ARENA + BEN70H!TE 5-10% Benfonife.
• ARENA 15-ZD Cm..
1'- 32 ml\1
• GRAVA
• MEI'1BRANE9 PLASTlCOS I PE , 2 m111
• Geo TE?<T 1Lé S z

ZIJ
• GEOCOMPDStTES
• GEoREDES
,
• TUBERIAS Pla. s+lw s cp ) 200 mm
Cera rn t'co s
• Pozos DE.
- 'PI a.s-heos ~
- CoV'.c\"e.:to
• r.zE.StOUOS FINéS z,
---- --- --------------~
(i)l
(a) (b)
'
(e) (d)
i
~ (f)
(e)
(h)
LEGEND
~~
Geomembrane Drainage
layer
Clay Subgrade )
,
l 2.50- 3.00 m
• ~
•
-=--""'-..
.....: - . . '--~-' -------' -
-.-.--.-1---=--=-- -•
~ •. :---,,.. • , r-·.~.___:_,:'-Waste--· _.,_ .. __
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S'0-100 tt'\1
.,
SISTEMA .~'RRlERA
•
·,
-®
sttato c1i proteziane terreno naturale.

telo plasticD (pemeabile)
'
t-
"'
' .,._1%
tP > 2.00 m~
t 1
) 2. o/o t t
(
·~ ~
-1~ > o
~·
l't)
- -- - - ----- ----- --- -- \¡
_. -> .c. ')* "1
.V
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----- --
-·- ·- ..... '\
1
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2000
/11 '
( b)
' Umidita ottima
1900
M
~
~
r:i
g
~ 1800
Q)
E
::J
~
'6
o
:S 1700 Metodo ASSHO modificato
eL
Metodo di Proctor standard
J600L---~'----~'----~'----~1 ----~'----~--~'
6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Contenuto di acaua. %(peso secco)
Figur.~ 4.- AndJmento deiiJ conduttivit.l idr.~uli<:a in funzione dell'umidit~ e del peso di
•·olume secc:o deii'JrgiiiJ (Fóll"quhar, 1992) .....
X· 24
-- --~··--·-
~ ....,.,. ....
~
....
~-
\
\
''
\
\
\
\
'' t
:¡
Cl
\ ·~
/
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-. - . .....,.,._..
\
/
/
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...
:¡
l
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\
\ 1
1
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\ ./ ' "\.
-·-·-.....--· ·¡;:
·a
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1 \ ' ' •
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1
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-·-·~·
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N'
i
u:
~....
r~
~ .....
~-...
--
-
Soil
--
-
V!PEO~~eR~
-
-
~ mm
guard ·
2.50-4-QO m
t
Figure S. Example of a m<~nholo for fin<~l leachate collectlon.
100r----------------------------------------,
- - - · Tot~l "lo of TOC identified

90 : : : · Vol~tile ~cids
• . Proteins ~nd ~mino ~cids
. . . . . . . C~rbohydr~tes
80 - - • Aro~tic hydroxyl compounds
e 10 12 14 16
Fi~ure 6. Trend in the identified frilction of leilchate TOC versus landfill

age (Chian & DeWalle, 1977).
1
ASPECTOS SOCIALES DEL MANEJO DE LOS RESIDUOS SOLIDOS
El manejo de los residuos sólidos es un conjunto de servicios de intrínseca naturaleza soc1al. Esto
es, pocos servicios públicos pese a su composicipn "pública" presentan y requieren tan altos
niveles de participación social El manejo de la basura conlleva a un hecho social. Cada persona,
cada familia, una coloma .. una Ciudad, participan directa o mdirectamente en la génesis, desarrollo
y posterior disposición de sus desechos.
La generación dé residuos es un hecho individual que deriva de un proceso acumulativo que \

involucra a la sociedad en su conjunto. Todos los elementos de la sociedad tienen roles y
funciones b1en definidas de participación en tomo al manejo de los residuos sólidos tanto
mdividual como colectivamente. De los patrones de comportamiento personal se afectan las
magnitudes, de las conductas de grupo se definen sus componentes y de todos depende su
Impacto en el ambiente
Pese a esta cualidad social inherente, el manejo de los residuos sólidos no ha mostrado una
orientada participación de la sociedad de manera generalizada. Diversas son las modalidades y
manifestaciones de participación quese requieren. De manera individual, es necesario actuar para
generar menos residuos.
En los casos cuando se han dado manifestaciones importantes, estas se refieren a aspectos
particulares con características muy específicas, que convendría analizar como estudio de caso
a fin de identificar modalidades que han dado resultado y bajo que condiciones éstas se han
generado.
Por lo anterior se concluye que todo elemento de política de mejoramiento del manejo de los
residuos sólidos debe tomar como uno de los elementos básicos la orientación de participación
social.
Se pueden distingun tres etapas en la participaCión ciudadana en relación al manejo de los

residuos sólidos. La forma más avanzada de estas etapas es la participación individual, la actitud
~~~~·consdehte-de-ca-da 11ersona en_favor::-de_una_racio.na!ii:lad_en_la_generacion_ae_resiauos,Jiuscandoo======
'
generar la menor basura posible o quizá orientándose hacia la idea ecologista de no generar
residuos. En esta etapa se encuentra ubicado también el proceso de selección o separación en la·
fuente.
Esta etapa en la actualidad tiene pocas posibilidades de éxito si se le considera como un hecho
generalizado. En la mayoría de las ciudades en las que ya se puede hablar de esta etapa se
manifiesta como hechos poco sistemáticos y más bien de carácter zonal, regional o local, sm
poder extender su alcance al entero de las localidades.
Una segunda etapa de transición, pero muy importante eJercicio cívico urbano, lo constituye la
piUtiCipación social de grupo, onentada a fortalecer y meJorar los vínculos de la ciudadanía como
grupo ,con los serviCIOS inherentes al manejo de los residuos sólidos. En general esta etapa se
orienta' a superar el reto que representa la aceptación de la infraestructura del servicio en un
entorno determm.ado. El fenómeno mundial relacionado con las siglas 1\'IMBY, no en mi patio,
ha sido uno de los factores que mayormente han condicionado la evolución del servicio o en su
caso han incrementado su costo a límites que ciudades de economías en desarrollo difícilmente
pueden sufragar.
Este nivel como paso intermedio en la actualidad constituye la forma de participación social más
importante en ciüdades que como la nuestra que empieza un proceso de desarrollo, en donde la
infraestructura básica se convierte en la plataforma de despegue de toda política o de' la
instrumentación de acciones de mejoramiento.
Esta etapa representa un reto a las autoridades e implica transformaciones de fo!1do tanto en los
conceptos como en la definición de sistemas y procedimientos.
Lo anterior significa un cambio en las prácticas administrativas y una revisión a las condiciones
del manejo de los residuos sólidos.
El primer obstáculo que presenta la participación ciudadana es la asociación peyorativa de la

basura en su manejo. Efectivamente, a lo largo de los años en nuestras ciudades el maneJo se
había mantenido en condiciones de rezago con respecto a otros servicios urbanos. Presupuesta!,
administrativa y operativamente no se consideraba como servicio prioritario, lo que
institucionalmente condicionó su manejo y sus impacto~ en el entorno social y en el ambiente.
En el caso de la ciudad de México la memoria urbana registra hasta hace muy pocos años las
grandes montañas de basura en los tiraderos, el desprendimiento de olores y gases la proliferación
de fauna nociva en su alrededor, las escenas de ventas de subproductos. Situaciones semejantes
se grabaron en la población en tomo a las antiguas estaciones de transferencia.
Ante este panorama toda acción de exhortación de cambio se enfrentaba a la resistencia natural
de la Ciudadanía, convirtiéndose la participación de grupo en un rechazo total a sus nuevas
~onstrucciOnes y a.la operación de las ya existentes.
Por otra parte, existía una firme convicción de cambio. Los grandes requerimientos ambientales
de la Cuidad de México, la dinámica urbana y la existencia de grandes deficits a nuevas formas
de maneJO y admmistración, en donde la conformación de infraestructura básica representaba el
papel más importante. Y este constituía paradójicamente el mayor concepto de oposición de la
ciudadanía.
Derivado de lo anterior, fue necesario instrumentar políticas o acciones para lograr el apoyo
ciudadano para estas acciones que actualmente constituyen uno de los elementos variables más
importantes en el manejo de los residuos sólidos de esta capital.
Esta concepción implico lo siguiente:
Considerar el manejo de los residuos sólidos como prioritario, eliminando la asociación

peyorativa de la basura a las prácticas institucionales, presupuestales, administrativas,
etc.
--------Gonferirle-al-manejo-de-labasura-características-ambientales-sanitarias, de-funcion-aliaaa
y de imagen urbana.
Iniciar acciones para conformar casos ejemplos de operación controlada con las
características antes señaladas para contar con efectos demostración efectivos.
Establecer compromisos y responsabilidades especificas de las autoridades; y derechos

y obligaciones de los habitantes.
Establecer un mecanismo de trabajo soc1al urbano para atender las demandas, dar
respuesta a dudas y en general explicar el conteiüdo y alcances de las acciones
especif1cas a diferentes mveles. individual, familiar, grupal, regional, etc.
Formar comites de vigilanc1a Ciudadana para controlar los impactos ai ambiente, los
efectos en el entorne urbano. la funcionalidad vial y la imagen de las instal_aciones,
Todas estas consideraciones se sustentaban en una efectiva convicción política de mejorar el

manejo de los residuos sólidos asumiendo compromisos que definitivamente deberían
instrumentarse, viéndose result;¡dos en el corto plazo que paulatinamente lograrían la aceptación
de la población a la infraestructura básica.
Grandes fueron los esfuerzos de concentración, múltiples demandas que atender y responder, pero
finalmente, los habitantes de la Ciudad de México y las autoridades han ido ejercitando muevas
formas de relación en el manejo de los residuos sólidos y con ello se ha venido conformando la
infraestructura básica para alcanzar nuevos estadios de desarrollo y así contar con la plataforma
para atender formas más avanzadas de participación sociaL
Un ejemplo de caso podría ilustrar este proceso, para lo cual mencionaremos la construcción de
la estación de Transferencia Tlalpan.
Finalmente, la tercera etapa de participación se refiere al nivel inicial de ubicación y

concientización del problema, a la etapa de conocim1ento básico a la aceptación y 'disposición
para conocer el.problema.
Esta es una fase que paralelamente se ha trabajado a nivel de unidad básica y de alguna forma
de comun1cación mas1va
Es por ello que a continuación se. presenta una muestra de los mecanismos utilizados para
estimular la participación de la población en el apoyo a la construcción y operación de estaciones
de transferencia.
CUit'>O INTERNACIONAL SOBRE DISEf i OPERA.CION DE RELLENOS SANITAIUOS
DEL J.1 AL 19 ""MARZO DE 199·1
llORAR lo 1 l.liNES MARTES M 1 1: R C (J l. [S JIII-:VES VI E R N 1-:_s 1 SAIIAIX)
I>IAS ( I4-MAR7.1 )) (D-MAR/.0) (16-MAR/JJ) (17-MARZO) (IK-MAR/.0) ,(I?·MAR7.0)
'100- IOUU IUENVENIDA ~H;Jol>dLIJiiiA I'AII.A El. IMI'I.I·.MEN 1 ACitlN IJ!il. PEIIOR~11NA•."ItlN DE I'AfiAMETII.OS ()E llESARRili.LO INSTIIIII~ItlNAI. 1 VI Sil A AL
EMI'I.A/.AMIEN Jt lIJE kEU.EN• IS IJISt:Ñu Y Sil t:HN:SJMUCCION U! SENo !'ARA !.A llNOAMERH:A lu:u.ENO
( ORc;.<NISHOS SANIIARIOS (11C.]UU5 MRI<LRA SA.N .... RIU lttlRiltl
C OOR O l NA ()(")'R U) 0-<R. N.C. VA.SUKJ} t.Ol.ANO) PoNIENTE
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MIJNIJII\1. f!COLOOICOS AI'HtlVEIICAMII'.Nln /lt: I.OS KI:SIIHIUS SUI.IhOS
(VR LUIS f. VIAZ} lllc JljAS
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Rf.I.I.ENO SANJT ARIO J.IXIVIAIJO OIHI.AS COMI'I.U.IIi 1 AA lAS INTf.R.I'RF.TACION IIP.

1
(IN<¡ IUCARVO lSn<AIM PARH 1 Rf.SIJI.TAI)OS IH! PRIIEI\AS llE
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liSA CARACIERISTICAS llEI. SITIO ION StJIIIIikMANEA f IIHt AS C.OMrLEMI:N 1 ARIAS AMIIIENJAL
(VR. 111. fOfllSrrR r P.l. IHSf.NO l>f.. UN Rf.li.F.NO t'AR TE 11
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RF.~IJ)1JOS SOI.If)OS Y DF. IIIOOAS SANIT AlU O f.Q\JIPO Y
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'
ASI'ECTOS NO OF.OLOOIC05 DP. LIXIVIAI>OS OPERACION llEL Rf.I.I.E/'10 SUTEMAS DE ASEO llkft"NO"
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ASI•ECTOS OEOLOOICOS RF.SIIltJOS SOLIDOS Y R ESILHJOS SANil AR 10 Y SU CIJIIIAUO A PlltU.IC"
ESPF.I."IAI.F.S LAROt) I'I.A/.0
(VR. ~Y'."rll[ A. J'A.R15) (l)'ll. l"CON VAN A'Rf1•1DO~K) (VR. lUH (. Vl..Q) (CONSUL rOR O.f' 5 /M WCIE'.V;"l)
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11
------DISGRIPQON-DEhEURSO-ISWA-Y-DE-lOS-MATIRIAUS-INSTRU€80NAI:ES-SOBRE
LA DISPOSIOON FINAL DE RESIDUOS SOLIDOS (RELLENOS SANITARIOS)
El propósito de las notas del curso es el de proporcionar material de apoyo a las conferencias que
. se dictarán como parte del-curso ISW A sobre disposición final de residuos sólidos, para los paises
en desarrollo. En ellas se define a los rellenos sanitarios y su practica para ·diferentes niveles de
calidad y protección ambiental. Por razones claras, la practica de disposición de residuos sólidos
en los paises en desarrollo debe ser económica y reflejar las condiciones de la localidad.
Conforme a ello, las notas están orientadas hacia una práctica de disposición de residuos
implementable bajo una variedad de situaciones, muchas de las cuales implican una severa
carencia de equipo o recursos financieros y quizas falta de interés público en relación a la calidad
del relleno sanitario.
El concepto general del relleno sanitario abarca una amplia gama, basicamente desde un tiradero
abierto, en el cual hay muy poco insumo de ingeniería, hasta el mas riguroso de los diseños,
como los requeridos bajo algunas de las regulaciones ambientales actuales más avanzadas del
mundo.
Propiamente, el término relleno sanitario no debería usarse para describir las operaciones más
rudimentarias, pues por definición, un relleno sanitario requiere el control de todas las emisiones
e impactos estéticos a niveles aceptables. Los requerimientos para una práctica aceptable pueden
cambiar de acuerdo al tamaño del relleno, los tipos de residuos y la practica local en relación a
su aceptablidad ambiental y estética. En este sentido, el curso considera la practica del relleno
sanitario aplicable a la situación predominante y no sólo los requerimientos del relleno sanitario
clasico.
El tamaño del relleno sanitario deber 'ser tal que sirva para alojar la cantidad de desperdicios
generados por las personas para un periodo de, al menos, S a 1O años. Los desechos sólidos a
ser manejados deben conocerse o proyectarse en relación a su cantidad y composición, de tal
manera que el volumen a llenar con los desperdicios sea suficiente, asi como el maten al para su
cobenura, el equipo y los procedimientos de manejo. La geología y localización del sitio son
factores imponantes. El espectro de la geología puede variar desde suelos muy porosos que
pueden permitir el flujo de gran cantidad de gas y lixiviado proveniente del relleno sanitario, ,.
no proporcionar ~inualmente ninguna protecCión ambiental al agua 1ubterránea, o a las áreas
circundantes, hasta suelos relativamente impermeables tales como arcillas, las cuales limitan el
flujo de gas y lixiviado y de esa manera permitir que éstos sean manejados en el lugar. El sitio
debe estar localizado apropiadamente con respecto al agua de la superficie y áreas inundables.•
de manera tal que el agua superfic1al no resulte afectada por n1nguna contaminación que surga
de las operaciones del relleno san1tario
En el diseño de un relleno sanitario· se debe tener en consideraciÓn el tipo de suelo disponible.

la cantidad y características de los residuos. la geología del lugar, su accesibilidad, y otros
factores que permitan la disposición de desechos, libre de molestias, y de una manera lóg1ca y
conunua. Esto se logra por medio de la adecuada ubicación del relleno sanitar:o en relación a las
-
carreteras, cuerpos de agua superficiales, colinas, estratos rocosos. aguas subterráneas y los tipos
de suelo del lugar, a fin de aprovechar al máximo las propiedades únicas de cada lugar. De ·Ja
mtsma manera. algunos sttios pueden ser tan inadecuados por cualquiera de las considerac;ones
mencionadas. que sencillamente no deberían usarse a menos que fuera absolutamente necesario.
En este curso se describirán las condiciones de ubicación y métodos empleados para mmimizar
problemas
El sitio debe funcionar y hó ·ce proporciono• e; :;:rr.bién el equipo y el personal nece•.: o a

de que se dé la operac1ón dtana bajo todo upo de condiciones climáticas y para maneJar el flu ·
de desechos. Muy a menudo se cree que son necesarios grandes equtpos para tener un buen
relleno sanitario. Esto no es necesariamente el caso, pues con frecuencia el uso óptimo del equipo
disponible puede proporcionar una buena operación del relleno sanitario.
Se presenta en el curso la manera de determinar las cantidades y la composición del gas y el

ltxiviado, incluyendo los principales factores para su control. Los sistemas para cubrir el relleno
son especialmente imponantes a este respecto. En algunos casos se requerirán controles de gas
2
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ y lixiyiad9. El primer método para controlar el gas_y la migración de lixiviados del relleno
sanitario y que se discutirá, es a través de sistemas de revestimiento (liners).
Los revestimientos pueden hac.er uso de suelos del lugar o suelos importados para minimizar el
flujo de emisiones y gas provenientes del relleno. Los sistemas de revestimiento se discutirán
en relación a su necesidad, y se presentarán diferentes diseños de acuerdo a las condiciones
locales. Una vez que se retarda el flujo de lixiviados a través de los sistemas de revestimiento
o por el uso de los materiales disponibles naturalmente, se tiene que controlar el lixiviado, lo cual
típicamente implica su recolección y tratamiento. De manera similar si el flujo de gas se retarda,
tendrá que proporcionarse un control de éste en el lugar, el cual puede incluir la ventilación del
gas a la atmósfera o aun el uso del gas como una fuente de energía. ,
Es necesario diseñar el relleno para su cierre como parte del diseño inicial. Debe determinarse
asimismo el uso final del relleno y su diseño debe cumplir con los requerimientos para ese uso,
incluyendo la topografia o forma. Los recursos financieros y de suelos deben estar disponibles
a la clausura de tai manera que el lugar pueda cubrirse y reforestarse apropiadamente. El hecho
de que ya no se trasiaden los residuos y el relleno sanitario haya sido tapado con la cubierta final
no libera de responsabilidad a·l operador, por lo que no puede abandonar el lugar. Se debe
proporcionar un cuidado a largo plazo que de cuenta, tanto del monitoreo, como de las
reparaciones de cualquier erosión, asentamiento, agua estancada u otros problemas que pudieran
desarrollarse al paso del tiempo en un relleno sanitario cerrado. El monitoreo debe empezar antes
de la construcción del relleno, para establecer la calidad presente del agua subterránea y del gas
El monitoreo continúa a lo largo de las operaciones del relleno y sobre un largo periodo después
del cierre para estar al tanto de cualquier impacto significativo que pudiera afectar el uso del agua
subterránea, la calidad del agua superficial o usos potenciales del área. El monitoreo continúa
hasta que es claro que el lugar se ha estabilizado y no presenta peligro.
Finalmente, debe disponerse tan.to de un financiamiento apropiado como de una voluntad poli ti ca
para asegurar que el relleno sanitario pueda continuar operando a lo largo de toda su vida útil,
desde su concepción y diseño, hasta su operación, clausura y cuidado de largo alcance .. Esto
3
significa que el público debe apoyar el sitio y el sitio debe estar apoyado politicamente y por las
necesanas organizaciones, para estar seguros que el lugar cuenta con un adecuado respaldo
f1nanciero.
Por lo anterior puede verse que el diseño. operación, clausura y cuidado de larga de;: ~ción no son
tareas simples. Para la gente es rutinario subestimar las demandas para minimizar los efectos
adversos de la eliminación de los residuos.
En resumen, este curso y los materiales que lo acompañan, están dirigidos a interpretar las
condiciones locales y recursos en la medida en •1ue se puedan diseñar el mejor relleno sanitario
posible y pueda ser operado para minimizar los efectos adversos tanto de la gente de los
alrededores como del medio ambiente.
4
¡: ,.
:'
ti
:: [i
1:
:¡
CCRSO L\TER:\ACIOl\AL SOBRE DISEÑO 1· 11
il
DISPOSICIO\ Fl\AL DE RESIDUOS SOLIDOS 1'd
11
¡,
(RELLE\OS SA\ITARIOS) ¡;
1;
[~
,,'
SISTE\L\ DE CLASIFICACIO\ \1EDIA\TE EL E\1PLEO \!
11
1'
DE ESTA\DARES PARA RELLE~OS SA!\ITARIOS 1\
DE Cll.D.-\DES E\ DESARROLLO ,,,,'
l:
,.
,. Dr. Geoffrey Blight
International Solid 1\·aste Association
¡;
PAUCIO DE MI:\EP.IA. MEXICO D.F. 14-19 de Marzo de 1994 1

;:
'l.
V
@] UNIVERSITY OF THE WITWATERSRAND, JOHANNESBURG
-----~
Mr William S Forester Ref: GEB/sd

Executive Secretary
USA/Canadian International Te!: (27) 011 716 2470
Solid Waste Management Federation Our Fax: (27) 011 339 1762
PO Box 7010
Silver Spring Date: 28 January 1994
MD 20910.
UN!TED STA TES OF AMER!CA
Your Fax: 091 301 585 0297
Dear Bill
l. Many .thanks for your letter of January 7, 1994 and al so for the minutes of the
WGSL for the Sardinia meeting.
2. I have unfonunately developed a health problem and may not be fit enough to
go to Mexico City in March. I went toa conference in India (Delhi) in early
January. While there I caught an infection from the hotel air-conditioning. The
infection had developed into pneumonia by the time I got home. So it was out
of the plane and straight into hospital forme. Now, ten days la ter, I a m almost
clear of the pneumonia. However, the infectiori has "scrambled" my' heart
valves and my hean is beating irregularly and inefficiently. I don't know how
long it will take to get this sorted out, but a few months is possible.
3. I should ha ve time to rewrite chapter 2 of the instruction manual, and will start
on this as soon as I feel up to it. However, you should line up someone el seto
give my lecture in Mexico. (By the way, you have not given a deadline for
recei pt of the chapters.)
4. I should be able to cometo Torbáy in June:
5. I am sending you my draft of the "Graded Requirements" paper that 1 finished

in December before going to India. Will you please circulate to the WGSL,
asking for their comments.
With kind regards and best wishes for 1994.
Yours sincerely
G E BLIGHT
1
A SYSTEM OF CLASSIFICATION TO ALLOW FOR GRADED

STANDARDS TO BE APPLIED TO LANDFILLS IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
G E Blight
University of the Witwatersrand
Johannesburg, South A frica
(Written on behalf of the Working Group on Landfilling, lnternational Solid Wastes

Association 1
Synoosis
In developing coun;ries, the affordability of environmental control measures for sani:ary

landfilling is a key issue. There is no fundamental reason why standards for landfilling
in developing countries should me· :h corresponding standards in developed countries.
Also, there is no fundamental reason why standards required for landfills serving large
towns and cities should be'the same as those required for small villages. This paper
explores three factors that can be used to classify landfills, in arder to allow graded
standards for landfilling to be applied in a rational way. The three factors are
• the type of waste,

• the size of landfill, and
• the climatic condit: s at the site.
The classification is suitable for use in a developing country, but could equally well be
used in a developed country, particularly one in which conditions vary considerably from
one region to another. The classification was originally developed for South A frica, the
development being initiated and funded by the State Department of Water Affairs and
Forestry.
lntroduction
lf waste treatment and di"oosal is not carried out by a community to an adequate

standard, a severe risk to health can arise, and serioús degradation of the environment
will usually also result. When considering the disposal of sewage and waste water, the
. . )
above statement is a self-evident truth to members of all but the least educated of
communities. However, while the environmental degradation resulting from inadequate
disoosal of domestic refuse is evident to all. i,t is not alwavs plain th<'lt in<'ldenuilte
2
------disposal-of·solid-wastes-can-also·pose·a·serious-health-hazard:-For-example;-during-the----
politically motivated stayaways and boycons in South Africa during the 1980's, health
workers such as nurses and sewage treatment works operatives were allowed to
continue working (Nkosana, 1992). Garbage workers, however, were not regarded as
health workers and were torced to stay away from work.
The title refers to "developing countries". What distinguishes a "developing" country

from a "developed" one? The usual definition (Campbell, 1993) is that a developing
country is one where the gross domes tic product is lower than 1he average for the world.
Thus a developing coun1ry is one where 1he people are poor. on average. However.
1here are many countries for which this defini1ion may be inadequate, because
industrialized urban areas in a coun1ry may be "developed", while country are as are s1ill
"developing". lt is rare 10 find weal1h evenly distribu1ed be1ween town and country.
Communities in developing countries, just as in developed countries, can vary in size

from a few hundred to severa! million inhabitants. Whereas developed countries can
usually attord to apply the highest standards 10 refuse disposal, regardless of the size of
the communi1y, 1his does not usually apply in. developing coun1ries or developing areas
in developed countries. Communities in developing countries are poor, by defini1ion.
..
·',' -~
Large cities in a developing country although poor, may vet ha ve a tax base 1ha1 is
sufficient to enable them to apply adequately higtí standards to the disposal of their so lid
waste. However, smaller communities can usually not afford to dispose of their refuse
to the standards required in large cities.
There are a ·number of reasons why it may not be necessary 10 apply developed-world
standards to the developing world:
1. The generation rates and composition for refuse in developed countries may be
very different 10 those in developing countries:
For example Table 1 (based on Rushbrook and Finnecy, 1988 and Mayet, 1993) shows
that the putrescible (vegetable and paper) contento f. refuse in a developed country may
be much the same as in a city in a developing country (Delhi) or i1 may be vastly different
(Wuhan and Soweto). The proportion of dust, ash and other non-putrescible components
is usually much higher in a developing country than in a developed country. Although
data is not available on this point, it appears from personal observation, that 1he
putrescible content of refuse in small developing communities is even lower than that
shown in Table 1 for China and South Africa.
3
Most, if not al\ studies of the decomposition e- refuse and the composition of leachate
(e.g. Christensen, Cossu and Stegmann, 19921 have, however, been carried out on
refuse from developed countries. lt is very likely that low-putrescible content refuse in
a developing country will produce a less concentrated leachate than high-putrescible
content refuse in developed countries, and therefore will have a lesser pollution potential.
The lesser concentration of the leachate would be enhanced by the fact that the ·field
capacity of a low-putrescible content refuse would be lower than that of a high-
putrescible refuse.
TABLE 1
Composition of Municipal Refuse in

Developed and Developing Countries
Composition in Developed Developing Countries

%by Mass Countries
USA UK India China South

!Delhil IWuhan) A frica
-- !Soweto)
Vegetable 22 25 47 16 9
Paper 34 29 6 2 9
Metals 13 8 1 0.5 3
Glass 9 10 0.6 0.6 12
Textiles 4
1
3 - 0.6 1
Plastics 10 7 0.9 0.5 3
Wood 4 - - 1.8
63
Dust.Ash. other 4 18 44.5 78
unidentified
3
Refuse Density kg/m 100 + 150 420 600 400
(uncompactedl (estimated)
Refuse Generation Rate 0.65 0.65 0.14 0.20 0.15

Ton ( 1 OOOkg) /Person/year
4
2. As Table 1 shows, refuse generation rates in poor developing countries are smaller
by a factor of 3 or 4 than in developed countries:
Thus a community of a certain size in a developing country will produce far less refuse
than in a corresponding community in a developed country. Because less refuse is
produced, landfills will be smaller, or have a longer life, and will therefore represent a
smaller source of potential pollution.
3. The climate in many developing countries is humid and the potential for leachate
production high. However, there are also developing countries that have arid
climates with little potential for producing leachate:
Whereas in developed countries, the sanie standards can be applied to landfilling
regardless of climate, in developing countries. standards may be relaxed if little or no
leachate is likely to be generated in landfills. This relaxation can make landfilling more
affo.rdable without compromising protection of the environment.
The purpose of this paper is to set out a method for classifying landfills that will enable
graded standards to be applied, without compromising environmental protection. The
scheme is suitable ior either developed oi developing countries, but will probably be more.
attractive in developing countries, where affordability is always a key issue.
The paper will deal only with landfills for domestic and commercial refuse and dry-non-
hazardous industrial was'tes. The disposal of hazardous wastes will not be considered. -·
Comoonents of the Classification System
The classification depends on a('l assessment of three components:
1. the waste type,

2. the lan.dfill size, and
3. the climatic characteristics.
The components of the overali classification relating to these three factors ~ill now be
. . •
d escnbed:
1. Waste Type : For the purpose of the system; waste is classified according to its
putrescible (vegetable and animal matter and paper) content. lf the content of
putrescible material_ exceeds 20% by dry mass the waste is classified as"P" or high-
putrescible waste. lf the putrescible content is less that 20%, it is classified as "p", or
5
low-putrescible waste. While this is unproved at present, it appears reasonable to relax
standards required for p refuse, as compared with these required for P refuse. The
dividing point of 20% of putrescible material between p and P INastes is tentative at
present, and must be refined by future research.
2. Landfill Size : All landfills grow in size with the passing of time. The one
characteristic that has the biggest influence on the operation of the landfill, and
therefore, the need for facilities. plant and operating skills, is the rate of depositior. of
refuse. A landfill with a small final volume, but a large rate of deposition, should, if
standards are to be maintained, be.operated in exactly the same way, and to the same
standa'rds as a landfill with a large final volume and a large rate of deposition. Vice-
versa, a landfill where the rate of deposition is small, can be properly operated with
lesser skills, plant and facilities, even if it has a long lile and, therefore, will ultimately
occupy a large volume. The classification is based on the Maximum Rate of Deposition
(MRDI in tons of refuse deposited per year. The MRD is the projected rate of deposition
at the end of the lite of the landfill, and is calculated from the lnit1al Rate of Deposition
(IRDI and the estimated annual growth rate or development rate for the community that
the landfill is intended to serve. The IRD can be estimated by the amount of refuse
entering the site at present, or in the case of a new site, from the current rate of
deposition at the site or sites it is intended to rep,lace. Failing this, a suitable generation
rate (souch as those tabulated in Table 11 multipliea by the number of people presently in
the community can be used to estímate the IRD. Care should be taken to estímate the
IRD for an appropriate working year. Thisis usually 260 days (52 weeks x 5 daysl if the
andfill is operated on 5 days of the week.
lf D is the annual development rate estimated for a landfill, then the MRD can be
calculated from the IRD by:
(MRO) - (IR O) (1 +O) T 11)
where T is the estimated lile of the landfill site in years.
Mr, the mass of refuse deposited alter T years of operation is then:
M - (IR O) [(1 +O) T -1] 121

T . 0
6
As an example : A site is required having a lite of about 15 years, and (IRD) = 350
Tons/day. D is expected to be 3% per year. What will be (MRD) and Mr?
(IRD) 350Tons/day - 350 x 260 - 91 000 Tons/year

a
(MRD) -91 000 (1 +0.03) 15 -142 000 Tons/year
91 000
Mr - [(1.03) 15 -.1] - 1 692 500Tons
0.03
The required total deposition volume, or air space can then be estimated by dividing the
tonnage Mr by an assumed compacted unit mass or density. lf a unit mass of 0.75
3
Ton/m is chosen, the deposition volume required for the compacted refuse will be:
1 692 500
V (net) - - 2 257 000m 3
T 0.75
- Allowing for a ratio of compacted refuse to cover material of 1 to 6, the total air-space
réquired will be
Vr(gross) - 1.!. x 2 257 000 - 2 633 OOOm 3

6 '
The complete size classification is illustrated by Table 2.
Table 2
Size Classification for Landfills
LANDFILL MAXIMUM RATE

SIZE CLASSIFICATION OF DEPOSITION (MRD)
(Tons per year)
·Communal e less than 250

Small S up to 5000
Medium M up to 150 000
Large L o ver 150 000
In this classification, a "Communal" landfill would be one serving a village, typically of

7
1000 to 1500 persons. A "Small" landfill would serve a town of up to 30 000

inhabitants, while "Medium" and "Large" landfills would serve cit1es and large towns of
over 30 000 inhabitants.
3. Climate : lt has been well established (e.g. Christensen, Cossu and Stegmann,
1992) that the quantity of leachate generated in a landfill depends on the climate in
which the landfill is situated. The effects of climate can be quantified by the water
balance for a landfill. The water balance compares the quantities of water entering the
landfill as part of the refuse anu :,s infiltrating rain and snow-melt, with ·the quantity of
water stored in the landfilled refuse, and leaving the landfill as evaporation or
evapotranspiration. The difference between the net water input and the water stored
in the refuse will be available to form leachate.
In humid climates, the difference between net water input and water stored will be
positive over ayear or season. In arid climates the difference will be negative, whether
-over the complete year, or seasonally. In other words, in arid climates, landfills will
either not produce any leachate at all, or will only produce leachate seasqnally.
In cases where no leachate is ever produced, it is possible to reduce the standards

required for the design of a landfill, by omitting the leachate collection system and
underliner.
However, even in an arid climate, there are occasional wet years or wetter than normal
wet seasons. When extr· •e weather conditions occur, some leachate may be
generated. lf there is no leacnate collection system, this leachate will be available to
seep into the soil underlying the landfill; Provided that this does not occur more
frequently than (say) once in 5 years, the consequences of such an escape will not be
serious and can be ignored.
The classification ·system uses a "climatic water balance" as a means of deciding on

whether or. not a landfill will generate significan¡ quantities of leachate and therefore
whether or Ílot a_leachate collection system and underliner should be provided. The
. climatic water balance is expressed as
8 = R- E
where R is the rainfall in mm of water
E is the evaporation from the landfill cover surface.
E is taken as O. 7 x A-pan evaporation or 0.9 x S-pan evaporation.

8
To allow for seasonal influences and variable weather patterns, 8 is calculated for the
· wet season of the wettest year on record. (The wet season would usually be taken as
the wettest six month period in ayear, based on long-term averages). lf the value of 8
is positive the indication is that the landfill will generate leachate in a wet year. Vice-
versa, if B is negative the indication is that the landfill will not generate leachate even
in a wet year.
As the rainfall and evaporation in any one. year do not necessarily corre late, B is re-
calculated for successively drier years to establish if
(i) 8 is positive in less than one year in 5 for which data is available, or
(ii,l Bis positive in more than one year in 5. (l_f (i) applies, the site is classified as B
and a leachate collection system and underliner can safely be omitted from the
landfill. lf (ii) applies, the si te is classified as B •. In this case, regular generation
of leachate can be expected, ·and a leachate collection system and underliner
would need to be provided.
The Complete Classification System
Table 3 illustrates th ..:omplete landfill classification system. Examples of the application

ot the classification are as follows:
1. A landfill receives waste having a putrescible contentof 53%. (MRDl is 300 000
Tons/year and the landfill is situated in.a climate where Bis positive in 4 years out
of five. The landfill would be classified as
• PLB•
and would have to be constructed and operated to the highest standards.
2. A landfill receives waste having a putrescible content of 18% (MRD) is 190

Tons/year and the landfill is situated in a climate where 8 is positive once in 11
years. The landfill would be classified as
p es· '
and could be constructed and operated to lesser standards without risks to health
or the environment.
Application of the Classification System
The detailed- applicationof the classification system would depend on the requirements
and conditions in the country in which it would be applied. For exarriple, the climate in
a country may be such that the entire country would be classified as B •. In such a case,
/
the climatic consideration could be omitted, as it would be the same for all sites. A
study of thé types of waste might indicate that all waste would be classified as "High
Putrescible" or P. In such a case the right hand half of Table 3 could be omitted.
Once the classification has been carried out. the graded requirements can be set under
each of the headings of:
site selection
site investigation
environmental impact assessment
landfill design
site preparation and commissioning
operation and operational monitor1ng
rehabilitation, closure and end-use
post-closure monitoring
Table 4, for example shows sorne of the minimum requirements under the heading of
"Landfill Design" for a hypothetical country that does not differentiate between P and p
waste, but which has both B • and B clima tic zones.
1
10
TABLE 3 1
LANDFILL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM
WASTE High Putrescible Waste Low Putrescible Waste

TYPE p• • p
LANDFILL e S M L e S M L 1
SIZE eommunal Small Medium Large eommunal Small Medium Large
ANO TYPE
11
CLIMA TIC
WATER s· s• s· s• B s· B s• B s• B s• s· s• s· 11
s•
BALANCE 1 ¡
-
-
'
11
TABLE 4
Example of Graded Standards Applied te the
Design of a Landfill Receiving Only One Type of Waste
R = Requirement e S M L
NR = Not a requirement Communal Small Medium Large
F = Flat: special consideration to be Landfill Landfill Landfill Landfill
given. by expen
B s· B s· B s· B s·
Conceptual design: ..
Estimate unsaturated zone thickness after t\'R NR NR R R R R R
cover excavation
Assess cover volume NR NR R R R R R R

-·
Determine available airspace NR NR R R R R R R
Estimate airspace uti!isation NR NR R R R R R R
Est•mate site lite NR NR R R R R R R
Confirm site classification R R R R R R R R
Surface hydrology .desig"n R R R R R R R R

Development Plan R R R R R R R .
--
..
.
Rehabilii:ation Plan R R R R R R R
Design of leachate management svstem NR NR NR R NR R NR R

Ground water monitoring system design NR NR NR R R R R R
End-use and Closure Plan NR NR R R R R R R
T esting of soils and materials NR NR NR NR F F F F
Techn•cal design:
-
Validation of Surface hydrology NR NR NR NR R R R R
Lining system NR NR NR R NR R NR R
Leachate management svstem NR NR NR R NR R NR R
Gas Management svstem NR NR NR NR F F F F
Final cover design NR NR NR NR R R R R

~~12.
Conclusions
Although it is usual to set standards for salid waste landfilling practice that are uniform
for all sizes of landfill and all climatic conditions (as with the 1993 U.S. EPA Subtitle D
Municipal Waste Regulations). (Daniel et al, 1993), there are good reasons why
standards should be graded depending on the type of waste, the siz.e of the landfill and
the climatic conditions in which the landfill is situated. There is a particularly good case
for applying graded landfill standards in developing countries, where affordability to the
community is an important, and may be an over-riding consideration.
The classification scheme ot.itlined in this paper provides a way of grading standards in
a scientifically sound manner that need not compromise standards for environmental
protection.
Acknowledgements
This paper is based on an earlier paper (Ball, Blight and Bredenhann, 19931 that deals
with the intention to introduce graded standards for landfilling in South Africa.
References
Ball, J.M., Blight, G.E. and Bredenhann, L. (1993). "Minimum requirements for landfills
in Soúth A frica. Práceedings. 4th lnternational Landfill Symposium, Cagliari, ltaly
(Sardinia '931 vol 11, pp 1931-1940.
Campbell, D.J. V. ( 1993). Waste management needs in developing countries.
Proceedings, 4th lnternational Landfiii·Symposium, Cagliari, ltaly (Sardinia '93) vol
11, pp 1851-1866.
Christensen, T.H., Cossu, R. and Stegmann, R. (Eds) ( 1 992). Landfilling of waste :
leachate. Elsevier Applied Science, London, ISBN 185 166 7334.
Daniel, D.E. (lntroducer) (1993) Series of papers on U.S.EPA Subtitle Don Municipal
Waste Regulations. Geotechnical News, USA, Vol 11, no 3, pp 36-52.
Mayet, M.A.G. (1993). Domestic waste generation in the urban core of the Durban
"
functional region. MSc (Eng) Thesis, University of Natai.~Durban, South Africa.
Nkosana, M.J. (19921. The effects of unrest situations on salid waste management in
the late eighties and early nineties. lnstitute for Waste Management. South
A frica, 11th Congress. Johannesburg, pp 249-25 7.
Rushbrook, P.E. and Finnecy, E.E. (1988). Planning for future waste management
operations in developing countries. Waste Management and Research, vol.6., pp
1-21.
·----
',
11
"¡; CCRSO L'\TER:\ACIONAL SOBRE DISEÑO Y

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El marco legal para el manejo ge-neral de los residuos sólidos municipales existe en 1\!exico en
los niveles federal, estatal y municipal. Sin embargo, a nivel panicular. aun resta mucho por
hacer en materia normatividad relativa a la ubicación, diseño, construcción, operación y
monitoreo de rellenos sanitarios.
Por otra pane, si bien puede decirse que la normatividad en este ámbito no es todavía la que se
!
requiere, se cuenta con los ordenamientos básicos necesarios. de los que se efectua a continuación
una breve descripción para cada uno de los niveles de gobierno antes mencionados.
l. :'\1\'EL FEDER,\L
]J
La
. Constitución Política de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos establece en su aniculo
. 115, fracción
lll que "Los municipios, con el concurso de los estados cuando así fuere necesario y lo
deter:-:".inen las leyes, tendrán a su cargo los siguientes servicios publicos:
a) Agua potable y alcantarillado;

b) Alumbrado publico;
e) ümpia;
d) Mercados y centrales de abasto;
..
En cuanto a un ordenamiento más especifico que establece criterios relativos al manejo de los
residuos sólidos municipales, en el nivel Federal se tiene fundamentalmente a la Ley Geneoal del ·
Equilibrio Ecológico y la Protección al Ambiente de 1988.
Existen además, la. normas oficiales mexicanas expedidas por las dependencias del Ejecutivo
Federal.
1.1 Ley ~neral del Equilibrio Ecológico y la Protección al Ambiente (LGEEPA).
Esta Ley ~neral, publicada por la extinta Secretaria de Desarrollo Urbano y Eco logia en 1988
(SEDlTE) abroga la Ley Federal de Protección al Ambiente publicada en 1982, dando así una
mayor flexibilidad para su aplicación en el territorio nacional.
La LGEEPA.establece inicialmente una delimitación de responsabilidades que corresponden a la

autcyidad federal por una parte, y a las entidades federativas por otra. En forma especifica,
establece las responsabilidades tanto de los estados de la República como del Distrito Federal,
capital del país. Asimismo, define una serie de criterios relativos a la prevención de la
contaminación del suelo originada por el mal manejo de los residuos sólidos.
:.A continuación se citan los artículos mas relevantes de esta Ley en materia de residuos sólidos
'·municipales, resaltando .
en negritas las referencias particulares a la etapa de disposición final
(señalamiento no incluido en el texto original). Cuando se hace mención a "la Secretaría", se
1'efiere a la ya mencionada SEDI.JE.
Artículo 3o.· Para los efectos de esta Ley se enttende por:
XXVI. Residuo: Cualquier material generado en los procesos de extracción, beneí,.:io,

transformación, producción, consumo, utilización, control o tratamiento cuya calidad no
permita usarlo nuevamente en el proceso que lo generó.
Artículo 6o.· Compete a las entidades federativas y municipios, en el ámbito de sus

circunscripciones territoriales y conforme a la distribución de ~tribuciones que se establezcan en
las leyes locales: •
Xlll. La regulación del mane;o y disposición final de los residuos sólidos que no sean
. 2
peligrosos, conforme a esta l;ey y-sus-disposiciones-reglamentarias;-y=============
Articulo 9o.• En el Distrito Federal la Secretaria ejercerá las atribuciones a que se ref<ere el
articulo anterior y el Departamento del Distrito Federal ejercera las que se prevén para las
autoridades locales, sin perjuic<o de las que competan a la Asamblea de Representantes del
Distrito Federal, ajustindose a las siguientes disposiciones especiales:
A. ·corresponde a la Secretaria:
VIII. Expedir las Normas Técnicas para la recolección, tratamiento y disposición de toda
J> clase de residuos, en coordinación con la Secretaria de Salud;

'
Corresponde al Departamento del Distr<to FederaÍ:
IX. Proponer al ~ecutivo Federal la expedición de las disposiciones que regulen las
actividades de recolección, tratamiento y disposición final de residuos sólidos no pe!< grosos,
observando las normas técnicas ecológicas aplicables;
X. Establece•· los sitios destinados a la disposición final de los residuos sólidos a que hace
referencia la fracción anterior;
XVlll. Observar las normas técnicas ecológicas en la prestación de los servicios públicos de
alcantarillado,. limpia, mercados y centrales de abasto, panteones, rastros, transito y
transportes locales; y
3
~rtículo 13~.- Para la prevención y control de la contaminación del suelo. se consideraran los
Siguientes criterios:
II. Deben ser controlados los residuos en tanto que constituyen la principal fuente de
contaminación de los suelos;
III. Es necesario racionalizar la generación de res1duos sólidos, municipales e industriales;

e incorporar técnicas y procedimientos para su reuso y reciclaje; y
JA.rtículo 135.- Los criterios para prevenir y controlar la contaminación del suelo se consideraran,
....
en los siguientes casos:
!!. La operación de los sistemas de limpia y de disposición finru de r-esiduos municipales en

r-ellenos sanitatios;
III. Las autorizaciones para la instalación y operación de confinamientos o depósitos de

residuos: y
Artículo 136.- Los residuos que se acumulen o puedan acumularse y s.e depositen o infiltren en
los suelos deberan reunir las condiciones necesarias para prevenir o evitar:
Artículo 137.- Queda sujeto a la autorización de los gobiernos-de los estados o, en su caso, de
los municipios con arreglo a las normas H~cnicas ecológicas que para tal efecto expida la
Secretaria. el funcionamiento de los sistemas de recolección, almacenamiento, transpone,
alojamiento, reuso, tratamiento y disposición final de r-esiduos sólidos municipales. Los materiales
4
Y residuos peligrosos se sujetarán a lo dispuesto en el Capítul~ V de este mismo Titulo.
Artículo 138.- La Secretaria promovera la celebración de acuerdos de coordinación y asesoría con

los gobiernos estatales y municipales para:
l. La implantación y mejoramiento de sistemas de recolección. tratamiento y disposición final

de residuos sólidos municipales: y
Il. La identificación de alternativas de reutilización y disposición final de residuos sólidos

municipales, incluyendo la elaboración de inventarios de los mismos y sus fuentes
generadoras.
~.2 Normas oficiales mexicanas.
En el ambito federal, existen también diversas normas relativas a la determinación de diversos

parametros de los residuos sólidos municipales. La mayqria de las normas relacionadas con los
residuos sólidos municipales fueron eilboradas y pubiJcadas por la Secretaria
'
de Comercio .v
Fomento Industrial (SECOFI) con la denominación . 1\orma Oficial Mexicana (NO:-.!):
posteriormente, la extinta SEDUE elaboró un cieno número de Normas T ecnicas Ecológicas
(NTE), aunque enfocadas fundamentalmente al manejo de los residuos peligrosos Cabe
mencionar que a la fecha existe una carencia de normas relativas al barrido, recolección,
transferencia, tratamiento y disposición final de los residuos sólidos municipales, debido
pOSiblemente a la atención prioritaria otorgada a los residuos peiJgrosos, campo en el c¡ue se
carecía totalmente de normas ..
La Ley Federal sobre Metrología y Normalización de junio de 1992 ha unificado criterios

respecto· a la nomenclatura de las normas en México, modificando la antigua denominación
utilizada por la SEDUE. En materia de residuos sólidos municipales, la SECOFI ha elabvrado
y publicado un cieno número de normas desde hace unos diez años, que si bien no se refieren
a' los rellenos sanitarios en panicular, se enlistan a continuación por considerarse de interés y en
estrecha relación con el tema dd presente capítulo:
5
NOM-AA-16-1984 Determinación de humedad
N0:-..1-AA-18-1984 Determinación de cenizas
NOM-AA-24-1984 Determinación de nitrógeno total
NOM-AA-25-1984 Determinación de pH. Método potenciométrico
NOM-AA-92-1984 Determinación de azufre
NOM-AA-15-1985 Método de cuaneo
NOM-AA-19-1985 , Peso volumétrico "in situ"
!NOM-AA-21-1985 Determinación de materia organica
NOM-AA-22-1985 Selección y cuantificación de subproductos
NOM-AA-33-1985 Determinación de poder calorifico
NOM-AA-52-198 5 Preparación .de muestras en laboratorio para su análisis
NO~I-AA-67-1985 Determinación de la relación carbonoínitrógeno
NO~I-AA-68-19.86 Determinación de hidrógeno
'
N0:-..1-AA-90-1986 Determinación de oxigeno
6
~-----=======2~·=-=N~~-·~~~·E~L~-~ES~T~A~T~A~L~-=-=-=-=-=-================================================
Existen diversos ordenamientos que a nivel estatal regulan el manejo de los residuos sólidos
municipales. En primer lugar, en prácticamente la totalidad de las entidades federativas del pais
se cnenta ya con la Ley Estatal equivalente a la LGEEPA, va_riando su nombre dependiendo de
la entidad de que se trate.
Ademas de la mencionada Ley Estatal, algunas entidades federativas cuentan con ordenamientos
adicronales que varían de un estado a otro; queda fuera de los alcances de este manual el efectuar
una revisión de estos ordenamientos. Como ejemplo al azar se·puede citar el caso del Estado de
Sonora, que cuenta con la."Ley (estatal) que Regula la Prestación de Diversos Servicios Públicos
Municipales" del ·5 de agosto de 1987, asi como la Ley (estatal) Organica de Administración
Municipal, entre otras (Ley de Hacienda). Estos ordenamientos tienen aplicación ya sea en forma .
~irecta o bien indirecta en la prestación del servicio de limpia en todos los municipios del Estado.
Por su parte, el Departamento del Distnto Federal (DDF), cuenta con el "Reglamento para el
Servicio de Limpia en el Distrito Federal':, publicado en el Diario Oficial de la Federación el 27
de julio de 1989. Este reglamento abroga al anterior, que data del 6 de junio de 1941. Asimismo,
el DDF cuenta con el "Reglamento de la Ley sobre justicia en materia de faltas de policia y buen
Gobierno", que contemp1a aspectos relacionados con Jos residuos sólidos municipales.
Para el caso particular del Distrito Federal, existe la "Ley de Salud para el Distrito Federal" del
19 de enero de 1987, que si bien fue emitida mediante decreto del Congreso de la Unión, se
incluye en este apartado ya que su aplicación se limita al Distrito Federal. Entre otros, esta Ley
establece:
A1tículo 5o.- En materia de salubridad local corresponde al Departamento la regulación y control

sanitario de:
1 IV. Limpieza pública;
7
Arúculo 21.- Para los efectos de la presente ley se entiende por:
-
V. Limpieza pública, el servicio de recolección y tratamiento de basuras;
Articulo 39.- El Departamento, por conducto de las Delegaciones, proveerá de depósitos de

basura en los parques, jardines, paseos públicos y en otros lugares de la via pública que estén
dentro de su jurisdicción, ademas de ordenar la fumigación periódica de los mismos; asimismo,
fijará lugares especiales para depositar la basurn, tomando en cuenta lo que sobre el partrcular
lllispong·a la legislación aplicable en materia de contaminación ambiental.
'
La basura deberá incinerarse periódicamente o destruirse por otros procedimientos, excepto que
sea industrializada o tenga empleo útil, siempre que no signifique un peligro para la salud.
Arúculo 40.- El Departamento ordenará la construcción de depósitos generales y hornos de basura

en los mercados, hospitales y establecimientos públicos que los requiera y se encuentren en su
JUrisdiCCIÓn.
8
3. NIVEL 1\fUNICIPAL.
En el nivel municipal, un cieno número de los ayuntamientos del país cuentan con un ·
"Reglamento de Limpia", como es el caso del Ayuntamiento de Hermosillo, para continuar con
el ejemplo del Estado de Sonora. Para este municipio, se denomina "Reglar=nto para el Servicio
· Público de Limpia, Recolección, Manejo y Disposición Final de Residuos Sólidos en el
Municipio", del 29 de julio de 1987. Esta municipalidad cuenta asimismo con el "Bando de
PoliC\a y Buen Gobierno para el Municipio".
Estos ordenamientos son la base para el control del manejo de Jos residuos sólidos en el tercer
nivel de gobierno; desafonunadamente es frecuente observar q"ue estos reglamentos adolecen de
carencias o bien no son aplicados como seria de desearse, por diversas razones cuya discusión
Jl .
"'jueda fuera de los.alcances de este trabajo .
9
4. SITUACIO:"i ACIUAL
Si bien existe una carencia de normatividad en México en materia de diseño, construcción y

operación de rellenos sanitarios, como ya se ha mencionado, por otra parte actualmente se cuenta
con los avances para que estas carencias puedan satisfacerse gradualmente y en el corto plazo.
En México, el Instituto Nacional de Ecología (1:-.C:), dependiente de la Secretaria de Desarrollo

Social; es la entidad responsable de la elaboración de normas en materia de protección ambiental.
•
Deritro de esta dependencia se creó el Comité Consultivo Nacional de Normalización para la
Protección Ambiental, tal como lo establece la Ley Federal sobre Metrología y Normalización
de 1992. A su vez, y dependien¡e de aquél, existe el Subcomité de Residuos Municipales.
Materiales y Residuos Peligrosos; finalmente, este Subcomité' comprende al Grupo de Trabajo
sobre Manejo de Residuos Industriales No Peligrosos y Municipales .
-'
'
Este Grupo de Trabajo se reúne periódicamente en la sede del I~E. de manera tal que el
programa correspondiente a !994 contempla la realización de un total de 18 reun1ones de trabajo
en el ambito de la elaboración de normas relativas a residuos sólidos municipales, entre las que
se encuentran contempladas las correspondientes a la ubicación, d1seño, construcción y operación
de rellenos sanitarios.
De hecho, se cuenta ya con un avance en la elaboración de varios anteproyectos de normas,

correspondientes a algunas de !as' etapas antes mencionadas. por Jo que se espera que en el corto
y mediano plazos se logre la publicación defimtiva de estas normas.
Cabe mencionar que en el Comité Consultivo y en sus diferentes niveles, participan instituciones
de índole diversa, tales como universidades, centros de investigación, camaras (de comercio,
industria, etc.), asociaciones gremiales y otros, con lo que se conforman grupos de trabajo
in terdisci pi in arios .•
10
Cl-RSO L\TER:\ACIO\"AL SOBRE DISEI\0 Y
DISPOSICIO\" FI\"AL DE RESIDUOS SOLIDOS
( RELLE\" OS SA\"ITARI oc:)
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C-\R-\CTERISTICAS DE LOS RESIDCOS SOLIDOS

Y PR OCEDL\II E.\TOS PAR-\ St ACEPTACIO.\
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PAL;CIO DE '11\EP.IA. \!E\ICO D.F. 14-19 de \larzo de 1994

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ISWA WORKING GROUP ON SANITARY

LANDFILLS
Mexico conference 1994
WASTE CHARACTERIZATION ANO WASTE

/ ACCEPTANCE
Grontmij- B.R.P.- The Netherlands

ir. L.A.A.M. van Arendonk ·
aS BRP
OUTLINE
1. General
a. introduction
b. some figures and trends
2. Waste characterization
a. why?
b. waste generation
c. waste composition
d. data and sampling
e. major classes and special wastes
3. Waste acceptance
a. why?
b. relation to landfill-processes
c. acceptance criteria
d. acceptance policy
e. flow-diagrams
4. Slides and discussion

---=================-==========-:=================
Policy field
Facts
Or2:anization
'-'
Norms \
. : BRP
COMPOSITION OF WASTE
Physical characterization
• moisture content
• bulk density
• size distribution
-
Chemical characterization
• pH
• organ1c
• etals
.S BRP
WASTE FLOW
1. Waste arising
• municipal waste
• commercial/industrial waste
• hazardous waste
2. Col! ection!Transportation
• prívate .
• public
• import/export ·
• no-collection
3. Treatment
• recovery.
• treatment
• final disposal
4. New products
• secondary materials
• energy
Exposure routes of environment to hazardous materials
Pri marv. 1secondarv.

raw material
PRODUCTION:
household industr·y ~ Produm
L-----------~------------
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Rest material
se e. ra\\' mJt. REMOVAL

'
'
'
removal S\'Stems
reuse '
storage treatment
--...---------
incineration landfilling
1
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Emission to air, water and soil
MAC·\'alues
SWJdard \'alues
· professional EXJ>OSURE soil. water
np0;ure onJy
1 air. groWJd.,.·ar.er
'
EFFECTS
qualit:
CfiecK at lanoflll
Arrival at landfill
..
. Decide which wav• to check

or sample the load
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Limited 1
Extensive Sam pling
check ·check and analysis ,
'-
Flow-diagram Flow-diagram
A B
'
Check at landful
Flow-diagrarn A
(limited check)
Inspection of load during

emptying of truck
ls contents similar to
' ~o
. Return
information on forrns load
Yes 1
Does load contain

deviant elements
y e> ~o
'
Is more extensive No Accept load
. check possible
Yes
'
Flow-diaoram
e B ¡ Decide, accept
and register
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==~===============€~h~ee~k~-~~~l~an~d~~~ill~===============l
Flo\v-diagram B
(extensive check)
..
Empty truck on special

inspection-site
'
Spread load
"
Take and compare samples of No

different loads. Verify if waste
is similar to information on forro. 1
1
. 1
Yes 1
'
Does load contain 1
deviant elements?
1
None or small amounts Large amounts e

.
Return deviant Return load

elements
Accept load
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I.A. PARIS
l. Introduction
Geology, hydrogeoly and hydrology are all different subjects which need se\'eral
year of study and years of experience before an engineer can practise it · with
confidence. The aim of this one hour lecture therefore is not to teach these subject
and even less to be comprehensive. it is merely intended as an aid to understanding
the factors that need to be taken into account for assessing potential landfill siting.
their design, operation and monitoring.
The risks of water and g:round contamination due to landfilling depend largely upon
the í!eoloí!v
'-' ...... and ll\·droí!eoloL'Y
. .._ ....... of the si te eh osen.
l
During the si te selection phase, the geology and hydrogeology of the area must be
thoroughly investigated and taken into account both at the regional and local Je,·el.
Th.is knowledge will then be ilsed in l\vo ways :
1) first to s'elect the most favorable are as (''·here the risb of negatr\·e
erl\'ironmental impactare lowest).
2) once a giwn area is chosen. to design the landfill in order to funher minimize
the potentral for co111amination.
This lecrure ,,¡(¡ deal succ7ssively ,,¡¡J¡ the following points:
O:· définition of ma¡or re!e,ant geological, hydrological and hydrogeological

concepts,
O:• why and how waste can contaminare the envirorunent,
o how ro conduct a geological-hydrogeological study,
O:• description of best case and worse case scenario,
e:• conclusion.
----II~Definiti"o"ns~-
2.1 Geologv
Geology can be defined as the systernatic study of the rnatérial, processes,

environments and history of the eanh.
'
.A.lthough the tlu·ee are complementar:-·. it is the nature and structure of the
rnatetials themselves that haw the greate~t bearing on landfill and which
therefore will be dealt with here.
a) R oc k trpc.~
The rocks present on the sutface of the eanh can be broadly subdivised
into three categories, ea.::h cotTesponding to it's own rnode of fom1ation ;
al] three categories being linked to one another ¡Ju·ough the "geological
cycle" (se e figure 1).
•'
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le Re"'~'
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Buríal
Fig. 1:The geological cyc/e

'
Scdimcnran· rocks
Sedimentar\'- rocks are mostlv- derived from the destmction (erosion or

chemical dissolution) of preexisting rocks, transpo11 and deposition in
layers generally at the bonom of seas or lakes and rivers (sornetimes
directly on surface as with aeolian sandstones).
Sedimentary rocks include conglornerate, sandstones, limestones, chalk,

clav ...
lgneous rocks are fonned tlu·ough the rising and cooling of melted magma
up to the surface of the eanh. The original composition ,,.¡¡¡ detennine the'
final characteristics of the cooled rocks and it's resistance 10 weathering
and fracturing.
Rapidly mo1·ing low \'!Scosity magma generate the classic volcanic

emptions (basalts. tuffs ). Cooler. thicker magma do not n]ove .so easily
and stop below su¡face where they fonn coarser rocks. These becorne
e\posed on surface throug:h erosion. Granites are fonned in this marmer.
.\fc!~~;m(Jr:;hic rocks
\letarnorphic rocks result from the transfonnation thought heating or

regional pressure of preexisting rocks (igneous or sedimentary). The heat
and'or pressure can results from the burying: of sediments into the depth
of the cmst, frorri defonnation during the creation of mountain ranges or
from the proximity of rising igneous rocks.
Example of metamorphic rocks include schists, marbles (n·ansfonned
limestones rocks) and g:neisses (n·ansfonned igneous rocks).
A very impor1ant distinction can also be made between the "hard·rocks"

(basalts, limestones, granits, sorne sandstones) and soft rocks (chalk,
clays,soft sand, gra1 eL 11eathered granites or basalts.:.).
The hard rock areas are not easily amenable to earth moving equipement
and thus more expensi1·e to deal with than the "soft rocks" 11hich can be
removed using: eanh mo1·ing equipment.
h) Geologieal ha:arJs
As we have seen befare, geology, comp1ises the study of processes

involved in the development of the earth.· Most of theses processes are
slow (erosion, mountain fonnation). However, sorne are ve1y rapid and
drastically alter the surface ofthe eanh. The probalility of such processes,
grouped under the, tenn geological hazards, to occur must be assessed
when looking for a potential landfill site. The most conunon geological
hazards are listed below :'
<=:> flood,
C:::• avalanches and lahars (for obvious reasions but a\·a!anches paths
can be easily be iorgonen. as ''as the case recently in a french ski·
re son 1 ),
C:::• acti\·e seismJc zonc>.
C:::· fault zones e,·en macuve as these would act as preferential wc.ter
pathways.
e) Roek ccrmcahilitl'
Penneability is a tenn npressing the rate at which water passes through a

giwn bod\'. lt can be used 10 describ,e fluid movement in rocks. cement,
plastics ...
Penneability is expressed as K, in m1s and the higher the figure. the more
penneable is the subsnate. '
For example, á very penneable .rock. like a gra,·e! fonnation, has a

K= ¡o-2 m-'s.
At the other end of the specn"Um, clay is poorly penneable, (conunonh'

tenned, inconectly. impenneable) : K = I0-9 ---> I0-12 m/s. \\'ater can
still percolate tluough but \ery slowly.
Rocks can be broadly classified on a permeability scale as follo'' s.
Hightly Permeable Poorly Impenneable

permeable · penneable
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------:>
Sand Sandy clays Clays
fra~tured rcd.;s
\\eathered rocks
Examples of rypical penneability Yalues are giYen for these roe k types in
fieu:·~ 2.
HoweYer a gi,·en rock type cam1ot be automatically assigned a stri~t

definite K \alue. This "ill depend on its local homogenéity (clay with
sand lenses or ,·ice wrsa), it's degree of fracruring and it's state of
alteration. K must therefore always be checked and mesured in siru.
-,
:zz_l,, .... .-
•..,,·
p:-.:.··
. .
.. '
1
'
•••.
¡:_~
1111
J.,
.. 1
I!J¡J.~'~3~i
1
I:!;J ~ l•i'l~ ¡ f;\'A§I;i
1
~~ ill!~ 3! !§'~1!1:1·~4
1
•
··r··
..
1
1..:·~~
ª 1
it.i =--=
1·'· 1 •llll 1'1(.1J~l·l
.. . 1
h1~141!W•
1
1
••• ••• r.; 1~ .~1--tm t)
1
• (.il§l
1
1111 ~~·;~~~
1
. - - - - - . - - - - - , - - - - - , , - - - - - - , , - - - - - - , K (m 1 s)
1 o·, o 10' 6 10
Fig. 2: Examples of permeabilities
In order to identify the most favorable area for the siting of a landfill, an
unde1'standing of how and why the present geological features were
developped is necessary. Such an understanding allows the identification .
of the geological hazards pre\iously mentionned.
The unravelling of the geological history of an area is achieved through

the careful analysis of geological maps. and when these are inadequate or
unexistant, through geological mapping and drilling.
Examples :
C:• The study of a geological map can show the existence of faults
under a thin sedimentary cover (not ,·isible on su1face).
C:> :\nalys¡s of sedimentary pattems indicates ''hich zones are likely to

be homogeneous, penneable, impenneable, ...
C:> A srudy of the geomorphology or Ji,·ers tenaces and recen! deposits

indicate ilood plains ..
'•
1 1 H\'droloo,·
Hydrology is the science that déals with the processes invoh·ed in the depletion
and replenishement of the water resources. Thes processes can best be
understood by looking atthe water cycle (Fig. 3).
The dri,·ing force for this circulation is radian! energy from the sun: This
causes evaporation from water su¡{aces, the resulting water vapour comprising
pa11 of the atmosphere. With favourable annosphe1ic conditions, the water will
condense to fonn clouds from which precipitation may occur. The latter may
rerum directly to storage in lakes and oceans. it may accumulate as snow in
high mountains and in polar regions, or it may fall as rain over land. In the
latter case some precipitation may be intercepted by vegetation and rerum to
the annosphere by evaporation. The remainder of the rainfall may collect to
fonn smface run off or it may enter the ground as in filn·ation. The smface run
off mav then rerum to storaQe in lakes and oceans. The water that infiln·ates the
soil '' i-11 either be taken up -by plan! roots and n·anspired to the ahnosphere, or
it will percolate down,,·ards tlu·ough the unsaturated zone to the water table.
®
... • -
/ i
~:-::'':":_:A \
~-'::~:<?-::-::',::·._ ··:···· ·:·. ·-·:··-:·::···:~-- ._ ..,
(CLotio FÓRMATlON :
"'L: z.• ,.•.••·•·•··?... .:·•····• .
EVAPORATION
ANO EVAPO
/ TRANSPIRATION
Y~egetatlon t
Water table
----
Fig. 3:The water cycle

This groundwater may then move towards smface discharge points (spting etc)
where it will become a componen! of surface runoff moving towards oceans
and Jakes.
As far a landfill siting and designing is concemed, the following data needs dot
be recorded and assessed : .
Clima te
Wind, rain or snow. and tempcrature are climatic conditions that may
mandatc the type of opcration, amount and placement of soil covcr, kinds of
roads needed. and typc of structures constructed on a landfill. Hcnce, it is
imperative to have information on the number of days of wind, freczing
temperaturc, rain or snow, to aid in sckcting a site for a sanitary landfill.
Rain or SIIOH'
Pr.::cipitation must be considered with regards lo surfac.:: water runofi.

drainage systcm required for its control, leachate generation, feasibility of
sustaining operations at al! times on si te. nwvement of equipment. and access
to and from site. For instance, low lying sites that might frequently tlood or
bccome muddy during rainy wcather should not be choscn in areas haYing
high rainfall.
Clima te and degree o (in filrration
Climate is significan! becausc of its dircct bearing on the amount of rainwater

that may infiltrare through thc unsaturated zone and into a groundwater
system. Dcgree of infiltration is a function of the amount of precipitation.
volume of surface ponding and runoff. and the evapotranspiration rate.
(Evapotranspiration refcrs to the water released into the atmosphere by plants
~ ~ -
- in this case. the veg.etation growing on the Jandfill cover). Ambient
temperature and relativc humidity also have an impact on infiltration.
evaporation, and e\·apotranspiration. The potential for groundwater
degradation · from a well-designed and constructed landfill in arid and semi-
arid regions is quite low. whereas the potential is quite high in humid
regions. Another decision factor in selecting a suitable si te is the quantity and
seasonality of rainfall. For example, if rainfall is highly seasonnal (e.g.
Mediterranean type climate), the quantity of rainfall during the wet season
may be relati,·ely low.
Stream DensitY
The likelihood of surface water contamination increases in areas in which an

unusally short underground flow path precedes discharge of contaminants
into an are a in which streams are closely spaced. However, the overall extent
of any grounwater contamination may be limited by subsurface media.
Alternately, widely spaced streams may also lead to the development of
larger and longer-term groundwater contamination zones.
· 2.3 H\'drogeolog\'
Hydrogeology can be defi ned as the study of groundwater. its chemistry.

mode of migration and relation to the em·ironment. The re!ationship of
groundwater to the water eyele can be se en in figure 3. Therefore the
possible impact of a landfi!l on the groundwatei' reg11ne must always be
carefully answered.
Let us define the mains terms and parameters necessary to understand and
assess the groundwater systems :
0::' aquifers.
C:• reéharge and discharge zones.
=:• saturated/unsaturatec' ::emes.
e:· hydraulic conducti':
C:· poroslly and velocity.
H7zat is wz aquzfer?
An aquifer is a body of rocks contammg water with sufiicient permeability

for the water to now. Three sorts of aquifer can be distinguished :
!) Sandv aouifers : In these aquifers, water nows through the voids in

between the grains : the intergranubr poroo;ity.(Fig.4). Such aquifers
can be found in sands and gravels.
2) Fractured aouifers : these aquifers occur in fractured poorly permeable

rocks such as sandstones, chalks. limestone. volcanic rocks ... The
water nows through communicating fractures and cracks : the li5>urc
porositv. (Fig. 5).
J') ~lixed aouifers : Theses aquifers contain both fissure and intergranubr
porosity and occur in brstic.environment. (Fig. 6)
The infiltrated water reaches the "aquifer" more or less rapidly depending on
the permeabi!ity of the rocks it encounters. Through clnlk. for example
infillraled waln can lake up la one year la reach lhe underground water. In · ,,.y;
schisl and granile. in principie impermeable rocks: water can still percolate
1ery quickly through the fractured or weathered zones.
D¡ffcrcnl conjigurations of aquifcr
Aquifers are classitied as uncontined or confined depending ha\\' the1· are

bounded.
A contined aguifer is bound by two impermeable layers. The \1'3\er is under

pressure and the water le1·e! goes up when a bore hale is dug in such :111
aquifer or if part of the surface is dug out. The leve! lo which the water rises
in a bore hale is called the piaométric Je,·el. (Fig. 7).
An uncontined aguifer is an aquifer where the water table (or ptezometnc

leve!) is free to fluctuate up and down, generally seasonally. (Fig. 8).
1
/
Sand
gravel
el ay
Chal k
sandstone
limestone
\c.~~en \
c.L1
s·
Fig . . F.¡ssure porosity
.
icRee::>J
~~~---------------------------------------------.-fr_a_c_t_u-re-d--~
fissure limestone
intergranular porosity run off water
porosity 1 1 water table
discharge ' '
point l · · .· . . . . ,·· ~
i . · < 1. ·.. . .· 1 . 1 , • • .. • ••• J•• ¡b··:·~:c~-::~c:·:-.:·~~-==·:·=·=·:r~·l
.·___ ~ . =·q
--o-~-------······-------···-
· clay
. :·
substratum ···· .1
Fig. 6: Karstic aquifer
1 ' 1
·CRe:O:J ~
.--------------------------------------,
t.Li water level in
piezometric level bore hole (piezometric level)
0
__ ,_;.:.}..'.}.. :.:.:.:..~.-' :.:·..'..:_;.~. u . .'.;,.:~.t~--~-;.=: •.;..~.:.:.;.
0
..'..!.!.í.!.!-.;..~.:.E.!. .'..:.:.:.L
<.' :· ..
, level ofmtér table ..
::::· ;::.- .••. unconfined aquifer0 <'

., -~
(.
·_ ·_ .. -~-
-------· confined aquifer 0;;;::::~:--_-_-.::.-=---==:__-
Fig. 7: Schematic example of confined and unconfined aquifer

Rcchargc and dischargc ~onc
(
As seen in the water cyck (Fig. 3). aquiíers are fdled (rech2rged) up through
the iníiltration of rain water through perme~ble strata. (fig. 8).
Upon reaching the aquifer. the "·atcr no,,·s under the regional hydraulic
gradient and gets dischor~ed agam at springs. from seepages into riYer and
pumped ll'eils.
Thus. within an aquifa. water is not sugnant but nows from the recharge to
the disch::r2e zone. Rates oí no"' Yary according to the rype of aquifer : tor
exampk 1.500 m/y in a!Ju,ium and 3.5 lO 9 km/y in a karstic system.
Saturatcd/Cnsaturatcd ~onc
In an un:onfined aquifcr. two successi1·e zones are encountered by the water

n·"'"rol"'l!;,,("
j·-·- ""'"::.-.'-"rio·,·r'''''lrds
' . ... 1 •,·orll t 1 1~ S"rr"'~ .,.
¡ ......... ~.-.. ......
Ti1~ ur-:5:1:~::::\c-d z~'"'~n~ \dl~n th~ roe~ ·int~rsticcs are p:!rtlc.lly o.:cup!;:d by
''·:na 3r-.d p:mially by a gaseous pluse (airi. In this zones difieren! complcx
mech?.nisms can inter3ct with a p:r·~ol::ting !luid (k3chate or other
pollutant) : sorbtion. no:utralisation. precipitation. oxydo-reduction .
./
biodegradc.tion.
Althou¿:h rheso: mechanisms l~a1 e 1 1 o: 'cn ed. th~y are yet to be precisely
c;cantified and understood.
The saturared zone srarts ar rhe Je,·el oí rhe water tabk when the rock
inrasrices are emirely íilled with "·a ter. In rhis zonc:. the groundwatcr tlo11 s
under regional hydraulic gradienr ro the discharge zone.
Hydraulic l:onductirity, porosiry, rclociry
These tern1s are the most cornrnonly used to characterise aquifers. ·Befare
ddining rhem. one musr íirst of all understand rhe most importan! 13w
go1·erning aquifers. Da re\ 's l:lw:
Darcy's !:111 : (figure 9)

Darcy's !aw allows the calculation of the discharge (Ql that 1s nowing
through a given cross sectional area of a rock.
The equation is :
Q = kSi.
Where Q - discharge (m3/s or m3/d)

k = permeability (m/s) or hydraulic conductivity (m/d)
S = cross sectional area
hydraulic gradicnt
Exampk of how Darcy's law is applied (Fig. 10) :
lf\ve imagine 2m of water Jogged waste over a surface of 1 km' overlving

5 m of cl~y "ith a pcrmeabilit-;~ K = J0-12 mis. the flow of water thr~ugl1
thc "impermeable" !ayer is: Q = ksi
Q = JQ·l2m's x J06m' x ~ =-+ ¡Q7 m3is =12m3/ve:-~r.

5
H\Cir<ltllic conducti,iiv is synonimous for permeability {K) pr~viously

ddined. ·Jt d.?scribes the capacity of rocks to transmit water and is generally
expressed in miday while K is expressed in m/s.
Porositv is the measure of the interstial pore space. expressed as the relative
vo!ume (in ~é) of roe k occupied by 'oids. In fact. pan of the water present in
the voids is retained by forces of molecular attraction. adhesion and
cohesion. So. in terms of real storage potential. the use of effective
porosity (nl. ie the free storage space. is more appropriate. For example.
while clay has a high total porosity. it has a low effective porosity. (Fig. 11) .
. .
evapotranspiration
plant
transpiration
run oH
run off
··•'-!-----'- infiltra\ion into

utilisation in filtrated the aquifer ·
> ·. ·. water by plants · .· ·
a:
e
Fig 8: Recharpe of aquifers by rain
rl
i = .6..H 1 L
.6..H
a= KSi =
{d =as-= K.
1
L
Fig. 9: Darcy's Jaw
· · waste ·
s m!'.•.·. '.·.· ·· .. k =1o_, :2 111 1 s

clay
·-····
· '·'··
¡-.
=k Si
Q
k= 10· 12 m 1 s
S= 1 km2 =1o6m2
¡eRe:::)''
a= 10· 12 x 10+6 x2
5
= 4.1o-7 m3 1 s
['/i 0:12·m 3 /an

__i
~;L__
Fig. 10: Application of Oarcy's /aw
r-
- -' Total Ef1ecti,·· 1
Flow Saturated hydraulic
Rack type porosity poros type conductivity range
range% range ',;, 1 m 1d
Clay 45-55 1 - 1o i 1o- 2 - 1 o- 5

Chal k 10 - 1 o-3
- 35- 50 0.5-5 F+1
Sand 35- 40 1o- 30 1 10 -1
Grave! 30-40 15- 30 1 102 - 1 o
Sandstone 1o- 20 5- 15 F+1 10-10" 1

S hale 1 - 1o 0.5- 5 F+1 1o- 1 - 1 o- 7
Limes tone 1 - 1o 0.5- 5 F ( + 1} wide
lgneous and Metamorphic ( probably less than 1 ) f ( + 1) wide
F = fissure flow, 1= lntergranular flow

Fig. 11: Porosity ranges, flow !ypes and saturated hydraulic conductivities
for various rock types
III. Risks of wafer contamination bv waste
Surface water contamination (Fig. 12)
The main risks of surface water contamination are listed below :

1) lf a landfill is located be!O'.I' flood Je,·el. each flood will penetrate the w:lst~.
flow across the landfill and disseminate polluted water and in some case e1·en
waste into the river svstem and surrounding area (so flood plain le\'e]s must
be identified). • -
2) A Jandfill close to sea Je,eJ, similary, can pollute sea water and nearby
beaches during high tides.
3) A landíill elose to a ri' er can pollute it with seepage of Jeachate from the
base oi the bndflilto the ri1n.
Groundwater contJmin::Jtion
Se' eral types of situation can result in ground 11·atcr contamination :

l) A Jandfdl 11·ith a permeable base and el ose to the water tabk. The
uns:lturated zone is non existant and the Jeachate percolates directly into the
aquifcr. creating a plume ofpollution that can be ,·ery extensi1e.
2) A Jandfill locatcd abo1e a fractured zone. E1·en if the rock itself is
unsaturated. !eachate 11 ill re aeh the aquifer directly and quidJy through the
fractures.
3) .Similarv. Jeachate can reach the aquifer throu~h hetero~enities and
_discontÍnuities in an othen1·ise impermeable zone (for example "a!ong a fault
zone. or along a thin limestone !ayer 11 ithin a el ay horizon).
IV. How to conducta geologicJI'Jn·drogeological stud,·

4.1 Regional stud1
What needs to be known :

:::> The geoJogv of the area tn ordcr to identify fau'lt zones. impermeable
areas: heterogeneities ....
e:: The geomorphology of the area. to id~ntify gwlogical hazards such as
flood plains and to delindte the water basins. . ·
e:: The h1drolo~1· : al! the · aquifers must be identifid L'gei11er 11ith the
surfac¿ ll'ater.netiiOrk and the water flcwing direction.
1 /
"
~~~~!.?!·
1"'¡-'~=:~¡-: la- : ;:n-.;:1;.~-:t-i:;l -"~·- ,-,-c-~-"-"-~-;:r-i:J-~e-r--~-~-0-~-~-~-0-~-"-"-,;:,-o~cl- od~-,e-v-e't
,...._t;Z:·_·.
•_····_··_ _ .•
00
"-'\\=. \
\ water table
flood plain
normal river leve!
landfill
-~-
.. ..-·---·-·-·--_;;,..---
,,, .-
_,..·""""'-
/'/ '-._.--~landfill
/ ""'-· . '. .....
. , , . ... '-., . river
.............., :-.·.· -:. : ";--.._ 1
~;~.~ !
-----------:··=-- ~---=-=-~-=-:-:-· 1
1
'<
'\'
1
seepage of leachate into the river
Fig. 12: Risks of surface water cont3mination

-------------'1'hese-informations-can-be-gathered-from-existin!:!:-maps-;-a~ri"alphotos.
borehol~s. and reconnaissance f "j work, -
4.2 Lnc:~l 5tudv

What needs to be known :
:::· Detaikd geology.
:::• An invento!)' of springs and water boreholes.
:::, Detaikd hydrogeology (depth to aquifcrs, piaometric beis.
quality of water).
C::• Permeability of the differents formations,
Such dota is obt::ind through :

·C::· 'Jetaikd geological m~pping.
-.· Dri!ling ::nd c::rcfull logging of ¡he eore.
:::· lnsta!lin!:! "Piezometers" in se,eral borehoks and monitonn~ the

''"ater tllOU\"clllc:lt (éxisting piezometers can also be us;d ii
a' aihbk).
e::, ,An:;!ysing the \\":llcr in the piezometer.
lt must be oointcd out th:ll the drillin!:! a:1d installin!:! of a

piezometcr ne'eds to be very careiullv supú' ised by a specialits as
tÍ sufíisant eare :s not taken. 'crv 'costh mistakes can be made
(like missing an aquifcr. tapping ·and t!Úts tneasunng the wrong
"ú',"l+,.,...
u ,'l ¡.._¡ • • •)•
:::• 1'-lnsure in situ of permeability. on surface and inside borehoks,

These measures ntust be made and interpreted by specialists and
the interpretation n;ust be Bnf.;ed to the geological mapping (a laye~
of matenal wtth K = ~o- tn;s can occur \\'tthtn a tormauon or
si~tsrone q~ = 1o- m/s) "and a tnick el ay formatio~
(K= I0- 1 - mis) can be locallv fractured whtch lowers K
dramaticallv; or contain sand lenses '(K = Jo--• mis),
==-=====siTE~SEI.:ECTioN=-==r~NiOOiriNr:c-G:;JE~oTILO::OCGITiccAAiLC:.AAS:sPPiEf<G;_;]T~s========'====
l. INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this section is to work through the process that leads to the development of
a si te for landfill. It can be a very long process. It may take five, ten or even more years to
complete the process from first consideration to depositing the first load of waste in the si te.
This section is based on the idea that we are in charge of waste disposal in a region of a
country and we ha ve the task of ensuring ·that its waste disposal needs are met.
2. DEFINING THE NEED FOR A SITE
· It nú.y be obvious that néw facilities are necessary but it is advisable to follow a logical
process in evaluating the need and the proposals to answer that need.
Different types of waste to be accommodated
First we must define the types of waste that we are going to be concemed_with. Unless there
are special requirements the list of wastes will include the following:
* Domestic or household waste.
* Waste from shops or oftices.
* Yard and garden waste.
* Construction and demolition waste.
* Excavated soils.
* Sorne industrial waste.
* De-watered sludges from waste water treatment.
Local circumstances may add other types of waste to this list. Many industrial wastes will
not be suitÍtble for landfill and will require treatment or incineration.
Measuring the quantities of each type of waste
The next stage is to find out how big the problem is. We need to know how much waste is
being produced now and how much is likely to be produced in the future. The best method
of measuring waste quantities is to weigh vehicles entering existing disposal sites. lt is
importan! to ensure that no scavenging or illegal disposal is taking place before the waste
arrives. ¡
The weighing scales may be permanent scales - part of the site infrastructure - or they may
be portable. If it is impractical to weigh all vehicles then a random sample should be
weighed, preferably over periods of severa! weeks at different times of the year.
If a well-established disposal system does not exist, then it is probably better to rely on
tackling the problem at the .other end - where the waste arises. Again, it will be necessary
to set up a sampling system covering different socio-econÓmic areas, so that quantities per
head of population can be calculated.
Either way, the objective is to arrive at a total quantity of waste to be disposed in

tonnes/year.
We then move on to forecasting the future. Lots of estimates of future waste generation have
been given, but few are based on accurate records because generally such records have not
been reliable. Also, waste generation is very dependent' on forecasting the behavioúr of the
economy and if we were good at that we probably wouldn't be involved in waste disposal!
The safest prediction is simply to allow for population change and increase or decrease on
a pro-rata basis. lf the population is forecast to double in 10 years then the quantity of waste
is likely to double as well.
Composition of the waste
Because we are look.ing at a landfill strategy, composil!on is less importan! than where
recycling or treatment by incineration or composting is being considered.
Samples of not less than 100 kg ha ve to be taken and hand soned and the individual
constituents weighed. The sampling needs to be carried out on at least 2 and preferably 4
occasions durin¡: the year to catch season¡¡l variations. Recen! field work has shown that,
over a S year period, significan! changes '·' refuse composition can take place.
The quantity of waste dictates factors ·· ''~ as volume, frequency and number of vehicles
using a site, land area required and the c::nount of cover material needed.
The composition of the waste has an impact on the area requirements for each cell since we
normally tr}r.-to deposit waste in small.cells which will not become saturated with rainfall.
lt also affects the number of passes required to achieve proper compaction and the type of
equipment needed.
3. REVIEW EXISTING FACILITIFS
The next stage in planning the strategy and selecting a. suitable site is to review all the
existing facilities.
It is necessary to loo k at all existing si tes and to cale ulate the remaining capacity.
=-:::=::----:::====~S:ClOilm!!e;::fifo[)]rrfm~o~f- survey_ing_will::t>e_required~There_should be plans showing the extent of
_existing landfills and contour drawings showing the eventual restored landform. If these
don't exist then they need to be prepared. Surveying for waste disposallandfill sites does not
need to be carried out to the nth. degree of accuracy. Allowing a reasonable degree of
accuracy can save costs and speed up field work.
In sorne cases, aerial survey may be the most efficient way of measuring vol u mes particular! y
if a large number of si tes are in volved.
It is common experience that landfills last longer than you think they are going to and then
suddenly they run out! We need to have realistic figures for existing capacity.
When we have carried out our surveys we add the capacity of all our facilities together and
divide by the total quantity of waste produced per year and this should give us the number
of years we have available before a new site is required.'
This little sum requires sorne knowledge of the volume occupied by 1 tonne of refuse. lt is
a figure which varies with type of waste, method of compaction and over time and with depth
in the landfill .. In the absence of better information a figure of between 0.8 and 1.0 tonne
.:
per cu. m. may be used if reasonable compaction is being applied. If not, then densities may
be down to 0.5 tonne per cu:m. · -
4. PROGRAMME
Having worked out the life of existing facilities it is useful to draw up a programme of work.
By the time the existing facilities are full we must have our new si te in operation. There are
severa! procedures which ha ve to be undertaken depending on · the particular legal and
administrative requirements of the area. Typically:
* We have to select the site.
* We have to prepare an application for its use to the authorities.
* We have to comply with the permitting procedures.
* We have to carry out the engineering works.
These procedures can take a very long time!
S. ASSESSMENT OF POTENTIAL LA!I.'DFILL CAPACITY
We are now in a position to start looking for our new landfill site.
Firstly we must establish the overall boundaries of our search area. This will be based on
demographic and physical limitations such as political or regional boundaries, mountain
ranges and rivers.
--·- - - --- ------;4
Next, we must establish suitable study areas on the basis of ha u! distance, topography,
geology and surface and groundwater conditions.
Haul.distance
The distance of the landfill site from the area where the waste arises and is collected ts
known as the haul distance.
If the landfill isclose to the collection area then collection vehicles can travel directly to the
landfill.
If the landfill is remote from the collection area, sorne form of transfer station is needed.
Collection vehicles are expensive pieces of equipment and should spend most of their time
collecting waste!
At á. transfer station the waste is "transferred" from the collection vehicle ro a bulk transpon
system. · This is .most likely to be bulk lorries, but in an extreme case could be rail.
A lot of financia! factors come into play here. What we are concemed with is the total
system cost. That is the cost of collection + transfer + landfill.
Landfill si tes benefit greatly from economies of scale and so a very large re mote landfill may
be less expensive than a very small local landfill.
ldentification of sites
Having identified our study areas, bearing in mind the boundaries and the access constraints
and the physical limitations, we are now in a position to identify suitable sites.
These will be of two types:
* Mineral excavation areas where waste can be used to restore the ground.
* Areas of virgin land where a new landform can be created.
A lot can be achieved from maps and by travelling around looking. We should produce a
list of every potential site with a few notes about its major features.
==-====~6. I'REI..:JMINARY~SELECTIOKPROKC:"EESSS5===============
We are now in a position to start eliminating many of the potential sites.
lt is common experience that there are four critica! factors in the selection of a potential si te:
* Availability- lfit isn't going to be possible to acquire the site there's not much point
proceeding with it. ·
* Planning Constraints - There may be sorne form of zoning or special planning

requirements. There may be a water protection zone. Such sites should be rejected.
* • Access - lt has often been found that access is a critica! factor. The public sometimes
seem to be more concemed with lorries than the actual landfill, so there must be an
adequate access. Landfill is the one engineering operation that has to go on
regardless of weather, so access is critica!.
* Capacity - Because of the long time required and the considerable expense involved
in developing a new landfill site it must have adequate capacity. A minimum of ten
years is often considered desirable.
There may be other critica! factors in other situations, but the aim is to get to a position
where there is a short-list of about 4-6 possible si tes, which pass the critica! factor test.
7. ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT
The next stage is to carry out an environmental assessment of our preferred si tes.
This .will require the preparation of designs for each site and we should also calculate the
total system costs of running each site. From this we can identify the effects of each site on
all elements Óf the environment.
It is useful to draw up sorne form ofevaluation sheet - listing each si te and each factor and
assigning a wieghting for. each. Different elements of the environment may be ranked as
more or less importan!. We thus end up with scores for each site and sorne sort of ranking
order.
8. EVALUATION SHEET
The evaluation sheet needs to identify all the possible impacts of the si te together with certain
other information airead y described such as costs, access, and capacity. The impacts to be
considered in el ude:
* The effects on human beings living near the proposed landfill. J

The foremost thing municipal oflicials can do to solicit public support is to convert any
existing bad sites into well run sanitary landfills with a clear useful end purpose.
Objectives of a public awareness campaign
In going public about a new proposal it is necessary to have clear objectives. These
objectives may be as follows:
* To make certain that the public understands the proposals.
• To assure the public that their views will be listened to .
To ensure that the govemment or public authority is responsive to the public.
• To provide opportunities for public involvement in decisions .
The advantages of a campaign with these objectives are:
* lt increases the likelihood of agreement with the plans.
* 1t provides useful information which may have been missed.
* It gives assurance that all views have been considered.
• It ensures accountability by decision makers .
•· It provides an effective mechanism to ensure decision makers take into account issues
around the project.
The disadvantages of such a campaign are:
* There is the potential to create confusion because new issues are introduced.
* Uninforrned
. .. participants may distribute
. erroneous information.
* Putm'& involvement adds cost to project.
* There may be delays to the project.
* The project may become a platform for politicians.
1t is considered that none of these disad~antages are sufficient to outweigh ·the benefits of an
effective public awareness campaign.
_ _ _ _ fl==STEPS:]_ININ::"-TftHmEE:--cc'AA~M1iP>;iAuiGGNN'====================
The following steps are appropriate for a public information campaign:
* Inform the public of all the details of the scheme.
* Establish the need for the new site by explaining the situation in respect of existing
facilities and why a new site is therefore needed.
* Explain the alternatives that have been considered and why they have not been
selected.
* Explain the operations, how the site will be managed, how gas and leachate will be
controlled, and how the site will be restored and managed in the aftercare period .
.. Be honest about the impacts of the site on the local environment and the people
who may be affected.
1
* Try to understand the concerns of people who live nearby and don't try to confuse
them wi th "science". ·
* Keep options open so that if new information emerges as a result of the consultation
it may be taken into account and the proposals may be modified.
·. ~
* Review previous assessments. of environmental impact as more information IS
gathered by talking to people affected by the proposal.
finally, we should be able to make our final selection and we are now in a position to
make our formal application to use the site. Much of the work already carried out will
be of use in preparing the final design and operational plans.
Reference:
Waste Monitoring and Planning - A description of the regional waste planning system L¡
1
developed for London and South-East England. 1987.
W.uteo Monitoring •nd ,.nning 11
WASTE MONITORING AND PLANNING

by M J Philpott, AKC, CEng, BSc(Eng), MICE, MJnstWM,
Assistant County Surveyor (Waste Disposal), Oxforclshire County Council
(This presentation was accompanied by a sen·es of s/ides. Sorne of these are reproduced as
Tables or Figures; the content of others has been incorporated into the text).
lntroduction
In my presentation, 1 intend to deal with three aspects of our work in the Waste Disposal
Working Group. Firstly, 1 will explain how we developed a comprehensive waste monitoring
scheme for the region. Second.ly, 1 will show how !he results of the monitoring are an essential
pan of every authority's waste disposal planning process. Finally, 1 will make sorne observations
· on the predominan! role of landfill as the means of waste disposal in the south-east.
The Monitoring Survey
·In 1985 we carried out our first monitoring survey.' The survey.was in two pans. Firstly, we
asked every authority to identify every single existing or potential void space in their area. We
then asked them to make a subjective judgement for each site as to its suitability for waste
disposal.
We asked officers to assess the sites into six categories:
Category 1 induded aJl sites which have planning consent for disposal;
Category 2 covered sites which were likely to be supported;
Category 3 was for !hose sites which did not appear to have majar problems;
Category 4 comprised sites with severe problerns;
Category S was for sites where !he problems were thought to be insuperable; and
Category 6 was for sites already commined for alternative development.
So !he final three categories were aJl sites where waste disposal was not felt to be possible
because o! serious or overwhelming problerns or because !hesite was conunined for something
else such as an.industrial estate or a hypermarket.
• Footllote: The results of this S\U"Vev are fully reported in 'Waste ~ in .the South East Reqion' (RPC SSSR: Mav
,
. We ended up with 500 million cubic metres ofpossib1e void space, as shown on Tab1e 1. Near1y
____________-;300~'-'milli".":·<o·~o..,n'o'cub~.ic_metres.is.in.major_consented sites.and.these-are·1ocated·in·the·areas shown·on------
---------- Figuze.Llndividual-sites-are shown-by the·dots~Groups·of·major sites ·are-sllóW'n witliii\tlie - - - - - - - -
shaded areas. It will be seen that there are areas with no majar si tes such as West Berkshiie and
north-west Hampshire and of course, most of London.
Tab1e 1
Void space by category up to 2000

(cubic metres)
295,000,000
1 132,000,000
74,000,000
¡
¡ Total 501,000,000 j'
~~----------------
Figuzel
Location of sites with consent for Iandíill.
Oxfcirdshire
Essex ••
.'••
Berkshire
Hampshire
.West Sussex
The second part of the survey was concerned with the waste arisings in the region. Tab1e 2
shows the overall figures for the south-east. Public authorities have, in the past, tended to
concentrate very much on the first two figures only. These are the wastes wlúch they have a
statutory duty to dispose of. However, they represen! 1ess !han 20% of the total. Over hall the
total waste is inert waste- that is, soil or waste from the construction industry. The other 30% is
comrnercial or industrial waste, comprising packaging and paper or waste from industrial <
processes.
Th~ Montto,;ng Surv~y 13
Table 2
Waste arisings in the South East reqion

(tonnes/year) (% of total)
Household 4,852,000}
Civ:ic amenity 1,307,000 19
Industrial and commercial 9,213,000 29
lnen 16,884,000 52
Total 32,256,000 100
Table 3 shows that near1y hall the total waste in the region arises in London. Again the
proportions o! waste in the dillerent categories are very significan!. When we think o! the rail
trar.s!er stations, the river-based schemes and the giant Edmonton incinerator, it is imponant to
realise that all these schemes were designed to cater !or just pan o! one e1ement o! the total -
the household waste e1ement. Al! the rest, the other 80%, is controlled by the private sector ana
is hauled out o! London each ·day by thousands o! lorries to land!ill si tes in and around the
capiral.
Table 3
Waste arisincr.; in London

(tonnes/year) (% o! total) j
Household 2,000,000}
Civ:ic amerúty 360,000 161'
lndustriaé and commercial 4,820,000 32 1
lnen 7,770,000 52 !
-----10-01
Total 14,950,000
-----¡
Hav:ing assembled all this data, what next? 11 1 take my own county as an example. In Figure 2,
the upper line represents the void space likely to be available up to the year 2000. The shon line
represents the volume o! that void space which will be taken up by our own waste - both public
and private sector. The long 1ower line then represents the theorecucal volume which might be
available !or imponed wastes.
Figure 2
Landfill resources to 2000 - Oxfordshire

. Landfill capacity availab1e.
1 1
1"Own" waste. 1
. ··: - ;, ... -:,. ' ..
~ . 1
1 1
1"Surplus" capacity 1
14
. No! all counties are in !he same position as us and i! l take another exarriple- Hampshire- you
==---==========;can.see_why._Figure.J.shciws.!hat.capacity.o!.available-landfill-space·and-incineration·capacity------
falls.shon·of-!he-need·in·Hampshire·itseUc-There·is·a·shonfall·of·capacity.which-ei!her·nas·tooe
= met by exponing waste or by using Jess-!avoured sites or by landraising schemes.
Figure 3
Landfill resources to 2000 - Hampshire
Land!ill capacity available
1
Incineration capacity ~ :
1 1
"Defici( in capacity ~ "k>~
Figure 4 represents !he overall waste disposal situation !or the whole o! !he sou!h-east over !he
next 12 years. Jt shows !hose areas which will be "in !he red" and it shows those counties which
ha ve theoretically available space to accommodate !he de!icit. Jt shows ver¡ clearly how the
n::b of the regional problem is what to do with Lcndon's waste!
Figure 4
Overall waste disposal situation to 2000
"Deficit" "Surplus"
Beds
Bucks
Oxon
Essex
Kent
Hens
· Surrey
W. Sussex
E. Sussex
Berks
Hants
Lcndon
Plannmg lor thc Fvturtl .
15
P1anning for the Future

..
In 1986 and 1987 it was the next stage of the work that caused the greatest prob1ems. What ,.
wanted to do was to estimate how much waste would be like1y to be imponed into each a
year by year.
The way the waste disposal system works in the South East is that waste from those areas in
deficit is transponed to those areas which ha ve surp1us capacity. Market [orces in the prívate
sector ensure that generally the cheapest, shortest so1ution is found. So, for examp1e, waste [rom
London is taken out by 1orry to Essex or Herts or other counties borderíng London. The public
sector. on the other hand, has somewhat different perceptions. lt is particular1y concemed with
secwity o[ disposal. Therefore in London we have the 1arge transfer stations and the 1ong-term
contracts transponing waste to massive sites on the edges o[ the region. As sites near to London
are filled, it is thus the prívate sector that will have to adapt the most.
How do we estimate how much waste each county is likely to have to dispose oí in the next
10-15 years? Folloy,ing the 1985 survey we put forward one mode1 as a suggestion. Figure S is
designed to illustrate this model. The thick 1ine represents a void equal to the total capacity
availab1e within a county. As a prioríty, it is then partially filled with its own waste as shown by
the 1ower area. The remainder is then filled with imponed waste; when no more capacity exists.
the flow of imported waste is di verted to the next nearest area.
Figure S
Model of waste movements
~[ Excess to next
1ft nearest area.
Existing
----~1-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-~-------
imports
"own .. waste
In the view o[ the Waste Disposal Working Group, that is a reasonab1e scenario. There are other
ways o[ 1ooking at the prob1em but the end result will not be too different. The exercise ts a
1ogical one. Waste is produced every day. 1t has to be disposed of.. lt occupies space. That
space has to exist somewhere! · ·
As a consequence of this exercise we produced a tab1e showing how much waste would need
to be disposed o[ in each county. Tab1e 4 gives the figures that were produced for my own
county. They show an enormous growth in imponed waste alter 1995. At the moment we take
one train a day from London. the final figure showing impons between 1995 and 2000 is
equivalen! lO over ten trail)S a day.
Tab1e 4
(
!
Waste requiring disposal: Oxforclshire
(cubic metres) 1 1
¡ Local lmports
1986- 90 3,727,000 2,482,000
1990- 95 3,727,000 6,410,000
1995- 2000 3,727,000 22,501,000
16
Figure 6 shows how such impons would affect the landfill resources in our counry. The lower
· shaded area represents the space which is airead y consented. The middle shaded area
------------represents·the-space·in-potentia!ly·supponed-sites·and-tlfeuppeThatcliei:! area re¡lresents_tli:.;;ec---::_-::_-_-_-_-_-_-_-__
then
- - - - - - - - - - s i tes withóut major í:ir61iliiiiiS.If we oíi.ly consii:!er local wast-e we ha ve suffident consented
capacity to meet a!l our requirements into the next cenrury. When we add in the extra
competing claims of imponed waste then we begin to use up a!l our readily available space so
that we could need to be thinking about less favoured sites. A similar siruation applies in al] o(
the counties surrounding London since the total quantiry of waste to be disposed of in the next
12 years is only just shon o( the total void space likely to be readily available.
Figure 6 Landfill requirement - Oxfordshire

'
50 Total
waste
millions
1
cu. m.
1
1
30
·-··" _· __, -----·:.
.·: ---~-'
...
-,,
Local
waste
10
..
:· ,
1990 1995 2000
The regional planning process can be summarised thus:

The WDAs carry out surveys of void space and waste 'arisings;
SERPLAN estimates the likely Oows;
The WDAs consider the implication of these flows;
SERPLAN repons on any particular prob1em areas.
lt is intended that this process of monitoring and analysis should be repeated every rwo years.
The second monitoring survey has just been completed and we are,now beginning to analyse
the results. lt is intended to repon on this survey 1ater this year and then the third monitoring
survey will take place in November 1989. In this way, waste disposal authorities will always have
an up-tcrdate context within which to plan and malee decisions.
1 have spent sorne time describing the process that occurred as we canied through the frrst
survey; This is the process that is outlined in the Guidelines in paragraph 36. 1 now want to turn
to the way in which this process will be integrated into the formal waste disposal planning
system.
W aste disposal p1anning is imp1emented through waste disposal p1ans as described in the
Control of Pollution Act. The waste disposal plan is the means by which each authoriry ensures
that sufflcient resources exist for the disposal of wastes which will arise or will become siruated
for disposal in its area. Nearly a!l the p1ans so far produced concentrate on the household waste
which the particular authoriry is directly responsible lar. 7
,,
Planning for the Future
In 1986 and 1987 it was the next stage o! the work that caused the greatest problems. What v·~
wanted to do was to estímate how much waste would be likely lo be imponed into eách ,
year by yeár.
The way the waste disposal system works in the South East is that waste from those areas in
dehcit is transponed to !hose areas which have surplus capacity. Market !orces in the prívate
sector ensure that generally the cheapest, shonest solution is !ound. So, !or example, waste !ro m
London is taken out by lorry to Essex or Hens or other counties bordering London. The public
sector, on the other hand, has somewhat difieren! perceptions. lt is particularly concemed with
security o! disposal. Therefore in London we have the large trans!er stations and the long-term
contracts transponing waste to massive si tes on the edges of the region. As sites near to London
are filled, it is thus the private sector that will have to adapt the most.
How do we estimate how much waste each county is likely to have to dispose of in the next
10-15 years? Following the 1965 survey we put forward one mode1 as a suggestion. Figure S is
designed to illustrate this model. The thick 1ine represents a void equal to the total capacity
availab1e within a county. As a priority, it is then partially filled with its own waste as shown by
the 1ower area. The remainder is then filled with unponed waste; when no more capacity exists.
the Oow o! imponed waste is d.ivened to the next nearest area.
Figure 5
Model o! waste movements
1ft' Excess to next

" 1
nearest area.
Existing
----~1-·-·-·---·-·---r--------
impons
"own" waste
In the view o! the Waste Disposal Working Group, that is a reasonab1e scenario. There are other
ways o! looking at the prob1em but the end result will not be too different. The exercise is a
1ogical ene. Waste is produced every day. lt has to be d.isposed o!. lt occupies space. That
space has to exist somewhere! ·
As a consequence o! this exercise we produced a tab1e showing how much waste would need
to be disposed o! in each county. Table 4 gives the figu¡es that were produced for my own
county. They show an enormous growth in imponed waste alter 1995. At the moment we take
ene train a day from London. the final figu¡e showing impons between 1995 and 2000 is
equivalent to ove·r ten trains a day.
Table 4
( Waste requiring d.isposal: Oxfordshlre

(cubic metres)
Local lmports
1
1
1986- 90 3,727,000 2,482,000
1990- 95 3,727,000 6,410,000
1995- 2000 3,727,000 22,501.000
--- ----
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PAUCIO DE MJ:-;ERIA. MEXICO D.F. 14-19 de ~!arzo de 1994
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INTERPRETING SITE CHARACTERISTICS IN
---------bA:NDFlbb~llE-SlGN---------
Il"TRODUCTION
.
No single landfilling method is suited for all types of sites, and no single approach is ·
exclusive! y optimal for any given site. Selection of landfilltechnology depends on the
physical conditions of the si te, the amount and types of solid waste to be accomrnodated,
comparative costs of various options, and the physical and financia! resources of the
municipality. This document begins with a general description of basic landfill design
ch~ces, followed by the rather detailed design requirements, which must be considered in
developing a good landfill. The two basic types of landfill methods are the trench (Figure
1) and the area (Figure 2) method. The trench method involves excavation of the si te to
obtain cover soil and to provide sorne of the space for the solid waste. It is best suited for
si tes characterized as follows:
• flat or gently rolling land surface

• low ground water table (at least 3 meters below ground surface for smalllandfills;
atleast 5 meters in general)
• soillayer or depth to bedrock at least as deep as groundwater
The area method involves minimal excavation of the site as cover is Óbtained elsewhere,
often from a nearby hill. lt is appropriate for most topographies and is the preferred €hoice
for si tes that receive large quantities of solid waste. A combination of the two methods is
· often u sed, especially, for large landfills extending more than perhaps JO meters above the
original ground elrvation. In this case cover is obtained both from on-site excavation and
from off-site sources. The trench and area methods will be d.iscussed in detaillater.
CELL A~D WORKI~G FACE ·DESIGl" A~D CO~STRUCTIO:'\
Al! true sanitary landftlls consist of basic unitS, comrnonly terrned "cells" (Figure 3). A cell
is forrned by spreading and compacting incoming solid waste in layers within a confined
are a. By the end of each .working day, the compacted refuse is covered completely
(including the working face) with a continuous !ayer of soil which is al so compacted. The
compacted waste and its daily soil cover make up a "cell" (Figure 3LA series of adjoining
cells at the same height constitute a "lift" (Figure 3). A completed fill consists of severa!
verticalliftS, and may extend 30 meters or more above the initial ground surface.
The cells are designed based on the volume of compacted wastes requiring d.isposal. This
in turn, depends on the density of the in-place solid waste. The field density of most
compacted solid waste within the cell should be at least 595 kg!m3 (1 000 lb/yd3). lt should
be considerably greater if sizable quantities of demolition rubble, glass, and well-
compacted inorganic materials are present.
The working face is usually the most obvious indication of good Jandfill operations.
Unfonunately, the reverse is al so true, as it is usually al so the most obvious indication of a
lack of good operations, which in turn can then be traced toa lack of professional ability or
concern. There is no excuse for not confining incoming waste to the working face. keeping
1 !.
Pf.Jnnmg for tf'lt! Futur" 17
Figure 7
Waste disposal plans
Essex
Hampshire
Figure 7 shows (shaded) those authorities that have produced p!ans to date. The hatchea
counties are those that have published limited p!ans. But the point 1 want to make is that so lar
very !ew o! the plans !ully address the problems !acing commercial or industrial waste
producers and little anention has been paid to the regional dimenston. This is not surprising !or
three reasons:
Section 1 o! COPA has not been implemented, and this has taken the pressure o!!
Waste Disposal Authorities havmg to consider al/ wastes in their areas;
The time limit which was to have applied !or their production has been withdrawn_-
this was probably done to avoid pressures for additional sta!! to produce waste
disposal plans;
ln!ormation on the regional fiows o! waste was not available.
The Guidelines are designed to supply the in!ormation required on inter-authority fiows o!
waste but they go funher than that. In addition to the diseussion of the issues in waste disposal
that Mr Selfe will describe they also set out a basic formal for analysing the waste disposal
siruation in each authority. This format is shown in Appendix 2 of the Guidelines. lt is suggested
that each authority should include a section in its plan covering these four headings:
Potential space includes a survey and assessment of the total void plus any additional space
from landraising schemes;
Waste arisings covers all wastes arising in the authority's area together with {orecasts of {uture
arisings;
The regional context comprises the information supplied by SERPLAN on likely imports '
exports;
.
The overall siruation is obtained by putting aJl these ingredients together and looking at the
implications for the authority concemed, the prívate sector, and .aJso other authorities.
1t is hoped that aJl authorities will adopt this approach in their waste disposal plans.
the worl;ing face as small as possible, and in general operating the working face properly.
~~~~~~-The_working_face-is-the-area-of-the-landfill-where-incoming-solid-waste-is-placed-and~-----
----compacted,-so-nearly·all-site·activity·isfocused-here:-Iris·also·the source-ofmany ofth-e
envirorunental and aesthetic problems resulting from bad practice.
W aste is usally placed at the bottom of the work.ing face. The exception to this practice is if
road access malees it clifficult to bring waste to the bonom, in which case waste can be
placed at the top of the working face. A tracked crawler, dozer, or steel-wheeled
compactor, then spreads the waste into layers 30 to 60 cm thick over tbe enrire sloped
working fa ce and moves up and down the face severa! times 10 compac1 waste to 15 to 30
cm thick layers. Compaction studies suggest 3 to 5 passes are necessary to achieve good
compaction. Layers are constructed o ver each other un ti! the end of the working da y, when
daily cover is placed and compac1ed 10 complete the daily cell. ,
. '
The slope of the working face is a compromise between obtaining maximum compaction if
it was nearly horizontal, and minimizing daily cover requirements if it was nearly venical.
The best slope is no s1eeper than 3/1 (horizontal 10 vertical), and mos1 opera10rs prefer 4/1
or even 511 10 give better equipment stability and good compaction. The wid1h of the
workihg face is tha1 required to accomodate the number of vehicles placing the sol id waste,
at any time, allowing approximately4 meters per vehicle. lt is not necessary 10 ha ve a very
wide working faceto accomodate 1he maximum number of ve hieles expected at any time
during the da y; sorne waiting by a few trucks during heavy periods is preferred over having
a very wide working face, and the problem of maintaining it. All else being equal, the
' smaller the working face, the better 1he operation and the better the control of the waste.
The height of the working face or the lift 1hickness is then whatever is necessary, within
reason, to accept the waste and allow smooth operation of equipment. 1t generally ranges
from 3 to 5 me1ers, wi1h 4 10 5 meters preferred for large Jandfills receiving severa!
- hundreds of tons of waste per day. In practice, 3 me1ers is usually bes1.
lt should be emphasized that there should be only ~ working face receiving MI of the
waste. The only exceptions would be if condi1ions are such thatcenain was1es must be
placed ata different working face. Bad weather can require use of a second working if, for
example, wastes not Jikely to blow can be placed at a working face open to the wind on
windy days and light waste placed in a more sheltered working face. Another reason would ·
be to make better use of equipment if, for example, non-compactable inorganic waste is
placed separately so compaction equipment is used only on compactable wastes. A second
working face should rarely be used, and only with clear justification, because in practice it
is very difficult even for experienced operators to divide operations and work properly
more than one working face.
Once the working face climensions have been set, the height and width of the daily ce lis are
al so set. The remaining dimension, 1he Jength of the cell, is set by the arnount of was1e
entering per day.
TYPES OF LA~DFILLS
Trench Method
As implied, 1he trench me1hod requires 1he excavation of trenches into which was1e is
disposed by spreading and compaction (Figure 1). The was1e is deposiled al 1he work1ng
face, compac1ed, and covered with the excava1ed soil. Excava1ed soil not used for daily
;:.
2
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., cover can be stockpiled for later use in upper lifts or for final cover, or may be used for
benns to.control swface water or visibility.
-------Determination·of-the·depth·of-excavation·is·an·imponant·engineering·decision:-Clearly-,- - + - - - - - -
with a deeper cut, more volume is available for solid waste and more soil is obtained for
cover and other construction activities. On the other hand, a deep cut makes it more difficult
to get waste and equipment to the working face, at least initially, and will place the waste
closer to groundwater, increasing the poten tia! for contamination. A deep cut also exposes
more surrounding soil to potential gas migration and can make gas control more difficult.
Finally, side slope stability can become more of a hazard with deep cuts.
Usually the depth of cutis limited by groundwater or bedrock. E ven in landfills !ined with
relatively impermeable soil such as clay, or located in clay, ,it is common to leave a
minimum of 3 meters of undisturbed soil above the groundwater to provide sorne
pr9tection against contamination and to cenainly avoid placing waste directly in
groundwater even at its seasonal or yearly highest elevation. Similarly, because bedrock is
often fractured, providing no attenuation of contaminates in leachate, it is common to
excava te no closer than 3 meters to bedrock. Another geological reason to limit the depth of
cut is to place the waste in the most impermeable soils available. lf a clay or silt soil is
located over a sand or gravellayer. it is wise to not excava te into the more permeable soil
because the soils will form a conduit for gas and leachate flow. lf it is necessary to cut
through such a permeable !ayer, it is necessary to excavate more than needed for the waste
itself, backfilling with one or more meters of compacted clay at the bottom or side or both
, of the excavation to sea! off the permeable layers.
... ·.
If the depth of cut is not limited by geological features, it is necessary to make an

engineering judgment decision by comparing esrimated soil requirements tó complete the
landfill and the depth of cut to obtain the soil, considering access difficulties as the trench
• gets deeper. Other factors are the value of the land and the difficulty of obtaining new
landfills. proximity to waste generators. and the surrounding land use. If the landfill area is
valuable and it is difficult to obtain a new landfill, one will want to maximize the space
available by cuning deeper, etc.
There is a speciallandfill concept that can arise when determining the depth of excavation
for a trench landfill. If the cut extends into groundwater, below the water table, _and the
le achate is not allowed to build up in the landfill by pumping it out, the landfill is called an
inward gradient si te. The concept is to control the leachate leve! within the landfill so it is
always less than that of the groundwater surrounding the site. Groundwater flow will be
into the landfill instead of having leachate flow out of the landfill to contaminate the
groundwater. A leachate collection system is required (along with leachate treatment and
controlled discharge as to a wastewater treatrnent plant, etc.), and if such a si te is not in silt
or el ay soil, a liner of such soil will be necessary to limit the inward flow of groundwater.
This design concept is to be used only after careful study and upon assurance of continued
leachate control over rnany years.
Sidewall stability is a critica! factor in trench design and is a function of the characteristic
strength of the soil, depth of the trench, distance between trenches, and the slope of the
sidewall. 1t is best to have a geotechnical ehgineer determine the sidewall slope to avoid
slippage and the anendant hazard to workers, but in general the slope should be no steeper
than 1/1 in clays and 2/1 (horizontal lo venical) in less stable soils. Other factors that may
affect soil stability and permissible steepness of sidewall s1ope are weather, soil moisture
content, erosion potential, and the length of time the trench is to remain open.
3
The remaining dimension of the trench is length. Typically, this is a function of the volwne
desired, where the volume is such as to accommodate one to rwo years of solid waste per
trench. In this way, most of the excavation for each trench can be timed to be performed
during the months considered best for excavation (not wet or not freezing, for exarnple) or
when excavation equipment is more available on a regular basis. If the ari:a is subject to
seasonal windy conditions, waste can be placed at the lowest and most protected ponions
of the trench during that period, etc. Knowing· the approximate volume of landfill space
required per year, the depth of cut, and the width of the working face, the design engineer
can adjust trench width and length to produce a reasonable shape within the overall
dimensions of the site. It is common, but by no ineans necessary, for the length to be 5 to
1O times the width of the tren ch.
Since the amount of required cover material is a function of the width of trench,
thtoreti<;al!y the trench should be as narrow as possible. However, because width must be
adequate to perrnit dumping and accommodate the compacúon equipment, practicality
demands that the trench be sufficiently wide to accommodate the number and types of
vehicles that use the fill. Beca use of the cost and difficulrv of road access to the lower
portions of the trench and in consideration of the cost of excávating deeper trenches to gain
vol ume if the trench is narrow, it is commo·n for the trench to be severa! times wider than
the working face. In general, the width of a trench should be an even multiple of the width
of the working face.
, Alignment of the trenches relative to the prevailing wind exens a significan! influence on
arnount of blowing litter. The alignment most effective in terms of reducing the arnount of
blowing is one that is perpendicular to the prevailing wind.
To ensure drainage, the bottom of the trench should be sloped along its length.'If the
clima te is wet, the flfst lift will involve bringing the waste to the top of the working face, ·
and it is probably best to start landfilling at the higher end of the trench where it should be
drier. This is especially true if reasonably impermeable cover soiJs·promote runoff of clean
- water over the completed cells to the base of the trench, where it can be collected and
pumped out to the low end. Water falling on the open working face will be absorbed by the
waste. Any water that is collected at the bottom of the trench should be tested and pumped
out of the trench to surface water if uncontaminated, or perhaps onto the working face, or it
should be treated prior to discharge to surface water. Refuse should not be deposited into
standing water. Surface water can be divened from around the trench by constructing
temporary berms on the sirles of the excavation.
Depending upon the projected size of the fill, trench excavarion may be done either
continuously at arate adjusted to landfilling requirements, or periodically on a contract
basis. -
The completed trerích landfill will typically have 1/2 to 1/3 of its re fu se depth below the
original grounchurface with the remainder above the original surface. It must project above
the surface to ils5lire slopes to promete surface runoff ofprecipitation. Accordingly, the last
phase of a treneh landfill involves placing waste over porúons of the previously filled
trenches to bring the site to its final grade as shown in Figure l. The designer must assure
that sufficient cover soils are obtained from trench exrraction, or from other sources, to
complete final cover and berm requirements.
4
Daily cover is used on the working faceto seal it until the next operating day. lt may also
be u sed. on top and sides of the daily cell if these areas are to be exposed less than perhaps
=======30 days.-Since-it-is-a-temporary cover,-daily-cover is-only·a-thin-layer suflicientJ~rinlp>firO~\o:!"e=======
= the·appearance·ofthe-lanafill ancnontrol'thewasteto reaüceooors and 10 slow down or
discourage access. Depending on the smoothness of the compacted waste, 15 cm of
compacted soil may be sufficient to hide the waste. Adequate cover in general, but daily
cover in panicular, is an obvious indication of a well-run Jandfill. It reflects the leve! of
competence and concem of the owner and operator, and greatly affects the morale of
workers and acceptance by the public. It is critical to sustained accept.able landfill practice.
If cover is exposed to erosion or traffic, or is meant to protect the waste for more than a
few weeks, additional soil should be used. This cover is called intermediate cover. A
thickness of 30 cm is comrnon. Such cover should be sloped to promote runoff. In dry
areas or seasons, or in areas not subject to wind erosion, daily cover may provide adequate
prl;)tection for longer periods; however, such is usually not the case and intermediate cover
should be used on al! waste except at the working face.
Daily or intermedia te cover cari use virrually any type of soil, although a silty sand or loam
is often considered best. Clay or fine silts can be used. but c3.11 be difficult to spread and
compact under wet or dry conditions. and access can becc::1e very difficult under wet
conditions.
Final cover provides the top and sides of the landfill with a seal to protect the solid waste
·· from the environment "forever", in other words over geologic time. Accordingly, it must
' be carefully designed and piJced to minimize Jong-term problems and provide maximum
protection. lt can be a_ complex system of different soil layers, ranging in function to_
support vegetation, minimize erosion, promote surface water runoff, promote moisture or
gas flow and retard moisture or gas flow. Sorne layers are there simply to protect other ·
- layers. As suggested from this list of sorne times contradictory functions, final-cover must
be designed based on climate, size of the landfill, surrounding Jand use. final use of the
•'
site, etc.
One of the most critica! functions of final cover is to promote surface runoff and to retard
downward flow of water into the solid waste where it becomes leachate. Tci minimize
le achate formation, final cover is designed to minimize doward flow of precipitation.
Figure 4 shows nine different Jayers that can be considered for final cover, depending on
the situation ..
The most basic design of a final cover, however, only contains two layers: 1) the surface or
vegetative support !ayer. and 2) the hydraulic barrier !ayer (Figure 5). It is advisable to use
a thickness of at least 60 cm for the surface !ayer and 30 cm for the hydraulic barrier. This
design would be acceptable in areas with high evaporation and low rainfall, (i.e., warm and
dry) and is depicled in Figure 5. In other clima tes where additional protection is needed as
in humid areas>.il may be necessary to include additional soil or additional layers. In
particular, the liy_draulic barrier in wet climates should be at least 60 cm thick.
In order 10 prevent 1he downward flow of water, 1he cover must be designed such lhat the
major fraction of rainfall and melting snow become run-off. This can be accomplished by
building a cover having a slope no less 1han 5 percent. This incline promotes the flow of
water over the cover; however, this slope is not so steep as lo promote erosion. Erosion is
also reduced by establishing vegetation. Vegetation, in lum, promotes evapotranspiration
(where moisture from the soil is released to the atmosphere through plant uptake and
evaporation). Thus, slope and vegetation play an important role in the performance .of the
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• Although the slope may be within the angle of repose, sorne slippage takes place
during normal operation. The slippa~e intensifies the difficulty of achieving the
degree of compaction required for the refuse and cover material. '"
• Blowing of liner is accentuated .
• Abras ion of soil cover by wind, ·and erosion by dov.nflowing surface water during
rainfall easily reaches problem levels.
• To the usual problems encountered in establjshing a vegetative cover on a

completed fill must be added !hose of planting and maintaining vegetation on a
hillside.
• Scavenging activities will be hindered as access to landfill site is made difficult by

an incline. Al so, problems may arise in transporting containers, pushcans and other
vehicles which may be used to convey items retrieved from the si te .
.•
Land Reclamation for Agriculture
Sanitary landfilling designed to accomplish land reclamation for agriculture combines
satisfactory waste disposal Y.ith very practica] land reclamation. The approach is applicable
toa wide variety of situations. Examples are abandoned quarries, problem canyons, strip
mined areas, agricultura] lands no longer workable beca use of excessive soil erosion, and
other land arcas severely degraded through exploit.ation of natural forces.
-' Despite the diversity suggested by the preceding list of examples, the method of sanitary
landfUling recommended in al! cases is essentially the arca method adapted to fit the specific
situation. For nonworkable agricultura! land, a single lift may be sufficient, whereas,
severa! lifts would be requiri:d for abandoned quarries, canyons, and exhaustea strip
· mines. ln al! cases, the depth of the final cover should be such that plant roots do not en ter
the buried waste mass before the wastes have been sufficiently stabilized. Required depth
and type of soil will ~·ar;.· with the crop to be grown on the fill, but a common depth is 0.6
to 1.6 m.
Measures must be taken to preven! or minimize unfavorable impacts upon the environment.
Precautions agains1 groundwater cont.amination by le achate are the same as !hose applicable
10 al! sani tary landfills in general. Design concepls addressed 10 minimize or prevent
adverse environmental impac1s from leachate generation are described elsewhere, but note
that landfills in sand or grave! mines or in rock quarries have caused sorne of the worst
groundwater contamination problems from improper landfill practice in the past. Such si tes
must have liners, or otherwise protect againsl groundwa1er contamina1ion because of
loca1ion in an arid clima le or having a large depth to groundwater, etc. A good final cover
with a well constructed hydraulic ban:ier !ayer is especially critica] lo minimize leachate
generation. ··
If the landfiUiS to be used for agricultura] purposes, the final cover should be sloped to
drain properly,IJid the veget.ation !ayer should be thick 10 support crops. A thickness of 2
me1ers or more should be adequate for this purpose. Steps must be 1aken to prevem or
dissipate accumulations of biogas because of the safety hazards (fire and explosions)
associaled wilh such accumulaticins. In addition 10 the safe1y hazards, accumula1ed biogas
is likely to inhibil root development. Gas control is presenled in more detail elsewhere.
JI
Reclama/ion of Aquatic Environmen/s
-
Refuse is often dumped into rivers on the pretext of land reclamation (examples in China
and India abound). So lid waste should not be disposed near potenrial sources of water
supply. In sorne cases it may be acceptable to redaim marshes and areas with pockets of
water having high salinity. In these situations, the water should be removed or allowed to
evaporate and the appropriate evaluations carried out (geological, hydrological, etc.).
Consideration should be given to the ecological conditions of the si te. Since this practice
can result in severe contamination of surface water, it should be used only when necessary
and with careful considerarion of the design and operation to minimize and control impacts.
Surface Water Drainage

. .
Góod landfill design and operation requires surface water management. Placing cover and
contouring the land to promete surface water runoff will greatly improve operations,
especially in wet weather, and will automatically improve the appearance of the si te and
force planning, which will in rum improve other aspects of si te management. Access roads
that are muddy, washed out, flooded. or generally inaccessible cenainly irnpair operation of ·
a landfill and may force the use of a separa te, unplanned dump area, or even worse, cause
random dumping of so~id waste. Mud tracking on nearby public roads will result, with the
danger of accidents on slippery surfaces etc. Water not drained from the working face will
- make access to the working face difficuh or impossible, and will make it difficult to place
' and compact both the sol id waste and cover soil. Ponding of water atthe cover soil source
will make excavation difficult. All of these problems can be minimized or avoided with ·.
good surface water control.
• The overall requirement in sulface water control is that all surfaces in the landfill should be
sloped a mínimum of 1 to 29c on natural, undisturbed soil, and 4 to 5% on surfaces over
solid waste which are subjectto settling over.a period of time. lntennediate cover, which
.... .,
will be exposed for only a few months at most, may be sloped less, but even then should
be sloped atleast at 2 to 3'iC and smoothly graded to promote runoff.
The landfill designer "ñill nonnally choose to use pre-landfill surface water drainage paths,
and route landfill generated surface water to them. Obviously, they will be attopographic
low points around the landfill propeny boundary. A check should be made to be sure these
pre-existing streams, channels. culvens, ditches, etc., have the capacity to continue to take
surface water from the landfill propeny, and if the landfill design calls for changing
drainage paths compared to the natural, pre-landfill situation, a careful check on the ability
of these pathways to take additional surface water must be made.
Once off-site drainage locations and capacities are determined, benns and drainage ditches
are designed, ccnainly around the .base of the landfill but at other areas such as soil
excavation or J10Ckpiling areas, benns, etc., to allow n2 unplanned ponding of surface
water on-site. JtHu:hes draining large areas and subjectto large flows may ha veto be lined
or protected, aíiél may need rocks or other devices to slow the water velocity and limit
damage. Roads should be graded with a crown or high point in the center and ditches on
both sides, "ñith culvens under the road as necessary to drain water freely off-site.
One of the most difficúlt parts of landflll design is to plan surface water drainage every da y
of the life of the landfill. At all times the landfill and working face, access roads, soil
excavation are as, and soil stockpiles must be located to promote runoff. When lo'v.· points ·
are unavoidable, as when landftlling below the sulface elevation in a trench, or excavating
cover soil below the original surface, slope the excavation so even here sulface water will
12
' -
.• _ _ _ _ _ _;,¡,
'
run toa low point from which it can be pwnped to the nearest (and planned) drainage path.
In order to minimize the arnount of water to be pumped, surfaces around the excavation are
sloped away from it so only water falling directly on the trench or excavation needs to be
pumped.
For the portian of the landfill above the surrounding land surface (hill), special care to
minimize surface water contamination and erosion is necessary.ln the past it was common
to ha ve each lift, and its intermediate cover, horizontal. The problem was that if this cover
was less permeable than the solid waste, which is common, or as ieachate and its
constituents reduce the permeability of the cover soil, which is also common, water can
accumulate in layers on intermediate cover. This leachate builds up and eventual! y can flow
out the side of the hill, leading to "leachate seeps" or "leachate weeps". The result is surface
water contamina!ion, staining of the cover, limited vegetation growth and odors. Once this
happens, it is expensive and difficult to repair, as a subsurface drainage system is required
which may require additional repairs for many years. To avoid this problem,lifts should be
designed to slope towards the cemer of the hill, keeping any leachate accumulation as far as
pdssible frorri the sides of the landfill. Funher, it may be useful in wet clima tes to excava te
sorne intermedia te cover, or use grave!, at designed low arcas to promote downward flow
and to limit ponding. ·
The other difficulty regarding surface water control in hill landfills is the problem of
bringing large arnounts of runoff from upper elevations to the drainage system at the base
of landfill without causing erosion. Experience has suggested that cutoff berms and ditches
be located every 30 meters or so along the steeper slopes. and that these structures· be
sloped at 5% or soto gradual! y collect and bring the runoff down to the base of the hill.
"' For large landfills, a series of enclosed culvens or lined spiraling ditches with velocity
lowering devices, such as rocks, will be necessary. No one ditch alone spiraling around the
hill will be able to handle the required volumes of water. Even with these runoff control
features, a slope steeper than 4/1 horizontal to vertical willli.kely !ead !~ erosion problems
in wet clirnates and should be avoided .
. The last surface water control device to be discussed is the sedimenta:.(•n or equalization
pond. Surface water runoff will unavoidably carry sediment, which may eventually clog
off-site surface water drainage systems. A simple pond, with removal of sediment as
necessary, will sol ve the' problem. In addition, depending on rainfall intensity pattems and
the ability of surface water pathways on and off site to handle water volumes associated
with major storm events, it may be cheaper, or necessary, to promote on-site storage of
surface water. Such a pond should be designed to handle a major storm, perhaps accepting
the runoff from the en tire landfill for relea se over time. Creative planning can place such
ponds at locations where cover soil is to be excavated anyway, and will also locate and
shape the ponds to improve the appearance of the landfill. A good location, if land
topography makes it possible, is near the entrance road, or along a major road, etc. The
pond will need to be designed to allow pumping as well as access for sediment removal.
Phasing
lt is not possible to construct the entire laridfill over many years with all activities operating
continuously. Trenches are prepared, areas of land are cleared and graded, cover soil
excavations move from location to location, and ponions of the landfill are completed
periodically over the life of the landfill. To spread the cost over time, to minirnize the area
of the site exposed to excavation or filling, and to generally provide better control, the
landfill is constructed in phases. A phase is typii:ally a portian of the landfill tak.ing one to
three years to complete. Two years is common. If climate is seasonal, so one season is
13
________...be_nerJor~excavation,.for_example,_this_allo_ws_most_of_the_excavation.to.bedone.at-the_best _______
---time-of-the-year,etc.-.- - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Each phase is designed as a smalllandftll, coordinating al! the activities such as excavation
and base preparation; consrruction of berms, roads, and drainage systems; waste
placement; soil excavation and stockpiling: and final cover of pan or aJl of the phase ~~.ithin
the two year active lifetime, for example. The phases are designed to work together in
sequence so the en tire landfill meets final contours and specifications at closure. Prompt
final covering of each phase seals ponions of the landftll as they are completed, promoting
runoff and limiting le achate generation and providing excellent opponunities for visibility
control and improved appearance during much of the operational life of the landftll. for this
reason, earlier phases can be placed along major roads or on the most sensitive sides of the
arca. Once completed 11.ith final cover and vegetation, these earlier phases provide excellent
pn;>tection throughout the remainder of site operation.
Fencing and Entrance Design

-The flinction of fencing and the entran ce area is to limit site access to people and ve hieles
with reason or permission to be there, to limit access to the designated entrances, and to
facilita te movement of traffic into the si te. lt is possible to achieve good and safe Jandfill
operation without limiting access, as in remote sites far from housing arcas, but generally
, fencing or natural boundaries (su eh as railroad tracks or steep hills) will be necessary. If
' there is a charge for waste disposal, or if the si te is open only pan of the da y, peoplc will
bring in waste after hours or without paying. and will undoubtedly not place the waste in
the working face. This Jeads to piles of exposed waste around the landfill, and the
accompanying difficulty of maintaining a good operation. Fencing also helps control
· blowing liner, providing it is cleaned frequemly so liner does not blow over the fence. A 3 .
meter mesh fence around the si te i~ good for both access and liter control.
The access are a should be clearly marked with the landfill name, owner or operator, hours
of operation, fee structure, and any special rules regarding acceptable or prohibited waste,
etc. lt should ha ve a lockable gate and should ha ve adequate space for vehicles to wait in
line on-site and not on public roads. The road should be paved to minimized mud cracking
and problems with vehicle movement in wet weather. There will usually be a gate house,
with a scale in sorne cases, to control access, collect fees and provide instruction. The
en trance arca gives a great opponuniiy for innovative design to improve the appearance of
the landfillto the public and to promete a sense of pride for persons using or working at the
facility. A clean, well-maintained entrance area is related to the care people l!.ill take to
maintain the rest of the landfill. Berms, vegetation, fencing, curved roads, sedimentation
ponds, and topography should be used to maximum advantage. Gardens and a park-like
atmosphere are common at well-designed and operated entrances, and can be used
innovatively far;special floral displays, etc., if carefully designed so asto not interfere with
landftll opera~ and vehicle movement.
The turn-in areá from public roads to the landfill should be designed to minimize accidents
and promete traffic movement. Specialtum lanes may be needed at sorne larger landfllls.
The on-site enrrance road should be atleast 8 meters wide to accommodate two-way rraffic,
and should be sloped to promete runoff with drainage ditches on one or both sides. h
should be cleaned frequently, especially on wet or very dry and dusty days.
Roads to the working face will range from semi·permanent over ponions of the landfillto
·be used throughout the life of the site, to temporaT)' in areas providing only access to the _
working face. This presems a design problem, for the road system must allow eas~· vehícle
1~
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·'
movement under al! weather conditions. yet be financially and technically feasible. Roads
to be used for severa! years, especially if they are included in the fmal use of the site,
should be permanent· and v.ill normally be paved. In sorne cases a grave! road will be
satisfactory, but note that grave! roads are more difficultto clean as mud and din is tracked
onto them Temporary roads to the work.ing face can be grave!, or in dry areas hard packed
soil: Semi-permanent roads, between these two extremes, may be used over a period of
months to years, according to the landfill phasing sequence. Depending on weather, the
amount of traffic, and eventual use, if any, they may range from paved to grave!, but
oftennmes may be constructed v.ith selectcd incoming wastes, suclr as broken road
pavement, broken concrete, demolition debris, excavated soil, or certain industrial wastes
such as combustion residues, etc. The designer should evaluate wastes entering the site,
and wlstes which could enter the si te if necessary, and be sure proper procedures and
adequate equipment are available to make prompt and controlled use of such wastes. Piles
of road-building materials stored for la ter use can be unsightly and should be controlled
accordin.gly. ·
.•
AH roads should be clearly marked to route traffic to and from the working face. They
should be elevated and sloped or crowned to promete runoff to ditches on both sides, and
culvens should be placed under them to move surface water to a sedimentation pond or
directly off-site. They should be watered on dusry days, and cleaned, especia11y nearer the
en trance area, to avoid mud tracking and to promete vehicle inovement. They should be at
least 3 to 4 meters wide for one-way or small amounts of traffic (with passing areas as
appropriate), or 7 to 8 meters wide for two way traffic. Sorne landfills prone to.mud
.· tracking problems may have special wheel cleaning locations, so trucks don't track mud
... from the working face. These devices can include a wash pond, a water spray, mud knock-
off bumps. or a long paved road (which is frequently cleaned). With sticky clays,
however, even these devices m>y prove inadequate. Local experience is the best guide for
what will work- - the function here is to simply point out that the designer must consider
. the need for such devices.
Groundwater and Gas 1'11igration l\1onitoring
Depending on local re_gulations, groundwater use, the proximity to buildings and built-up
areas, and the types of soil and location of groundwater, it may be important for the
designer to place monitoring probes around the landflll. Monitoring wells should be placed
at least up and down gradient of the landftll, and in the direction of any nearby wells, and
gas probes should be placed in the directions of nearby buildings. The design of wells and
probes is covered elsewhere; the point here is to emphasize the imponance of getting
background soil gas and gnoundwater quality information before any landfill activity takes
place. lf problems develop in the future, it will be known whether the landfill is the likely
source, which in tum will help determine who is responsible and how to best solve the
problem.
PROVISIONS FOR SCA VE!'iGING

Introduction
Since sanitary landfi11ing is the subject of this course, the present section focuses on
material recycling (scavenging) perforrried at the landfill site and does not include
scavenging at the point of waste generation, during co11ection, or during transpon.
15
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l. Incoming refuse is dumped, as usual, at or near the working face, i.e., immediately
behind or at the foot (toe) of the working face.
2. Scavengers son through the dumped load.
3. Scavengers separate the reoieved materials into organiu:d lots.
4. Machinery spreads and compacts the waste remaining after the scavenging activity.
Although this discussion of scavenging is rescicted to that which takes place at the disposal
si te, it does not affect fundamental arguments for or against the practice as a whole. Typical
materials recycled in this manner include: unbroken bottles, metals, plastics, cardboard,
paper products, textiles, and glass.
-·
Associated Issues
The case for scavenging must be sc-ong enough to counterbal:lnce the objections that can be
raised against it at the si te_ These objections stem from the s:ifety hazards w personnel of
both the scavenging group and the landfill employees, and fwm the interference caused by
scavenging activity that prevents the efficient conduct of work at tr: fllL Scavenging
activities have severe negative impacts on the productivity of equipment as well as the
.;;, efficiency of operations in generaL Hazards caused by the intermingling of manual
scavenging activity and equipment-oriented sanitary-landfilling activity increase when
heavy equipment is involved. Funhermore, scavenging results in delays and often
interferes with compaction and application of soil cover. Therefore, the problem is
• essentially one of developing a _safe interface berween scavenger and landfill equipmenr that
allows for efficient operation of the landft!L
Designation of a Separate ScaHnging Area
_The problem of developing an interface berween scavenging and landfill operations can be
minimized or even eliminated by treating the scavenging activity as a first step in a sequence
of steps that make up the landfill activity. Such an approach makes feasible a physical
separation of the two activities of perhaps one or more kilometers. Unfonunately, such a
separation adds a step to the overall operation. Solid waste handling now has two pans: 1)
discharge of incoming wastes at the scúenging area of the disposal si te, and 2) transfer of
the residue remaining after scavenging to the burial site.
If the scavenging area is kept relatively clase to the burial si te, transfer of residue from one
site to the other may be done quickly by means of a bulldozer. Such an arrangement would
demand that tbe scavenging area be movable to be close to the working face.
Unfortunatelyfillis is probably so close asto cause mutual interference between man and
machinery. Ttíe'odler extreme would be to !acate the scavenging area a kilometer or more
away from the working face. In this case, the waste to be disposed could be transponed by
means of dump ttucks.
A fixed scavenging site for the life span of the fill would be desired when transfer by
bulldozer is no longer feasible. A fixed scavenging area would be neither feasible nor
advisable for a small disposal site. Dedicatiori of a fixed portien of the disposal site for
scavenging takes on many of the characteristics and advantages of a transfer station. For
instance, scavenging done in a fixed area can be sheltered from the elements (wind. rain,
etc.) and undesirable impacts upon the environment can be avoided or minimized. The ·
16
.. - --- ·-· ----Á
'
operation itself can be kept orderly and controlled closely, and abuses can be discouraged.
Funhermore, efficiency can be improved by including a cenain amount of mechaniz.ation
(e.g., conveyor belts and screens). Best of al!, encounters between scavengers and landfill
equipment are more easily avoided. Theses advant.ages combine to enhance efficiency. This
alternative also allows for sanit.ary facilities and a better working environment for the
scavengers.
The strOngest objection to designaóng a fixed si te is probably the added step of pick up and
transfer of waste.to the working face. This objection does not come into play until the
distance between the scavenging and burial si tes becomes great enough to make transfer by
bulldozing no longer feasible. Of course, the capital expenditure associated with the
erection of a building and introducóon of added equipment would be another disadvant.age.
From the preceding discussion it can be noted that the size of the disposal si te is the
decisive factor regarding the'advisability and necessity for dedicating a ponion solely to
sc&venging. In general, a minimum life span of 10 years would justify the incorporation of
a fixed scavenging are a.
Management of Scannging Activit~·
lmponant factors when managing scavenging activities are the relative priorities of the
scavenging and waste burial activities. Burla! should have precedence over scavenging
since the main purpose of the fill is the effective disposal of wastes. Therefore, scavenging
- must be managed in a way that does not unduly interfere with the disposal activity of the
"" landfill. Alternately, consideration must be given to the poten'tial income from scavenging
for the scavengers. who are generally at the bottom of the economic ladder, as well as the
imponance of secondary materials to local indusrry.
Traffic
Unless careful!y managed, traffic to and from the disposal site can be disruptive to the
interface between scavenging and burial (disposal). Among the obvious causes of
disruption are the increase in number of vehicles using the same road and the different
moving speeds that result from the different types of vehicles in volved. Scavenger vehicles
may be as small as a pushcart oras large as the vehicles used to transpon the larger loads of
recycled materials. Conversely, waste collection and haul vehicles normally surpass
scavenger vehicles in terms of size, weight and speed. Unfonunately, the best way to
separate the traffic is to provide separate access roads, but this could be an expensive
approach.
The degree of access to the disposal site by scavengers depends upon the magnitude of
separation between scavenging traffic and disposal traffic. lf separation is complete, the
access could ranse from unlimited lO somewhat limited. Alternately, if the two traffic
patterns are DOl separated, unlimited access is immediately ruled out because of the
excessive interfaence with disposal traffic. lf access is to be restricted, the problem arises
as to which individuals are to be excluded. In arriving at such decisions, it should be
remembered that political and social expediency V.·ould inevitably enter into any decision
that would limit access.
17
..
Supenísion
The scavenger activity should be under the direction of a supervisor who has the
responsibility to see to it that the activity proceeds efficiently and fairly. yet with a
mínimum of interference with the disposal operation. Accomplishing the latter implies
work.ing closely with the director of the disposal operation. The latter should ha ve the final
say in decisions that affect the disposal operation (landfilling). The supervisor of the
scavenging activity may be assisted by subordinates, if efficiency of operation requires
such a provision. Efficiency and safety demand that good housekeeping be rigorously
enforced. . ·
Guidelines
•
A 'relatively fixed set of guidelines should be established. Among the subjects that could be
regulated are:
l. Assignment of space, refuse loads, etc., to individual scavengers or groups thereof.
2. Removal of scavenged material from the si te - - i.e., the promptness, frequency and
manner in which everything from separation of scavenged material to loading and
hauling by can or motorized vehcle is performed:
3. ldeally, the municipality should be responsible for the sale of the recovered
materials.
, 4. The laborers should be provided with uniforms and safety equipment. bathrooms,
showers, eating facilities, and first aid equipment.
The above guidelines should be enforced by the supervisor in a fair and responsible
manner. As the supervisor may come under pressure to take bribes, however small, from
• different groups or individuals, the person in this position should be a scrupulous
individual who is rewarded according to the quality and performance of scavenging
activity.
PRO\'ISIO:"'S FOR SPECIAL \\'ASTES
Baling
Beca use of the technology involved and its high costs, the baling of municipal wastes is
generally nota practica! disposal option for a deve!oping country. However, because it may
be possible under specific circumstances, this section briefly describes landfilling baled
wastes.
Waste characteristics, in panicular, moisture content, determine the cohesiveness and

density of the bales. The optimum moisture content is between 15 and 25 percent. With the
present balina:_t~hnology and suitable moisture content, densities of bales range from 950
kgJm3 to 1130 kg!m3. Bale dimensions range between 0.9 and 1.2 m in the mínimum
dimensions and from 1.2 to 1.8 m in length. To keep recoil (expansion after pressure is
released) at-a mínimum, baling pressure should be greater than 1.4 x l07NJm2. Even under
optirnum baling conditions, the volume of the bales eventually expands 10 to 15 percent.
The bales should be tightly stacked in the fill, usually with a fork lift, and covered with
cover material. Equipment efficiency dictates that each lift be no higher than three layers of
bales. Stability is attained by arranging the layers in a manner similar to bricklaying. in
18
~····-
which each !ayer is offset so that the ends of bales in one !ayer are not directly under those
in the next !ayer. Maximum stability requires that bales be stácked cross-wise from !ayer to
!ayer or liftto lift. Each lift would then consist of three layers of bales covered with a thin
l~yer of soilto accommodate truck and ~uipment traffic. The contours of the floo~ of the
Slte should reflect the contours desired for the completed si te. _
Proponen !S of balefilling (landfilling of baled wastes) claim that the following advantages
can be attributed to the use of baling in MSW disposal when the site is designed and
operated properly:
l. Baling en sures a higher effective density, thereby reducing t' ~ land r~uirement and
extending the usefullife of a landfill:
2. The use of on-site ~uipment and personnel is less intensive !na balefill.
3. Damage to the environment is diminished. For examr . leachate strength is
reduced beca use sorne percolating water is di verted to the ~ · _,ces berween the bales,
diluting the leachate. .
4. Problems related to vectors. dust, blowing litter, tr;, ¡e, and moisture are
considerably reduced in number and severity. For exar.:,·Je. vector (birds, rats,
flies, cte.) activity is notably diminished at balefills dueto th~ smaller working face
and the e ase of achieving complete daily soil cover.
5. Baling of solid waste improves the future usefulness (. :he disposal si te by
enhanc;~g foundation- bearing factors. Also, the waiting pe .j for land to stabilize
is Iesse: ~d.
Co-disposa
As the tenn · iies, "co-disposal" involves the mixing of one type of waste with another
• and the sut Jent disposal of the mixture. Although co-disposal as described in this
section appL. .o most types of non-industrial sludges. the following is directed primarily
to sludges associated with the storage. treatment. and disposal of human body wastes
(primarily fecal wastes). Examples of such sludges and wastes are those produced by a
conventional wastewater (sewage) treatment facility, septic tank pumpings, sludge from the
storage pits of unsew_ered public toilets, and nightsoil in general.
Despite the many hazards to public health and nuisances attributed to the practice. untreated
nightsoil is frequently co-disposed with municipal solid wastes in developing countries.
These hazards and nuisances are amplified by the presence of scavengers and the
prevalence of the open dump method of disposal. Although not as pronounced, the same
hazards attend the open dump co-disposal of primary (i.e., raw) sewage sludge from a
sewage treatment facility. The hazards can be substantially reduced by using good sanitary
landfill practice.
In an operarion involving co-disposal by sanitary landftlling, one approach is to deposit the

sludge (20 to·30percent solids) on top of the refuse at the working face of the landfill. The
sludge and rd'use are then thoroughly mixed and the mixture is spread, compacted, and
covered. Liquid in the sludge is absorbed by the réfuse. The mixing of the wastes must be
done with care so as to not exceed the liquid holding capacity of the solid waste, otherv.rise
a wet, muddy landfill will result. Sludges having a low solids content (2 to 4 percent
solids) may be spray-applied from a tank truck toa !ayer of refuse at the working face. The
refuse serves as a bulking agent, but once again care must be taken to not exceed the
holding capacity of the solid waste.
19
•;
==-======Ins_clearJllat.iüs_not_easy_to_ccFdisposnludges·v.ithout-greatly-affetting·thnuccess·of------
the facility as a sol id waste landf¡JI. The handling, placement and rnixing of the sludge in
reasonable proportions is lcey, requiring special design and operational provisions. J\ote
that scavenger.; should not be permitted to come in contact v.ith the wastes.
A different approach involves the use of sludge/soil mixture as an interim or fmal cover
over completed arcas of the refuse landful. The approach has sorne advantages:
J. Sludge is removed or reduced from the working face of the fUI.

2. Because of the nirrogen and phosphorus contents of the sludge, the mixture
prometes the growth of vegetation over the completed fill are a, thereby reducing
ferti!izer requirements.
3. The development of sanitation and erosion problems mayal so be mitigated .
.• A major disadvantage is the limitation of this approach to well-stabilized, digested,
sludge. The lirnitation arises from the incomplete burial of the sludge and its
resulting exposure to the atmosphere and people:
An operational difficulty that may be encountered is ve hiele movement problems due to the
presence of and the high moisture content ·of the siudge. A possible solution is to mix
sludge wi:h ash from power plants or similll' sources.
' llazardous Wastes (Secure Landfill)
Jntroáuction
Hazll'dous wastes (mercury and arsenic based wastes, pesticides. heavy metal waste. acid
wastes, oil-based wastes, cyanides. etc.) are equally dangerous and toxic whether in·
developed or developing countries. The place of origin or occurrence has no bearing on the
degree of hazll'd inherent in a panicular hazll'dous waste. The possibility exists that a given
hazardous waste may pose a greater threat in a developing country, since "legal"
definitions, standards, and safegua.rds tend to be more relaxed than those specifications
found in a developed country, and because of the accessibility of sites to more people if ,
located in congested arcas or if scavenging is practiced. The result is that: 1) measures
required in the disposal of hazardous wastes in developing counoies should not differ
material! y from those imposed in devc!oped counoies; and 2) the "secure landfill" approach
described in this section applies equally in developed and developing settings. The only
differences would be !hose arising from conditions peculiar to the individual si tes.
Definition and Specifications

A "se cure landflll" is a sophisticated engineercd eanhen excavation especially designed to
contain and prcvent hazardous wastcs from escaping into the environment. Thercfore, a
genuinely mm JandfUI must have thc following features:
!. Waste disposed is completely enclosed by a !ayer or Jiner of impervious material.
2. The distance between the bottom of the liner and the groundwatcr is sufficient to
prevent contaminarion of the groundwater.
3. Leachate and al! other liquids are not allowed to accuinulate inside thc containment
lavers.
4. Groundwater is monitored such that leakage from the fUI can be detected.
5. The fill is located such that it is isolated from surface and subsurface water supplies:
is free from flooding. ea.nhquake, or other disruptions; and.the site is not needed
for other uses after the facility is closed. .
20
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Design
As with aii sanitary landfills, design is largely dependen: ~:pon the hydrogeological
characteristics of the site. Thus, if the distance to the groundw.;rer table is substantial and
the soils are very impermeable, compaction of the soils at :he site coupled with the
placement of single liner either of natural or of synthetic material would be sufficient to
contain hazardous wastes. In such a case, soil or bentonite could serve as a natural material
and polyvinyl chloride, high density polyethylene, or chlorinated polyethylene could serve
as a synthetic material. If conditions are not ideal, but do meet minimum standards, it
would be n~essary to excavate the soil presently at the landfill si te and replace it with a
.sand/gravellayer followed by a compacted clay liner, a synthetic liner, a leachate dr1linage
!ayer, and perhaps even a s~ond clay and drair.age !ayer combination to form a so-called
double liner system. In al! cases, provision sho~Jd be made for preventing the various
wastes from mixing together and thereby aiggering a chemical reacrion (e.g., highly caustic
w~ste with a strong acid waste). This is done by separating different areas from one
another by fomúng subcells using eanhen dikes.
Arrangements must be made for collecting and withdr1lwinf leachate as it accumulates in
the basin. This is done through a network of pipes ir.s::.lled in the drainage !ayer .
. Groundwater quality should be monitored by means of mC1~· :oring wells placed along the
perimeter of the fill. Monitoring óf groundwater should ~"' gin prior to any disposal of
waste and should be continued thereafter until the ch::.n~es e:· a pollution problem become
non-existent.
The design, operation, and monitoring of a secure fill ;, a highly sophisticated process
which requires the participation of skilled professio~als. D·. :-"ls of the various requirements
of a secure Jandfill are given elsewhere.
The closure of a secure Jandfill must be designed such _that total and complete
decontamination of the facility is assured, and the com;¡leted fill does not pose a threat to
the public safety and the environment. This objective is auained by adhering to the
following procedure:
l. At termination, cover the upper surface of the completed fill with impermeable
soils, e.g. clays. This !ayer should be atleast 0.6 m thick.
2. Cover this !ayer with a synthetic Jiner, if availabie, and then with at least 0.3 m of
sand to provide horizontal drainage of percola:e a.~d to protect the impermeable soil
!ayer and underlying wastes.
. 3. Cover the sand !ayer with a minimum of 0.6 m of vegetation support soil, of which
at least the top 10 cm is topsoil. Then seed the tcpsoil to produce vegetation and to
complete the closure operation. Leachate and gas collection pipes should protrude
through the final cover.
The functiontel a final cover with respect to hazardous waste containrnent are as follows:
a. minlmlze infiltration of precipita!ion
b. prevent contamination of surface run-off
e. deter wind scatter of waste
d. prevent contact of waste with humans and an:mals
e. promete surface drainage
f. minimize erosion
g. prevent build-up of gas pressures in the fill
h. accommodate settling and subsidence
21
------i~protect·the ·impenneabl e· or-barri er-la yer from-freez.in g~ dryin g; or-any-oth er
surface effects, and
j. suppon vegetation growth.
Fina!ly, it is extreme! y imponantthat the completed fill not be excavated in any way since
most buried haz.ardous wastes continue to be dangerous for extended periods of time, and
the consequences of untimely "exposure could be disastrous. A properly closed hazardous
waste landfill may be utilized for general purposes. such as parking areas and open spaces.
Ho,.·ever, it is advisable that a hazardous waste site be closely morútore<ffor surface cover
quality, gas emissions, leachate col!ection, groundwater, erosion and other events for at
least 30 yea:s. This is an arbitral')' time period which can be extended or shonened
depending on site characteristics. the wastes disposed, monitoring resu!ts, and other
pertinent techrúcal information available. · ·
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CCRSO L'\TER:\ACIONAL SOBRE DISEÑO Y

DISPOSICIO~ ·FINAL DE RESIDUOS SOLIDOS
( RELLE\'OS SANITARIOS)
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PALACIO DE mNERIA. ~IEXICO D.F. 14-19 de Marzo de 1994
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WATER BALANCE ANO LEACHATE QUANTITY

O.Univ.Prof.Dipl.lng.Dr. Peter LECHNER
IWGF- Section Waste Management
Vienna University of Agricultura, Forestry and Renewable Resources
i. lntroduction
As precipitation infiltrates through the landfill leachate is produced.
Leachate results from the biological, c11emical and physical processes taking place
within the landfill, coupled with a leaching effect as wáter thrickles through the land-
fill. The product of. these processes is a more or less highly polluted le achate whose
constituents are heavily dependen! on the condition of the landfill. Harmful germs
may also be contained in the leachate (Table 1). '
Table 1: Leachate analysis values for parameters with differences between acetic
and methanogenic phase of a domestic waste landfill {EHRIG, 1989).
Parameter 1 Average 1 Range

Ac~!iº Qhi!S~
pH - 6,1 4,5-7,5
so o~ mg/1 13.000 4.000 • 40.000
COD mg/1 22.000 6.000 • 60.000
soo.Jcoo . 0.58 .
so.,_. mg/1 500 70-1.750
Ca mg/1 1.200 10.2.500
Mg mg/1 470 50. 1.150
Fe mg/1 780 20.2.100
Mn mg/1 25 0.3. 65
Zn mg/1 5 0,1. 120
Sr mg/1 7 0.5. 15
Methan ,..........
pH . 8,0 7.5. 9,0
so o~ mg/1 180 20.550
COD mg/1 3.000 500.4.500
soo.Jcoo . 0.06 .
so.,_ mg/1 80 10. 420
Ca mg/1 60 20.600
Mg ri1QI1 180 40.350
Fe mg/1 15 3. 280
Mn ri1QI1 0,7 0,03. 45
Zn mg/1 0,6 0,03. 4
Sr mg/1 1 0,3. 7
2. Generation of leachate from landfills in water-
.deficient areas
Water is a scarce commodity in arid and semi-arid areas and pollution of surface
and underground water resources can be disastrous to communities and households
depending on these sources for domestic supply.
As many states of Mexico are largely water deficient areas concern mus! arise if
landfills have the potential to cause unacceptable water pollution. Such pollution is
also most costly and difficult to clean up once it has occurred. lf nothing is done to
ameliorate the situation, the pollution may persist in the groundwater for a long time,
·even though the source of the pollution has been removed.
Landiills receiving more than 750 mm of precipitation par annum will produce
leachate, while in arid regions where annual precipitation is less than .300 - 400 mm,
virtually all precipitation is evapotranspired.
Water Balance of a Landfill

.
' · The main factors influencing the water balance of a landfill are (see figure 1):
• Precipitation
• Surface run-off
• Evaporation and evapotranspiration
• Retention by the cover
• Storage by the refuse
• (Water production by biochemical processes)
• (Water losses through natural gas venting)
• Water output by leachate
Water lossea through natural veriting gas out of the landfill will condensate to a high
degree in tha surface area.
Figure 1: Main factors influencing the water balance of a landfill
----------------------~
EVAPOTAANS PIRA TIOfrll
PAE'CIPITATION
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Figure 2: Sorne meteorological stations with average annual rainfall in millimeters

(Atlas Climatológico de México, 1939)
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Once precipitation has passed through the cover layar, it will become leachate. lt is
a phenomena, that under common landfill practica, precipitation, respectively
leachate migrates on special interconnected zonas through the landfill long befare
an overall field capacity is reached. The existing of a main wetting front in the land-
fill, anticipated in soma water balance models. is therefore not exactly right. Only if
the field capacity of the waste is reached - with the age of a landfill it might become
homogeneous · •he water content in the refuse will not become lower than this field
capacity.
lt must also be recognised that good engineering and management of a landfill can
be usad to maintain a perennial water deficit within the fill even though there may
,.actually be an excess of precipitation over potential evaporation. This can be done
by
• Maximizing run-off and
• Minimizing infiltration into the refuse.
A suitably sloping surface and the installation of a carefully designad impervious

-
'
cover layer can achieve this.
The infiltration rate is strongly influenced by the kind of cover material that is used.
Materials with a high field capacity should be preferred, for example waste compost.
Compost is a material with a very high content of organic matter (15 to 30% OS!),
which enables a very high field capacity (80 to 120 "'o OS!). On the other hand the
very permeable surface and a possible strong vegetation prevents a good surface
runoff, but torces evaporation resp. evapotranspiration.
Obviously the smaller the precipitation and the largar the evapotranspiration and
runoff, the less the potential for the generation of leachate. These terms are particu-
larly favourable in water deficient areas .
. Leachate production is high from low compactad landfills without a soil cover. In ca-
se of highly compacting, at the landfill surface often ponding of rainwater can be ob-
. servad. Under humid climatic conditions the average difference between precipita-
tion and evaporation - independent from different vegetation types - is positiva. The
following figure presents leachate data from different landfills in the north'ern part of
Europa (Federal Republic of Germany/EHRIG, 1989).
..,
Figure-3:-Precipitation-(mm/year)-and-leachate·flow (mm/year·and·%-of·precipitation)
at different landfills and years in the middle of Europe (EHRIG, 1989)
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}/':!)_:> ..
of D~e:ipitat1cn1
pi"'I!'C~pltatlcn
1 leact>ate
In water deficit areas, evaporation exceeds precipitation (figure 4).
Studies made in South Africa (BALL & BLIGHT, 1989; BLIGHT, VORSTER & BALL,
1987) produced strong evidence that if climatic conditions are such that a perpetua!
water deficit exists at the site of a landfill, no or very little leachate will be formed and
exit the base of the landfill. Hence, if there is an adequate separation between the
lowest leve! of refuse and the highest leve! of ·the regional phreatic surface, no
groundwater pollution may occur (figure 5).
Figure 4: Water balance in water deficit areas
molsture loss
storage '· , ___ ..,.___
.•
...._ preclpitation leachate

(a. lntlltration)
Figure 5: Different climate-types in water deficit areas
Example 1 - Witwaters- txample 2 - Cape Town/South

rand/South ~frica. a Africa, a summer rainfall
winter rainfall area area (BLIGHT et al .. 1~89)
(BLIGHT et al .. 1989)
..
-·
--.- -.. .. ·
••
..
-· ... ........ . _
,.................
•,
'•
.....
.,, ....
··~'C.
- .. '·
.
-•
...,..~,.
... ~nr;:a
.
... - - -· - - - •• -· - :00~
CAPE JOW'N 1 !QUTI-1 .AFRIICA
Precipitation-!Rainfalll
The most critica! situation occurs in the case of low rainfall intensity over a long pe-
riod of time; cloud bursts, e. g. rains of extraordinary intensity result in a quick sa-
turation of the cover material, with the result of a high surface run-off, so there is
little infiltration into the landfill.
Rainfall data shou\d be preferable obtained from measuring on sita o¡· alternatively
from the nearest meteorological station (see figure 6).
Surface Run-off "
The importan! facts, whi~h influence the surface run-off are:
• Topography of the landfill
• Type of soil cover material
• Morphology of the soil cover
... • Vegetation
A simple method for estimating the surface run-off is based on the general formula:
R=cxP
'.·.·
': .': ... ,.;
R ... run-off ,
P ... precipitation
e ... coefficient
Table 2: Aun-off coefficients proposed by SALV ATO et al. (1971) for different soil
cover mat!jrials and different vegetation types
Soil texture
Soil cover Slope Sandy Loamy
(%) loam clay Clay
Grassed soil 0·5 0,10 0,30 0,40
5. 10 0,16 0,36 0,55
10.· 30 0,22 0,42 0,60
Bare soil 0·5 0,30 0,50 0,60
5. 10 0,40 0,60 1 0,70
10.30 0,52 0,72 0,82
Evaporation and Evapotranspiration
The vegetation growing on the fihal cover of the landfill needs water. for building
plant tissue and causes a water loss by transpiration. In addition, water is evapora·
ted from the soil depending on soil textura and climatic conditions. A distinction
should be made between the period of landfill operating • maybE! with intermediate
cover • and the finished landfill with a final cover and revegetation.
..
Leachate Circulation
In regions with low annual precipitation (< 750 mm) a leachate circulation system
reduces the quantity of leachate by evaporation and accelerates the biochemical
decomposition process in the landfill. This leads to a drop in the decomposible or-
ganic content of the leachate and accelerates the production of methane gas.
3. Free Leachate Flow

Steps must be taken to ensure that under no circumstances - even in the long term -
a
¡t will be possible for build-up of leachate to occur in a landfill. Leachate must be
·able to exit from the area of the landfill following the natural gradient (LECHNER et
al., 1993).
11 a pit is completely filled, in other words, if there is no free leachate flow, there is a
build-up of leachate as soon as the pumping system fails, even if the leachate col-
lection system is optimally constructed. In an extreme case, at the relevant depth of
filling or height of build:up, all the free water in the mineral base liner begins to per-
=
meate the liner. Permeation is now governed by the relationship v k • (i-i 0 ). In other
words, there is laminar flow through the liner. The mineral barrier liner is thus no
longer "technically impermeable".
v ....... filler velocity (m/sec)

k ....... hydraulic conductivity in the linear range (m/sec)
i ........ hydraulic gradient
i0 ....... start gradient ter the linear relation
In case of a free leachate flow the hydraulic gradient results only from the controlled
flooding of the drainage system according to the hydraulic requirements for the ru-
noff of the leachate. The hydraulic gradient will not gene rally exceed a value of 1,5.
The value of 1<;. 1.5 rel!want for the actual percolation through the base liner is thus
much lower than k;=30. which is the value used for the determination of the coefficient
of permeability in the laboratory. At low hydraulic gradients the effect of the binding
torces results in a non-linear relation between the filler velocity (v) and the hydr.aulic
gradient (i), in mineral materials of low permeability (~ < 10·8 m/sec).
In other words, the resistance to the percolation of leachate is virtually infinitely large
at a low hydraulic gradient. This exponential relationship is explained by the fact that
the adsorptlon water only contributes to the flow at an increasing hydraulic gradient.
Only then does cross-sectional area of flow - a·nd with it permeability - increase. As
long as this is not the case, a mineral barrier liner of low permeability can therefore
be described as •technically impermeable".
This is the reason for the decisive importance attached to free leachate flow. The
necessity for free leachate flow is in most European countries now generally accep-
ted.
Above ground landfill mounds have a potential for erosion of the topsoil !ayer in the
cover. ·The appearance of leachate in the drainage system of such a landfill, espe-
cially in water deficient areas will signa! the need to investigate the cover and, if
necessary, to repair it. ·
Figure 6: Necessity for the free leachate flow
free leachate flOW' follcminQ

the natural grad~nt
•
wrong
.
(',
\:
CD pump 1ailing
L@ built up of leachate
L @ permeatlon ttuough
the bottom liner
4. Literature
BALL J.M., BLIGHT G.E. (1989): Movement of Leachate from a New Landfill. ln:Proceedings of the
Second lntemational Landfill Symposium Sardinia 1989.
BLIGHT G.E., VORSTER K., BALL J.M. (1987): The Design of Sanitary Landfills to Reduce
Groundwater Pollutlon. In: Proceedings of the lntem. Conference on Mining and Industrial Waste
Management. SA lnst. of Civil Engineering. Johannesburg, 1987.
EHRIG H.J. (1989): Leachate Quality. In: Sanitary Landfilling - Process. Technology and
Environmental lmpact. Academic Press 1989.
LECHNER P. et al. (1993): Réactor Landlill, Experiences Gained at the Breitenau Research Landfill
in Austria. In: Proceedings of the Sixteenth lntemational Madison Waste Conference, University of
Wisconsin-Madison, 1993. ·
SALVATO el al. (1 971) in: CANZIANI R., COSSU R.: Lanatill Hydrology and Leachale Production.
In: Sanitary Landlilling - Process, Technology and Environmentallmpact. Academic Press 1989.
"11
:¡
li
,1,1
'1
CCRSO L\TER\ACIO\AL SOBRE DISE\"0 Y !i
!i
DISPOSICIO\ FI\AL DE RESIDCOS SOLIDOS i..l
·¡
( RELLE\OS SA\ITARIOS) !:
''
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il
GE\"ERACIO\" Y CL\\"TIFICACIO\i DE BIOGAS 11
1'
,1
) "¡¡,,
...,
·'
Ing. Humberto Vidales Albarrán

!:
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il
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Asociación ~lexicana para el Control
il
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de los Residuos Sólidos y Peligrosos, A.C. 11
(A~ICRESPAC)
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PAUCIÓ DE ~1!:-;ERIA. ~IEXICO D.F.

il
14-19 de '.larzo de 1994 :!.,
'1
,,
~~~~~~~-GENERA€10N-Y-EUANTIFIEA€ION-DE-BIOGAS-----~~~~-
~nenllidades
De todos es conocido que los rellenos sanitarios producen cantidades imponantes de biogás
debido a la descomposición biológica de los materiales orgánicos contenidos en los desechos
sólidos depositados en los rellenos sanitarios.
El proceso de degradación que ocurre en el interior del relleno es un proceso anaeróbico similar
al que ocurre dentro de un digestor de lodos con proceso anaerobio, siendo la diferencia
unicamente que este ultimo es operado bajo condiciones óptimas, condición que raramente ocurre·
en un relleno sanitario.
Composición del Biogás
La composición del biogás es muy variada y puede encontrarse en .cualquier libro o publicación
sobre el tema, pero el componente sobre el que fijaremos nuestra.atención sera el Metano, ya que
típicamente se le detecta en concentraciones del 40% aproximadamente, el resto es atribuible al
CO: y gases adtcionales en concentractones de panes por millón en volumen.
Los gases adicionales que ocurren en concentraciones de ppmv, son típicamente el H,S formando
Mercaptanos y otros gases sulfurados olorosos, otros alcanos como el Etano y otros Compuestos
Orgánicos Volatiles siendo los principales dentro de los Hidrocarburos Aromáticos el Benceno,
Tolueno, Etilbenceno, Onoxileno y algunos Hidrocarburos Halogenados.
Peligrosidad del Biogás
El biogás debido al Metano puede ser explosivo en concentraciones entre 5 y 15 % en volumen

con aire atmosférico, es corrosivo por el porcentaje de CO, que contiene, y su con.densado
también lo es por el H,S, su olor ofrende ar sentidÓ del olfato y afecta a la comunidad que vive
- - ------ ----
en los alrededores del sitio creando tensiones dentro de las familias, pérdida del apetito,
induciendo ira en las personas y propicia el sentimiento de no desear regresar al hogar al fin del
trabajo, es tóxico y puede producir asfixia.
La mayor contribución al olor del biogás viene de dos grupos de compuestos, el primer grupo
1
está denominado por Esteres y Organosulfuros incluyendo también ciertos solventes depositados
con los desechos sólidos, el segundo grupo incluye Alquilo y Limoneno. La mayoría de Jos
compuestos mal olientes se forman durante las etapas de descom¡¡osición nometanogénica y
anaeróbica. Durante las primeras etapas de descomposición los alcoholes son particularmente
notables. Los olores dulces afrutados y pútridos de estos compuestos se hacen menos potentes
con- el tiempo. Los gases formados en la etapa anaeróbica n~ son olorosos de por si, pero la
presencia de Metano ·incrementa la percepción de otros gases molientes.
Existe también una cantidad muy grande de compuestos orgánicos no metánicos en el biogás,
_entre los que figuran el Benceno, Tetracloruro de Carbono, Cloroformo, Dicloruro ,de Etileno,
Cloruro de Metileno, Percloroetileno, Tricloroetileno, Cloruro de Vinilo, Cloruro de Vinildeno
_calificados con identificación peligrosa, que es el paso cualitativo para determinar si la exposición
_ a una substancia dada está o no asociada con efectos adversos a la salud, en general se les
considera como cancerígenos.
La migración subterránea del biogás desde los rellenos sanitarios hacia terrenos vecmos puede
resultar en la contaminación del agua subterránea debido a Jos Compuestos Orgánicos Volátiles
si el biogás entra en contacto con el agua subterránea.
Por tanto las emisiones de este biogás por la superficie y la migración a través de los lados y el
fondo de Jos antips y nuevos rellenos, cuando no cuentjlll con cubi~rta final y membranas
flexibles, causan o contribuyen significativamente a la contaminación del suelo, y atmosférica
debido a que los Compuestos Orgánicos no Metánicos reaccionan con Jos rayos ultravioletas del
Sol generando Ozono.
2
·Tasa-de-Producción-------------------
una manera de controlar dicha contaminación requiere primeramente que se conozca la cantidad
y calidad del biogás generado. A continuación haremos una reflexión sobre la cantidad posible
de generac1ón.
Primeramente se ocurre encontrar un volumen de biogás posible de generarse por peso de basura
usando la estequimetria correspondiente a una digestión anaerob1a como la siguiente·
C, H, O,~'+ (4a-b-1c..-3d)'4 H,O - (4a•b-2c-3d)l8 CH,

... (4a-b-'-2c+3d)/8 CO, + d:-.;H 3
PerC> los resultados proporcionan valores no reales del biogás producido por masa de basura
debido a que se consideran productos f1nales y existen componentes _de la basura como Ligina,
Celulosa y Grasa que no se biodegradan completamente.
¡
f
1
En los últimos años se ha med1do en varios rellenos sanitarios y en ilsimetros abienos, que
aparentemente proporcionan una buena generac1ón debido a que la ef1ciencia en la recolección
del biogás es desconocida; y en lisimetros cerrados donde se pueden medir las tasas de
generación de biogiis y su composición, pero no se pueden duplicar las condiciones de los
rellenos sanitarios en lo que al clima en general se ref1ere y que usualmente proporciona muy
poco o ningún contenido de Metano; por esto la producción de biogás generado en ellos y los
valores encontrados para la tasa de producción han sido muy variados, en un rango que fluctua
entre O 75 a 34 litros de biogás por kilográmo de basura húmeda por año, pero hay investigadores
que llegan a valores teóricos llamados de última productividad, tan altos como 450 lt/KG, y
valores medidos en labonitorio de 260. Ltlkg. Esto obedece a los factores que afectan dic~a
producción como son: la composición de la basura, la temperatura, el pH y alcalinidad y la
cantidad y calidad de nutrientes principalmente Nitrógeno, Fósforo y Potasio contenidos en los
desechos sólidos, y finalmente la presencia de algunos inhibidores dÍmtro del relleno
Es conocido que su tasa de producción varia con el tiem)JO po~ lo que el método estequimétrico
I/
o o
requiere de ayuda interviniendo la cinética de la reacción y también es' conocido que la

producción continúa por varias décadas por lo que se hace djficil predecir la cantidad de gas
generado. Hay investigadores que dan "vidas medias": a los desechos ~ápidamente putrecibles,
como los provenientes de desperdicios de comida, basura d~ jardin, etc., entre medio y un año;
para los desechos sólidos refractarios se les asigna una vida media teórica infinita.
Modelos
En un intento para conseguir lo anterior varios modelos se han programado usando: cinética de
ordeh cero, es decir que la tasa de generación de Metano es independiente de la ·cantidad de
sustrato que permanece, el modelo seria segun Ham y Barlaz:
• dc/dt = k
El modelo de cinética de primer orcen establece que la tasa de pérdida de materia putrecible es
proporcional a .la cantidad de materia putrecible que permanece y su modelo seria:
\
\
- dc/dt = kc
y finalmente el modelo de cinética de segundo orden puede escribirse como:
• dc/dt = kc'
Sin embargo, EPA está recomendando un modelo muy simple de aplicar y que parece predecir
con suficiente .,roximación a la realidad la cantidad de biogás generado en los rellenos
sanitarios.
Es mi experiencia haberlo aplicado en al menos 8 distintos rellenos sanitarios en el sur y centro

de California y 3 en el área de Phoenix, Arizona, habiéndose comprobado los valores medidos
para los años 1992 y 1993 en los sitios, debido a que existe·un sistema de extracción de biogás,
incluyendo un medidor de flujo en la mayor parte de ellos.
4
-
--,
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ La_genera,iQn_t_oJal_de_Me_tano del sitio toma en ,_uenta la_masa_de_b_asura_r_e,ibida_anualmente _ _ _ __

a'eptando la misma tasa anual ~n el tiempo de opera,ión del relleno, sin embargo si se ,onocen
las entradas de basura 'on el tiempo puede establecerse un promedio anual y 'on estos valores:
variando anualmente, 'orrer el modelo.
El modelo es 'omo sigue
Q = Lo R ( exp(-kc) • exp(-kt))
Donde:
Q Tasa de generación de Metano con el tiempo. m'iaño.

Lo = Capacidad potenc1al de la basura de generar Metano, m'il\lg. ,
R = Tasa de a'epta,ión promedio de basura durante la vida activa del relleno, Mg/año.
k = Tasa de generación de Metano se supone 'onstante, 1/año.
e = Tiempo desde la clausura del relleno, año.
-~
1
= Tiempo desde el iryicio de co!o,ación de la basura en el relleno, año.
Note que_l .Mg = 1,000,000 gramos = 1 tonelada métri,a.
En la formula,ión no se ha incluido ningun termino de vida media o po"entaje de desechos

rápida. o moderadamente putre,ibles, pero es evidente que los valores de Lo y k los toman en
cuenta.
El modelo acepta un tiempo de retraso durante el 'ual las condiciones anaeróbicas ~e estable,en,
para climas semi·iridos con baja precipitación y alta evaporación puede aceptarse 1 año como
tiempo de retraso, para las condiciones de otros climas, no incluidos los Aridos, con alta
precipitación, alta temperatura y 'ualquier condición de evapora,ión; este tiempo tal vez no deba
'oncederse.
t
En su obliga~ión EPA indica que en ausencia de información usar 230 m/Mg para Lo y 0.02
5
..
!/año para k, sin embargo los últimos valores recomendados por EPA son:
Climas Semt·Aridos Otros Climas
Lo 90 m 1/Mg 175 m 1/Mg

k 0.05 !/año 0.05 !/año
Debe hacerse notar que el biogás generado es el doble del obte-nido mediante la fórmula anterior,
ya que se acepta que el Metano y Btóx1do de Carbono se encuentran en parte iguales.
Aplicación de Resultados
Para esta aplicación se eligió un relleno sanitario en operación desde 1978 y que recibe basura
en la actualidad: pero se espera clausurarlo al fin de 1994, con duración desde su inicio de 17
años recibiendo un promedio de 1,400 toneladas de basura por día durante este tiempo.
En las tablas y gráficas anexas simulando para dos s1tios localizados uno en clima semi-árido y
el otro en clima distinto ~in ser árido, la misma cantidad de basura recibida, se pueden apreciar
los resultados del modelo para predecir la cantidad de biogás generado y la tasa de producción
variando con el tiempo.
En 1984 ocurre la máxima generación de biogás, la tasa de producción se incrementa muy

rápidamente al printipio y disminuye con el tiempo, alcanzando su valor máximo en los arios 7
y 8.
Se sugiere aplitar este modelo al medio mexicano siguiendo algunos criterios tomo los
siguientes:
La composición de la basura mextcana tiene un alto contenido de desperdicios de comida pero

no muy alto contenido de basura de jardín, como es el caso donde este modelo nació.
6
--------:EI-agua-de-lluvia-que-se-infiltra-en-rellenos-mexicanos-clausurados-o-en-operación-es-muy~alta----
debido a que pocos tienen cubierta final o diaria, o la tienen escasa.
No existe en el medio mexicano un periodo de tiempo prolongado de contacto del agua de

deshielo ocasionada por la nieve con la cubierta del relleno.
Si bien los valores del asoleamiento en México son similares a los de Estados Unidos las
temperaturas de invierno son mas benignas y propician la generación de biogas.
Finalmente la publicación de la EPA sugiere la manera de obtener los valores de Lo y k

directamente en el sitio, cosa que podría realizarse en alguno de los rellenos sanitarios
clausurados como San Lorenzo Tezonco o algun otro.
A¡wadecimiento
El autor agradece al M. en l. Jorge Sanchez Gómez la invitación para presentar este articulo en
el Curso Internacional asi como la lectura del mtsmo
i
Refe~ncias
EPA 40 CFR Pans 51,52 and 60. Standards of Performance for New Stationary Sources and
Guidelines for Control of Existing Sources: Municipal Solid Waste Landfills; Proposed Rule,
Guideline and notice of Public Hearing Federal Register May 1991.
Ham R.K. y Barlaz M.A. "Measurement and Prediction of Landfdl Gas Quality and Quantity" ·
ISWA lntemational Symposium, "Process, Technology, and·Environmental Impact of Sanitary
Landfill",ltaly Octuber 1987.
8
- 1
E.STIMACION DE LA PRODUCCIO!'I DE BIOGAS EN UN RELLENO SANITARIO
K-=-0.05.1/a~o- _ __ -- ---- - - - - -
A.~O DESECHOS DESECHOS t BIOGAS TASA DE

SOLIDOS ACUIL'LAD.
'
&!los &!los GESER.>JlO PRODlT.
ton&l\o Ton. m 1 i~o m 1,ton-&s\o
1971 •43,877 43,877 o o O.OOE..OO 0.00
1979 430,988 474.86~ o 1 2.08E-06 4.39
1980 3~~-84, 830.711 o 2 474[....()6 5.71
1981 123.028 1,3~).739 o 3 8 49[-()6 6.27
1982 687.240 2.040,979 o • 1.33[-Qi 6.,3
1983 708,836 2.749,815 o 1 1.82E-<l2 6 6"
1984 694,088 3.~3.903 o 6 2.30[-07 6.66
J98S 689.009 4.13~.912 o 7 2.7SE-07 6.64
1986 587.724 4,720.636 o 8 J.liE-07 6.~9
1987 616.699 5.337,))5 o 9 3 48[-07 6.S2

1988 577.040 5.914.375 o 10 3.81[•07 . 6.4-1
1989 ~ SO.St9 6.464.944 o lt 4.10[-{}i 6.35
1990 470.410 6.9~ S.354 o 12 4 lJE-07 6.15
\991 49).5}6 7,428.890 o 13 4 57E-07 6.1 ~
1992 ~06.)82 7, 935.:72 o 14 ·4.79[-07 6.04
1993 498.902 8.4H.174 o ll S OIE-07 5.94
1994 :49,4~ 1 8.6~3.6:5 o 16 1 06E·07 !.83
1995 o 8.68).625 1 17 4.82E-07 5.5 5
1996 o 8.683.6:5 2 18 , 4 SRE-07 S.28
199'7 o 8.6!0.62~ 3 19 4.36E·OI ~.o:
1998 o 8.683.6:~ 4 '0 4.1 ~E~"07 4.77

1999 o 8.683.625 ~ 21 3.94E~07 4.54
:zuoo o 8.683.625 6 22 3 i~E-07 ~.32
2001 o 8.683.6:~ 7 23 3.~':'E~Oi 4 11

·:oo: o 8.6~~.6=~ 8 24 3 39E-<l7 3 91
2003 o 8.683.62~ 9 2~ l.2JE-07 3.72
"2004 o 8.683.625 10 26 3.07E~07 3.q
2001 o 8.683.62~ 11 27 2 9lE·07 3.36
2006 o 8.683.625 12 28 2.78E-07 J. 20
2007 o 8.683.6l5 13 29 264E-07 3.04
lOOB o 8.683.621 14 JO 2 IIE-07 2.90
o 8.683.625 2.7S
l009
.~10 o 8.683.621 "
16
31
32
2 39[-07
2.27[ ...0'7 2.62
JI JI o 8.683.621 17 )) l.I6E-<l7 2.49
2Df2 o 8.683.62~ 18 34 l.06E-{17 2.37
lOIJ o 8.683.621 19 H 1.96E·07 2.H
2014 o 8.683.62~ lO 36 1.96E-<l7 2.14
2011 o 8.683.62' 21 37 1.86E·07 2.04

2016 o 8.6~3.62' 22 38 L69E·07 1.94
2017 o 8.683.62~ 23 39 1.60E-07 181
2018 o ll.l-83.6:.< 24 40 l.l2E·07 1 76
9
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E.STIMACION DE LA PRODUCCION DE BlOCAS EN UN Rf.LLL"'O SANITARIO
Lo = 175 m'lton.
K = 0.05 liado
A."<O DESECHOS DESECHOS 1 BIOGAS TASA DE

SOLIDOS ACt:MI:LAD. '
lllo• lllo• GE:<ERADO PRODL'C.
ton'allo Ton. m '·all.o m 1 -1on-~o
1978 43,877 43,877 o o . O.OOE-<JO 0.00
1979 -430,988 474,86~ o 1 4.0~E-o6 8.~3
1980 35~.845 8J0,711 o 2 9.22E-o6 11.10

1981 ~23.0.::8 U~3.7:t9 o J L6~E-o6 12.19
198: 687.140 2.04.0.979 o • 2.59E-il7 12.69
198J 708.8J6 2.749,8!5 o 5 3J~E-o2 12.90
1984 694.088 3,4-13.90) o 6 ·t~E-07 12.96
1985 689.009 4.13.:.912 o 1 5.34[-07 12.92
1986 ~87,7H 4.720.636 o 8 6.05[-07 12.82
1987 616.699 ~.33'.335 o 9 6 77E -{17 12.68
1988 577.040 5.914.375 o 10 7.40[-07 1:.~;
1989 ~ 50.,69 6.4{>4,9-U o 11 i.9SE-07 1:.:t4

1990 470.410 6.9),,354 o 12 8.42[-07 1:. 1'
1991 493.~36 7.4:8.890 o 13 8 88E-Oi 11.95
199: 506.382 7.935.:72 o 14 9.J:E-Oi 11.75
1993 498.90: 8.4)4.174 o 15 9 73E·Oi !U4
!99..; :4)_4~ 1 !!.583.6:5 o 16 9 ll.tE-07 11.34
199~ o 8.683.625 1 17 9.36[-07 \0.78
1996 o 8.6~:'1.6;.!- 2 11 8.9JE-07 10.:6
l99i o 8.68:'1.61~ J 19 8 47E-07 9.76
1998 o 8.68}.6:~
• 20 8.06E·07 9.28
!999 e 8.683.6:~ l 21 7.67[-07 8 8J
2000 o 8.68:t.6:~ 6 22 7.29E-07 8.40
100\ o 8.683.6:~ 7 2J 6.9~E-Oi i.99
1uv: o 8.6~3.6:~ 8 l4 6.60E-07 7.60
:oo3 o 8.6!0.6:~ 9 =~ 6.28E-07 7.:3
200~ o s.6n.6:~ 10 26 5.97E-Oi 6 88
200~ o 8.683.6:5 11 27 5.68[-07 6.54
:oo6 o 8.683.625 12 28 $ 40E-Oi 6.22
2007 o 8.683.6:' D 29 5.14E-Oi 3.92
200R o 8.61).625 14 JO 4.89E-07 5.6J
2009 o 1.683.62~ 15 JI 4.65E-Oi 5.J6
2(\10 o · 8.6R3.625 16 J2 4 4ZE-Oi 5.09
2(111 o 8.68J.62l 11 Jl 4.21 E-il7 4.85
2(\12 o 8.683.62~ 18 H 4.00E·07 4.61
20!3 o 8.61J.62l 19 J5 J.IIE-il7 4.JI
2014 o 8.683.62~ 20 J6 3.62E•07 4.17
201 ~ o 8.683.62~ 21 J7 J.45E-07 J.97
2016 o 8.683.6:~ 22 38 J 28E-il7 J77

2017 o 8.683.6:' 2J J9 3.12E-D7 3.59
20!8 o 8.6~3.62' 24 40 2.97E-Oi ).41
12
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CCRSO [\TER\ACIO\AL SOBRE DISE\0 Y

. DISPOSICIO\ FI\AL DE RESIDVOS SOLIDOS
( RELLE\OS SA\ITARIOS)
\1.-\:\E.JO Y CO:\TROL DE Ll\InADOS

'"
1 1'
)
Dr. Rafaello Cossu

.
·1
'
1.
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1·
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Interna tional Sol id Waste Associa tion
(ISWA)
PAL~CIO DE '!1\EP.IA. 'IEXICO D.F. 14-19 de 'larzo de 1994

-------~!i----
1,
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CCRSO E\TER\"ACIO\"AL SOBRE DISE\"0 Y ,,1!
'
DISPOSICIO\" FI\"AL DE RESIDCOS SOLIDOS
( RELLE\"OS SA\"ITARIOS)
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PROTECCIO): DEL AG L\ Sl.BTERRA):L-\ ¡i
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Dr. Dik Beker
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International Solid Waste Association !:
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'
PAL\CIO DE \11:-;ERIA. \IEXICO D F. 14-19 de \!ario de !994 "

1:
1
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FACULTAD DE INGENIERIA U.N.A.M.

C U R S O S ABIERTOS
CURSO INTERNACIONAL DE DISEÑO Y DISPOSICION FINAL DE RESIDUOS SOLIDOS

DISEÑO DE RELLENO SANITARIO

(APUNTES COMPLEMENTARIOS)
ING. FELIPE LOPEZ
MARZO DE 1994.
Palacio de Mineria Calle de Tacuba 5 Primer piso Deleg. Cuauhtémoc 06000 México, D.F. APDO. Postal M-2285
Teléfonos: 512-8955 512-5121 521-7335 521-1987 Fax 510-0573 521·4020AL26
FRENTE DE TRABAJO
DEFINICION: El frente de trabajo es el espacio destinado a la recepción de desechos

mediante distintos ven ículos en el sitio de disposición final.
Su dimensionamiento debe considerar:
El espacio necesario para las maniobras de los vehículos.

El espacio necesario para el acamellonamiento del material de cubierta
(dependiendo del método de operación).
Las dimensiones de la celda diaria. 1, [
• Cc.~oeo.t"-'o ~¡""u 11-ó"eo. .la ue.~'l,) 0
\
La longitud del frente de trabajo se calcula como:
n
L=a
t
donde:
L : longitud del frente (m)

a : ancho necesario por vehículo (m)
n : número de vehículos llegando en la hora pico
t: tiempo necesario para maniobras y descarga
El dimensionamiento del frente debe responder a los sigujentes requerimientos:
a) Permitir el movimiento de la maquinaria que cubre desde arriba los desechos con
tierra (se recomienda no disminuir por debajo de 10m, aproximadamente el ancho
de dos bulldozers).
b) Permitir la descarga simultánea de vehículos en la hora pico para evitar

encolamientos.
DISEÑO DEL RELLENO SANITARIO
Selección del Método de Operación

Diseño del Frente de Trabajo
Diseño de la Celda Diaria
Necesidades de Material de Cobertura
Diseño Detallado
Proyección de la Generación de los Residuos Sólidos
Dimensionamiento de la Celda Diaria
Requerimientos Volumétricos del Relleno Sanitario
Cálculo de la Capacidad Volumétrica del Sitio
Cálculo de la Vida Util del Sitio
Calendarización del Relleno Sanitario
Curva Altura-Volumen
Superficie Final
Nivel de Desplante
Diseño de Interfase, Análisis de Contaminación, del Suelo y Acuíferos
Impermeabilización
Generación y Control de Biogás
Generación y Control de Lixiviado
Drenajes Pluviales
Obras Complementarias
Caminos Exteriores e Interiores
Cerca Perimetral y Caseta de Vigilancia
Báscula y Caseta de Pesaje
Cobertizo y Taller de Mantenimiento
Señalamientos
Oficinas y Areas de Servicios
l
---------CEI,;DA·-OIARIA--------
DEFINICION: Es la unidad de depositación que cada día se generará en un mismo

frente de trabajo y' misma que debe cubrirse con materi~l adecuado al
caso.
El dimensionamiento de la celda diaria partirá de:

El volumen crítico de residuos recibidos al día en el sitio.
El frente de trabajo necesario.
El peso volumétrico de los desechos, considerando la compactación que reciban
por la maquinaria existente.
La altura que operacionalmente se pueda alcanzar.
Las dimensiones de la celda diaria se pueden expresar como:
V peso total de residuos recibidos

D = - - +e con V=------------
)
Lh peso volumétrico
donde:
_~,·
.··
D : desarrollo de la celda (m)

·V : volumen de recepción de residuos al día (m 3 )
h : altura de la celda (m)
L : longitud del frente de trabajo (m)
e : espesor de la cobertura diaria (usualmente 20 cm.)
Adicionamente debe calcularse el volumen de tierra necesario para la cobertura,

considerando para esto:
a) la geometría de la celda
b) los taludes a emplear
e) el espesor de la cubierta
FflENlE DE TRABAJO y CELDA DIARIA
---=-._
}-
e 1
lll·:o;F.CIIOS
.'
a
·/
-------- --Cobertura-Diaria-----
La finalidad de la cobertura diaria es evitar los impactos causados por:
La proliferación de fauna nociva
La dispersión de basura ligera por el viento
Los malos olores
La infiltración de agua pluvial
Presencia de biogás y riesgo de incendios
• t ~t~ti c.q .
El tipo de material a emplear (arcilloso o granular) se propondrá de acuerdo a la función

de control de impactantes que tenga mayor jerarquía.
El espesor de la cubierta diaria suele considerarse entre 15 y 25 cm, haciéndose mayor

en zonas en las que no se operará por más de un mes (unos 30 cm.). La cobertura final
del relleno suele llegar a un espesor de 60 cm.
La relación entre el volumen de material de cubierta y el volumen de residuos varía entre

el 1O % y 25 %, siendo menor a mayor altura de la celda, aunque esta altura debe
mantenerse dentro del rango de eficiencia operativa.
ea 0-2
S. O
L• zo.o
\0 X 1Q.O X.20 • 1,000 m'
Vol. cut:ieiQ flllllntal 0.2(15.11)(20.0). 83.2 m'

Vol. c:ut:Jiet1a lateral 0.2(1Q.OO)( 5.0) • 50.0 m'
Vol. c:utlierta supenor 0.2(1 0.00)(20.0) • 40.0 m'
153.2 m'
153.2
% • - - - • 100 • 15.3
1000
::JO X 25.0 X 20 • 1,000 m'

.Vol. aberta frontal 0.2('8.32)(20.0) • 25.3 m'
Vol. cubierta lateral 02{25.0)( 2.0) • . 50.0 m'
Vol. a~bierta superior 0.2(25.00)(20.0) • 100.0 m'
175.3 m'
175.3
"' . 1000
6
V, = (Ved X V.U.) + C
Donde:
V, : Volumen total de cobertura

Ved : Volumen de cubierta de la celda diaria
v.u : Vida útil del relleno (dias hábiles)
C: Volumen de la cobertura final
La obtención del material de cubierta es un aspecto fundamental de la operación de un

relleno. Algunas fuentes son:
a) Compensación con excavaciones in-situ

b) Despalme de la superficie del terreno
e) Cortes en laderas de algún cerro colindante
d) Acarreo desde bancos de material
e) Uso de escombro u otros residuos de construcción.
VIDA UTIL
Altimetría y planimetría del sitio con el objeto de· encontrar el

volumen disponible.
Proyección de población para años futuros.
Generación pér-capita en Kg/hab-día (incluyendo los residuos de

origen no domiciliario). Y considerando un incremento del 1%
anual en el valor de ésta generación.
Peso volumetrico alcanzado por los residuos sólidos en un relleno

sanitario (750 - 900 kg/m 3).
Material de cubierta depende de la altura de la celda diaria.

-·
~r.~.~. r~r:.r!r;ur~ l;r.
/•L~-~¡,c.rur.r.•.ltUTO (
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CAI.l\NO A TU N EL
. - -----~~-
CAMINODE ACCE,SO
ACELDA 4
CARCAMO, PISO E .J
·--.. 1 1
·-~-1 -1
IMPER M E ABILIZACION MINO OEACCESO
ELO~ 1
«::_p,o 11_'---~=·-""-'
;--e~
T• ~ DA
D~ACCESO
1[__
2 ___
(
DISEÑO DEL RELLENO
Proyección de la Generación de los Residuos Sólidos
- Dimensionamiento de la Celda diaria
- Requerimientos Volumétricos del Relleno Sanitario
- Cálculo de la Capacidad Volumétrica del Sitio
- Cálculo de la Vida Util del Sitio
- Calendarización del Relleno Sanitario
,,
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - --------
--- -~-
u:: Ptm.!.."'(J Glm.\..'1::1 ~CI 11 lA Glm.\cr:JI (2)

z:p·. PER·::A?::t\ DrAil.\ m.;..u A.r..Al.
(1) PArlA!. wtrlAOO
1992 219lCII 1 2194.C44 65821.32 ltC!lé.1 8CC826.1
1993 2222105 l.Cl 22«.326 67329.78 s:sm 1620005
1994 2251C25 1.02C1 2296.271 68888.12 83all8.8 2458144
1995 mcm 1.Dlll3C1 2349.975 70499.26 157741 lll5885
1996 23ll691 l.OlC604 2405.555 72166.65 878C27.6 4193912
1997 2343583 1.051Cl 24!3.129 73193.88 899C42.1 5092955
1998 2l76!ll 1.06152 2522.823 75684.68 92CSJC.2 6013785
1999 2410868 1.072135 25SI.m 7754).31 943413.6 ~957228
20JJ 2146ll8 1.012m 264!.142 79174.26 %6936.8 7924165
I!JTAS:
12:: va: ores en tooela~.
/1
,,
l. -DIJI:IS¡ii.!I:DTO D! lA Clllll Dw.:A
uo GIII!RACitl DIARIA DIS!IIK) Dl 1.1 C!:ll.llliARIA (2) l),tWJ.S

11 IIASiiA {1) ww. mm rti:X: w. !!lUL P!l
111 f.JIS. 11113. +. + -Pl- ..¡;. {J) l!l:TAW(I)
1992 2194.011 1194.041 2.85 54 15.00 J U.98971
1993 2241.326 2241.326 2.85 5C 15.74966 l 12.69869
1994 22%.27: 2296.271 2.85 511 16.11418 J 12.Ul0
1995 2319.975 2319.975 2.85 5C 16.19106 J 12.1m9
1996 2405.555 2405.555 2.15 5D 16.88109 J u.ama
1997 2463.129 2463.129 2.85 5C 17.28512 3 U.57065
1998 2522.823 2522.123 2.85 5D 17.70402 J U.29617
1999 2511. m 2514. m 2.85 5C 18.13179 l 11.0261
2000 ~9.112 2649.142 2.85 5D 18.59017 l 10.75&2
. JO'!AS:
{J): Ilduye tinto a b alllln de b celda {D),cm~ al~ de b albiert.a lliMil de tiem {El).
(1): Este • • de celllas,es por cada e~pa de rella saaiario.
1¿
w vo:.. I!P.I:. SIJP. D. 1U.. DIARIO VIL. 'II7T& ~ ~~ .III!1:.!S (1)
11: a:LlA 11: a:LlA w. am. 11: cn.:JA IIAS!iA w. 11: OJI!m(4) DA
-V!- (!) -A· (2) -Vl- (I)IJ) -v- (1) PAr;.AL J.::'JI'J.; PAr;.AL A.'ZI.. P.lr';.AL .ICXI. •
1992 2194.0« 769.84 m.m1 2372.034 IQD826.1 ~826.1 64966.37 64966.37 165792.4 165792.1
1993 2211.326 787.1828 18&.9738 lll5.3 119179 162C005 66055.13 131C21.8 885234.1 1751027
1994 2296.271 &n5. 709 114.0562 2180.327 ll8138.1 21581!1 msu l912tl2.3 905319.2 2656346
1995 2349.975 121.5528 187.lll 2537.218 157741 lll5885 68343.7 266546 926&81.7 3582131
1996 2405.555 1«.0511 190.5411 2596.096 171n27 ·' ll9l9U 69547.5 336093.5 917575 1530006
1997 2163.129 86!.2559 193.9575 2657.087 199C42.1 5092955 70791.5 106888 969836.6 519980
1998 2522.823 &a5.m9 197.1997 2720.322 920&30.2 6013785 72!187 .1 178975.1 992917.6 6192760
1999 2581.m 906.9392 201.1761 2785.953 913113.6 6957228 73129.26 552104.6 1016873 7509633
20011 ~9.142 929.5235 204.9955 2154.137 96693é.l 7924165 74823.35 627228 1011760 (mm
10'1.\S:
(1): Valores en ll.
(2): Valores 1!1112.
(3): La ccller';ura de la ce! da iliaria, ill::liild las sig¡;il!lltes e!!!ll!lltas:

- l'alu:l iD::linado del fr~.! de tnbajo.
- Piso S'.:perior de la celda (superficie S'.:per:or tmioa:la).
-Costado de!eclxl de la celda,respecto al ataque del freute de trabajo. El.otro IXIStadc, quedará illpli-
cit.De:te Cllllierto al ejecutar el relleno sanitario en fana adeala:la, siguie!ldo ellll!tado operativo
selec:::ooa:!o.
(4): Debe caasilleruse liD i.D::r!!II!II:O l!lllas reqJer:.ail!lt.os de uterialde Clbiert.a, delll, por !la. y por
capa del relleno, para la Cilbeitan de las talllles.
Ccnside:ese ad!lás an !Olae:: ~ de 4C5CC ll. de 11terial de cubierta, pa:a la aile:'az:a o sello
final del relleno. 1st.a albierta se 1 ; J 1 1 p•, lplictM &Olo m las su-
perficies IIDrizontales de c!icbo relleno, basta alcanzar an espesor ¡rtE!jo de: .15 •·
.d
l.· CAU!"J) D! lA CAPACit.\t ~CA D!: SITIO.
PARA m:m.
cr:r.A C! lk. .llCA SCF~ICLI:. VO~!J~. (1)
IID'I.."l:JI PROJIDIO Df~ DLS?. 1! BI.SIJA
(llli.) (Kl.) PAR::AI. ~. PAR::Al m::t.
2131 SIJGO o.o 0.0 51330 51300
2m 51900 0.0 0.0 51900 109200
2433 55500 0.0 0.0 55500 161700
2134 56:~0 0.0 0.0 56100 mm
2135· 56700 0.0 0.0 56 m m5oo
2m 5730) 0.0 0.0 57300 ll!Sll
2137 smo o.o 0.0 57900 392700
213! 5850J 0.0 0.0 585JO 15:2JJ
2m 59100 0.0 0.0 59100 510300
2110 5mo 0.0 0.0 5l750 57005) .
2441 60100 0.0 o. o 60400 630150
2112 61000 0.0 0.0 61000 69:150
214l 61600 0.0 0.0 61600 753050
2111 62350 0.0 0.0 62350 . mm
2445 62900 o. o 0.0 629~ amo o
2116 63350 0.0 0.0 63350 H;650
2117 61300 0.0 0.0 imO 111115650
2118 61600 0.0 0.0 616~ 1070250
2119 65200 o.o 0.0 6.5200 Ul5150
2150 65800 •• u '. o.o: ·¡sm · uo~
liTAS:
(1): L2i w!UJeoes de la tabla, tieaea aiiD lllite superior 111 el sitio, l.J Clii'II de llivel illllicada.
livel de Desflan':e, prqlii'Sto pm el rell1110 sanitario 111 la etapa p se wlia : mo Jts.

Elev. de piso ll!lXIr, pm esta etapa: ZIJO Jts.
llev. de piso uygr, pm !'Sta etapa: 2150 ¡+,.s,
l:fiidistancia e!ltre cams de llivel: 11m.
¡4
5. -o.:.n-.1i r: J. w. r:r: t::. sno
PW. m::m.
t~.l.Ntl. \'O:.l'F.IJO. FA.'J. CISF<ll:.1 'J. ::I.Sl'?.A *' o:;:::o \'O:.lnJO. t::. Sr:IO FA.'lA I.\ t!SFOSICI'* t: 'J.S illl'?.I.S
A.~o ro:J.C:os iL>(J:::::OC!l.-:os l'll:.JCiaJS ::¡ *' .,. :nc:ox D.FA A.<:.A m. o:::.<:Jo. vo:.ll""ICA r;::. s:::o
j:AB.:.; ~:AG2¡M;.; A.'.IJ1.3(M:.: *' . !1!!2.:12: No. ;: •m:::.u
m; 219~C~~ 2j7i.C3~
P!F.:ill l.."rnl.
8é5712.4 8éi71;.~ ..
*'
2m 1
IY1.)
>!9ee
IY~.)
16l7ee
(Y~.}
IWCC
o'·
1'"'
199;
mm: 2(15.) 8652)~.4 1751027
2251C25 me. Ji7 9C5J19.i lé5él4é .. W6
2~~9
l
J
567J3
5<~e
mm
1755CC
;;~SJJ
51CJCC
1SS5
199E
22ECEEj 2537. ;:s S<!CSU jl(¡~j:
lmE91 l59é.C9é 91'575 me m ... 2~~2
24~5
4
5
60!7.5
mee
¡¡;:¡¡,5
mm
El:~¡¡,;
87!Jé2.5
1117
1918
¡j~J5tj 1E57.CS7 9E9SJU S!IIW
237étl3 znc.n¿ 91191i.é H!iiéC .. a~s E EJS!7.5 !S:I!L.5 :mm
tm
2"1-.~,
ll!JS6S 2755.95) IJI6S7J 75Jl6))
LHIOS ¡::¡,:;¡ 1JC75j s:::;;; ..
f.:! A.::
¡::: l'a:or~ p :n::;yen :an:o a: !l.l:er:a: :le :.;;:er:a, :o:o a :os res::tos só::jos,
12:: La eleva:k:. ::orresp:de e:: el si:io, alliai:e superior :le la~ L-,ji;¿j¡ e:. la :atla.
La ca:.ticac tctal ce basu:a y 1ate:ill ce cuhie."U que ¡x¡eee ~ecibi: el sitie e:: esta etJ¡¡a, se~á de: IC7Cll5 ml.
:.a cantidE teta: de bas~a gene:ada ent::e: :m y iOCC , la c;a: debe:-i se: C.:sp;esta mda::a:ente,
L1:lu¡do al11.:erial :le cutier..a, ser. :le: smm al.
'
/S
é.· CI.:..~•.'Ui.ACI'* C::. :E.!IIO 5.\ll::mo.
?W rlí.::lli.\
ANO CAF!. le . c:::.u.s >o:.. t: :..1 e:::.u. :::.?iACICII

lo. DI.!W..; DUW.{~2.) (P!S.)
19Sl 1 62 z,z5. J Wl
1m l 70 2m.~ W6
1913 ) 61 2~25. J ¡m
19l4 :1 l!SU27 209
199~ ! 7) WC.J27 2~~2
1114 5 15 mc.m l44)
19S~ 6 77 me. m 24~t
K:i'l.\2:
Neces::.s l;.:s:ar o:n s:::o por¡ isponer: 6W555 :J. :le bas.;r¡, q~e serán :¡ener¡j05 en:re: :m y2lll
1~
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YOLL'\IE'>' DE DESECHOS (\IETROS Cl'BICOS)

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ij
MECANISMO DE CONTAMINACION DEL SUELO
ADVECCION
DISPERSION
DIFUSION MOLECULAR
INTERACCION HIDROQUIMICA
ADVECCION
Transferecia de contaminantes con la misma velocidad y dirección con que

se mueve el agua que los transporta. Es el principal macanismo de tal
manera que si se eliminan los otras procesos, el módelo casi no se altera.
La advección por el flujo de agua subterranea tiene un rango:
10·• cm/seg. ,;; V ,;; 10· 1 cm/seg.
DISPERSION
Fenómeno de aspersado causado por las variaciones de velocidad.
La dispersión es función de la acción mecánica.
,, .
ACCION MECANICA
El hecho de que el fluido es viscoso implica una velocidad

nula sobre la superficie sólida, creando un gradiente de
velocidad en la fase líquida de los tubos capilares.
-
ze,w»»»»»>
Las variaciones de las dimensiones de los poros crean

discrepancia entre las velocidades a lo largo de los ejes
de los poros.
Las lineas de corriente fluctuan con respecto a la

dirección media del flujo.
DIFUSION MOLECULAR
nene validez (aplicabilidad) cuando la velocidad del agua subterránea es

casi nula.
Está regida por la 1a. Ley de FICK
de
F= - Dm
dx
La masa de contaminantes difundido, que poso por uno sección transversal,
dado por unidad de tiempo, es proporcional al gradiente de concentración
del contaminante.
INTERACCION HIDROQUIMICA
Entre el fluido y el suelo o veces ocurren procesos importantes que

cambiarán lo calidad del agua subterranea por·los constituyentes químicos
disueltos.
--- ----- =======
MECANISMO DE ATENUACION DE LA CONTAMINACION DEL SUELO
FILTRACION
ABSORCION
ADSORCION
ACCION BACTERIOLOGICA
FILTRACION
~ '-' pe R.f' C.:1 ~

La capa de suelo que existe entre la tr ' k E 1 y el nivel de
aguas freáticas actúa como un filtro natural. Los sólidos orgánicos retenidos
son estabilizados por la acción bacteriana. y los inorgánicos pueden cambiar
sus características por acción química.
Limitante: sólo retiene partículas suspendidas dependiendo de la porosidad

del suelo.
ABSORCION
Este mecanismo funciona reteniendo la humedad y varios elementos

contenidos en el lixiviado. el tiempo suficiente para que un proceso químico
y /o bacteriológico se presente.
MECANISMO DE ATENUACION DE LA CONTAMINACION DEL SUELO
(Continuación)
ADSORCION
Ocurre cuando una molécula cargada (ión) del lixiviado pasa sobre una
partícula de suelo que contiene una carga contraria, a la cual se adhiere.
Un suelo teniendo una buena característica de intercambio catiónico, tiene

un gran potencial de retención de los contaminantes presentes en el
lixiviado.
ACCION BACTERIOLOGICA
Básicamente la acción bacteriológica actúa acompañada de los

mecanismos antes descritos, cuando se presenta material orgánico.
(y~ -
.2.1.
EJEMPLO:
Determinar la cantidad de suelo necesario para intercambiar los cationes de

15m3 de líquido percolado. si el peso volumetrico del suelo es de 1.800 Kg/m 3
y su capacidad de intercambio cationico CIC es de 25 meq. por 100 grs. La
composición del líquido percolado es la siguiente:
\y) -·-.-·
~
ca++ = 800 mg/Lt.

Mg•• = 1,000 mg/Lt.
Na• = 150 mg/Lt.
Fe·· = 60 mg/Lt.
zn•• = 600 mg/Lt.
1er. PASO CALCULO DE LA CONC. CATIONICA
Catión Cene. mg/Q PEquiv. Cene. meq/QI

(P.A/valeneia)
Ca ... 800 20 mg/Q 40.00.

Mg++ 1.000 12.15 82.30
Na• 150 23.00 6.50
Fe++ 60 28.00 2.14
Zn ..... 600 32.60 18.64
149.58-150 meq./Q
.tJ
. ... "
2o. PASO GRAMOS DE SUELO REQUERIDOS/L T DE LIXIVIADOS
150 meq/f 15,000 gr suelo

= =
25 meq/100 gr. suelo 25 f de lix
= 600 grs. de suelo/ft de lixiviado

= 600 Kg. de suelo/m 3 de lixiviado
3o. PASO M' DE SUELO NECESARIO
600 Kg. de suelo/m 3 de lixiviados

=
1,800 Kg/m 3 de suelo
= 0.33 m 3 de suelo/m 3 de lixiviado
Finalmente para remover la carga cationica contenida en los 15 m 3 descargados

~ :·
al suelo requerimos:
.. .. m 3 de suelo
= 0.33 - - - - - - - - x 15 m 3 de lixiviados
m 3 de lixiviado
= 4.9 m 3 de suelo-5m 3 de suelo

;,· 1'1-t...,.....
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.. ' ..
.'• ,
., ..
~.~.-~~~lisis de la Co~ta=i~aci6n ¿el S~cla ?Or Carga Cati6~ica.
Este a~ilisis, se realizará em?leando la slguiente formulaci6n:
1 e i (2.2,1)
CIC{PV)
Dorde:
C = 411 ceq/1., que es la concentración catiónica del lixiviado.
CIC = Capacidad de inter:cambio catiónico de- suelo, en meq/lOOgr. de t>ate-:.\~:.

rial.
PV = Peso Volumétrico del Suelo (kg/m 3 )
i - Humedad lixiviable de los residuos sólidos, en m/m2 - año.
I - Interfase de suelo requerida para atenuar la contaainación por

catiónica, en mts •
2.3.- Análisis de la Contaminación del s~~lo por Carga Orgánica.

.
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CURSOS ABIERTOS
------CURSO-'INTERNACIONAL-DE-DISPOSIGION-FINAL-DE-RESIDUOS-SObiDOS-----
. (REIIENOS-SANITARIOS)· ... -,
., Del 14 al 18 de Marzo de 1994. .. · , ... ~ ~ ~
DIRECTORIO DE ASISTENTE~,.": ..
l.- Acevedo. Márque·z Salvador 2.- Aguilar Ugarte García Jorge

Profesor Catedrático
EN EP, Acatlán Facultad de Ingeniería
Av. Alcanfores y Camino·a San Ciudad Universitaria .
Juan Totoltepec s/n México, D.F ..
Santa Cruz Acatlán . c.,..·'
Naucalpan de Juárez, Edo. de Méx.
Tel. 623 17 68
3.- Amaro Gutiérrez José Luis 4.- Alderete González Félix Antonio
Coordinador Jefe de Departamento
Control de Calidad y Mediciones, Caja Mantenimiento y Operación
S.A. de C.V. S.A; de C. V. · .
Porfirio Díaz '29 Com., conoCido Bahias de Huatulco, Oax.
Noche Buena Sector R.
Del. ·Benito Juárez A.P. 10 C.P. 70989.
México, D.F. Tel. 70200, 70004
Tel. 639 39 87
Anzures Rosas Francisco 6.- · Arcos Serrano Hermenegildo

Auxiliar Técnico Pr.ofesor
Comisión Fed. de Eléctricidad ENEP. Acatlán
J. M. l·zazaga 89 piso 4 Sala 404 Alcanfores y Totoltepec s/n
Centro · Santa Cruz Acatlán
Del Cuauhtémoc Naucalpan de Juárez, Edo. de Mllxico.
México, D.F. Tel. 623 17 68
Tel. 229 48 00
7.- Arenas Martínez Marco Antonio 8.- Arenas Ross Martín Armando
Jefe de la Unidad Deptal. de Obras Consultor ...
Dir. Gral. de Servs. Urbanos Santalo Estudios y Proyectos,S.A.C.'\7.
Prolongación San Antonio 423 Av. Félix Cuevas 920
Col. Carola Col. del Valle
Del. Alvaro Obregón 03100 México, D.F.
Tel. 516 13 30 Tel. 605 98 14
9.- Arce Bravo Enrique Joaquín 10.- Avila Martínez Germán ,

Coord. de Trat. de Residuos Sólidos Presidente de Proyecto·
Departamento del Distrito Federal Com. Federal de Eléctricidad
Canal de Apatlaco 502 Profa. Julieta Buchanan 5185
Col. [apata Vela Col. Los Colorines
0850 México, D.F. 32380 Cd. Juárez, Chihuahua
Tel. 657 25 62 Tel. 16 46 84
11 • - Barrios Sánchez Luis Angel 12.- Beltrán Barran Maricela

Profesor Asesor
Univ. Autónoma del Edo. de México Secretaría de Desarrollo Social
Colón esq. con Paseo Tollocan Constituyentes 947
Col. Paseo Colón, Dom. Conocido Del. Miguel Hidalgo
Tel. 17 4l 20' 17 38 90 Tel. 2711256
2
13.- Cardoso Vigueos Lina María 14.- Castellanos Lechuga Rodolfo Martrn
Especialista en Hidraúlí'Ca Jefe de la Unidad Deptal. de Tratamien
lnst. Mex. de Tecnología del Agua y Disposición Final
Paseo Cuauhnahuac 8532 Departamento del Distrito Federal
Col. Progreso , ." Av. 606 Esq. 661 s/n
62550 Jiutepec, Morelos Col. San Juan de Aragón
Tel. 19 43 66 Gustavo A. Madero, México/ D.F.
Tel. 796 27 11 Ext. 25 ·· ,· ·
15.- Chisten Grada J:~sé. A •.. 16.- Cruz Orozco Mario Horacio
Coordinador de proyectos, Jefe del Depto. de Areas Verdes·
1CA Fenor Daniel, S. de R. L. H. Ayuntamiento de Colima ·'
Av. Miguel Alemán 81 ··· Torres Quintero 85
Col. Tacubaya ·:_¡ 28000 Colima, Colima
08100 México, D.F. Tel. 4 12 88
Tel. 272 99 91
17.- Chanes Reynoso Griselda 18.- Cherr _Pachtner Tom's

--. ~
Bióloga de la Comisión de Ecología Director
Presidencia Mpal. Tonalá, Jalisco Empresa de Higiene Urbana
Hidalgo 21, Tonalá, Jalisco Mar del Plata ·
Tel. 683 00 47 7600 Buenos Aires,: Argen~i~a
Tel. 51 06 56 .. · '· · ·'·
19.- Hermonio Cordero Hernández 20.- Cordero Hernández Edmundo

Sobcoordinador de Disposición :Final Sibdirector de Programas Especiales
PROCESA, Ingeniería y Ecología Secretaría de Gobernación ·>
Rancho Seco .1-27 Abraham· Gonzáléz 48 Piso 2
Col. Santa Cecilia Col. Juárez
Del. Coyoacan, México, DF. Del. Cuauhtémoc, México, 'D.F."·
Tel. 671 68 13 Tel. 566 81 88/2171
21.- De la Vega Robledo Francisco A. 22.- DiJe k Askenazi Alicia

Subdirector.-de Area Paseo de Tamarindos 105-16
Col. Bosques de las Lomas .....
,¡ 1.;'
Dir. Gral. de Servicios Urbanos,D.F.
.·¡\
Prolongación San Antonio 423
:. '
11700 México, D.F.
'\
Col. Carola Tel. 259 55 28
Del. Alvaro Obregón, México, D.F.
Tel. 515 03 08
i:,
23.- Durón Pérez Miguel Francisco 24.- Eguiarte Terreros Arturo E.

'¡. ·J
.. ,. ' '.1 "" Gerente Técnico ...·.
Enzimas Internacionales
Av. Revolución 2042 - 206: '· •r.:· ..-·
Col. San Angel
Del. Alvaro Obregón, México, 'D~-F.
Tel. 550 11 o1, 550 13 12
25.- Escanero Muñoz Francisco Figueroa Garda Oswaldo

Asesor Gerente de Operaciones
Proyectos y Construcciones Sur,S.A.C.V. Empresa Metropolitana de
Portocarrero .40 Briceño 605 J. •'
Frac. Reforma Quito, Ecuador

Veracruz, Veracruz. Tel. 58 34 14
3
• 7, 1
Flores Valenzuela Víctor M. 28.- Gabrie.l .Airiia Raymundo

Subdirector de lnst. y Manto. de Jefe de Area
Sis,temAs de Trat. y Manejo de Res. Sol. Dir. Gral..,de'Serv. Urbanos.
Dir. Gral. de Servs. Urbanos Av. Río Churl.ihusco' 1155
Av. Río Churubusco 1155 Col. Zapata Vola
Col. "la.Pata Vela 08oqo México, D.F. ~ ,_i
08oqo México, D.F. Tel. 650. 6q qo
29.- García Gutiérrez Alfonso 30.- Gargori Garzón Augusto

Profesor Gerente División Medio Ambiente
Facultad de Ingeniería, Estudios de Cía. 1nspetC:íéin 'MÉixicana
Posgrado · Ejército Nacional 80
Ciudad Universitaria Col. Anzures
oq510 México, D.F.
Tel. 622 30 02
011590 México, D. F .
Tel. 255 19 22
.. ,
•• - • • .. 1
31.- González González Hermilo Serafín 32.- Ga reía. Rojas· )or9e:.. ·.. ;· ,· '
Jefe de Ofna. de Planes Hidraúlicos Jefe del Depto·. 'de' Estudios· del Suelo ''
Dir. Gral.· de Const. y Op. Hidraúlica Secretaría de Ecología·
Viaducto Río de la Piedad 507 Av. Vicente' Guerrero 203..
Col. Granjas México Col. Morelos
o8qoo México, D.F. · 50120 Toluca, México
Tel. 650 50 26 · ~· Tel. 15 93 64,' 15. 93' 67 · ·,,
1•
. -. .. ,
·n.- González Zertuche Marín 3q.- Guardado Cabrera' Jorge
jere de Unidad Departamental Auxliar de Proyectós'
Dir. Gral. de Servicios Urbanos lnst. Me.xicano del Petróleo·
Av. 661 s/n Eje Cehtral Lazara· Cárdenas Norte 152
Del. Gustavo A. Madero Col. Sn. Bartola Atepéhuacan
México·•. D.F. 07730 México, D.F . .
Tel. 650 03 21 Tel. 368 59 11 Ext. 20216
35.- Gutiérrez Rojas Margarita Consuelo 36.- Heras Herrera Enrique· ..... ·
Jefe dé Unidad Depti11. de Sistemas de Jefe del Depto; de lngeniería-.Sanitaria
Tratamiento Facultad de Ingeniería, UNAM. '.:
Dir. Gral. de Servs. Urbanos Ciudad Universitaria ·
Canal de Apatlaco 502 Qij510 México, D.F. · •. ,. ··
Col. Zapata Vela _:_~-,1:;, ('
Tel. 579 60 77 · " .... ,.,
;~-f" :~:Y:·
37.- Hernández Guerrero Martín 38.- Izquierdo Lara Javier ·'

Supervisor Líder en Proyectos de Desechos Sólidos
Banobras, S.N.C. Dir. Gral. de Servs. Urbanos
Tecoyutitla 100 . Río Churubusco 1155
D~l. .Al~aro Obragón, México, D.F.· Col. Zapata Vela
Tel. 723 60 19 08oqo México, D.F.
Tel. 650 6q 40
39.- J iménez Caber Eduardo José qo.- Juárez Mendaz a D. René ..

Director General Técnico en Materiales Residuales·
Construcciones Y. Diseños de lng.S.A.C.V. Dir. Gral. de Servicios Urbanos
Nadadores 28 Río Churubusco 1155
Col. Country Club Col. Zapata Vela
oq210 México, D.F. 08040 México, D.F. ·. •'
Tel. 689 85 79, 689 5q 73 Tel.· 65q 03 30
4
41.- Justo Tapia Marcelino 42.- Landín Vega Lic. José Román
lngeniero de ProYectos·- Subdelegado de Protección Ambiental
Proceso, ingeniería y ecología,S.A.C.V. Secretaria de Desarrollo Social
Rancho Seco 127 '!·: , Nigromante 84• piso 2 '" J
Col. Santa Cecilia ::;
.. '
:· . · Col. Centro
Del. Coyoacan, ·México, .D:Fi·. e. P. 2a
Tel. 671 68 13 ' · Tel. 22 605 )··
43.- León Estrada Domingo Manuel 44.- López López Anastasia Rogefio
Gerente General · Director de Area
Sist. Mexicanos de Ingeniería, Emp. Priv. Departamento'· del Distrito ·Fede'ral
Edif. 8-A-403 . .. San Antonio 423
\' Col. U. Lindavista Vallejo Col. Carola ' ·
07720 México, D. F, Del. Alvaro Obregón, México, D·.F.
Tel. 368 29 38 Tel. 515 58 65
. '· ,;:_:
45.- López Ríos Seniffn 46.- López Villanueva José Luis

lngenieró ·· Jefe de Proyecto·
Com. Federal de ·Eiéctricidad Sist. Hidraúlicos y Ambientales,· S.A.C.V.
Alejandro Volta 655 .. Cerrada ,de Perpetúa 22
Col. Eléctricistas Col. San José ·Insurgentes ,o·• •
58290 Morelia, Michoácán 03900 México, D.F. . •· :•.

Tel. 15 67 82 Tel. 598 64 98 "'-
47.- Lozano Arredondo Fernando 48.- López Ortega Mauro

Especialista en Hidraúlica
lnst. Mex. de Tecnología del Agua Dir. Gral. de Servs~ Urbanos·····:.-
Paseo Cuauhnahuac 8~32 Rió Churubusco 11 SS
·.Col. Progr,eso . Col. Zapata Vela . ·.,, :. ·
~éxico, D .. F.o México, D.F. ·
Tel. 19 40 00 . - Tel. 650 64 40 '
'.
·' .;: .. ' :--
49;- López Reyes José Luis 50.- Martinez Martinez Ma. de la Luz
Jefe de Departamento de Residuos Jefe de Area
Sólidos y Peligrosos ._. Dir. Técnica de. Desechos Sólidos •
Industrias Unidas, S.A. de C.V. San Antonio Abad 122
Carr. ,Panamericana México-Oro. Km. 109 Col. Tránsito ·~
Mpio. Jocotitlán, Edo. de México 06820 México, D.F. .j' ... -
Tel. 915 502 44 63 Tel. 740 29 98
... ,;:•
51.- Martrnez Rodríguez Eduardo • 52.- Meléndez Juárez Octavio

Jefe de la División de Es tu dios Esp. Investigador
Instituto Méxicano del Petróleo Av. Coyoacan 812 ..
, Eje Central Laza ro Cárdenas 152 Col. Del Valle • ·· .. ,
Col. San Bartolo Atepehuacan 03100 México, D.F.
07730 México, D.F. Tel. 575 75 88 · ·. ·, ·
Tel. ':.67 82 61
. "\
53.-· Mendivil Blanco Mario Alberto 54.- Meléndez Aválos Carlos Eduardo
Director Gerente de Saneal)liento
Const. y Prov .. Para el Serv. Público Alcaldía Municipal de San Salvador
12 Norte No. 1212 Final calle Concepción 188 :.'e
Cholula, Puebla La Garita, San Salvador, El Salvador C.A.
Tel. 32 26 66 Tel. (503) 76 0202 :·•,2
SS.- Millot Pádilla Jesús· Lorenzo 56.- Montenegro Fragoso Manuel

Jefe de Relleno Sanitario Coordinador de Carrera
Ayuntamiento de Cd·. Juárez Universidad Panamericana
Heroico Colegio Miliar y Francisco Villa Av. Circunvalación Pte. 49
Col. Centro Cd. Juárez. Chih·. Tel. 150930 Cd. Granja, Z~popan, Jalisco, Tel. 629 13 3
•
. '
----~-~.!··:--··· .-
--"7-:=- Morales ·tuyda· José-·tuis___ --- ----58~-Moreno-~Casillils ·HectorErnest() ____ ------- ·
· · Consultor Ambiental Especialista en Hidraúlica
Auber y Asociados- r. ,, ,. , Comisión Nacional. del Agua
- . ~-'
Anexágoras · 1028-201 t· Av. Alvaro Obregón 494
Coi.'"'Narvarte · . Othón P..· Blanco;· · · ·
03020 México, D.F .. 1 • ' ' " ' 77050 ChetuniaÍ.
Tel. ~?5. 04 88 .-~ · Tel. 91 983'-2J833
. · - .1
59.- Ochqa Salas Guadalupe':. \";_ 60.- Pantoja 1rys ,Jerjes·
Supervisor Ingeniero Geólógo
Banobras, S.N.<!·.·•• ·.- S.H.B. Agra ~e M~xico, S.A. de C.V.
Tecoyotitla 100 t lngnieros Militares
Del. Alvaro Obregón, México; D.F. Lomas de Sotelo\
Tel. 723 60 19 ·'·· 11200 ,México, D.F.'
Tel. 395 78 29 '••,-;;
4 ·!' ..
-..l'd 1
....
61.- Pedro.z·a. Aguilera Arturo 62.- Pérez Sánchez Luis·.Guillermo
Depto. Técnico Gerente de Proyecto'
Prescavación Geologíca, S. A. C.V. Subterra, S.A. _de: e y.
Km. 4.5 Lateral San Recta A Cholula, Pue. Minesota 5 · :<' ··
Tel. 34 58 66 Col. Nápoles .
03810 México, D.F.
Tel.· 682 58 20 ·
63.- Pérez -Gavi.lan Escalante_, José Pablo 64.- Ramírez Leal Roberto
Dir. Gral. Prevención y. Restauración Profesor-1 nvestigador.
Sria. de Ecología Edo. de México Centro de Est. Sup. del· Edo. de Sonora
Parque Orizaba 1 Ley Federal del Trabajo final s/n
Naucalpan, Edo. de México Col. Apolo
Tel. 576 81 83 Hermosillo, Sonora
,.,,
. uj Tel. 15 25 93
65.- Ri'!ero Estrada Norberto 66.- Rodríguez Mondragón' Blanca Lilia

· Jefe de Area '' Jefe de Area '·
Dir. Técnica de Desechos Sólidos · Dir. Gral. de Servs. Urbanos
San Antonio Abad· 122 Río Churubusco 1155
Col. Centro- Tránsito Col. Zapata Vela
Del. Cuauhtémoc, México, D.F. Del. 1ztacalcci, México, D.F.
Tel. 740 29. 98 Tel. 650 03 90
67.- Romero Sánchez José Luis 68.- Sánchez Franco Eric

·coordinador Coordinador General
Dir. Técnica de Desechos Sólidos Proceso 1ngniería y Ecología
San Antonio Abad 112 Rancho Seco 127
Col. Tránsito Fracc. Santa Cecilia
Tel. 740 29 98 04930 México, D.F.
Tel. 671 68 13
69.- Sa.enz E_Qderica Carlos 70.- Sala zar Suárez Felipe :.

Coord. Control de. la Contaminación Subdirector de Servicios :Públicos
A.T .A. P.A. Presidencia Municipal de Tecoman
Benigno Malo 7-78 Medellin y 20 de Noviembre
Sucre-Cuenca, Ecuador Col. Centro
Tel. 83 19 00 Tecomán, Tel. 40025
•·
71.- Sedano Licona Salomón 72.- Silva Chávez Víctor Manuel
Jefe de Proyectos; Com. Fed. Eléct. Lider en Proy. de Res. Sólidos, Dir.Gral.
Augu·sto Rodín 265,_, Col. Nochebuena Servs. Urbanos, Río Churubusco 1155,
México, D.F., Tel. 563 37 00 Col. Zapata Vela, Tel. 650 64 40
6
.. ;
73.- Siv Chirinos RosúiÓ' 711.- Spinola Grandio Juan Pablo .e

· Especialista en HidraÍIJica ·. Gerencia de Construcción ..
Jnst. Mex. de Tecn<iiogJa
. .
Paseo Cuenáhuec 3532 ·,:c.
,;· ..
.del Agua Const. y Administrador Omega,S.A. C.V.
Av .. Patriotismo 11110-301
Col. Progreso Col. San .·Pedro de los Pinss.
62550 Jiutepec, Morélos 03800 :México, D.F.
Tel. 1911000 Ext. .113~ . Tel. 277 75 35: · · "
75.- Soto Rojas Guiller.rrio·· M. 76.- Yerves Mal donadO' Abar W.

Gerente Director Control y Restauración
Guimar, S.A. C. V;. Secretaría de Ecología
Primo Verdad Mza, 37 ·L '16. C. 69 No. 1137 (53 y 117A)
Col. Jacarandas .. ·.. • · ' Col. Centro
09280 México, D.F.
Tel. 690 28 211 ·
.. 97000 Mérida Yucatán
Tel. 2116507
1.-:
77.- Vi llegas Bello· Osear F.·

Jubilado
Playa Tecocutla 358 . ·,- ..
Col. Reforma 1z.i:.ad::ihuatl
Tel. 633 11·28
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Curso Internacional de Diseño de Disposicion Final de Residuos Solidos

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DIVISION DE EDUCACION CONTINUA

Lunes 111 9;00 a 10;00 h. BiEmvén'ida Órgar\lsmos Coórdi~adores

Latinoámerica 1ng. Francisco Zepeda Porras

12;30 a 111;.00 Legislación Dr. W. Forester

'." ·' : ¡.:

~ - -· ~ !. ' (' ·, d '¡ • • ... • .1 11 . 1. 1 : •. ~'

Viernes 18 9;00'a 10;90 h. Desarrollo Institucional Lic. Jesús Barrera Lozano

.. 12;3.0 a 14.;'oo Impacto y monitonio ambient_al .

EVALUACION DEL PERSONAL DOCENTE

: Dr. Pe ter Lechner .

5 Dr. . Raffaello Cossu ...

e Dr. William S. Forester

~ Dr. · Rainei- Stegmann ' '

10 Dr. León Van Arendonk

11 Mr. -N. e. Vasuki .

12 lng. ' Jorge Sánchez Góméz ..

13 lng. Arturo· Dávila Villarreal

.. - . . ·---. --··· - . ... ....... .....

ESCALA DE EVALUACION : 1 a 10 ,.. ...

EVALUACION DEL PERSONAL ·DOCENTE

Dr. Adrián Ortega '

21 lng. 'Francisco Zepeda Porras

EVALUACION DEL CURSO

2. . CLARIDAD CON QUE SE EXPUSIERON LOS TEMAS

S. CON TI NUI DAD EN LOS TEMAS DEL CURSO

·'' .. .' '·

2.- Medio de comunicación por el que se enteró del curso:

PERIODICO EXCELSIOR PERIODICO NOVEDADES

5.- lRecomendaría- el curso a otras personas?! 1 SI 1 1 NO

6.- iQué periódico lee con mayor frecuencia?

cursos le austaríu que ofreciera la División ele Educación Continua?

8.- La coordinación académica fué: -- ...

- ---·- --~ --- ·-· ..

.. FEGHA DEL CURSO ·

.... __,......,..,...,.,....._, _______________________ ~·------------

1.- Dr. Luis F. Díaz 2.- Dr. Robert K. Ha m

3.- Dr. Pe ter Lechner 4.- Dr. Di k Beker

5.- Dr. Raffaello Cossu 6.- Mr. Henrik Ornebjerg

Dr. lsabelle A. paris 8.- Dr. William S~ Forester

11.- Mr. N.C. Vasuki 12.- 1ng. Jorge Sánchez Gómez

13.- lng. Arturo Dávila Villarreal

19.- 1ng. Gustavo Solorzano Ochoa 20.- Dr. Adrián Ortega

21.- lng. Francisco Zepeda Porras

MANUAL FOR THE DESIGN OF SANITARY LANDFILLS

This manual is selected as the overall text

1. lntroduction ..................................................................................................................... 1·1

2. Sanitary Landfill Fundamentals .................................................................................... 2·1

3. The Landfill Planning Process ...................................................................................... 3-1

4. Site Selection ................................................................................................................... 4-1

5. Sanitary Landfill Technology ........................................................................................ 5-1

elements of a cell are:

• width of working lace

• slope of side walls

• width of daily cover

• height of finished fill

maximum recommended slope is 1:3.

combined methods may have two working faces.

Tabla 5-1. Recommended Cell Widths as a Function of Quantity of Wastes

Quantity of Traxcavator Bulldozer Front-End Loader Minimum Wic

'20-50 <70 <50 <100 up to 4.0 e

130-250 100-130 110-150 120-150 up to 6.5 12

250-500 130-190 150-180 150-190 up to 7.5 1s

? be constructed on top of the completad trench fill.

Sidewall stability is a critica! factor in trench designs. Sidewall stability is a function of