Sie sind auf Seite 1von 10

Human Physiology 2P97: Chapter 3 Compartmentation: Cells and Tissues

Chapter 3: Compartmentation: Cells and Tissues


Functional Compartments of the Body
- Anatomically, the body is divided into three major body cavities: the cranial cavity, the thoracic
cavity and the abdominopelvic cavity
o The cranial cavity contains the brain, our primary control center
o The thoracic cavity is bounded by the spine and ribs on top and sides, with the muscular
diaphragm forming the floor
 The thorax contains the heart, which is enclosed in a membranous pericardial
sac and the two lungs, enclosed in separate pleural sac
o The abdomen and pelvis form one continuous cavity, the abdominopelvic cavity
 A tissue lining called the peritoneum lines the abdomen and surrounds the
organs within it
 The pelvis contains reproductive organs, the urinary bladder, and the terminal
portion of the large intestine

The Lumens of Some Organs Are Outside the Body


- The interior of any hollow organ is called its lumen
o A lumen may be wholly or partially filled with air or fluid

Functionally, the Body Has Three Fluid Compartments


- If we think of all the cells of the body together as one unit, we can then divide the body into two
main fluid compartments
1. The extracellular fluid (ECF) outside the cells
2. The intracellular fluid subdivides further into plasma, the fluid portion of the blood,
and interstitial fluid which surrounds most cells of the body

Biological Membranes
- Cell membrane, was a thin layer of lipids that separated the aqueous fluids of the interior and
outside environment

The Cell Membrane Separates Cell from Environment


- The general functions of the cell membrane include
1. Physical isolation
a. The cell membrane is a physical barrier that separates intracellular fluid
inside the cell from the surrounding extracellular fluid
2. Regulation of exchange with the environment
a. The cell membrane controls the entry of ions and nutrients into the cell, the
elimination of cellular wastes, and the release of products from the cell
3. Communication between the cell and its environment
a. The cell membrane contains proteins that enable the cell to recognize and
respond to molecules or to changes in its external environment
Human Physiology 2P97: Chapter 3 Compartmentation: Cells and Tissues

4. Structural support
a. Proteins in the cell membrane hold the cytoskeleton, the cell’s interior
structural scaffolding, in place to maintain cell shape

Membranes Are Mostly Lipid and Protein


- All biological membranes consist of a combination of lipids and proteins plus a small amount of
carbohydrate
- The lipids of biological membranes are mostly phospholipids arranged in a bilayer so that the
phosphate heads are on the membrane surfaces and the lipid tails are hidden in the center of
the membrane

Membrane Lipids Create a Hydrophobic Barrier


- Three main types of lipids make up the cell membrane: phospholipids, sphingolipids, and
cholesterol
o Phospholipids are made of a glycerol backbone with two fatty acid chains extending to
one side and a phosphate group extending to the other
 Micelles are small droplets with a single layer of phospholipids arranged so that
the interior of the micelle is filled with hydrophobic fatty acid tails
 Micelles are important in the digestion and absorption of fats in the
digestive tract
 Liposomes are larger spheres with bilayer phospholipid walls
o Sphingolipids also have fatty acid tails, but their heads may be either phospholipids or
glycolipids
 Sphingolipids are slightly longer than phospholipids
o Cholesterol helps make membranes impermeable to small water-soluble molecules and
keeps membranes flexible over a wide range of temperatures

Membrane Proteins May Be Loosely or Tightly Bound To the Membrane


- Integral proteins are tightly bound to the membrane, and the only way they can be removed is
by disrupting the membrane structure with detergents or other harsh methods that destroy the
membranes integrity
- Peripheral proteins are attached to other membrane proteins by noncovalent interactions and
can be separated from the membrane by chemical methods that do not disrupt the integrity of
the membrane
- Transmembrane proteins are also called membrane-spanning proteins because the proteins
chains extend all the way across the cell membrane
o Membrane-spanning proteins are integral proteins, tightly but not covalently bound to
the membrane
- Some membrane proteins that were previously thought to be peripheral proteins are now
known to be lipid-anchored proteins
o Some of these proteins are covalently bound to lipid tails that insert themselves into the
bilayer
o Help by a GPI anchor that consist of a membrane lipid plus a sugar-phosphate chain
Human Physiology 2P97: Chapter 3 Compartmentation: Cells and Tissues

o Many lipid-anchored proteins are found in association with membrane sphingolipids,


leading to the formation of specialized patches of membrane called lipid rafts

Membrane Carbohydrates Attach to Both Lipids and Proteins


- Most membrane carbohydrates are sugars attached either to membrane proteins
(glycoproteins) or to membrane lipids (glycolipids)
o They are found exclusively on the external surface of the cell, where they form a
protective layer known as the glycocalyx

Intracellular Compartments
- During differentiation, only selected genes activate, transforming the cell into a specialized unit

Cells Are Divided Into Compartments


- Internally the cell is divided into the cytoplasm and the nucleus
o The cytoplasm consists of a fluid portion, called cytosol; insoluble particles called
inclusions; insoluble protein fibers; and membrane-bound structures collectively known
as organelles

The Cytoplasm Includes Cytosol, Inclusions, Fibers, and Organelles


- The cytoplasm includes all material inside the cell membrane except for the nucleus
1. Cytosol or intracellular fluid: the cytosol is a semi-gelatinous fluid separated from
the extracellular fluid by the cell membrane
2. Inclusions are particles of insoluble materials
a. These structures are sometimes called the nonmembranous organelles
3. Insoluble protein fibers form the cell’s internal support system, or cytoskeleton

Cell Structure
The cell membrane Mitochondria are spherical The Golgi The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is The nucleus is
is a phospholipid to elliptical organelles with apparatus a network of interconnected surrounded by a
bilayer studded a double wall that creates consists of a membrane tubes that are a double-
with proteins that two separate series of hollow continuation of the outer nuclear membrane
act as structural compartments within the curved sacs membrane. Rough endoplasmic nuclear
anchors, organelle. The inner matrix called cisternae reticulum has a granular envelope. Both
transporters, is surrounded by a stacked on top appearance due to rows of membranes of
enzymes, or signal membrane that folds into of one another ribosomes dotting its cytoplasmic the envelope
receptors. The cell leaflets called cristae. The and surrounded surface. Smooth endoplasmic are pierced here
membrane acts as intermembrane space, by vesicles. The reticulum lacks ribosomes and and there by
both a gateway which lies between the two Golgi apparatus appears as smooth membrane pores to allow
and a barrier membranes, plays an participates in tubes. The rough ER is the main communication
between the important role in ATP protein site of protein synthesis. The with the
cytoplasm and the production. Mitochondria modification smooth ER synthesizes lipids and, cytoplasm.
extracellular fluid are the site of most ATP and packaging. in some cells, concentrates and
synthesis in the cell. stores calcium ions.
Human Physiology 2P97: Chapter 3 Compartmentation: Cells and Tissues

4. Organelles – “little organs” – are membrane bounded compartments that play


specific roles in the overall function of the cell

Inclusions Are In Direct Contact With the Cytosol


- Ribosomes are small, dense granules of RNA and protein that manufacture proteins under the
direction of the cell’s DNA
o Ribosomes attached to the cytosolic surface of organelles are called fixed ribosomes
o Those suspended free in the cytosol are free ribosomes

Cytoplasmic Protein Fibers Come in Three Sizes


- The three families of cytoplasmic protein fibers are classified by diameter and protein
composition
o The thinnest are actin fibers, also called microfilaments
- Intermediate filaments may be made of different types of protein, including keratin in hair and
skin, and neurofilament in nerve cells
- The largest protein fibers are the hollow microtubules, made of a protein called tubulin

Microtubules Form Centrioles, Cilia, and Flagella


- The largest cytoplasmic protein fibers, the microtubules, create the complex structures of
centrioles, cilia, and flagella, which are all involved in some form of cell movement
- The cell’s microtubule organizing center, the centrosome, assembles tubulin monomers into
microtubules
o The centrosome contains two centrioles
 The centrioles direct the movement of DNA strands
- Cilia are short, hair like structures projecting from the cell surface like the bristles of a brush
o Ciliary movement, like a waving field of grain, creates currents that sweep fluids or
secretions across the cell surface
o The surface of a cilium is a continuation of the cell membrane
- Flagella have the same microtubule arrangement as cilia but are considerably longer

The Cytoskeleton Is A Changeable Scaffold


- The cytoskeleton has at least five important functions
1. Cell shape
a. The protein scaffolding of the cytoskeleton provides mechanical strength to
the cell and in some cells plays an important role in determining the shape
of the cell
2. Internal organization
a. Cytoskeletal fibers stabilize the positions of organelles
3. Intracellular transport
a. the cytoskeleton helps transport materials into the cell and within the
cytoplasm by serving as an intracellular “railroad track” for moving
organelles
4. assembly of cells into tissues
Human Physiology 2P97: Chapter 3 Compartmentation: Cells and Tissues

a. protein fibers of the cytoskeleton connect with protein fibers in the


extracellular space, linking cells to one another and to supporting material
outside the cells
5. movement
a. the cytoskeleton helps cells move

Motor Proteins Create Movement


- motor proteins are proteins that are able to convert stored energy into direct movement
- three groups of motor proteins are associated with the cytoskeleton: myosin’s, kinesins, and
dynein’s
o myosins bind to actin fibers and are best known for their role in muscle contraction
o kinesins and dyneins assist the movement of vesicles along microtubules

Organelles Create Compartments for Specialized Functions


- organelles are subcellular compartments separated from the cytosol by one or more
phospholipid membranes similar in structure to the cell membrane

Mitochondria

- they have an unusual double wall that creates two separate compartments within the
mitochondrion
o in the center, inside the inner membrane, is a compartment called the mitochondrial
matrix
 mitochondrial DNA has a different nucleotide sequence from that found in the
nucleus
o the second compartment inside a mitochondrion is the intermembrane space, which
lies between the outer and inner mitochondrial membranes
- ability to replicate themselves even when the cell to which they belong is not undergoing cell
division

The Endoplasmic Reticulum

- a network of interconnected membrane tubes with three major functions: synthesis, storage,
and transport of biomolecules
o the rough endoplasmic reticulum is the main site of protein synthesis
 phospholipids for the cell membrane are produced here, and cholesterol is
modified into steroid hormones, such as the sex hormones estrogen and
testosterone

The Golgi Apparatus

- it consist of a series of hollow curved sacs, called cisternae, stacked on top of one another like a
series of hot water bottles and surrounded by vesicles
- the Golgi apparatus receives proteins made on the rough ER, modifies them, and packages them
into vesicles
Human Physiology 2P97: Chapter 3 Compartmentation: Cells and Tissues

Cytoplasmic Vesicles

- membrane-bound cytoplasmic vesicles are of two kinds: secretory and storage


o secretory vesicles contain proteins that will be released from the cell
o the contents of most storage vesicles, however, never leave the cytoplasm
 lysosomes are small storage vesicles that appear as membrane-bound granules
in the cytoplasm
 lysosomes act as the digestive system of the cell
- peroxisomes are storage vesicles that are even smaller than lysosomes
o their main function appears to be to degrade long-chain fatty acids and potentially toxic
foreign molecules

The Nucleus is the Cell’s Control Center


- its boundary, or nuclear envelope, is a two membrane structure that separates the nucleus
from the cytoplasmic compartment
o both membranes of the envelope are pierced here and there by round holes, or pores

Tissues of the Body


- the cells in tissues are held together by specialized connections called cell junctions and by
other support structures
- the cells of most tissues work together to achieve a common purpose
- describe tissues by their physical features
1. the shape and size of the cells
2. the arrangement of the cells in the tissue (in layers, scattered, and so on)
3. the way cells are connected to one another
4. the amount of extracellular material present in the tissue
- there are four primary tissue types in the human body: epithelial, connective, muscles and
neural, or nerve

Extracellular Matrix Has Many Functions


- extracellular matrix (usually just called matrix) is extracellular material that is synthesized and
secreted by the cells of a tissue
- the extracellular matrix plays a vital role in many physiological processes, ranging from growth
and development to cell death
- a number of disease stated are associated with overproduction or disruption of extracellular
matrix, including chronic heart failure and the spread of cancerous cells throughout the body
(metastasis)
- matrix always has two basic components: proteoglycans and insoluble protein fibers
o proteoglycans are glycoproteins, which are proteins covalently bound to polysaccharide
chains
o insoluble protein fibers such as collagen, fibronectin, and laminin provide strength and
anchor cells to the matrix
Human Physiology 2P97: Chapter 3 Compartmentation: Cells and Tissues

Cell Junctions Hold Cells Together to Form Tissues


- during growth and development, cells form cell-cell adhesions that may be transient or that may
develop into more permanent cell junctions
- cell adhesion molecules, or CAMs, are membrane-spanning proteins responsible both for cell
junctions and for transient cell adhesions
- stronger cell junctions can be grouped into three broad categories by function: communicating
junctions, occluding junctions, and anchoring junctions
o gap junctions are the simplest cell-cell junctions
 they allow direct and rapid cell-to-cell communication through cytoplasmic
bridges between adjoining cells
 allow both chemical and electrical signals to pass rapidly from one cell to the
next
o tight junctions are occluding junctions that restrict the movement of material between
the cells they link
 the cell membranes of adjacent cells partly fuse together with the help of
proteins called claudins and occludins, thereby making a barrier
 tight junction in the intestinal tract and kidney prevent most substances from
moving freely between the external and internal environments
 regulate what enters and leaves the body
 also create the so-called blood brain barrier that prevents many potentially
harmful substances in the blood from reaching the extracellular fluid of the
brain
o anchoring junctions attach cells to each other or to the extracellular matrix
 in vertebrates, cell-cell anchoring junctions are created by CAMs called
cadherin’s, which connect with one another across the intercellular space
 integrin’s are membrane proteins that can also bind to signal molecules in the
cell’s environment, transferring information carried by the signal across the cell
membrane into the cytoplasm
- anchoring junctions contribute to the mechanical strength of the tissue
o the protein linkage of anchoring cell junctions is very strong, allowing sheets of tissue in
skin and lining body cavities to resist damage from stretching and twisting
o tissues held together with anchoring junctions are like a picket fence, where spaces
between the connecting bars allow materials to pass from one side of the fence to the
other
- movement of materials between cells is known as the paracellular pathway
- in contrast, tissues held together with tight junctions are more like a solid brick wall: very little
can pass from one side of the wall to the other between the bricks
- cell-cell anchoring junctions take the form of either adherens junctions or desmosomes
o adherens junctions link actin fibers in adjacent cells together
o desmosomes attach to intermediate filaments of the cytoskeleton
 the strongest cell-cell junctions
 may be small points of contact between two cells (spot desmosomes) or bands
that encircle the entre cell (belt desmosomes
- there are also two types of cell-matrix anchoring junctions
Human Physiology 2P97: Chapter 3 Compartmentation: Cells and Tissues

o hemidesmosomes are strong junctions that anchor intermediate fibers of the


cytoskeleton to fibrous matrix proteins such as laminin
o focal adhesions tie intracellular actin fibers of different matrix proteins, such as
fibronectin

Epithelia Provide Protection and Regulate Exchange


- the epithelia tissues, or epithelia protect the internal environment of the body and regulate the
exchange of materials between the internal and external environments
o some epithelia, such as those of the skin and mucous membranes of the mouth, act as a
barrier to keep water in the body and invaders such as bacteria out
o other epithelia, such as those in the kidney and intestinal tract, control the movement
of materials between the external environment and the extracellular fluid of the body
o another type of epithelium is specialized to manufacture and secrete chemicals into the
blood or into the external environment

Structure of Epithelia

- epithelia typically consist of one or more layers of cells connected to one another, with a thin
layer of extracellular matrix lying between the epithelia cells and their underlying tissues
o called basal lamina or basement membrane, is composed of a network of collagen and
laminin filaments embedded in proteoglycans

Types of Epithelia

- structurally, epithelial tissues can be divided into two general types


1. sheets of tissue that lie on the surface of the body or that line the inside of tubes
and hollow organs
2. secretory epithelia that synthesize and release substances into the extracellular
space
- histologists classify sheet epithelia by the number of cell layers in the tissue and by the shape of
the cells in the surface layer
o two types of layering – simple (one cell thick) and stratified (multiple cell layers) – and
three cell shapes – squamous (flattened, plate or scale), cuboidal, and columnar
- there are five functional types of epithelia: exchange, transporting, ciliated, protective, and
secretory

Exchange Epithelia

- the exchange epithelia are composed of very thin, flattened cells that allow gases to pass
rapidly across the epithelium
o this type of epithelium lines the blood vessels and the lungs, the two major sites of gas
exchange in the body
 leaky epithelium
o the simple squamous epithelium lining the heart and blood vessels is also called the
endothelium
Human Physiology 2P97: Chapter 3 Compartmentation: Cells and Tissues

Transporting Epithelia

- the transporting epithelia actively and selectively regulate the exchange of nongaseous
materials, such as ions and nutrients, between the internal and external environments
1. cell shape
a. cells of transporting epithelia are much thicker than cells of exchange
epithelia, and they act as a barrier as well as an entry point
2. membrane modifications
a. the apical membrane, the surface of the epithelia cell that faces the lumen,
has tiny finger-like projections called microvilli that increase the surface
area available for transport
b. the basolateral membrane, the side of the epithelia cell facing the
extracellular fluid, may also have folds that increase the cell’s surface area
3. cell junctions
a. the cells of transporting epithelia are firmly attached to adjacent cells by
moderately tight to very tight junctions
4. cell organelles
a. the properties of transporting epithelia differ depending on where in the
body the epithelia are located
i. glucose can cross the epithelium of the small intestine and enter the
extracellular fluid but cannot cross the epithelium of the large
intestine
- the transport properties of an epithelium can be regulated and modified in response to various
stimuli

Ciliated Epithelia

- are nontransporting tissues that line the respiratory system and parts of the female
reproductive tract
- injury to the cilia or to their epithelial cells can stop Ciliary movement

Protective Epithelia

- prevent exchange between the internal and external environments and protect areas subject to
mechanical or chemical stresses
o stratified tissues, composed of many stacked layers of cells
- toughened by the secretion of keratin, the same insoluble protein abundant in hair and nails
- the epidermis and linings of the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, urethra, and vagina are all
protective epithelia

Secretory Epithelia

- are composed of cells that produce a substance and then secrete it into the extracellular space
- secretory cells may be scattered among other epithelial cells, or they may group together to
form a multicellular gland
o exocrine glands release their secretions to the body’s external environment
 most exocrine glands release their products through open tubes known as ducts
Human Physiology 2P97: Chapter 3 Compartmentation: Cells and Tissues

 sweat glands, mammary glands in the breast, salivary glands, the liver, and the
pancreas are all exocrine glands
 exocrine gland cells produce two types of secretions
 serous secretions are watery solutions, and many of them contain
enzymes
o tears, sweat, and digestive enzyme solutions are all serous
exocrine secretions
 mucous secretions are sticky solutions containing glycoproteins and
proteoglycans
 goblet cells are single exocrine cells that produce mucus
o endocrine glands are ductless and release their secretions, called hormones, into the
body’s extracellular compartment
 hormones enter the blood for distribution to other parts of the body, where
they regulate or coordinate the activities of various tissues, organs, and organ
systems

Connective Tissues Provide Support and Barriers


- connective tissues, the second major tissue type, provide structural support and sometimes a
physical barrier that, along with specialized cells, helps defend the body from foreign invaders
such as bacteria
- the distinguishing characteristic of connective tissues is the presence of extensive extracellular
matrix containing widely scattered cells that secrete and modify the matrix

Structure of Connective Tissue

Das könnte Ihnen auch gefallen