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2017
PANORAMA OF
FOOD SECURITY
AND NUTRITION
IN LATIN
AMERICA
AND THE CARIBBE
2017
PANORAMA OF
FOOD
SECURITY AND
NUTRITION IN
AMERICA
AMERICA
AND THE CARIB
Published by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations and
the Pan American Health Organization
Santiago de Chile, 2017

APPOINTMENT:
FAO and PAHO. 2017. Panorama of Food and Nutrition Security in Latin America and the Caribbean.
Santiago de Chile.
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COVER PHOTO © FAO
COMMUNITY FLOWERS, Alta Verapaz, GUATEMALA.

Accelerating the progress of economic empowerment of rural women in Guatemala.
INDEX
FOREWORD saw The price of food and income are leading to the
adoption of healthy eating by the most vulnerable
determinants.
CHAPTER 1. fifty
ADVANCES IN LATIN AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN
TO MEET TARGETS SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 2 Social protection policies to ensure access to food: evidence
AND 3 two of Conditional Cash Transfer Programs (PTC)
68
ODS 2: End hunger, achieve food security and improve

nutrition and promote sustainable agriculture
UTILIZATION 73
4
Access to potable water and basic sanitation is essential to

ODS 3: Ensure a healthy lifestyle and promote the welfare
ensure good nutritional status 73
of all all ages 18
Large disparities persist in coverage of water and

EPISODE 2: sanitation in rural areas and in the poorest
ANALYSIS OF THE DIMENSIONS OF FOOD SECURITY 77
AND NUTRITION 28
Water and sanitation policies 77
AVAILABILITY
The region maintains a good performance in agriculture, Stability and sustainability 86

which has allowed him to have more than enough food for
the entire population The effects of climate change increase risks for agriculture, but
28 agriculture also contributes to climate change
86
The region has the potential to promote cope with growing
share of intraregional trade in food
32 The occurrence of natural disasters in Latin America and the
Caribbean significantly affect agriculture and livelihoods
A sufficient amount of food does not ensure a healthy and 92
nutritious food 40
Policies for adaptation to climate change by the Family
Food trade policies and healthy eating Farming 95
41
ACCESS 46 BIBLIOGRAPHY 100
The current socio-economic situation affects progress in the APPENDIX 1: RISKS ASSOCIATED WITH CLIMATE
eradication of hunger in Latin America and the Caribbean CHANGE, CLIMATE MOTORS OF SUCH RISKS, IMPACTS
46 ON FOOD AND NUTRITION SECURITY AND RISK
MEASURES TO DEAL
Insufficient progress in income distribution may delay 106
achieving food and nutrition security
fifty
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The Panorama of Food and Nutrition Security in Latin America and the Caribbean is an annual publication prepared by the Regional Office for Latin
America and the Caribbean of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), in collaboration with the Pan American Health
Organization / Regional Office for the Americas of the Organization World Health Organization (PAHO / WHO).
This edition was prepared under the coordination of Ricardo Rapallo, Food Security Officer of FAO, and Ruben Grajeda, Advisor on Social Determinants
of Nutrition and PAHO / WHO. Writing and editing text was provided by FAO officials Sandra Caprile, Giovanni Carrasco, Francisca Zamorano Nahmías
and Giovanna.
comments from FAO staff Cosimo Avesani, Felix Baquedano, Veronica Boero, Pablo FARET, Alejandro Grinspun, Ana Islas Ramos, Areej Jafari,
Andrea Polo Galante, Israel Rios, Silvia Saravia, Jung Eun Sohn, Eugenia Stefanelli, Florence thank and Rob Vos Tartanac; and officials of PAHO /
WHO Fabio Gomes da Silva and Nadia Rosas.
support in editing, design, layout, and dissemination of the document to FAO officials Stefano Anibaldi Benjamin Labatut, Germán Rojas, Marta Ramon,
Maximiliano Valencia and Mariana Young is appreciated.
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FOREWORD
FOREWORD
The Panorama of Food and Nutrition Security in Latin America and the Caribbean 2017, of the Organization of the United Nations ► FOOD and
Agriculture Organization (FAO) and the Pan American Health Organization (PAHO) reports for the first time the progress of the countries of the
region towards the goals of the Millennium developm Sustainable (ODS).
The new figures show that, after many years of remarkable progress, the region has continued to advance towards the eradication of hunger and
malnutrition. After more than a decade of substantial progress in reducing hunger, the region experienced a stagnation in the period 2011-2013
after which is being observed an increase in both prevalence and the total number of persons Subal imentadas first. If Latin America and the
Caribbean will not soon recover the positive trend, the goals of ODS 2 f put in hunger and all forms of malnutrition by 2030 will not be met.
In addition to the above, there has been a steady and alarming increase in overweight and obesity, risk factors for noncommunicable diseases and
main causes disease morbidity l ity and mortal ity in the region, which seriously affect the welfare of people and whose obl consequences Igan
States and governments to spend huge sums that could be allocated to other social needs.
In contrast to this, the region has taken important steps to eradicate malnutrition infanti l, reduce fatal maternal, neonatal and children under 5
years ness, and mortal ity caused by non-communicable diseases steps, indicating that continues in Birthday track to go the first two goals of
ODS 3.
This first measurement of progress in the region towards the goals of ODS is a warning sign that countries should improve the qual ity of their
pol íticas and programs and to increase urgently their investments, and involve total ity of society.
Latin America and the Caribbean have adopted of icialmente commitment to end hunger by 2025 through Comprehensive implementation plan on
maternal nutrition, infant and young child, the World Health Organization, the Plan for food security, nutrition and hunger eradication the
Community of Latin American and Caribbean States (CELAC), and Latin America and the Caribbean without Hunger Initiative.
To a large extent, both hunger and malnutrition as overweight and obesity are consequences of the imentarios systems since the 1980s have
experienced rapid and profound changes. While these changes have brought many ices to our countries benef, increased consumption
ultraprocesados products have also contributed to the rise in overweight, obesity and non-communicable diseases, which shows the urgent need to
develop pol publ íticas icas systems that transform the imentarios and enabling a
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healthy nutrition. The region should move towards pol íticas, legislative and regulatory frameworks, programs and interventions that promote the
safe consumption, diverse and nutritious imentos in adequate to meet the nutritional needs levar l a healthy and active life amounts.
On the occasion of the publ ication of this Panorama 2017, FAO and PAHO urges countries to transform their systems to imentarios to stop the
spread of hunger and malnutrition, paying particular attention to individuals, households and the most vulnerable areas . Only through a large
regional effort it may reverse the current trend to return to the path that turned Latin America and the Caribbean in a global example of the fight
against hunger and malnutrition in anyway.
Julio A. Berdegué Dra. Carissa F. Etienne

Regional Representative for Latin America and the Caribbean of the Director of the Pan American Health Organization
United Nations Organization for Food and Health Organization (PAHO). Regional
Agriculture Organization (FAO) Director, Regional Office of the World Health Organization for
the Americas.
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© FAO
CHAP Í CHAPTER 1 main messages
ADVANCES IN and Undernourishment in Latin America and the
Caribbean increased in the last measurement period.
After several years of stagnation, in 2016, about
LATIN 42.5 million people do not have enough food to meet

their daily caloric needs, that is, an increase of 2.4
AMERICA AND million people, which means an increase of 6% of the
population undernourished compared to last year.
THE
CARIBBEAN and If this trend does not change, Latin America and the
Caribbean will not achieve the goal of eradicating hunger
FOR COMPLIANCE and malnutrition

2030, committed to the Sustainable Development Goals.
This imposes a sense of urgency to the need for joint
OBJECTIVES overcoming hunger and malnutrition actions.
FOR and While malnutrition decreases, overweight and

obesity have become major health problems for Latin
SUSTAINABLE America and the Caribbean. increasing rates of adult
obesity prevalence observed while overweight in children
DEVELOPMENT
under 5 years affects 7% of children in Latin America and
the Caribbean, reaching over 6% of overweight children
in the world.
2 AND 3
CHAPTER 1
ADVANCES IN LATIN AMERICA AND

THE CARIBBEAN TO MEET TARGETS
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 2 AND
3
Agenda 2030 proposes a vision of a fairer world, including real ization of sustainable agriculture, It undertakes, further putting f lá in hunger and
human rights with emphasis on equality and inclusion, in favor of a malnutrition, to promote access to the healthy supply will, which is
developm sustainable economic, social and environmental fields. 2015 directly linked to Goal 3,
were approved 17 Objectives of Sustainable Desarrol what (ODS) and
their 169 goals, with f in overcoming a number of problems currently Ensure a healthy lifestyle and promote the welfare of all all ages, which
affecting the world. it is critical to improving nutrition and qual ity of life of the population one.
Bearing in mind the relationship between the objectives 2 and 3, this

The ratif ication of ODS in all countries of the region imposes assume a chapter follows up on some of the goals included in them, based on
multidimensional look developm in which welfare is closer to that of the the information available indicators (see Box 1) and explicit regarding
timely reduction of certain phenomena such as poverty and hunger, hunger and malnutrition. It seeks to account for the situation in which
seeking instead to achieve a set of interrelated goals (UNDP, 2016). is Latin America and the Caribbean with a view to 2030.
Thus, achieving some of the also depend on the progress and
achievements of others. For example, Objective 2, End hunger, achieve
food security and improve nutrition and promote
one The relationship between poverty and hunger has been extensively revised in earlier
versions of Panorama, while the relationship between ODS 2 and 3 was analyzed in the 2016
edition of this publication.
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PANORAMA OF FOOD AND NUTRITION SECURITY IN LATIN AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN
PANORAMA OF FOOD AND NUTRITION SECURITY IN LATIN AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN 2017
BOX 1
INDICATORS OF ODS
One of the most important challenges posed by ODS refers to the availability of information in terms of coverage, quality and frequency. It
availability of information and the establishment of methodologies to is, of course, a process that will take time, and only to the extent that
give adequate track your progress and achievements. Today, after 232 knowledge deepens and more information will be acquired are making
indicators to monitor and evaluate ODS 17 were selected, it is working the necessary adjustments and improvements. It is recalled that, by
on the revision and development of methodologies for lifting and decision of the countries of UN global monitoring of ODS is based on
processing of information necessary for its construction. national data and standardized, coordinated work between the (UN,
2016) national and international statistical systems.
One of the major commitments of Agenda 2030 is that "no one is left
behind." For this promise, indeed, look done, it is essential to acquire a
more complete knowledge of the most vulnerable groups. To do this, Depending on availability of methodologies and information,
indicators of ODS to be broken, as far as possible, by income, gender, indicators have been divided into three levels:
age, race, ethnicity, immigration status, disability and geographic
location, or other characteristics (UN, 2017) are necessary. a) Level I: Indicators with an established methodology and
data availability.
b) Level II: Indicators with an established methodology, but for
which there is insufficient data.
Currently, the disaggregated information to identify the needs of all c) Level III: Indicators where the methodology is still developing.
population groups remains low. This reality has mobilized various
actors in a global effort to improve data integration and increase
About 65% of ODS are indicators of level I and II (UN, 2017).
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CHAPTER 1 ADVANCES IN LATIN AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN TO MEET TARGETS
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 2 AND 3
ODS 2: ENDING THE The eradication of hunger and all forms of malnutrition are closely
related to the characteristics of the patterns to imentarios (FAO and
HUNGER ACHIEVE PAHO, 2017), which in turn has impl icancias structures to imentarios
systems.
SECURITY
FOOD AND BETTER
NUTRITION AND This section will be addressed in greater depth the goals 2.1 and
2.2 (see Table 1). two
PROMOTE Other areas that are part of the ODS 2 related to the production of the
imentos and other safety relevant to imentaria and nutritional areas
SUSTAINABLE will be Desarrol you Ladas in the second chapter of this publ ication. 3 n
AGRICULTURE
TABLE 1
SELECTED INDICATORS TARGETS AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 2 OBJECTIVE
Goals Indicators
2.1.1 Prevalence of undernourishment

2.1 By 2030, end hunger and ensure access of all people, particularly the
poor and those in vulnerable situations, including children younger than 1
year at a healthy, nutritious and sufficient food throughout the year
2.1.2 Prevalence of moderate or severe food insecurity in the population,
according Experience Scale Food Insecurity
2.2.1 Prevalence of stunting (height for age, standard deviation <-2 median child
growth standards of World Health Organization (WHO) among children under 5
years
2.2 By 2030, put an end to all forms of malnutrition, even achieving, by 2025,
the internationally agreed targets on stunting and wasting among children
under 5 years, and address the nutritional needs of adolescent girls, pregnant
and lactating women and the elderly
2.2.2 Prevalence of malnutrition (weight for height, standard deviation> +2 or <-2
median Child Growth Standards WHO) among children under 5 years broken down
by type (wasting and weight excessive)
SOURCE: I eport of the Inter-Agency and Expert Group on Indicators of Sustainable Development Goals (UN, 2017).
two It is recalled that the 15 indicators ODS 2 only six are currently classified as Level
I and, of these, four correspond to goals 2.1 and 2.2 (UN, 2017).
3 For further review previous editions Panorama of Food and Nutrition Security in
Latin America and the Caribbean.
Available in: http://www.fao.org/americas/recursos/panorama/es/.
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The latest estimates realize an increase in supply will Subal globally.

GOAL 2.1:
After more than a decade reduction in 2015 can be seen an increase in
ENDING THE HUNGER the number of people imentadas Subal from 775.4 in
Goal 2.1 ref iere access to the imentos (FAO, IFAD and WFP, 2016),
and has two indicators for the: i) the prevalence of Subal supply will, 2014, to 777 l Lones my people. In 2016 one icativo signif increase of
which was uti l hoisted also to track 1C goal of the Millennium 38 mi l Lones of people is observed, so the Subal supply will now
developm Mi lenio (indicator 2.1.1), corresponding to an estimate of the affect 815 mi l Lones people in the world, which signif ica an increase
proportion of the population that does not meet the minimum daily in the proportion of Subal people imentadas 0.4 percentage points:
energy requirements for l levar a healthy and active life; Yii) the from
prevalence of moderate or severe insecurity imentaria, based on the
experience scale of insecurity imentaria (indicator 2.1.2), which ref iere
the ability of people to access the imentos indicator (see Box 2) . 10.6% in 2015 to 11% in 2016 (see Figure 1).
FIGURE 1
Prevalence of undernourishment in Latin America and the Caribbean and sub-regions, annual values, 2000-2016
25 23.8 23.3
14.7
14.2
19.9
19.3 19.4 19.2
12 20 18.9
18,4
16 11.5 17.7
11.2 eleven eleven
10.8 10.7 10.6
14
9.1 15
12.2
12
6.8 6.6 6.6
6.4 6.3 6.3 6.3
10
10 8.1 8.3
7.1 7.2 7.1 7.1 6.9 6.7 6.5
7.9
68
5 5.6
5.4 5.1 4.8 4.8 5
4.7
24
0 0
2000 2005 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 * 2000 2005 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 *
World Latin America and the Caribbean Mesoamerica South America Caribbean
SOURCE: FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WFP and WHO (2017).

* Projected values.
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Latin America and the Caribbean is no stranger to this trend observed several of them (FAO, 2017). Generally speaking, this situation led to
in 2016 a prevalence of undernourishment of 6.6%, the first increase an increase in inflation in some economies, increases in
since the measurement (Figure 1) is performed: this means that 42.5 unemployment or precarious this, and, in recent years, an increase in
million people They have enough food to meet their daily energy the number of people living in poverty, which has generated concern
requirements, an increase of 2.4 million people, or 6%, underfed, over about the impacts that this situation carries on food and nutrition
the previous year. This has led FAO and PAHO give an alarm and security. 6
emergency to speed up the implementation of actions to reverse this
trend and thus achieve the goal of eradicating hunger by 2030.
A sub gaze confirms this: stagnation in reducing regional underfeeding

depends largely Boost undernourishment in South America (Figures 3
and 4). In South America the affected population in 2014-16 reached
5.1%, up 0.3 percentage points compared to the previous three years,
Moreover, FAO presents the indicators under the temporary target which in real terms means that 21.5 million people are
2.1 trienios unit to prevent transients increase volatility indicator undernourished. In Middle America, while the proportion of
(FAO, 2014). In Figure 2 it can be seen that the evolution of undernourished has a small decrease compared to 2013-15, reaching
undernourishment in the region, 4 from 201113 triennium onwards it 6.7% in three years, although it should be noted that 2010-12 and
has stagnated, and in the last period of the estimate has even 2013-15 between the ratio trienios it has remained stable at around
increased. 7%. In absolute terms, the number of undernourished people in
Mesoamerica reaches 11.6 million. Finally,
How you will be seen later, much of this result explains South America, 5
on the one hand, the subregion concentrates a greater proportion of
the regional population, which increases or decreases in underfeeding
will have a significant impact on regional trends. Moreover, in recent
years Latin America and the Caribbean has faced an unfavorable
economic context; in particular, for two consecutive years he presented
an economic downturn, influenced in part by the trajectory of
commodity prices, a situation that was experienced differentially in
each subregion. Thus, much of South America influenced regional The country-level data confirm the heterogeneity present in the region
performance, because several commodity exporting countries faced and to identify areas where the eradication of hunger presents greater
lower demand and lower prices. By contrast, Mesoamerica and the backlogs (Table 2). On the one hand, Brazil, Cuba and Uruguay have a
Caribbean faced less exposure to markets lower proportion of undernourished people to
2.5%. Follow Argentina, Barbados, Chile, Mexico, and Trinidad and

Tobago, who are under or equal to 5%. There are several countries
that boast a higher rate of undernourishment 20%, as in the case of
Antigua and Barbuda, Bolivia and Granada, but in Haiti, where the
highest rates of undernourishment is as follows: almost 47% of its
international trade links given that both subregions have with the United population fails cover their food minimum requirements, equivalent to
States, as well as being benefited, being net importers of commodities, almost 5 million malnourished Haitians, about two-thirds of those
by low prices affected throughout the Caribbean.
4 For purposes of this publication, "region" corresponds to the region of Latin America and the
Caribbean.
5 It is necessary to note that South America given its size, has a great influence on regional
values, concentrated carca 2/3 of the population of Latin America and the Caribbean,
regional surface 5/6 and 3/4 of GDP. 6 For further details see the access of Chapter 2 of this publication and edition 2016 Panorama.
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FIGURE 2
EVOLUTION OF undernourishment IN LATIN AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN, triennia 2000-02 A 2014-16
prevalence Millions of people
70
60.7 58.7 56.6 54.0 50.9 47.5 44.6 42.8 41.7 40.9 40.0 39.4 39.3 39.6 40.7
11.4 10.9 10.3 9.7 9.1
60
14
50
8.3 7.7 7.3 7.1 6.8 6.6 6.4 6.4 6.3 6.4
12
40
10
30
68
20
24
10
0
0
2000-02
2001-03
2002-04
2003-05
2004-06
2005-07
2006-08
2007-09
2008-10
2009-11
2010-12
2011-13
2012-14
2013-15
2014-16
2000-02
2001-03
2002-04
2003-05
2004-06
2005-07
2006-08
2007-09
2008-10
2009-11
2010-12
2011-13
2012-14
2013-15
2014-16

* Values 2016 are projected.
Argentina, Ecuador, El Salvador, Granada, Peru and Venezuela first time have been measured progress in reducing hunger
showed an increase in the prevalence of undernourishment in the last through Experience Scale Food Insecurity (FIES). 7
period. The case of Venezuela, however, is the most significant:
undernourishment in the country grew by 3.9 percentage points over As detailed in Box 2, both indicators are complementary and provide
three years a fuller the phenomenon of hunger and food insecurity look.
immediately above. In absolute terms, this means an increase of 1.3

million undernourished people in Venezuela, which explains much
of the observed increase in South America.
7 While both estimates show strong degree of correlation (FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WFP and
WHO, 2017), and although both realize the lack or food deprivation, it is necessary to note
that obey definitions, concepts and different methodologies (see Box 2). It is possible that
some situations, such as droughts, for example, and its effects on food security, are not fully
captured by the indicator of undernourishment, as their impact will only be captured by
Moreover, and as seen in Table 2, in 21 countries the prevalence of
spreadsheets food to the extent that information is available. In other words, data collection
undernourishment declined in the last three years of the estimate. does not capture the effects automatically. However, FIEs can pick up short-term fluctuations
in conditions affecting access to food, that is,
Undernourishment is an estimate of energy deprivation measured in

calories, and the new requirements of the Agenda 2030 require
expanding the scope of this indicator. Accordingly, by
|7||7
Figure 3
TREND undernourishment subregions of Latin America and the Caribbean, 2000-02 to 2014-16 PREVALENCE
25
23,7 22,6
19.6 19.2 18.8 18.3

20
15
11.5
10
7.8 7.1 7.0 6.9 7.8 6.7

7.1
5.1 4.8 4.8 5.1

5
0
Mesoamerica Caribbean South America
2000-02 2005-07 2010-12 2012-14 2013-15 2014-16
Figure 4
TREND undernourishment subregions of Latin America and the Caribbean (million), 2000-02 A 2014-16
70
40.8
60
50 26.9
20.4 21.5
19.6 20.0
40
30
11.0 11.7
11.7 11.8 11.8 11.6
20
8.9 8.9
10 7.9 7.9 7.8 7.7
0
2000-02 2005-07 2010-12 2012-14 2013-15 2014-16
Caribbean Mesoamerica South America
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BOX 2
INDICATORS FOR INTEGRAL ANALYSIS OF FOOD AND NUTRITION SECURITY
By decision of the member countries of the United Nations, FAO is information from national surveys available.
the agency responsible for indicators of target 2.1 of the ODS: From
here to - Update estimates of energy requirements, after updating data
2030, end hunger and ensure access of all people, particularly the height, sex and age of the population conducted through survey
poor and those in vulnerable situations, including children data Demographic and Health.
younger than 1 year at a healthy, nutritious and sufficient food
throughout the year. To this end, FAO has worked on a measure that
can account for the progress of ODS 2 and in particular goal 2.1, and
identify population groups affected by hunger and food insecurity within Thanks to the information collected in surveys conducted directly to
countries, including in those where hunger is no longer a major problem. people over 15 years, the FIES allows estimates of the prevalence of
food insecurity in moderate and severe levels. Thus it provides
estimates of the proportion of the population that has difficulty
accessing food.
To meet this goal, the Scale of Food Insecurity Experience was created
(FIES, for its acronym in English), an indicator that complements the Although it would be expected that the estimated experienced food
indicator of undernourishment and improves the characterization of insecurity and prevalence of undernourishment prevalence exhibited
hunger. Although both are related indicators are not equivalent, similar trends, FIES identifies the presence of wider problems
because their measurement objects and methods are different. associated with access limitations. To do this, the instrument has eight
Therefore, the analysis must be done together to improve questions that identify the degree of severity of food insecurity. These
understanding of hunger and food insecurity. seek to collect information from the last 12 months regarding whether
due to lack of money or other resources, the respondent has been
concerned about the amount of having enough food; if it has been
forced to reduce the quality or quantity of food consumed; or if you have
spent days without eating.
The prevalence of undernourishment estimates the percentage of
people who fail to meet minimum energy requirements for a healthy life.
The inputs required for performing the estimation are: 1) the average
dietary energy consumption; 2) dispersion of dietary energy
consumption; and 3) the minimum consumption threshold necessary for
a healthy life. FAO conducts ongoing work to improve their estimates,
which has led to methodological revisions and expanding the availability For comparable prevalence rates between countries, a worldwide scale
of information. The estimates presented this year include a number of FIES defined, and each country scales are calibrated with this global
innovations in relation to previous estimates, among which are: scale, which allows for measurements of comparable gravity. For the
first measurement period this indicator has been estimated an average
for Latin America and the subregions of Mesoamerica and South
America, in addition to national figures for seven countries in the
region. In the coming years, and under the 2030 development agenda,
it is expected to have increased availability of information to extend the
- Improvements in energy supply estimates. indicator to other countries.
- Latest estimates to measure the dispersion of energy

consumption, using
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In Figure 5 estimates indicator prevalence of food insecurity are. There Although severe food insecurity is a nascent indicator, without a series
is observed that in Mesoamerica, 5.7% of the population has severe in time to allow actual results contrast, has values in line with the latest
food insecurity for the 2014-16 triennium, equivalent to 9.9 million data from undernourishment. This not only demonstrates the need for
people affected. Meanwhile, in South America, 5.1% of the population further action to ensure access to food both in quantity and adequate
has severe food insecurity, affecting more than 21 million on average quality, but also accelerate and expand efforts to not compromise the
for the years 2014-16. achievement of the target in 2030. n
National estimates available show that in El Salvador and Guatemala

severe food insecurity is higher than 10%. Ecuador shows a
prevalence of food insecurity 6.6%, while in Brazil, Chile, Costa Rica
and Mexico the rate is less than 5%.
Figure 5
STATE OF SEVERE FOOD INSECURITY IN LATIN AMERICA, 2014-16
Prevalence (%) Millions of people
Salvador 12.4 Salvador 0.8
Guatemala El 10.9 Guatemala El 1.8
Ecuador 6.6 Ecuador 1.1
Rica 4.8 Rica 0.2
Chile Costa 3.8 Chile Costa 0.7
Mexico 3.3 Mexico 4.2
Brazil 0.3 Brazil 0.7
South America 5.1 South America 21.4
Mesoamerica 5.7 Mesoamerica 9.9
0 two 4 6 8 10 12 14 0 5 10 fifteen twenty 25
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NUTRITION
PANORAMASECURITY
OF FOOD AND
IN LATIN
NUTRITION
AMERICA
SECURITY
AND THEINCARIBBEAN
LATIN AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN PANORAMA OF FOOD AND 2017
TABLE 2
TREND undernourishment THE LATIN AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN, 2004-06 A 2014-16
Prevalence (%) Millions of people
2004-06 2010-12 2012-14 2013-15 2014-16 2004-06 2010-12 2012-14 2013-15 2014-16
Old and bearded 31.5 27.8 27.1 27.2 26.7 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 N/A
Argentina 4.7 3.9 3.6 3.4 3.6 1.9 1.6 1.5 1.5 1.6
bahamas 10 11.9 10.7 10.3 10 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 N/A
barbados 5.9 4.9 4.6 4.5 4.4 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 N/A
Belize 4.6 5.8 6.3 6.3 6.2 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 N/A
Bolivia 30.3 24.6 21.9 20.8 20.2 2.8 2.5 2.3 2.2 2.2 =
Brazil 4.5 <2.5 <2.5 <2.5 <2.5 N/A 8.6 ns ns ns ns N/A
Chile 4 4.1 3.8 3.8 3.7 0.6 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 =
Colombia 9.7 10.9 8.8 7.7 7.1 4.2 5 4.2 3.7 3.4
Costa Rica 5.4 5.2 5.6 5.7 5.6 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.3 =
Cuba <2.5 <2.5 <2.5 <2.5 <2.5 N/A ns ns ns ns ns N/A
dominica 5.7 5.6 6.1 6 5.8 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 N/A
Dominican Republic 24.4 14.6 13.6 13.7 13.5 2.3 1.5 1.4 1.4 1.4 =
Ecuador 17 11.7 11.7 11.9 12.1 2.3 1.8 1.8 1.9 1.9 =
The Savior 10.7 12.9 12.4 12.1 12.3 0.6 0.8 0.8 0.7 0.8
Pomegranate 27.8 25.5 25.3 25.4 25.5 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 N/A
Guatemala 16 15.6 16.4 16.2 15.6 2.1 2.4 2.6 2.6 2.5
guyana 9.1 eleven 9.4 8.9 8.5 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 N/A
Haiti 57.1 49.6 49.4 48.2 46.8 5.3 5 5.2 5.1 5
Honduras 17.2 15.5 15.7 15.8 14.8 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.3 1.2
Jamaica 6.9 9 9.5 9.2 8.4 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.2
Mexico 5.5 4.6 4.5 4.4 4.2 6.1 5.5 5.5 5.5 5.4
Nicaragua 24.4 twenty 17.9 17.1 17 1.3 1.2 1.1 one one =
Panama 23.1 11.9 9.9 9.5 9.3 0.8 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 =
Paraguay 11.9 11.9 12.3 12.4 12 0.7 0.7 0.8 0.8 0.8 =
Peru 19.6 10.1 8.3 7.6 7.9 5.4 3 2.5 2.4 2.5
Dominican
24.4 14.6 13.6 13.7 13.5 2.3 1.5 1.4 1.4 1.4 =
Republic
St. lucia 14.2 17.2 17.2 17 17 = <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 N/A
St. Vincent and the =

9.1 6.4 6 6 6 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 N/A
Grenadines
Surinam 11.1 8.1 8.3 8.1 7.9 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 N/A
Trinidad and Tobago 11.8 8.6 6.5 5.8 4.8 0.2 0.1 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 N/A
Uruguay 4.3 <2.5 <2.5 <2.5 <2.5 N/A 0.1 ns ns ns ns N/A
Venezuela 10.5 3.7 6.5 9.1 13 2.8 1.1 two 2.8 4.1
Latin America and the

9.1 6.6 6.4 6.3 6.4 50.9 40 39.3 39.6 40.7
Caribbean
Caribbean 23.4 19.6 19.2 18.8 18.3 9.1 7.9 7.9 7.8 7.7
Mesoamerica 8.3 7.1 7 6.9 6.7 12.3 11.7 11.8 11.8 11.6
South America 7.9 5.1 4.8 4.8 5.1 29.5 20.4 19.6 twenty 21.5
| 11 |
its subregions (Figure 6). 9 This positive trend has allowed chronic
GOAL 2.2:
malnutrition has decreased from 24.5% in 1990 to 11% in
ENDING ALL FORMS OF 2016, ie 7.9 million children under 5 years have overcome chronic
MALNUTRITION malnutrition in the period concerned. Today, however, still 5.9 million
children are affected by chronic malnutrition. Projections for 2025
confirm a downward trend which would allow fulfillment to the goal of
ODS 2. However, 4.1 million children still presented stunted growth, ie
Goal 2.2 8 It refers to end all forms of malnutrition, including 8.1% of young children 5 years in the region.
undernutrition, micronutrient deficiencies, overweight and obesity, and
other expressions that result from inadequate nutrition, and
conditioning or aggravating social, economic, cultural, environmental
and health (FAO and WHO,
By 2016, 9.5% of American children population is affected by chronic

2014). malnutrition, that is 3.2 million children. In Mesoamerica, meanwhile,
chronic malnutrition affects 15.4% of children under 5 years,
Indicator 2.2.1 refers to chronic malnutrition in children under 5, also accounting for 2.5 million children, while in the Caribbean the lowest
known as stunting, which reflects the cumulative deficits of health or prevalence is presented in comparison to the other subregions, 5.3%,
nutrition long-term result of sanitation, nutrition and inadequate food. equivalent to about 200 thousand children.
Their presence results in a reduced propensity for cognitive and
production capabilities, in addition to alterations in the immune system
that favor the development of chronic diseases, which reduce future
capabilities of the person. Usually chronic malnutrition is associated
with the economic conditions of households and countries, and Most countries in the region has reduced the rate of chronic
particularly inequality; Thus, the greater the inequality, the greater the malnutrition. In Dominican Republic and Haiti, for example, the last
concentration of chronic malnutrition in the poorest households (FAO measurement of the proportion of children with stunted growth is 7.1%
and PAHO, (2013) and 21.9% (2012) respectively, accounting for a significant drop
compared to the values recorded at the beginning of the 1990s, when
chronic malnutrition affected 21.2% and 40% of children, respectively
(WHO, online).
The trend of chronic malnutrition exhibits behavior downward from

9 While undernourishment and chronic malnutrition have trended downward in recent
1990 to date, both in Latin America and the Caribbean and decades, this phenomenon, according to the latest estimates, undernourishment has moved
away from this trend (Figures 1 and 2). Explanations of why it is possible to find them in the
definition of indicators. In the case of undernourishment, and as outlined in Box 2 is an
estimate of energy deprivation for the national population of a country. However, chronic
malnutrition is an anthropometric measurements in children under 5 who have low height for
age. While it is expected that both indicators have similar trends, construction and
conceptually are different: underfeeding tends to capture some more circumstantial factors
and chronic malnutrition realizes the consequences of chronic food deprivation sustained
over time. Finally, the frequency with which health surveys that provide the information
necessary for calculating malnutrition are held every five or ten years depending on the
country, and therefore there are temporary differences to be taken into account when
interpreting both series are made .
8 Goal 2.2 also makes explicit reference to the targets agreed by the World Health
Assembly in the comprehensive implementation plan on maternal nutrition, infant and
toddler reference.
| 12 |
FIGURE 6
EVOLUTION OF PREVALENCE (%) OF CHRONIC MALNUTRITION IN LATIN AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN, BY SUBREGION
35 33.7
30
25.5
24.5
25
21.4
20 18,4 18.7
16.0 15.8
15.4
15 13.4
11.3 11.5
11.0 10.6
9.5
10
8.1
6.9 5.3 7.0
5 3.5
0
ALC Caribbean Mesoamerica South America
1990 2000 2010 2016 2025
SOURCE: Global Health Observatory (GHO) (WHO, online).

* Values 2025 are projected.
Guatemala, meanwhile, has the highest prevalence of chronic result in weight gain and fat accumulation, which is associated with
malnutrition in children under 5 years with a some noncommunicable disease (NCD) discussed below (FAO and
46.5% according to the last measurement available (2014). Ecuador OPS, 2017).
(2012), Nicaragua (2006) and Honduras (2012) over 20%, while
Belize (2011) and Panama (2008) are around 19%. Moreover, Chile
(2014), Santa Lucia (2012) and Costa Rica (2008) have the lowest Figures 8 and 9 realize the situation of the two phenomena at regional
rates in the region, with 1.8%, 2.5% and 5.6%, respectively (Figure 7) and country levels. Thus, it is observed that acute malnutrition in 2016
. affected 1.3% of children in Latin America and the Caribbean, lower
than that observed prevalence worldwide. Among the countries most
affected by the phenomenon are Barbados, Guyana, Haiti and Trinidad
and Tobago, which have a prevalence above 5%.
On the other hand, the indicator 2.2.2 addresses the coexistence of
acute malnutrition and overweight in children under 5 years. 10 Acute
malnutrition is defined as deficiency weight for height and realizes
situations where nutrient intake is inadequate or insufficient in the short About child overweight, this affects 7% of children under 5 in Latin
term. It can also facilitate the presence of infections or diseases that, if America and the Caribbean, higher than the world average. The
not addressed early, involve a significant risk of death (FAO and concern in this case lies in the increased risk of diseases and other
PAHO, 2017). Moreover, overweight, product unhealthy lifestyles health and psychosocial problems in children and adolescents, in
involving excessive intake of food and / or foods high in calories, addition to increasing the likelihood that an overweight child present
sodium and fat, has situation in adulthood and develop some NCDs, such as cardiovascular
disease, diabetes and various cancers, which may have significant
consequences for health and personal development (see Box 3). n
10 Although the indicators included in the ODS 2 realize various forms of malnutrition, they
fail to capture some events, such as micronutrient deficiencies. Box 4 provides information
regarding the developments in the region.
| 13 |
FIGURE 7
Prevalence (%) AND NUMBER OF CHILDREN (MILES) IN CHRONIC MALNUTRITION IN LATIN AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN, BY
SUBREGION, different periods
Caribbean
25
300
20
250
15
200
10
150
5
100
0 0 50
HTI BRB DOM CUB JAM TTO LCA

(2012) (2012) (2013) (2000) (2012) (2000) (2012)
prevalence Number of children
Mesoamerica
50 2,000
40
1,500
30
1000
20
10
0 0500
GTM NIC HND BLZ PAN SLV MEX CRI
(2015) (2006) (2012) (2011) (2008) (2014) (2012) (2008)
South America
30 1400
1,200
25
1000
20
15
800
10
600
5
400
0 0 200
ECU (2012) BOL

(2012) PER(2014) VEN(2009) COL(2010) GUY(2014) PRY(2012) URY(2011) SUR(2010) ARG(2005) BRA(2007) CHL(2014)
| 14 |
Figure 8
Prevalence (%) of acute malnutrition CHILDREN UNDER 5 YEARS IN LATIN AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN AND THE WORLD
(2012) 6.8
(2014) BRB 6.4

World 7.7
(2000) GUY 5.2
HTI (2012) TTO 5.2
SUR (2010) 5.0

Caribbean 3.0
VEN (2009) 4.1
LCA (2012) 3.7
BLZ (2011) 3.3

South America 1.3
JAM (2012) 3.0
PRY (2012) 2.6
DOM (2013) 2.4
LAC 1.3 ECU ( 2012) 2.3
SLV (2014) 2.0
MEX (2012) 1.6
Mesoamerica 0.9 BOL (2012) 1.6
BRA (2007) 1.6
NIC (2006) 1.5
0 two 4 6 8 HND (2012) 1.4
URY (2011) 1.3
CRI (2008) 1.0
COL (2010) 0.9
GTM (2015) 0.7
PER (2014) 0.6
CHL (2014) 0.3
0 two 4 6 8
FIGURE 9
PREVALENCE (%) OF OVERWEIGHT IN CHILDREN UNDER 5 YEARS IN LATIN AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN AND THE WORLD
(2012) 12.2
(2012) BRB 11.7
(2014) PRY 9.3

South America 7.4
(2012) CHL 9.0
(2012) MEX 8.7
(2008) BOL 8.1

LAC 7.0
(2011) CRI 7.9
(2012) BLZ 7.8
(2013) JAM 7.6

Caribbean 6.9
(2012) DOM 7.5
(2007) ECU 7.3
2014) BRA 7.2

World 6.0
(2011) PER ( 7.2
(2009) URY 6.4
(2012) VEN 6.3

Mesoamerica 6.0
(2006) LCA 6.2
SLV (2014) NIC 6.0
GUY (2014) 5.3

0 two 4 6 8
HND (2012) 5.2
TTO (2000) 4.9
COL (2010) 4.8
GTM (2015) 4.7
SUR (2010) 4.0
HTI (2012) 3.6
SOURCE: Global Health Observatory (GHO) (WHO, online). 0 two 4 6 8 10 12 14
| 15 |
BOX 3.
ADULT OBESITY
Obesity is an increasingly widespread in the region. According to latest ultraprocesados availability of products (high in sugar, fat and salt) and
figures, 24 countries in Latin America and the Caribbean have a a decline in traditional culinary dishes, prepared with fresh and healthy
proportion of obese people near or above 20% of the population values. food (FAO and PAHO, 2017). This, combined with more sedentary life,
Antigua and Barbuda, Argentina, Trinidad and Tobago and Uruguay, for long working hours, deregulation of the marketing and advertising of
example, about 29% of the population is obese; Chile therefore reaches unhealthy food products, tax incentives and other market failures that
30%; Bahamas, 32%. By contrast, the lowest rates are in Haiti, with favor products that promote weight gain, as well as urbanization without
11% of the population, and Bolivia, Guatemala, Honduras, Paraguay, one planning for a more active and less motorized mobility, form a
Nicaragua and Ecuador, which have rates below 20%. In general, all context that facilitates the increase of overweight and obesity currently. one
regional countries have increased their rates of obesity between 1980
and 2014, with women more widespread phenomenon, as shown in
Figure 3.1.
The consequences resulting overweight and obesity are serious, and

include the increased likelihood of developing non-communicable
Overweight and obesity represent an imbalance between food intake diseases (NCDs) which, as seen in this chapter, are among the leading
and energy expenditure, with subsequent accumulation of body fat that causes of death by disease in the world. It should be noted that among
poses a risk to health. The causes of this phenomenon in the region are the top ten causes of death in countries of the region are NCDs such
many, and among them is the change in eating patterns, with increased as cardiovascular disease, diabetes, hypertension and cancer.
one OMS.2016. Obesity and overweight. 311 sheet no.

Available in: http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs311/es/. Access: 15 July 2017
| 16 |
BOX 3.
(CONTINUATION)
FIGURE 3.1
TREND obesity rates (BMI> 30 kg / m2) in the adult population (over 18 years) BY SEX IN LATIN AMERICA AND THE
CARIBBEAN, 1980-2014
Caribbean (Male) Caribbean (Female)

40 40
37.2
35.6
33.9 34.3
35 35 32.8 33
30.8 31
30.3
29.1 29.4
30 30 28.5
24.6
25 25
20.7 20.9 21.1 20.9
18.7
20 17.8 20
17 16.6 17
16 16,1
15.5 15.2
14.1 14.3
13.7
15 15 13.2 13.1
12.3
11.5
9.7 9.4 9.9
9
10 8.3 10
6.7
5.6
4.7 4.5 4.8
4.3 3.9
3.6 3.8
5 2.9 3 2.9 3.1 5
1.5
0 0
HTI DOM VCT CUB LCA GRD DMA BRB TTO KNA JAM ATG BHS HTI DOM VCT CUB LCA GRD DMA BRB TTO KNA JAM ATG BHS
2014 1980 2014 1980
Mesoamerica (Male) Mesoamerica (Female)

40 40
35 35
32.4
30.4
30 30 28.3 28.5
26.7
25.3
23.9 24.2
23.7 25
25
19.8
19.1
20 20
15.7 15.4
fifteen
15 13.4 15
12.3 12.6 12.1
10.8 10.9 10.6 10.3
9.4
10 7.8
10 7.7
5 5.4
4.8 4.6
3.9 4.3
5 3.2 5
0 0
HND GTM NIC SLV BLZ CRI BREAD MEX HND GTM NIC SLV BLZ CRI BREAD MEX
2014 1980 2014 1980
South America (Male) South America (Women)

40 40
35 35 32.8
32.2
31.3
30.1 30.3
29.4
30 30
26.7
25.4
24.8 24.6
23.5 23.6 24
25 25 23.1
21.9 22
20 18,6 20
17.1 17.4
16.3
15.8
fifteen fifteen 15.1 15.3 fifteen
14.5
13.9
15 15
12.4 12.5
10.5 10.8 10.9 10.5
10
9.1 9.5
10 8.6 10 8.5
6.5
5.7
4.7 5 5
3.6 3.8 3.9
5 3.4 5
0 0
PRY BOWL ECU BRA CABBAGE PER COME ARG GUY URY SOUTH CHL PRY BOWL ECU BRA CABBAGE PER COME ARG GUY URY SOUTH CHL
2014 1980 2014 1980
| 17 |
ODS 3: ENSURING A Globally, nearly all maternal deaths occur in low-income

environments and could be prevented (UN, 2016). 3.1 proposes
HEALTHY LIFE AND the goal of reducing maternal mortality rate to less than 70 per
PROMOTING
WELFARE ALL AGES ALL
100,000 live births. In this matter, virtually every country in Latin
America and the Caribbean have registered progress. According to the
latest figures available, 17 countries in the region are already under the
established target. Haiti is the country with the highest rate, with 359
deaths per 100,000 live births; Uruguay on the other end is located,
with 15 deaths per 100,000 live births. Bahamas, Guyana, Jamaica,
In this section targets and indicators for maternal and infant Suriname and, to a lesser extent, St. Lucia and Venezuela have
mortality and non-communicable diseases (NCDs) are analyzed, worsened their figures from 1990 to date (Figure 10).
given its direct link with the ODS 2 (FAO and PAHO, 2017). Table 3
goals and indicators to consider are detailed.
TABLE 3
TARGETS AND INDICATORS SELECTED ODS 3
Goals Indicators
3.1 By 2030, reduce global maternal mortality rate below 70 per 100,000
3.1.1 Maternal mortality.
live births.
3.2 By 2030, ending the preventable deaths of infants and children under 5
3.2.1 Mortality rate of children under 5 years.
years, with all countries try to reduce neonatal mortality at least 12 per 1,000
live births and the mortality of children under 5 years at least 25 per 1,000
live births.
3.2.2 Neonatal mortality rate.
3.4 By 2030, reduce by one third the premature mortality from

3.4.1 Mortality rate attributed to cardiovascular disease, cancer, diabetes
noncommunicable diseases through prevention and treatment, and
or chronic respiratory diseases.
promote mental health and well-being.
SOURCE: Report of the Inter-Agency and Expert Group on Indicators of Sustainable Development Goals (UN, 2017).
| 18 |
Figure 10
BY MATERNAL MORTALITY RATE 100,000 BIRTHS IN LATIN AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN, 1990 AND 2015
Caribbean
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
BRB GRD CUB VCT LCA TTO BHS JAM DOM HTI
2015 1990 Goal
Mesoamerica
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
CRI BLZ MEX SLV GTM BREAD HND NIC
2015 1990 Goal
South America
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
URY ARG BRA CHL COL ECU PER PRY SUR BOL VEN GUY
2015 1990 Goal
| 19 |
FIGURE 11
MORTALITY RATE UNDER 5 YEARS FOR EACH 1,000 BIRTHS IN LATIN AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN, 1990 AND 2015
Caribbean
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
BHS BRB CUB ATG DMA GRD DOM HTI JAM TTO KNA LCA VCT
2015 1990 Goal
Mesoamerica
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
BLZ CRI SLV GTM HND MEX NIC BREAD
2015 1990 Goal
South America
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
ARG BOL BRA CHL COL ECU PER PRY SUR GUY URY VEN
2015 1990 Goal
| 20 |
FIGURE 12
NEONATAL MORTALITY RATE PER 1,000 BIRTHS IN LATIN AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN, 1990 AND 2015
Caribbean
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
BHS BRB CUB ATG DMA GRD DOM HTI JAM TTO KNA LCA VCT
2015 1990 Goal
Mesoamerica
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
BLZ CRI SLV GTM HND MEX NIC BREAD
2015 1990 Goal
South America
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
2015 1990 Goal
| 21 |
Target 3.2 aims to reduce deaths of newborns and children under 5 70 years NCD. For monitoring the indicator 3.4.1, which measures the
years old, whose success or failure will depend on two indicators: the rate of mortality due to cardiovascular disease, cancer, diabetes and
mortality rate of children under 5 years (indicator chronic respiratory diseases used.
3.2.1) naturally and neonatal mortality rate (indicator 3.2.2). The targets
set for 2030 are 25 and 12 deaths per 1,000 live births, respectively.
Globally, 45% eleven of child deaths are associated with malnutrition Globally, NCDs are responsible for 70% of total deaths, of which
problems, in view of those affected are more likely to develop serious more than half are premature deaths (UN,
diseases, particularly children suffering from severe acute malnutrition,
as are more likely to die from disorders such as diarrhea and diseases 2016). Among the causes of these diseases are smoking, harmful
such as pneumonia (WHO, 2016). drinking, poor diet and physical inactivity, among others. As mentioned
above, global and regional trend of overweight is higher, and this is a
risk factor for the condition of ENT as type 2 diabetes, hypertension
and cardiovascular disease, which results in higher pressure systems
of health. Moreover, micronutrient deficiency, known also as "hidden
hunger" - is a type less visible malnutrition, but with serious health
consequences, both maternal and child (see Box 4) (UN, 2014).
According to the latest estimates, from 1990 to date, all countries
observed in Latin America and the Caribbean has been progress in
reducing the mortality rate of children under 5 years (Figure 11). This
trend is partly explained by increased coverage of health services and
public policies implemented in this area: in almost all countries have
implemented programs of maternal and child care seeking, on the one
hand, reducing maternal mortality, neonatal and in the first year of life;
and secondly, to strengthen immunization and promoting
breastfeeding. It has also implemented food aid programs and prenatal Figure 13 shows the probability of premature death among 30 to
care, among others. 70-years because of ENT, comparing the current situation with the
present 2000. The data indicate that virtually all countries have made
progress in this area. However, to meet the target set for 2030, it is
essential hasten the implementation of actions to reduce the number
of premature deaths.
Currently, five countries still fail to reach the target rate set in Haiti (89
deaths each
1,000 live births), Guyana (38.4), Bolivia (38.4), Dominican Republic Healthy eating is a key condition for reducing malnutrition in all its
(30.9) and Guatemala (29.1). forms, as well as a key to reducing rates of overweight and obesity
element. Hence food is also an important factor to give proper
In Figure 12, while the latest estimates of neonatal mortality, which compliance with the target 3.4 and an axis linking the ODS 2 and 3
account for the same downward trend can be seen. With the (FAO and PAHO, 2017). n
exception of Dominica, all countries have shown progress in this area
and only seven countries are still unable to reduce neonatal mortality
to 12 deaths per 1,000 live births.
Goal 3.4 commits countries to reducing premature mortality

occurred before -those
eleven OMS.2016. Reduction of child mortality. Fact sheet. Available in:

http://www.who.int/mediacentre/ factsheets / fs178 / en /. Access: 19 July 2017
| 22 |
FIGURE 13
PROBABILITY (%) of premature mortality from noncommunicable diseases: cardiovascular disease, cancer, diabetes and
respiratory between 30 and 70 years old, 2000 AND 2015
Caribbean
30
30
27 27
26
25 25 24
25
23 24
twenty-one
twenty
20 19 19 19 19
18
17 17 16
16 16
fifteen
15
10
0
ATG BHS BRD CUB DOM GRD HTI JAM LCA TTO VCT
2000 2015 Goal
Mesoamerica
30
26
25
22
20 19
17 17
16 16
15 15 fifteen 15 14
15 14 14 14
eleven
10
0
BLZ CRI GTM HND MEX NIC BREAD SLV
2000 2015 Goal
South America
30
28 28 28
25
25
twenty-one twenty-one
twenty twenty twenty twenty
20 19
18 18
17 17 17 17
16
fifteen fifteen
15 14
13 13
eleven
10
0
2000 2015 Goal
| 23 |
BOX 4
Micronutrient deficiencies AND BREASTFEEDING
Micronutrient deficiency, defined as the deficit of vitamins and minerals, Low birth weight (FAO and PAHO, 2017). During the early years,
along with the reduction of malnutrition, overweight and obesity is anemia has severe effects on psychomotor development of children,
another major regional challenges. also known as "hidden hunger", he affecting their learning ability, increasing the risk of illness and even
has serious implications for health and physical and cognitive death. Anemia in women of childbearing age (15-49 years), on the other
development, with direct effects on the quality of life of people. Among hand, increases the likelihood of maternal and infant mortality, making it
which is anemia, due to iron deficiency or product development of some a public issue of the first order (Mujica-Coopman, et al., 2015).
diseases, is one of the nutritional problems posed most significant
health risks, particularly when this situation occurs during pregnancy,
and that, in those circumstances, constitutes a risk factor for maternal
death and
Between 2005 and 2015, most countries in the region has shown a
reduction in the proportion of women of childbearing age with anemia,
as can be seen in Figure 4.1.
FIGURE 4.1
Prevalence (%) of anemia in women of childbearing age in LATIN AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN, 2005 AND 2015
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
LCA COL ECU PER GUY TTO ATG BRB BLZ PAN JAM GRD GTM SLV VCT SUR CUB MEX BHS BOL VEN DOM HND HTI CRI NIC PRY ARG BRA CHL URY
2015 2005
| 24 |
BOX 4
(CONTINUED)
Moreover, breastfeeding (Figure 4.2) is a key factor in promoting good

nutritional status of children, as it generates a number of benefits to age, including reducing infant mortality from diseases (diarrhea and
children's health if exclusive breastfeeding is maintained up to 6 months respiratory infections), prevention of overweight and some
non-communicable diseases (FAO and PAHO,
2017).
FIGURE 4.2
RATE OF EXCLUSIVE BREASTFEEDING IN CHILDREN UNDER 6 MONTHS OLD IN LATIN AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN, different
periods
68.4
70
64.3
65
60
55 53.2
50 47.0
45 42.8
39.7
40
35 32.7 33.2 32.5 33.2

31.2 31.7
30
23.3 23.8
25
21.5
20
14.4
15
10
4.7
5 2.8
0
BLZ
ARG (2012)
(2016) BOL
(2012) COL
(2010) CRI
(2011) CUB
(2014) DOM
(2014) GTM
(2015) GUY
(2014) HND
(2012) HTI
(2012) JAM
(2011) MEX
(2012) NIC
(2012) PAN
(2014) PER
(2012) SLV
(2014) SUR
(2010)
| 25 |
© FAO
| 26 |
CHAP Í CHAPTER
ANALYSIS OF
DIME
FOOD
AND
NUTRITION
SECURITY
| 27 |
EPISODE 2
ANALYSIS OF THE DIMENSIONS OF

FOOD SECURITY AND NUTRITION
AVAILABILITIES D
REGION REMAINS A GOOD PERFORMANCE
main messages ON AGRICULTURE, WHICH HAVE ALLOWED

HAS MORE THAN ENOUGH FOOD FOR entire
and Latin America and the Caribbean produces enough population
food to meet the needs of its population. However, this
does not ensure a healthy and nutritious food, since it also
requires an availability of a variety of foods, good nutrition
and safe quality that allow end hunger and all forms of Adequate levels of food production 12 It is one of the most important to
ensure the achievement of food and nutritional security factors. The
malnutrition.
region has been characterized over the past decades have more than
enough food to meet the needs of its population, as shown in Figure
14. 13
and Latin America and the Caribbean has great productive

capacity, which positions it as a food supplier globally.
However, this situation differs between countries and
Figure 15 shows the evolution of food production by subregion. an
subregions, showing different thresholds of domestic
upward trend in South America and Mesoamerica, beyond some falls
production, so that trade plays an important role in food in some specific periods can be clearly observed. Caribbean after a
and nutrition security role. Food trade is also an significant drop during the 1990s, records a significant increase since
opportunity to exploit synergies between the countries of the mid 2000s Furthermore, per capita production realizes an increase
the region and other regions, and ensuring the availability of food production over growth
of food.
12 Food production includes products that are considered edible and nutritious.
Accordingly, coffee and tea are excluded because, although edible, they have little
and The variety of food availability differs between nutritional value.
countries and not necessarily respond to their productive
13 It should be noted that the values hide large differences between regions and even within
capacity. Thus, factors such as trade and the food
them. South America, given its size, explains much of the trend in Latin America and the
environment are key to establishing a supply of healthy Caribbean in productive terms, while representing 80% of food production in the region, as
reflected in Figure 14.
foods.
| 28 |
of the population in the three subregions. Only in the Caribbean in reaching 7.2 million hectares; however, yields increased by 43% in
the 1990s, the population growth exceeded production of food. the same period, accounting for 22% increase in regional
production. 14
Greater detail at the level of some product groups confirms the above
trend. In Figure 16 it can be seen that production has been increasing The outlook for growth in agricultural production for the coming years
in the eight food groups observed (oilseeds, fruits, vegetables, roots are favorable. The region has natural resources to continue growing.
and tubers, legumes, cereals, milk and meat). In the last decade, In productivity, as noted, the trend is also positive. When comparing
oilseeds and cereals are food groups that have been more dynamic yields fifteen Latin America and the Caribbean with other producing
growth, 60% and 43%, respectively; Similarly, meat and milk showed regions, significant gaps (; FAO and PAHO, 2017 FAO, 2015a) are
significant increases during this period, with growth rates of 37% and appreciated. These indicate that the region still has ample room to
31% for each group. grow in this area. Of course, growth of production and productivity
must be developed within a framework of environmental and social
sustainability that can respond to the pressures of rising food demand
driven by demographic changes, urbanization, aging population and
changes in the structure of demand following higher income (FAO,
2017A).
This responds, in some cases, increased performance, while in others

an increase in the cultivated area. For example, in the case of cereals,
an increase in yield of almost one third compared with the 2002-04
triennium, reaching 4.1 tons per hectare on average for the last period
observed are warned; while increasing the acreage was lower,
reaching 8.3% during that period. By contrast, oilseeds a significant
increase in the cultivated area, nearly 50% increase over the last
decade, reaching about 60 million hectares, which are devoted mostly Food production is very important for food security and nutrition.
to soybean cultivation is observed; in the same period the performance What is, however, the weight that production in food availability in the
of oil increased by 6.6%. Legumes, meanwhile, countries of the region. Figure 17 realizes the importance of
production within
14 Calculations from FAOSTAT (FAO, online).
fifteen In previous versions of Panorama of Food and Nutrition Security yields have been
addressed from the perspective of production (for example, t / ha) and Agricultural Value
Added per worker.
| 29 | | 29
EPISODE 2 ANALYSIS OF THE DIMENSIONS OF FOOD SECURITY AND NUTRITION
FIGURE 14
BREAKDOWN OF NET FOOD PRODUCTION IN LATIN AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN, 1961-2014, IN MILLIONS
OF DOLLARS INTERNATIONAL 2004-2006 CONSTANT
300
200
100
0
1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2014
South America Mesoamerica Caribbean
SOURCE: from FAOSTAT (FAO, online) Development.
| 30 |
FIGURE 15
NET INDEX TRENDS AND PER CAPITA FOOD PRODUCTION (BASE: 2004-06 = 100) SUBREGIONS OF LATIN AMERICA AND THE
CARIBBEAN, 1961-2013
South America
150
100
50
1961 1971 1981 1991 2001 2011
Mesoamerica
150
100
50
1961 1971 1981 1991 2001 2011
Caribbean
150
100
50
1961 1971 1981 1991 2001 2011
net production Production per capita

* A rise in per capita production index indicates growth in food production above the population growth.
| 31 |
domestic supplies, 16 and reveals that in South America agricultural THE REGION HAS THE POTENTIAL TO
production provides almost the entire volume that makes up the
PROMOTE ABASTO INVOLVING
domestic supply. Groups observed food, production of roots and tubers
and pulses is not sufficient to cover domestic supply; By contrast, INTRA-REGIONAL TRADE RISING FOOD
production of oilseeds, fruits, cereals and meat exceeds the level of
domestic supply. A different reality seen in the Caribbean, where
production alone is not sufficient to meet domestic supply observed in
all products except fruits. In Mesoamerica, while the production of Good productive performance previously noted the region has
vegetables and fruits is more than enough to meet domestic supply, positioned itself as a major player in international markets as an
which is not seen in other products. exporter of food and agricultural products globally. In fact, in Figure 18
it can be seen that the share of production for international markets is,
for all groups observed, higher compared to the previous decade
products. 35% of crop production of oil, 33% fruit and 31% of cereals
for export, 17 which it has meant that the region is responsible for 38% of
global oil exports, 30% fruit and 19% meat. 18
This realizes that food production is not the only way in which countries
build their national supply; domestic production is an important factor,
although not the only one. So that, when the internal production is more
than sufficient to meet the demand subregional, food are exported; and
when circumstances are the opposite and domestic production can not
cope also to meet domestic demand, food is imported. Thus, trade In aggregate terms, Latin America and the Caribbean is a net exporter
plays an important role in providing a regional level. The commercial of food products. 19 In 2016, exports of food and agricultural products
situation of some foods will be discussed in more detail in the next exceeded 205 billion dollars, which represented a fall of 0.5% on food
section. n exports last year. Imports, meanwhile, were about 83 billion, 1.3%
above the total procurement of the region the previous year, bringing
the trade balance exceeded 122 billion dollars (Figure 19).
The countries with the largest economies in the region are major
agricultural exporters Brazil was responsible for just over one-third of
shipments in the region in 2016, while showing a decline in exports of
5.3% from immediately preceding year. Argentina and Mexico,
however, hold their agri-shipments increase 5.3% and 7.6%,
respectively, between 2015 and
17 The figure confirms that most of the production is destined for domestic markets and a
smaller proportion is destined to international markets.
16 Refers to supplies of basic food component, the total amount of product available for 18 Calculations from FAOSTAT.
human consumption during the year products. The production, changes in inventories, 19 In the food item they are considered all products, both primary and processed, between
imports and exports. the Chapters 01 through 24 of HS.
| 32 |
FIGURE 16
EVOLUTION OF PRODUCTION (MILLION TONS) BY SELECTED FOOD GROUPS IN LATIN AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN, 1962-1964 A
2012-14
200
150
100
50
0
meats Cereals Fruits Vegetables Milk Legumes Oilseeds Roots &
tubers
1962-1964 1972-1974 1982-1984 1992-1994 2002-04 2012-14
| 33 |
FIGURE 17
PRODUCTION AND DOMESTIC ratio SUPPLY IN SELECTED AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS, BY SUBREGION IN LATIN AMERICA
AND THE CARIBBEAN, 1970-1973 A 2010-13
South America
200
150
100
50
0
Meat Cereals fruits Vegetables Milk Roots and LegumbresOleaginosas
tubers
Mesoamerica
200
150
100
50
0
tubers
Caribbean
200
150
100
50
0
tubers
1970-1973 1990-1993 2010-13

* Values over 100 indicate that production is greater than domestic supply, and values lower than 100 subregional production itself does not cover
supplies, opens a space for trade.
| 34 |
FIGURE 18
EXPORTS AND PRODUCTION ratio of agricultural products SELECTED IN LATIN AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN, 1970-1973 A 2010-13
40
30
20
10
0
meats Cereals Fruits Vegetables Milk Legumes Oilseeds Roots &
tubers
1970-1973 1980-1983 1990-1993 2000-03 2010-13
| 35 |
2016. Together, these three countries account for about two thirds of 2016A). However, trade is also responsible for a part of the range of
exports in the region. Colombia, Uruguay and Venezuela also showed products that contribute to overweight, obesity and malnutrition (FAO,
declines in food exports compared to 2015; In addition, Central 2016A).
American and Caribbean countries showed declines in exports
compared with the previous year.
Trade takes on fundamental relevance when the production of
certain goods is not enough by itself to meet demand. An example
of this can be seen in Figure 20, where it is evident that South
America is a net exporter of almost all analyzed seven groups of
As regards imports, Mexico is the largest importer of food products in food; 22 on the contrary, the Caribbean is a net importer of almost all
the region, despite its acquisitions fell slightly, by 1% compared to food groups considered.
2015. Brazil is the second largest importer, followed by the
Caribbean as a whole; in the case of the latter imports they
presented a reduction of 12.7% twenty while in Brazil these showed an
increase of 14% over the same period.
The goods in Figure 20, dairy, grain and meat are foods that involve
higher costs in the import bill. The origin of these foods realizes
markets that are most relevant for each subregion (Figure 21). For the
Caribbean, the United States is a major supplier of meat and cereals,
responsible, respectively, 67% and 47% of purchases in the subregion
In Table 4 it is seen that most countries in the region are net exporters, of these products, both from the European Union provides a significant
although export capacity differ significantly from country to country. El proportion of dairy products (33%), although the South American
Salvador, Panama, Venezuela and the Caribbean subregion as a countries have also been relevant to the provision of these foods. In
whole were the only net importers in 2016. Mesoamerica, the importance of US imports for the three products
tested (between 22% and 86%) is observed, however, an important
part of this is due to the weight that Mexico imports in the subregion.
Considering only the Central American countries, it shows that trade
In the context of Agenda 2030, trade has a role to play to contribute to with the subregion itself is significant in dairy products (55%) and meat
the achievement of the ODS. The eradication of the different forms of (30%). Finally, in South America, the subregion itself is the main
malnutrition requires that markets provide enough safe food and varied supplier of the three food groups. This realizes the importance of
necessary for a healthy, nutritious diet. While the potential food trade intra-regional trade in the availability of some of the relevant commodity
can have for food and nutrition security (FAO, 2015b; FAO and PAHO, for the region. the subregion itself is the main supplier of the three food
2017) is recognized, the effects this may have on food supplies are groups. This realizes the importance of intra-regional trade in the
heterogeneous, and it is necessary to It has a broad set of variables in availability of some of the relevant commodity for the region. the
the analysis. For example, trade has helped to expand the range and subregion itself is the main supplier of the three food groups. This
diversity of foods that are part of a nutritious diet. In addition, trade realizes the importance of intra-regional trade in the availability of some
contributes to stabilize the food supply twenty-one ( FAO, of the relevant commodity for the region. n
twenty Trade figures for some Caribbean countries correspond to mirror

statistics.
twenty-one However, it is necessary to note that as there are more open to international
trade, countries have higher levels of exposure to vulnerabilities associated with sudden
changes in agricultural markets (FAO, 2015b). This situation can affect the prices at which
consumers and producers face.
22 Tubers, legumes, dairy products, vegetables, fruits, cereals and meat.
| 36 |
FIGURE 19
EVOLUTION (MILLIONS OF CONSTANT DOLLARS 2016) AGRI-FOOD TRADE IN LATIN AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN, 2007-2016
250,000
200,000
150,000
100,000
50,000
2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016
imports exports Trade balance
SOURCE: from Global Trade Atlas (GTA, online) and International Trade Center (ITC, online) Development.
TABLE 4
AGROALIMENTARIOS TRADE FLOWS (IN MILLIONS OF DOLLARS) 2016
exports imports trade balance
Argentina 36396 2,217 34,179
Bolivia 1,495 741 754
Brazil 69,572 10,981 58591
Chile 15,388 5,763 9,625
Colombia 6,795 6,042 753
Costa Rica 3,602 1,819 1,783
Ecuador 9,464 1,780 7,684
The Savior 1,006 1,831 - 825
Guatemala 4,904 2,597 2,307
Honduras 2,497 1,563 934
Mexico 28965 24,640 4,325
Nicaragua 2,004 954 1,050
Panama 460 1,754 -1,294
Paraguay 5,407 869 4,538
Peru 7,781 4,419 3,362
Uruguay 4,487 1,121 3,366
Venezuela 68 5,175 - 5,107
Caribbean 4,933 8,583 - 3,650
Latin America and the Caribbean 205222 82848 122374
SOURCE: from Global Trade Atlas (GTA, online) and International Trade Center (ITC, online) Development.
| 37 |
FIGURE 20
TRADE BALANCES (US $ MILLIONS) agricultural products SELECTED SUBREGIONS OF LATIN AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN,
2013-15
South America
Fruit
Cereals
Meat
Vegetables
Dairy
Legumes
Roots and tubers
0 5,000 10,000 15,000 20,000
Mesoamerica
Fruit
Cereals
Meat
Vegetables
Dairy
Legumes
Central Mexico
Roots and tubers
-4000 - 2,000 0 2,000 4000 6,000
Caribbean
Fruit
Cereals
Meat
Vegetables
Dairy
Legumes
Roots and tubers
- 1,500 -1000 - 500 0 500
SOURCE: from World Integrated Trade Solution (WITS) and the International Trade Center (ITC) Development.
| 38 |
FIGURE 21
ORIGIN OF IMPORTS (MILLION DOLLARS) DAIRY, GRAINS AND MEATS IN LATIN AMERICA AND SUBREGIONS CARIBBEAN,
2. 3
2013-15
South America
Cereals
Dairy Meat
0 twenty 40 60 80 100
South America Mesoamerica
U.S European Union (27)
Mesoamerica
Central America
Cereals
Dairy Meat
Mexico
Meat Dairy
Cereals
0 twenty 40 60 80 100
Caribbean
Cereals
Dairy Meat
0 twenty 40 60 80 100
South America Mesoamerica Caribbean
SOURCE: from World Integrated Trade Solution (WITS) and the International Trade Center (ITC) Development.
2. 3 The tariff codes used for each food group are: cereals (Chapter 10), meat (Chapter 02), fruits (Chapter 08), dairy (0401, 0402, 0403, 0404, 0405 and 0406), vegetables (heading
0702, 0703, 0704, 0705, 0706, 0707, 0709, 0710, 0711 and
0712), tubers and roots (headings 0701, 0714) and vegetables (0708 and 0713).
| 39 |
FOOD AN AMOUNT SUFFICIENT not availability by 18%. In the Caribbean, also availability of fish has fallen
about 8% over the same period.
ensure a safe and nutritious food
While the increased food supply is necessary to ensure the adequacy,

it does not ensure that people eat a balanced diet that provides the
In all countries for which data are available, except for Haiti, availability proper amount of nutrients needed to maintain a healthy weight and an
exceeds average food needs of its population. 24 Figure 22 gives the active and healthy life. As set out in the Framework for Action of the
most common thing in terms of food availability, such as food Second International Conference on Nutrition (CIN2) and the ODS, that
sufficiency in energy terms. In South America, food availability exceeds premise becomes more important when the lack of nutrients and rates
31% on average energy requirements of its population, while of obesity and overweight show worrying levels, with the usual
Mesoamerica exceeds 27% and the Caribbean by 15%. consequences these have on the health of people. 25 In this regard, a
healthy diet is critical to the eradication of all forms of malnutrition
element and to prevent NCDs (WHO, 2015).
Cereals are the main heat source in the region, totaling about 36% of
calories available (FAO and PAHO, 2017). However, having foods that
have a higher energy density, the importance of other foods
containing a minor contribution in caloric terms hides, but are On the other hand, they are not only important quantity and origin of
nutritionally relevant, such as fruits and vegetables, which together food calories, but also what these calories mean in terms of
exceed the available volume of cereals . Figure 23 shows that virtually macronutrients. WHO (2003) gives guidelines therefore recommend,
all observed groups have increased their food availability per capita in for example, a fat intake should not exceed 30% of total calories
some cases significantly so in the period from 1961-1963 and 2011- consumed by one person a day, consuming less sugar than 10% and
even less than 5 % of calories consumed per day, while consumption of
protein ought to be between 10% and 15% of daily caloric intake and
consumption should remain at least 400 grams of fruit and vegetables,
among other recommendations. The increased availability of fruits and
vegetables can comply with the recommendation by WHO in this
matter, n
13. Examples are vegetables, which increased from 196 grams to the
78 day per person in the Caribbean; in Mesoamerica you're more than
doubled, reaching 147 grams per day per person, while in South
America increased by 33%. The available amount of meat per capita,
meanwhile, has more than doubled in the three subregions. Cereals, on
the other hand, have also presented increases, although more modest,
and have reduced their relative importance in terms of other food
groups. Finally, in South America tubers have reduced both the amount
(30%) as their relative importance, whereas the same has happened
Mesoamerica with legumes, which saw their
24 The normative reference used in caloric terms for proper nutrition: Average Dietary
Energy Requirement ( ADER). Indicator developed by FAO.
25 As it noted in Chapter 1 of this publication.
| 40 |
FOOD TRADE POLICIES AND Finally, it has been observed that trade also has effects on the
characteristics of dietary patterns, promoting the increased availability
HEALTHY EATING
of certain foods and products at the domestic level, thereby increasing
convergence of dietary habits in the world (Hawkes, 2006; UNSCN,
2017, Friel et al.
Much of this chapter has been dedicated to presenting trends in
agricultural trade, especially food trade, as a determinant of food
availability. Indeed, trade is a key element in shaping the food supply: 2013). In view of this, the food trade is an important factor to consider
not only through imports, but also directly impact food production and in promoting healthy eating component. n
its characteristics (FAO, 2015b). For example, demand for certain
products in international markets can create incentives to increase
production, causing increases in supply; On the other hand, the
increased availability of them can have positive effects on the quantity
and price of food available to the population.
FOOD TRADE AND CHARACTERISTICS OF FOOD
AVAILABILITY
International trade can have varying effects on food availability,

depending on the characteristics of each country. Increasing imports
for a net importer of food, for example, can have a positive impact in
the short term on the amount and variety of foods available; however,
it can also affect the medium and long term food availability, the
Of course, the discussion regarding the relationship between trade and negative impact on domestic production in the event that it can not
food and nutrition security is not confined to availability. It has been compete with imported food. From the point of view of exports, trade
suggested that trade has an impact on national economic variables liberalization can create incentives for increased production of high
such as production, prices, competition, labor market, infrastructure value commodities in international markets. To the extent that its
and public budgets, and these in turn have indirect effects on variables production does not benefit only the more privileged economic
such as food supply, household income and the presence of public sectors,
services, which are determining the state of the four dimensions of food
and nutrition security (FAO, 2015b).
There is also a growing debate about the role of trade in nutrition.

international commitments such as the ODS or CIN2 have highlighted
the close relationship between food security and nutrition, and how this
is particularly evident in the characteristics of food as a common factor
of phenomena such as hunger and malnutrition (FAO and OPS , 2017).
It is observed, in particular the need to improve the coherence of public Overall, the data indicate that trade, particularly imports have
policies to enhance positive impacts of trade on nutrition and reduce to increased at the same time food production per capita in developing
a minimum the potential negative effects (UNSCN, 2015). countries. On the other hand, at the aggregate level there would be
evidence that imports have significant effects on reducing production
(Diaz-Bonilla, 2015). However, as the expansion of trade flows has
increased food availability in terms of quantity and variety,
| 41 |
FIGURE 22
SUFFICIENCY OF SUPPLY ENERGY ENVIRONMENT FOOD (%) IN LATIN AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN, 1990-92 to 2014-16
130
120
110
100
90
0 1994-1996 1990-1901 2004-06 2009-11 2014-16
Latin America and the Caribbean South America Mesoamerica Caribbean
SOURCE: Food Security Indicators (FAO, 2016).

* The indicator is expressed as a percentage of Caloric Availability by People (DES) over energy requirements Caloric Average (ADER). Values
above 100 indicate that caloric availability than the energy requirements.
FIGURE 23
FOOD AVAILABILITY (averages KGS / day / person) BY FOOD GROUP subregions of Latin America and the
Caribbean, 1961-63 to 2011-13
2,000
1,500
1000
0500
1961-1963 2011-13 1961-1963 2011-13 1961-1963 2011-13
Caribbean Mesoamerica South America
Cereals Fish Meat Milk Vegetables
Roots and tubers Sugar Vegetables Fruits
| 42 |
It comes entail greater access to processed products and high in as high dependence on imports noted by some countries to support
sugars and fats. At least globally, some studies posit that even though the growing supply of pre-fried potatoes, which in turn are offered
production and the amount of calories available in the world has mainly in the chain fast food restaurants.
increased steadily over the past 50 years, the sources of such
availability have remained relatively unchanged over the same period
of time (Remans, Wood, Saha, Anderman, & DeFries, 2014). The
increase in imports, on the other hand, has been associated with the On the other hand, Hawkes (2006) also notes the effects of another
"nutrition transition" currently seen in countries of low and middle phenomenon resulting from trade and trade liberalization, as is the
income, and has involved increased consumption of meat, dairy and increase in foreign direct investment (FDI, for its acronym in English).
processed and ultraprocesados products (FAO , 2015b). As recently it Studying the case of Mexico, it shows how between 1995 and 2003
pointed out, investment trading partners like the United States increased in the
processed food industry and in the area of the supermarket chains.
This investment brought increased availability and consumption of
sugary foods and drinks ultraprocesados, which became more
accessible not only in big cities but also in villages and suburban
areas.
Do you have a role in trade food? And if so, how trade can help These studies are consistent with those reported by the Standing
improve nutrition and establishing healthy eating patterns more? Committee of the United Nations for Nutrition (UNSCN, 2015),
Increased imports of ultraprocesados food and / or "unhealthy" for regarding the positive effects it can have trade and trade liberalization
example, is associated in some small island states of the Pacific in nutrition, as its policies are consistent with the targets for improving
Ocean to an increase in the proportion they represent in spending and nutrition:
caloric consumption of households (Estimé Lutz, & Strobel, 2014),
which becomes an alert for island countries and net food importers. 26 For
Latin America and the Caribbean, Thow and Hawkes (2009) studied
the effects of trade liberalization from 1990 onwards in the food supply 1) That all people have adequate, nutritious and healthy
in Central America, 27 and they observed increases in the availability of food;
basic grains like rice and yellow corn. Increasing the availability of the
latter cereal, on the other hand, I would have brought about increases
in production and 2) That all people consume an adequate amount of
micronutrients;
3) That all people consume safe food;
4) That poverty decline;
availability of chicken. Although it has limited data, the study also 5) That mothers to breastfeed their infants.
indicates that imports have increased snacks and
26 In the 2016 edition Panorama the fundamental role played by food education to cope with
the increased availability of ultraprocesados products analyzed. For example, Caribbean
countries like Saint Vincent and the Grenadines and Jamaica have implemented initiatives
to reduce fat intake and increase fruits and vegetables, respectively (FAO and PAHO,
2017).
27 It does not, therefore, to Mexico and Belize.
| 43 |
TRADE POLICY CONSISTENCY WITH NUTRITION: Guatemala, under the free trade agreement CAFTA RD; or temporary
SOME REGIONAL BACKGROUND authorizations for food imports with zero tariffs in Brazil (maize), Bolivia
(corn, wheat, sorghum and wheat flour) and Venezuela (a total of 94
agricultural and food products).
Trade policies are defined as those that can potentially affect trade
flows, either through instruments on international or domestic markets
(FAO, 2015b). Define, therefore, the way in which States regulate
transactions outside and within national borders, and are designed not The direct effect of declining import tariffs is the increase in supply and
only to influence the physical flow of goods, but also the provision of decrease in food prices affected. However, it is important to note that,
services and economic exchange (UNSCN, 2015). in the case of many net food importing countries, tariffs on food imports
are already low, and reduction or elimination may have, therefore less
impact on consumer prices (FAO, 2015b).
Then the policies on the international exchange of goods and

services under the framework of examples of recent measures
undertaken by countries in the region, analyzes its potential In some countries of the world it has been observed that the reduction
interaction with nutrition and healthy eating are characterized. It is in import tariffs on fruits and vegetables has a positive impact on its
important to note that this does not mean, under any circumstances, domestic availability. However, there is no clear evidence that this
establishing causality between the implementation of certain policies measure will benefit low-income households (UNSCN, 2015). Declining
in the region and nutritional situation of the countries that comprise it, import tariffs leads to reduced domestic prices for all consumers and
as it is beyond the scope of this section. not necessarily those who need to improve their diets.
tariff policies: The presence of import tariffs and export of food is one Trade restrictions: Tariffs and deliver positive or negative for the
of the most common measures of trade policy, both represent an easy exchange of certain products incentives, another instrument of policy in
deployment option to deal with events such as increases in this area is the partial or total restriction on imports or exports. During
international food prices (FAO, 2015b). Tariffs also are an important the crisis in food prices in 2007-2008, for example, several net food
source of tax revenue, which can then be used in the implementation exporters established restrictions to ensure domestic food supply
of policies to mitigate the potential negative effects of trade on food (FAO, 2015b). Within this category of policies can be seen, in the last
security and nutrition, as well as take full advantage of the positive period, Argentina replaced the registration system Export Operations
way. (ROE) for grains and oilseeds Affidavits by foreign sales (DJVE). While
the ROE was seeking to regulate the volume of exports, in order to
ensure domestic supplies, the DJVE not set limits for the export of
these products.
The trend of recent years in the region corresponds to lower tariffs,

either through permanent reduction of import tariffs, or through the
creation of tariff quotas allow the import of a certain quantity of
products with lower tariffs on provided. It noted, for example, the
elimination of tariffs for imports of chicken leg from the United States
by
Overall export restrictions may have, in the short term, positive
effects on food supplies at the household level, increasing the
availability and
| 44 |
decreasing prices. However, in the medium term producer prices lower Direct (IDF, for its acronym in English) can have decisive effects on
than international prices tend to discourage food production, with dietary patterns, affecting nutrition objectives related to the
negative effects on the availability of adequate food for the population consumption of healthy eating and adequate intake of micronutrients
(FAO, 2015b). for the entire population. In particular, Hawkes (2006) pays attention to
the role of transnational food industry and their increasing presence
can generate a double effect of convergence and adaptation of dietary
patterns. In particular, this means that certain food products have been
Trade restrictions may also take the form of phytosanitary measures, rapidly integrated into the food supply countries, but this mainstreaming
for example by temporarily suspending imports from any specific is in turn determined by differentiated niches consumption capacity.
trading partner, due to breaches in health regulations for import. This Following the example mentioned above on the availability of fruits and
happened recently between Brazil and some countries in the region vegetables,
such as Panama, which suspended the importation of processed
meat products from the South American country to certification of
compliance with the Panamanian sanitary standards. Measures how
are you allow to meet the nutritional objective to ensure safe food.
Trade agreements: Trade agreements are, in general, the means by

which the United normatively establish trade liberalization. Regional
and bi-national treaties, in particular, allow preferential access of
goods between the signatories to the agreement, and usually are
accompanied by the harmonization of sanitary and trade rules. Thus,
for example, the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) Against this, the proposal UNSCN (2015) is to increase coherence
provides for equal treatment between domestic and foreign investors, between trade policies and nutrition, by establishing complementary
while the MERCOSUR establishes a form of nutrition labeling for all its policies that weigh its effects. Thus, trade policy oriented food security
members (UNSCN, 2015). and nutrition and healthy eating should be considered as part of a
package that includes other interventions aimed at producers and
consumers, especially those most vulnerable (FAO, 2015b). For
example, the reduction of poverty and inequality will be key to the
entire population to consume more varied and healthy by reducing the
effect on income access to foods. n
During this period they have signed trade agreements between

countries in the region, as in the case of the Free Trade Agreement
(FTA) between Chile and Uruguay, Colombia and Peru and Costa
Rica or Honduras; have also established agreements with other
countries, as happened with the signing of the FTA between South
Korea six Central American countries (Costa Rica, El Salvador,
Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua and Panama).
trade agreements like NAFTA can have positive effects on food

availability. However, as mentioned above, the resulting increase in
foreign investment
| 45 |
SOCIO-ECONOMIC SITUATION CURRENT

ACCESS
CONDITIONS ADVANCES in eradicating hunger
main messages in Latin America and the Caribbean
and Stagnant economic growth in Latin America and the

Caribbean, and the slower speed of the dynamics of ECONOMIC CONTRACTION impact on the employment and poverty
reducing poverty and extreme poverty in recent years,
difficult to eradicate hunger and malnutrition. Similarly, the
persistence of income inequality puts pressure on access
to food and thus in the food and nutrition security. Economic growth is one of the key indicators to determine the
availability of income generation. The trend the region in this area has
deteriorated in the last period; since 2012 a slowdown in GDP growth is
observed and, from 2015, a decrease, reaching -1.3% during 2016, the
first recession in more than a year since the 1980s (Figure 24). This is
explained largely by the significant decline in the price of commodities
and The poor population spends a higher proportion of in international markets, which has affected mainly the countries of
their income to purchase food. In a context of economic South America, most of whom are exporters of these products.
Although the prices of commodities have recorded a rise of 28% from
slowdown, lower income and purchasing power, the
January 2016 to date, 28
amount of quality food that you access the most vulnerable
population is threatened by increasing consumption of
cheaper food, but with higher energy density and lower
nutritional value .
(IMF, online). To this must be added a context of uncertainty in

international politics as well as the development of political processes
of different nature in the countries of the region, which have an impact
on levels of investment and consumption. So for the next few years a
slow recovery is expected, with a projected growth of just 1.1% for
2017, and would reach 2.5% in 2018 (UN, 2017B).
As a result of the economic downturn, the urban unemployment rate in

Latin America and the Caribbean for 2016 reached 8.9%, up 1.6
percentage points from that of 2015 (Figure 25), the highest increase
annually in more than two decades (ECLAC and ILO, 2017). In the
region, 13 of 20 countries showed an increase in the rate of urban
unemployment. Countries
28 The total index commodities IMF is, to June

2016 at 106.84. Registered before 2014 values were close to 180.
| 46 |
FIGURE 24
REAL GDP GROWTH (%) IN LATIN AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN, 2010-2018P
6.0
4.5
2.9
2.8
2.5
6
45
1.1
0.7
23
01
- 0.6
-1
- 1.3
-two
2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016e 2017p 2018p
SOURCE: UN (2017A and 2017B). e /

Estimated p / Projection
FIGURE 25
URBAN UNEMPLOYMENT (%) IN LATIN AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN, 2005-2016
10 9.7
8.8 8.9
8.7
8.2 8.2
8 7.6
7.4 7.3 7.3
7.1
6.9
0
2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016th
SOURCE: ECLAC and ILO, 2017. a /

preliminary figure
| 47 |
South America show the largest increases in their rates of urban enough to cover their basic food needs. 30 In Figure 27 the relationship
unemployment, which is related, as mentioned above, with the deepest between extreme poverty and underfeeding occurs. The correlation
economic contraction effects presented in the subregion. coefficient between extreme poverty and undernourishment, in an
analysis of 18 countries in the region, 31 It is 67.2%, which means that
higher extreme poverty rates higher prevalences of undernutrition are
presented. 32 In fact, Figure 26 shows that undernourishment decreases
From a national perspective, the most pronounced increase was as reduce poverty and extreme poverty, while in recent years can be
observed in Brazil, where, for seen stagnation in reducing rates of malnutrition at the regional level,
2016, the unemployment rate rose to 13%, 3.7 percentage points alongside a slowdown in poverty reduction.
higher than the previous year (ECLAC and ILO, 2017). One can
observe also a deterioration of the quality of work, which is reflected in
an increase of 1.9% 29 in the employment rate of self-employment. This
type of employment becomes, in situations such as the current
economic downturn, in an alternative income generation for
unemployed employees and new members of the labor market who
can not find formal work (ECLAC and ILO, 2017).
It is important to analyze what areas, sectors or persons to which
poverty affects substantially, in order to focus the efforts of public
policies according to the needs of the population are. In the region, as
seen in Figure 28, the rate of both poverty and extreme poverty is
much higher in rural areas than urban. Although this gap has been
The slow recovery of GDP and rising unemployment mean lower declining in recent years, both rural poverty and extreme rural poverty
income at the household level, which is mainly reflected in the are still 20 and 22 percentage points above the urban areas
stagnating trend of reducing poverty and extreme poverty from 2013. respectively. According to the latest available data, 2014 prevalence
of extreme rural poverty is 27.6% and urban is 8%, while rural poverty
is 46.2% and urban is
Figure 26 shows how the sustained growth of GDP per capita he was
accompanied by a significant reduction in poverty and
undernourishment. However, in recent periods of economic slowdown
have also been observed increases in poverty; Thus, after several
years of significant reductions between 2013 and 2015 the number of
poor people increased from 166 million to 175 million, which means an 23.8% (ECLA, online). n
increase from 28.1% to
29.2% of the population affected in the same period. In addition,

extreme poverty began to reverse the downward trend exhibited since
2002, increasing from 66 million (11.3%) in 2012 to 75 million in 2015
(12.4%) (ECLAC, 2015).
I mentioned above also jeopardizes the great progress in food and

30 The basic food basket (CBA) covers the goods necessary to meet the nutritional needs of
nutrition security, considering that people who fall under the line of the population, and is used by ECLAC to determine the extreme poverty line in each country.
extreme poverty have, by definition, income
31 Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, El Salvador,

Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Dominican
Republic, Uruguay and Venezuela.
29 Weighted average occupancy rates of 12 countries in the region (ECLAC and ILO, 32 values greater than zero indicate, the closer to 1 positive correlation being both
2017). variables, the correlation is higher.
| 48 |
FIGURE 26
PER CAPITA GDP (in constant 2010 dollars), poverty and extreme poverty and undernourishment (%) IN LATIN AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN,
1994-2015
50 12,000
10,000
40
8,000
30
6,000
20
4000
10
2,000
0 0
1994
1997
1999
2002
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
Poverty Extreme poverty underfeeding

2015
GDP per capita (right axis)
SOURCE: Prepared with information CEPALSTAT (ECLAC, online), World Development Indicators (World Bank online) and FAO, IFAD,
UNICEF, WFP and WHO (2017).
* The prevalence of undernourishment rates correspond to trienios.
FIGURE 27
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN EXTREME POVERTY AND undernourishment IN 18 COUNTRIES OF THE REGION, 1991-2014
60
50
40
Undernourishment (%)
30
20
10
0 10 twenty 30 40 fifty 60
Extreme poverty (%)
SOURCE: Prepared with information CEPALSTAT (ECLAC, online) and FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WFP and WHO (2017).
| 49 |
ADVANCES IN INSUFFICIENT INCOME DISTRIBUTION MAY
DELAY THE ACHIEVEMENT OF FOOD SECURITY AND NUTRITION Gini coefficient decreased. In addition, according to a study in Mexico,
the distribution of wealth among families is higher than inequality
measured only by current income (ECLAC, 2016). Note that the
inequality of wealth affects more growth than income inequality
Reducing inequality is critical to achieving a prolonged growth (Ostry, (Cunha Neves, Afonso, & Tavares Silva, 2016).
Berg, & Tsangarides, 2014), and the effect of inequality on economic
growth is more pronounced in developing countries than in developed
countries (Cunha Neves, Afonso, & Tavares Silva, 2016); hence
inequality in the region is a variable that affects the development and
growth difficult. Moreover, in countries where inequality is greater, the Thus, the region still has a lot to do to abolish inequality and these
economic downturn affects developments should focus on the pursuit of redistributive policies that
ensure reducing inequality in various aspects. Considering that, in the
current context of economic contraction, inequality can further hinder
economic recovery, lower income households would be exposed to
risks of prolonged poor diet. n
disproportionately lower income sectors in terms of food and
nutrition security, because they occupy significant portions of their
income for food.
Since the 2000s, the region is seen an improvement in income

distribution. As seen in Figure 29, the relationship between the average
income of the richest quintile and the average income of the poorest
quintile has narrowed considerably and has increased the share of THE PRICE OF FOOD AND
income in the poorest quintiles. However, since 2012, the decline has DETERMINING INCOMES ARE MAJOR
stalled; according to the average of 18 countries by 2014, the highest
quintile presents, still, an average income 15.7 times the average
adopting a healthy food by the most
income of the poorest quintile. Despite the improvements presented vulnerable population
income distribution in the region, the share of income of the richest
quintile is on average 54%, while the poorest quintile receives on
average only 4% of revenues (ECLAC , online).
The most vulnerable sectors allocate a higher proportion of their
income on food, and in turn have less capacity to save.
Unemployment, increases in prices of food and other basic supplies,
or decreasing their income, you can significantly worsen their living
conditions. This may mean an impoverishment in the quality of the
diet, leaning less expensive but also less nutritious foods and more
caloric concentration, putting food and nutrition security of the entire
household at risk.
Also, the concentration index Gini has introduced improvements since
2002, with 2015 of 0.469 and although it has experienced a steady
decline, the pace with decreasing has slowed in recent years (ECLAC,
online). In addition, despite improvements showing the Gini coefficient
in the region, a deeper analysis by CEPAL (2016) indicates that there
has been a more equitable distribution of remuneration to capital and
labor, since in several countries decreased the share of wages in GDP
in the same period when
| 50 |
FIGURE 28
The difference in percentage points between poverty and extreme poverty URBAN AND RURAL IN LATIN AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN, 1990-2014
30
27,4 26,727,0 27.3 27.1
26.8
26,425,6 26,1
25.8 25.6
25.5
24,823,8 25,024,1 23.0
24.3 24.5
25 24.1
22.8 22.7
22.4
21.9 21.8
21.3 21.1
20.8
20.5
19.6
20
15
10
0
1990 1994 1997 1999 2002 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014
Unlike extreme poverty poverty difference
SOURCE: Prepared with information CEPALSTAT (ECLAC, online).
FIGURE 29
Ratio (%) between the average income of the richest quintile and the poorest quintile in Latin America AVERAGE OF 18 COUNTRIES, 1997-2014
25
22.7 22.4
20.8
19.9
20 19.3
17.3
16.2 16.5
15.7
15
10
0
1997 1999 2002 2005 2008 2010 2012 2013 2014
SOURCE: Prepared with information CEPALSTAT (ECLAC, online).
| 51 |
BOX 5
COST PER CALORIE FOOD GROUP
When
A studyanalyzing
by Drewnowski
the average
(2010)
caloric
conducted
cost ofinthe
thedifferent
United States
food groups margarine, oil); meats
finally they have (all types
the highest of meat,
caloric cost, fish
withand eggs); dairy
an average of USD
in the eight
indicates that
countries
the pricestudied,
per 100it calories
is observed
fromthat
vegetables
the sugar,
is higher
butter and
than products
0.80. (milk, yogurt, scream,
ultraprocesados cheese);
pecial groups of cereals (grains,
products, roots, tubers
like candy
oils are
any other
thefood
groups
group
with
except
lowerfor
caloric
fruits.cost,
Basedless
onthan
this USD
experience,
0.05 values.
and and starches);
(chocolates andfruits;
jams)and vegetables.
show In addition,
an average official
of USD 0.34 pricing
caloric cost,
Theyinformation
with are followed
available
by cereals
in eight
and legumes,
countries with
in thea region
caloric from
cost data
of USD information,
while and considering
the average nutritional
cost of sugary drinks factors
is USD tables published by the
0.08 and from
obtained USD the
0.14, respectively.
food Theproducts
baskets, food caloric cost
wereof grouped
meat group,
into the FAO, the following data were obtained: a) Caloric concentration per
which alsocategories:
following includes fish
sugar
and(sugar
egg, isfree,
$ 0.26;
refined
fruits
sugar,
and
33
milk
brownhave
sugar);
a 100 grams, is the energy contribution of each category of food
caloric cost
candies (processed
like $ 0.30.
products
Vegetables,
containing free sugars, jams and products;
0.19. Thatb)is The caloric cost,
to increased which
caloric is the price tends
concentration per 100
to calories;
lower thec)
chocolates); sugary drinks (soft drinks, juices and juice packaged The price
cost percalories
per 100 100 grams. From
(Figure 5. this
1). information an average of three
powder containing sugar); legumes (beans, lentils, peas); butters and per group was calculated variables food for eight countries analyzed
oils (butter, (Table
5.1).
TABLE 5.1
Caloric cost, CALORIC CONCENTRATION AND PRICE (US Dollars) per 100 grams BY FOOD GROUPS IN 8
SELECTED COUNTRIES OF THE REGION
caloric cost (price per Concentration calorie

Food groups Number of Number of food Price per 100 gr
100 kcal) (kcal per 100 g)
countries
Sugar 8 8 0.02 387 0.09
Butters and oils 7 16 0.05 791 0,39
Cereals 8 55 0.08 261 0.16
Vegetables 7 9 0.14 272 0.16
Sugary drinks 6 10 0,19 47 0.09
meats 8 71 0,26 199 0,44
Fruits 5 16 0.30 40 0.10
Dairy products 8 26 0.30 120 0,34
Candies two 3 0,34 349 1,24
Vegetables 5 29 0.80 26 0.18
SOURCE: Based on official information from countries and ironing FAO nutritional factors.
33 Bolivia (2015), El Salvador (2015), Chile (2012), Guatemala (2015), Honduras (2015), Mexico (2015), Nicaragua (2015) and Uruguay (2015).
| 52 |
BOX 5
(CONTINUED)
When analyzing the average caloric cost of the different food groups in finally they have the highest caloric cost, with an average of USD 0.80.
the eight countries studied, it is observed that the sugar, butter and oils ultraprocesados special groups of products, like candy (chocolates and
are the groups with lower caloric cost, less than USD 0.05 values. They jams) show an average of USD 0.34 caloric cost, while the average
are followed by cereals and legumes, with a caloric cost of USD 0.08 cost of sugary drinks is $ 0.19. That is to increased caloric
and USD concentration tends to lower the cost per 100 calories (Figure 5. 1).
0.14, respectively. The caloric cost of meat group, which also includes
fish and egg, is $ 0.26; fruits and milk have a caloric cost like $ 0.30.
Vegetables,
FIGURE 5.1
CONCENTRATION CALORIC (per 100 grams) VERSUS COST PER CALORIE FOOD GROUP. AVERAGE EIGHT COUNTRIES
Caloric concentration (kcal per 100 g)
Butter and sugar

Candies
Vegetables
Cereals
900 meats
200 300 400 500 600 700 800
Dairy fruit
Vegetables
Beverage Fantasy 0 100
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 one 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8

Caloric cost (price per 100 kcal)
SOURCE: Based on official information from the countries. Compiled from FAO
and PAHO, 2017.
| 53 |
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN Food basket FOOD AND It is important to notice that the cost of the CBA can vary from day to
MINIMUM WAGES day, according to vary the prices of products that compose it, while
adjustments in the minimum wage, 36 usually they performed once or
twice a year. Thus, during that period variations in the cost of the CBA
The basic food basket (CBA) meets the necessary goods to meet the can not be offset by increases in wages, increasing its negative
nutritional needs of the population, and is used to determine the effects. In the long term, in most of the countries surveyed in the
extreme poverty line in each country (ECLAC, online). On the other region, increases in the minimum wage tend to be higher than the
hand, given that the minimum wage is set to meet the minimum increases in the cost of the basic food basket, the exceptions being
requirements or worker (a) and his family, taking into account the Guatemala, where between 2004 and 2016 the increase of the basket
economic and social conditions of countries (ILO Online), relate the it is higher by more than three percentage points and Mexico, where
cost of the CBA with the amount of the minimum wage can help the cost of the CBA increases one percentage point more than the
analyze the degree of vulnerability of the poorest households in terms minimum wage (Table 6).
of food and nutrition security.
To do an analysis to nine countries in the region took place, 3. 4 which Households occupying a significant percentage of their income on food,
showed that in each minimum wage exceeds the cost of individual unable to cover the costs of a CBA, is not having enough income,
CBA. However, in some countries the CBA represents a high changes in prices or the need for other expenses, may end up buying
percentage of the minimum wage (Figure 30), and likewise, must be less food of those who need the family group or choose to replace less
considered that often the minimum wage should meet the needs of healthy foods or low nutritional value, an issue that would involve
more than one person or even a whole family, it is also important to changes in the family diet, which would consist in a greater proportion
analyze the cost of a CBA for a family group. 35 In this case, as shown in of calorically dense foods, but less nutritious. n
Figure 31, not all countries analyzed enough to cover the cost of a
family CBA with income from a minimum wage; even some would need
more than double to do so.
In other countries, although the minimum wage is sufficient to cover

family CBA, this represents more than half of their income (Table 5),
and should be considered that not all the basic needs of a family are
included within the cost of a CBA, therefore, small variations in prices
may jeopardize food security and nutrition of the family.
3. 4 Chile, Costa Rica, Ecuador, El Salvador, Guatemala, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama

and the Dominican Republic.
35 In fact, in Ecuador, El Salvador, Guatemala, Nicaragua, Panama and the Dominican

Republic calculating the CBA is carried out for a representative family of the country. In 36 Job quality, considering the respect of minimum wages along with social protection
Chile, Costa Rica and Mexico calculates a CBA per person. For this analysis, so as to mechanisms in a context of macroeconomic stability have contributed to food and nutrition
facilitate comparability, a family of four was considered. security.
| 54 |
FIGURE 30
MINIMUM WAGE AND COST OF FOOD Food basket (CBA) INDIVIDUAL (IN DOLLARS) IN SOME COUNTRIES IN LATIN AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN,
different periods
600
500
400
300
200
100
CHL CRI ECU SLV GTM MEX NIC PAN DOM

(2016) (2015) (2016) (2013) (2016) (2013) (2013) (2013) (2015)
Individual CBA minimum salary
SOURCE: Based on official information from countries and ILOSTAT (ILO online).
* In Ecuador, El Salvador, Guatemala, Nicaragua, Panama and the Dominican Republic the CBA published by the number of people in the family it represents in each country
it was divided. the CBA published as it is for a person was used in Chile, Costa Rica and Mexico. In Panama, El Salvador and Mexico, the CBA is considered urban.
* * Values are in dollars using the exchange rate as the corresponding year.
FIGURE 31
MINIMUM WAGE AND COST OF FAMILY CBA (IN DOLLARS) IN SOME COUNTRIES IN LATIN AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN, different periods
600
500
400
300
200
100
CHL CRI ECU SLV GTM MEX NIC PAN DOM

(2016) (2015) (2016) (2013) (2016) (2013) (2013) (2013) (2015)
family CBA minimum salary
* CBA was used in Ecuador, El Salvador, Guatemala, Nicaragua, Panama and the Dominican Republic published because it includes a representative family of each
country. In Chile, Costa Rica and Mexico published the CBA is for a person, for this graph was multiplied by four CBA issued by those countries. In Panama, El Salvador
and Mexico CBA is considered urban. Values are in dollars using the exchange rate as the corresponding year.
| 55 |
TABLE 5
WEIGHT COST OF FOOD Food basket (CBA) INDIVIDUAL AND FAMILY IN THE MINIMUM WAGE IN SOME
COUNTRIES IN LATIN AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN, different periods
CBA weight per person in the Weight family CBA within the N ° persons per
country minimum wage (%) minimum wage (%)
household
Chile (2016) / a 16,1 64.2 4
Costa Rica (2015) / a 16.3 65.0 4
Ecuador (2016) 14.8 59.3 4
El Salvador (2013) 23.7 88.3 3.73
Guatemala (2016) 26.1 140.3 5.38
Mexico (2013) / a 72.0 287.8 4
Nicaragua (2013) 33.7 202.2 6
Panama (2013) 23.4 89.8 3.48
Dominican Republic (2015) 19.8 98.9 5
SOURCE: Based on official information from countries and ILOSTAT (ILO online). a / In these countries it calculates a CBA per
person, for this analysis, a family of 4 was considered.
TABLE 6
AVERAGE ANNUAL GROWTH OF MINIMUM WAGE AND FOOD Food basket (CBA) IN SOME COUNTRIES IN LATIN
AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN, different periods.
wage growth
country Period CBA growth (%)
minimum (%)
Chile 2011-2016 6.44 5.66
Costa Rica 2005-2015 10.55 8.64
Ecuador 2014-2016 4.81 3.06
The Savior 2003-2013 3,97 2.75
Guatemala 2004-2016 6.00 9.58
Mexico 2001-2013 4.62 5.82
Nicaragua 2011-2013 12.89 6.22
Panama 2010-2013 6,28 6.26
Dominican Republic 2012-2015 7.00 3.83
| 56 |
BOX 6
AN APPROACH TO QUALITY FOOD BASKET (CAC) IN CHILE
Currently being overweight affects more than half of the population of Chile, 2015). However, according Square and Garcia (2015), this
Latin America and the Caribbean, as well as chronic malnutrition basket has foods low nutritional criteria are not recommended, so the
remains a problem in several countries in the region. In this context, it authors conducted a proposed approach to a healthy food basket
has been suggested that establishing healthy eating patterns may constructed from the composition of the CBA originally a food basket
allow joint reduction of all forms of malnutrition (FAO and PAHO, Quality (CAC). To do this, they used the recommendations of Chilean
2017). As mentioned above, the CBA includes goods necessary to food guides, were reduced to a minimum simple carbohydrates, sugars
meet the basic needs of the population, and is used to determine the and ultraprocesados, the percentage of protein from healthy sources
extreme poverty line in each country considering consumer habits available increased fluid intake was reduced to consistieran only water
(ECLAC, online), however, its composition not necessarily a healthy and increased dietary fiber. In the table
eating pattern.
6.1 observed improvements in nutritional terms of CCS against the

In the case of Chile, in 2015 changes in the basic food basket to meet CBA (Cuadrado and Garcia,
the nutritional needs of calories, protein and fat (Ministry of Social 2015).
Development were held
TABLE 6.1
NUTRITIONAL INDICATORS COMPARED TO BASKET BASIC FOOD QUALITY FOOD BASKET AND
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THEM
Basic Food basket (different units) Quality food basket (different units)
Indicators Change (%)
Fruits and vegetables grams / day 303 626 106.6
% Total Immundiffusions 43.5% 47.5% 3.9
% Healthy proteins * 79% 98% 18,6
Servings a week of fish 1,79 2.2 23.2
Servings of dairy a day 0,82 3,04 271.8
Servings of vegetables a week 1,73 2,52 45.6
Servings of fruits and vegetables a day 3.66 7.37 101.6
Milligrams of salt a day 1347 1393 3.4
added sugar 8.3% 4.5% - 3.8
total dietary fiber per day 16.8 24.3 44.9
total kilocalories 2025 2025
Origin of kilocalories
protein 14,2% 16,1% 1.9
lipids 27,9% 25,5% - 2.5
Carbohydrates 57.8% 58.5% 0.6
SOURCE: Square and Garcia (2015).

* They are considered healthy sources of protein meats, poultry, fish, legumes, grains and vegetables in general, thus excluding red meat.
| 57 |
BOX 6
(CONTINUED)
Consequently, the calories were reduced by 5% for bread and As a result, CCS is more expensive than the CBA 36.1%, with which
cereals; 59% of the meat; It increased more than 200% milk and egg; 27.1% of the Chilean population could not access a minimum
It was increased by 51% fruits, vegetables, tubers and pulses; sugar, (Cuadrado and Garcia, 2015) healthy eating.
coffee, tea, sweets and condiments was reduced by 36%; and
various drinks water were removed; as well as meals and drinks
outside the home.
income on food. 38 Colombia is among the countries analyzed, the

FOOD SPENDING BY INCOME QUINTILE: AN highest percentage of income that deals for food consumption in all
APPROACH BY HOUSEHOLD SURVEYS quintiles, being in the top quintile 95% of their income and the richest
quintile, 57.8%. Followed by Bolivia, where the poorest quintile uses
70.4%, with 61.3% Ecuador and Peru with 60.3%, while Mexico is more
Food expenditure for each household depends on different variables distant, with
and realities. One of those variables, perhaps the most important is the
level of income, as tends to have a decisive impact on the rate and
composition of expenditure on food. In order to establish how the 42.6% for the first quintile. It is also interesting to observe how the
income level impacts spending on food, household surveys from five difference in the proportion of food expenditure between the fourth and
countries in the region were analyzed 37 ( Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, fifth quintile is much greater than that observed in the top four
Peru and Mexico) and then reviewed how spending and calories quintiles, which could signal the distance in income that maintain the
consumed by food group is distributed. wealthiest groups against the bulk of the population.
In addition, within each quintile there are differences in the way it is

As shown in Figure 32, the lowest income quintile occupies much of distributed for each food group consumption in monetary value and
his calories. As seen in Figure 33, in the poorest quintile -in the five
countries analyzed-predominant consumption of cereals and tubers,
both expenditure (monetary value) and calorie intake. Without
37 The food security module ADePT World Bank was applied to the following national
surveys: Bolivia: Household Survey 2009; Colombia: National Income and Expenditure
Survey 2006-07; Ecuador: National Survey of Income and Expenditure Survey 2014 Urban 38 For Bolivia, Colombia and Mexico used income is calculated based on the total
and Rural; Mexico: National Survey of Income and Expenditure Survey (ENIGH) 2014; and expenditure proxy (which includes daily consumption expenditures, goods, services and
Peru: Survey of Living Conditions and Poverty - ENAHO 2016. taxes). Ecuador and Peru to income used is a proxy calculated based on the total daily
consumption expenditures excluding goods, services and taxes.
| 58 |
FIGURE 32
PERCENTAGE OF REVENUE DEDICATED TO FOOD, by Quintile, IN BOLIVIA, COLOMBIA, MEXICO, PERU AND ECUADOR, different
periods
95.1
100
83.7
90
73,871,5
70.4
80 65.5
60,356,2 60.3
57.8 61,357,452,6
70
51,346,6
60 46.0
42,638,035,631,1 41.5
40.0
50
32.7
31.2
40 0
22.1
30
20
10
Bolivia (2009) Colombia (2007) Ecuador (2014) Mexico (2014) Peru (2016)
quintile 1 quintile 2 quintile 3 quintile 4 quintile 5
SOURCE: Prepared based on official surveys of the countries using the food security module ADePT the World Bank.
But the share of this group of foods within calorie intake is higher calorie consumption in that quintile, except for Bolivia and Colombia,
than expenditure. In other words, cereals and tubers provide a where the bulk of the calories obtained from cereals and tubers, in the
significant percentage of the minimum at lower cost daily calories other countries analyzed most of the daily calories come from foods
more expensive and less caloric density foods, such as, for example, prepared outside the home and.
fruits and vegetables.
You may also notice that both fruits and vegetables such as meat and
fish represent an important share in food expenditure quintiles for
Moreover, as incomes rise, increased consumption of prepared foods both. However, seeing the calorie consumption distribution, the share
and outside the home, which in some cases can mean an increased of these two groups decreases considerably, reflecting the high cost
intake of ultraprocesados products, which tend to have higher that can mean for households consuming these products. A level of
concentrations of sugar, fat and sodium preparations made at home quintiles, the share in the expenditure is similar in both quintiles,
(PAHO, 2015) (da Costa Louzada, et al, 2015) (Martínez Steele, et al, however, in terms of calories in all reviewed countries the proportion is
2016). Thus, in the richest quintile spending predominates in prepared lower in the poorest quintile, especially in Peru and Colombia, where
foods and outside the home, with the exception of Colombia, where the the percentage of income devoted to consumption of these foods in
proportion of spending on cereals and tubers is the largest in the the
richest quintiles. As for the
| 59 |
poorest quintile is almost half that of the richest quintile. percentage of food consumption is high compared to your
income.
As consumer group dairy and eggs, highlights Mexico, where the As shown in Figure 34, the poorest quintiles, in all the countries
percentage of spending is higher in the poorest quintile, but the surveyed, they tend to consume a greater percentage of produced
proportion of the calories in this quintile is half that of the richest food items. They include Bolivia and Peru, where in the poorest
quintile, indicating that the poorest households can be very expensive quintile self-produced foods account for over 20% of total calories
to consume this food group. consumed, while in the richest quintile consumption is less than 4%.
Colombia also draws attention because in the poorest quintile 93% of
calories consumed comes from buying food and only 3.9% is
self-produced. This is relevant because, as noted above, food
In all countries surveyed, the proportion of expenditure and calorie consumption accounts for 95% of the income of the poorest quintile,
intake in sugars and fats and oils is higher in the first quintile which makes it plausible that consumption focus on higher caloric
compared to the richest quintile. In the case of sugars include density foods. Of the countries analyzed,
Colombia and Mexico, where the caloric intake in the poorest quintile
is more than double that in the richest quintile. In addition, in
Colombia in the poorest quintile the proportion in food spending is
three times higher than in the fifth quintile.
These data are consistent with what has been studied by Drewnowski
(2010) regarding the calorie cost of different food groups, whose
research shows that the cost per calorie fruits and vegetables is higher
than the cost per calorie of carbohydrates and oils. Thus, households
that occupy much of their income on food, given the need to meet the On the other hand, in the countries studied, food outside the home
minimum calories at lower cost, opt greater extent than households tend to be higher in the highest quintiles, with Mexico as the country
with higher incomes, to buy calorically dense products such as cereals holding the highest, nearly 50% percentage. Draws attention, too, the
and tubers, sugars , oils and fats, which in some cases may not contain high percentage of eating out in Peru in the poorest quintile, being
enough nutrients for healthy eating. In addition, small increases in the greater than 20%. n
price of cereals or tubers could result in poorer households reduced
consumption of other food groups with higher cost per calorie,
The monetary value of food spending not only includes buying food,
but also its own production, the outskirts meals from home and other
sources observed differences in the distribution by quintile, which may
be relevant when analyzing the homes where
| 60 |
FIGURE 33
DISTRIBUTION (%) OF CONSUMPTION OF FOOD, AS MONETARY VALUE AND CALORIES IN FIRST AND FIFTH QUINTILE BOLIVIA, COLOMBIA,
MEXICO, PERU AND ECUADOR, different periods
calories
quintile 1
Quintile 5
Quintile 1
Quintile 5
Quintile 1
PER COL ECU MEX BOL
Quintile 5
Quintile 1
Quintile 5
Quintile 1
Quintile 5
0 Oct. 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Monetary value
quintile 1
Quintile 5
Quintile 1
Quintile 5
Quintile 1
PER COL ECU MEX BOL
Quintile 5
Quintile 1
Quintile 5
Quintile 1
Quintile 5
0 Oct. 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Cereals and tubers Meat and fish
Fruits and vegetables Dairy products and eggs
Catering services outside the Stimulants, alcoholic beverages and spices

home
Oils and fats Sugar and syrups
Non-alcoholic beverages Leguminous crops and oil
| 61 |
FIGURE 34
DISTRIBUTION (%) OF CONSUMPTION BY SOURCE calorie foods, in the first and fifth quintiles OF BOLIVIA, COLOMBIA, MEXICO, PERU AND
ECUADOR, different periods
100
80
60
40
20
0
Quintile 1 Quintile 5 Quintile 1 Quintile 5 Quintile 1 Quintile 5 Quintile 1 Quintile 5 Quintile 1 Quintile 5
BOWL CABBAGE ECU MEX PER
Bought food Own food production

Food away from home Other sources
* In Mexico the survey of 2008, because it has disaggregated information percentage of food away from home, unlike the 2014 survey, which has
no such information is held.
| 62 |
BOX 7
EVOLUTION OF FOOD CONSUMPTION IN MEXICO between 2004 and 2014
Analyzing the series of budget surveys Mexico, from 2004 to 2014, you to increase in all quintiles, from 39.2% to 42.6% in the poorest quintile,
will see important changes in food expenditure of households (Figure and 15.6% to
7.1). The proportion of income used for food consumption has tended 22.1% in the richest quintile.
FIGURE 7.1
PERCENTAGE OF REVENUE EXPENDITURE DEVOTED TO FOOD, by Quintile, IN MEXICO, 2004, 2006, 2008, 2014
45
41.5 42.6
39.2 37.9
40
36.2 38.0 35.6
34.6 33.2
35
32.6
30.6 28.9 31.1
30 28.3
26,2 24,7
25
22.1
20
17.1
15.6 14.1
15
10
0
quintile 1 quintile 2 quintile 3 quintile 4 quintile 5
2004 2006 2008 2014
SOURCE: Prepared based on official surveys of the countries using the food security module ADePT the World Bank. National Survey of Income
and Expenditure Survey (ENIGH) of Mexico for 2004,
2006, 2008 and 2014.
A food group level, changes are observed in the distribution of calories high, though, in terms of expenditure, shows a significant increase
that could favor establishing healthy eating patterns. an increase in (19.2%) in the poorest quintile. The caloric intake of legumes and
caloric intake from fruits and vegetables in all quintiles, 11% in the oilseeds increased significantly in the third, fourth and fifth quintiles,
poorest quintile and 14.2% in the richest quintile, as well as an increase although in the richest quintile in terms of spending, a significant
in the proportion of expenditure warns food in the first three quintiles, reduction is observed in the consumption of these foods. Consumption
although, in the fourth and fifth quintiles, a decrease (Table 7.1) is of calories from sugars decreased more than 30% in the poorest
observed. Also, the proportion of calories from oils and fats fell in almost quintile, however the percentage for the purchase of this food group
all quintiles except the bottom quintile increased by almost 30% in the same quintile.
| 63 |
BOX 7
(CONTINUED)
Now, you can also be observed variations in consumption that impact spending on meals prepared outside the home and significantly
on diet quality in homes. Thus, consumption of calories from grains and decreased in the poorest quintile (34.8%), although the caloric intake of
tubers has increased in all quintiles, even though the percentage of this food group to the diet increased by 21.6%. Decreased spending on
expenditure allocated for the purchase of these products has decreased these activities, against an increase in the proportion of calorie
from the second quintile and onwards (the first quintile not follow this consumption may be due to greater access to this type of food, which,
trend can be explained by an increase in consumption of these foods). in turn, could lead to increased consumption of calories from products
Spending meats and fish increased by more than 7% in the first and ultraprocesados (PAHO, 2015) (da Costa Louzada, et al, 2015)
second quintiles, although caloric intake fell by (Martínez Steele, and others,
2016).
2.9% in the poorest quintile and 0.3% percentage points in the
second quintile. Finally, the
TABLE 7.1
DISTRIBUTION DIFFERENCES BY INCOME QUINTILE CALORIES IN MEXICO, 2004 AND 2014
Difference (%) in the distribution of caloric intake, 2004 and 2014
Group quintile 1 quintile 2 quintile 3 quintile 4 quintile 5
Cereals and tubers 5.6 6.6 6.7 14,5% 9,3%
Sugar and syrups - 32.5 - 7.4 -1.3 - 5.7% 31.7%
Leguminous crops and oil - 4.1 - 4.3 8.0 14.4% 33.4%
Fruits and vegetables 11.2 7.1 11.2 20,2% 14,2%
Stimulants, alcoholic beverages and spices - 63 - 67.9 - 66.8 - 53.5% - 40.6%
Meat and fish - 2.9 - 0.3 one 6.9% 6.5%
Dairy products and eggs -12.1 -15.7 -17.2 -16.5% - 8.6%
Oils and fats - 27.7 -12.0 - 8.0 - 6.7% 1.4%
Non-alcoholic beverages 14.3 -1.2 - 6.7 8.7% 2.4
Catering services outside the home 21.6 2.7 0 - 7.7% - 4.7
SOURCE: Prepared based on official surveys of the countries using the food security module ADePT the World Bank. National Survey of Income and
Expenditure Survey (ENIGH) of Mexico for the years 2004 and 2014.
| 64 |
BOX 7
(CONTINUED)
TABLE 7.2
DIFFERENCES IN THE DISTRIBUTION OF MONEY SPENDING IN FOOD, by Quintiles INCOME IN MEXICO,

2004 AND 2014
Difference (%) in the distribution of money expenditure, 2004 and 2014
Group quintile 1 quintile 2 quintile 3 quintile 4 quintile 5
Cereals and tubers 0.1 - 2.4 - 4.3 -10.6 -11, 8%
Sugar and syrups 29.4 - 6.2 -16.8 -19.1 - 92.1
Leguminous crops and oil 8.6 10.5 1.1 - 4.4 - 29.3
Fruits and vegetables 7.6 6.3 2.4 - 4.8 - 8.7
Stimulants, alcoholic beverages and spices 23.7 27.6 30.5 27.1 8.7
Meat and fish 7.4 7.3 5.4 0.3 - 0.6
Dairy products and eggs 3.3 3.6 6 9 5
Oils and fats 19.2 9.1 8.1 12.4 2.7
Non-alcoholic beverages 6.3 10.3 16.9 10.4 7
Catering services outside the home - 34.8 -17.8 -11.5 - 2.2 1.6
SOURCE: Prepared based on official surveys of the countries using the food security module ADePT the World Bank. National Survey of Income and
Expenditure Survey (ENIGH) of Mexico for the years 2004 and 2014.
| 65 |
GENERAL TENDENCY OF INFLATION RECENT AND FOOD IN Central America, 40 rates are also lower than last year and are even
COUNTRIES OF THE REGION AND ITS TRANSFER TO WAGES negative in countries like Nicaragua, Panama and El Salvador. In
Mexico, food inflation has tended to be higher, given the current
context of uncertainty regarding US policies, the currency depreciation
and rising fuel prices.
Increases in general and food prices directly affect food and nutritional
security of households, especially the poorest where quintiles, as noted
above, the percentage of income spent on food purchases is very high .
Moreover, the salary adjustments are less periodicity, and not With respect to the Caribbean after high food inflation during 2016, in
necessarily compensate inflation variations. Haiti rates somewhat lower they are shown, although still much higher
than those recorded in 2015. Jamaica, so far this year, shows inflation
rates food significantly lower than those presented during the same
months of
Given the economic situation in the region during the 2016 food 2016, although they have tended to increase in the fourth quarter.
inflation of South American countries tended to be higher compared to Trinidad and Tobago also shows lower rates, while in Belize food
the rates presented in 2015. In this context, the real average wage inflation rates are negative. n
adjustments in 2016 of the countries of the subregion contractions
tended to show moderate growth (ECLAC and ILO, 2017). In Brazil,
Colombia and Paraguay the average real wage tended to decrease,
and in Chile the variation was lower than the previous year; however,
Uruguay showed an increase equal to the previous year, and in Peru
the variation was positive. In Mesoamerica, however, real wages have
benefited from descendants inflation rates in 2016. Thus, in Costa
Rica, Mexico and Nicaragua showed positive changes, although lower
than last year. But nevertheless,
The inflationary situation has tended to improve during 2017 with

strengthening national currencies (World Bank, 2017). Table 7 shows
that most South American countries 39 It has lower rates of food inflation
than in the same months of the previous year, except for Peru, where
El Niño climatological Costero affected the normal food supply (INEI,
2017); and Paraguay, where they are much higher. In
39 For this edition is not available information regarding Venezuela's inflation for the years
40 For the month of June 2015 Costa Rica has the rebasing. The amounts considered in this
2016 and 2017, so they are not included in the analysis. In Argentina, from May 2016, it
report for previous months for the consumer price index based July 2006 = 100. For this
introduced a new series of consumer price index, so no annual inflation for 2016 and the first
there is no information in the annual variation for
months of 2017 is available.
2016.
| 66 |
TABLE 7
Annual food inflation (%) IN LATIN AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN, 2015- 2017
Food inflation 2015
2016 2017
country Feb Sea Apr may Feb Mar Apr May Feb Mar Apr May
Old and bearded 3.2 2.7 1.3 2.6 0.3 - 0.2 1.3 - 0.9 ... ... ... ...
Argentina to 13,0 11.7 11.6 11.8 ... ... ... ... ... ... 29.1 25.9
bahamas 6.4 5.2 4 3.7 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
barbados 1.9 0.9 1.3 1.1 2.4 4.7 4 7.6 ... ... ... ...
Belize -one - 0.7 - 0.3 - 0.2 0.9 1.2 1.1 0.4 - 2.1 - 2.1 ... ...
Bolivia 8.1 5.9 4.4 4.4 2 4.1 6.6 9.6 5.6 5.7 3, -1.2
Brazil 9 8.2 8 8.8 12.5 11.8 4.1 12.3 13.2 4.0 3.5 2.4
Chile 8,8 8 8 7.7 4 4.2 3.4 4.2 3.5 3.7 4.2 2.6
Colombia 6.8 7.4 7.7 6.2 12.6 13.5 5.2 12.4 11.9 3.7 2.5 2.1
Costa Rica b 8.2 7.7 6.4 3.5 ... ... ... ... 0.8 0.7 0.1 0
dominica 0.3 0.5 0.7 0.5 0.9 0.3 0.1 0.2 ... ... ... ...
Ecuador c 4 3 4.1 5.3 3.7 3.9 2.8 2.8 1.2 1.3 1.8 1
The Savior 3 3.5 4.2 3.8 1.6 0.7 - 0.2 - 0.5 - 2.1 -1.2 - 0.4 - 0.4
Pomegranate two 2.2 2.1 1.6 - 2.3 - 2.7 - 2.5 - 2.3 ... ... ... ...
Guatemala 9 9.4 10 10.2 11.9 10.8 10.1 10 5.9 7.1 7.5 7.6
guyana ... -1.1 ... ... . . . two 2.5 3.9 ... 5.2 4.2 ...
Haiti 6 5.9 5.7 6.3 16,1 16,4 16,8 13.9 14.1 14.3 ...
Honduras 5.2 5.4 4.7 3.8 2 1.5 1.1 1.3 0.4 0.8 1.5 1.1
Jamaica 8.6 7.9 8.1 7.9 7.8 7.4 6.4 6 2.2 3, 3.7 ...
Mexico 5 4.9 5.4 4.3 4.8 4.3 3.8 4.3 2.9 4.4 5.9 6.7
Nicaragua 9.3 9.5 9.4 7.6 2.1 3.1 2 2.3 - 0.4 - 0.9 - 0.4 -1.2
Panama d ... ... ... ... 2.2 2.3 2.5 1.9 0.5 0.1 - 0.1 - 0.1
Paraguay 5.3 3 1.1 4.4 5.7 5.6 5.5 2.9 2.8 3.7 5.8 5.1
Peru 4.7 4.9 4.6 4.4 4.2 4.4 4 3.2 4 6.4 5.6 4
Dominican rep 8.2 5.7 3.7 3.7 5.3 5.1 5.2 4.9 0.3 0.9 2.5 2.5
Saint Kitts and Nevis and - 5.9 - 5.6 -10.9 -11.5 - 10 -10.2 - 4.6 - 4.6 ... ... ... ...
St. Vincent and the - 0.4 6.3 - 0.8 -1.1 - 2.4 - 8.9 -1.1 0.6 ... ... ... ...
Grenadines
St. lucia 4.1 4.7 5.4 - 0.4 - 5.3 -5 - 5.9 - 0.6 ... ... ... ...
Surinam F 7.1 6.7 6.5 8 18,2 21,3 ... ... ... ... ... ...
Trinidad and Tobago 11.8 9.7 9.1 8.5 9.4 8,6 10 9.6 2.9 3.7 ... ...
Uruguay 9.1 8.5 8.7 9 9.6 9.7 10 11.6 4.5 4.1 3.5 1.1
Venezuela g 136.4 140.9 141.3 152.2 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
SOURCE: official information from countries elaboration.

a / From May 2016 he was presented a new series of consumer price index in Argentina, the information available is from 2015 the previous series. b / For the month of June 2015 Costa Rica
has the rebasing. The amounts considered in this report correspond to the previous month Consumer Price Index in July 2006 = 100 Base.
c / For the month of January 2014 Ecuador presents the rebasing to 2014 = 100. The amounts considered in this report correspond to the previous month Consumer Price
Index with base 2004 = 100.
d / For the month of November 2013 Panama begins publishing the Consumer Price Index annual basis 2013 = 100. The amounts considered in this report correspond to the previous
month Consumer Price Index in October 2002 based = 100. e / For Saint Kitts and Nevis from the March 2016 are using data from 2010, before the information was only San Cristobal. f /
For the month of April 2016 Surinam begins publishing the Consumer Price Index annual basis 2016 = 100. g / For this edition no information available Venezuela inflation for the years 2016
and 2017 is.
| 67 |
SOCIAL PROTECTION POLICIES TO ENSURE Technical accumulated on social protection compared to other regions,
given the expansion and consolidation of social assistance schemes
ACCESS TO FOOD: THE EVIDENCE OF
during the 2000s, especially through programs of conditional cash
CONDITIONAL CASH TRANSFER PROGRAMS transfer (PTC), social pensions and programs school feeding; and (ii)
greater social security coverage as a result of economic growth and
(PTC)
increased formalization in urban areas observed during the 2000s
(Weller, 2014).
In view of that income is, as noted, an important condition for access to

healthy food, to analyze the situation of social policies implemented in
the region can provide information about how to address this problem.
Indeed, in Latin America and the Caribbean they have been designed
and implemented in recent decades a series of policies and social The CCTs were born under the wing of two complementary facts
protection programs in order to increase the disposable income of the observed in countries of the region: (1) a generally low coverage of
most vulnerable populations (FAO and PAHO, 2017). social protection mechanisms; and (2) a growing recognition of the role
of the state in compliance with the Economic, Social and Cultural
Rights (ESCR) (Cecchini and Nevis, 2015). Thus, the PTC are
structured as initiatives to ensure minimum income for those segments
of the most disadvantaged and vulnerable population. His character,
which goes beyond the traditional concept of contributory social
Despite some institutional and economic liabilities caused by structural protection, developed historically in the region during the twentieth
adjustment processes in the late 1980s and early 1990s, the states of century, involves leaving behind the previous design projects timely
the region have made promising progress in social protection containment emergency and discretionary assistance that prevailed in
coverage. 41 Compared with other regions, Latin America and the the 1980s,
Caribbean has a greater number of actions to extend coverage of
social protection 42 during the period 1998-2015, covering on average
59.6% of the population, outperforming other developing regions such
as sub-Saharan Africa (19.2%), South Asia (27%), North Africa and the
Middle East (52.8%), East Asia and Pacific (58.9%), and only being
surpassed by Europe and Central Asia (69.3%) (World Bank, online).
These developments at the regional level reflect: (i) greater political
commitment and experience
several publications 43 They have addressed the development and role

of PTC in the eradication of hunger and poverty in Latin America and
the Caribbean. Currently, 20 of the 33 countries in the region have
some PTC in operation with regional coverage reaching 20.2% of the
population. Note that this corresponds to a, slight but sustained
41 Social protection is the set of measures implemented in a society to ensure income to
have a minimum standard of living, facilitate access to social services and social
reduction in coverage between 2013 and 2016, of 1.8 points
development, and contribute to the expansion of decent work (Cecchini and Martínez, 2011,
p.18). In achieving these objectives, it is possible to implement measures to provide direct
protection, prevention rather specific risks, promoting livelihoods and transformation to
promote social inclusion (Devereux and Sabates-Wheeler, 2004). An operational approach
to social protection can identify different types of interventions according to their nature:
social assistance (non-contributory social protection)
43 See: Bastagli, F., Hagen-Zanker, J., Harman, L., et al. (2016). Cash Transfers: What
Does the Evidence Say? A Rigorous Review of Program Impact and of the Role of Design
and Implementation Features. London: ODI; Cecchini, S. and Madariaga, A. (2011). CCTs.
Results of recent experience in Latin America and the Caribbean. Santiago de Chile:
ECLAC; and Cecchini, S .; Filgueira, F., Martinez R. and Rossel, C. (2015). Social protection
instruments: Latin American roads towards universalization. Santiago de Chile: ECLAC.
42 Considering social assistance, social security and labor regulations.
| 68 |
percentage (Cecchini & Atuesta, 2017), seen in a context in which both subsistence. Four. Five Therefore, it is estimated that PTC to expand
poverty and undernourishment in the region have increased. In turn, disposable income of households would have effects in reducing
despite the extensive coverage they have achieved in most countries of income poverty and hunger, but also could have positive effects on
Latin America and the Caribbean, many of the PTC they suffer from dietary patterns of the most vulnerable social strata .
serious problems of targeting, leading to the improper exclusion of
large segments of the population suffering serious shortcomings.
Indeed, the scale of the PTC in the countries of the region is such that,
if they were fully focused on the poorest households in each country, A significant number of PTC that have been evaluated and / or studied
would be enough to cover the entire population living in extreme to account for their impact on poverty, hunger and malnutrition. Table
poverty and even almost three quarters of the poor. 44 In practice, 8 gives a non-exhaustive summary of these programs and effects. n
however, a considerable number of households in extreme poverty
(nearby, in some countries, 50% of the total) are covered by PTC,
indicating persistent high levels of exclusion conspire against achieving
greater efficiency in efforts to reduce hunger and poverty in the region
(Cecchini and Atuesta, 2017).
A distinctive aspect of the PTC is delivering cash transfers is subject to

the fulfillment of responsibility, most of them linked to the areas of
education and health (Cecchini and Madariaga, 2011). In turn, many of
these transfers are among its specific objectives to promote access to
a greater variety of food and other necessities. In some cases, this has
been implemented by specific methods for calculating the amounts to
be transferred, the various components of transfers of the program,
extension mechanisms and nutrition education, or restricting the use of
the magnetic card to purchase food and other commodity. In the same
way,
44 This statement should, however, be mitigated depending on the diversity of current

situations in different countries in the region. So while the size (coverage) of the PTC
exceeds the number of homeless people in countries like Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil,
Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, Mexico, Peru, Dominican Republic and Uruguay, only it Four. Five In Latin America and the Caribbean may be mentioned as examples the
covers about half or less of the extreme poor in countries with lower average income in the cases of Mexico in Gertler, Martinez and Rubio-Codina (2006) and Todd Winters and
region, such as Belize, El Salvador, Guatemala, Haiti, Honduras and Paraguay. Hertz (2010); Paraguay in Veras Soares, Perez Ribas and Hirata (2008) as well as a
systematic review by FAO in the case of Tirivayi, Knowles and Davis (2013).
| 69 |
TABLE 8
46
RESULTS PTC selected in the user population
country Program findings
- Increased consumption of food items.

- Increased assistance for pregnant women and children under 5 years health checks.
Argentina* Universal Child Allowance

- Increase in pre-school and secondary enrollment.
- Reduction of child labor and teenage pregnancy.
- Improvements in body mass index (BMI) and immunization.

- Increase in school attendance of children aged 6 to 14 years.
Brazil Bolsa Familia

- Increased spending on foods that are part of healthy eating patterns. **
- Increased assistance for pregnant women and children under 5 years health checks.
Chile Chile Solidario

- Increase in preschool and school enrollment, as well as adult literacy.
- Increased number of controls growth between 2 and 3 years old.
- Decrease in the proportion of children under 3 years in rural areas affected by

diarrheal diseases.
Colombia More Families in Action ***
- Decreased levels of chronic malnutrition.
- Increased chances of completing secondary education.
- Increased spending on food.
- Higher levels of hemoglobin in children under 5 living in rural areas.
Ecuador BDH
- Improvements in cognitive development of children between 3 and 6 years.
- Increased diversity of food consumed.
The Savior Caring communities - Greater proportion of births attended by skilled personnel.
46 It is important to note that the results relating to food (consumption and production), education and nutrition are mainly included, while other results related to employment and income, which
undoubtedly have an impact on food security and nutrition, they have been omitted. These have been analyzed in addition to the reference literature indicated in the table, in the 2013 and 2014 editions Panorama.
| 70 |
TABLE 8
CONTINUATION
country Program findings
- Rising: food intake, caloric intake and dietary diversity.
- Decline in overall malnutrition in rural areas.
PROSPERA Social Inclusion Program - Increased school attendance and improvements in secondary enrollment in rural areas.
Mexico (ex - Opportunities) ***

- Increased spending on food.
- Improved dietary diversity.
- Increased BMI in children with overweight risk. ****
- Increases in land use and ownership of livestock. ****
- Decrease of food expenditure.

Paraguay **** Tekoporã
- Increased likelihood of buying cattle.
TOGETHER - the Poorest National Direct - Increased presence of children under 5 years in medical checkups.
Peru Support Program

- Increased school attendance.
- Higher proportion of children with vaccination program users and health checks daily versus
non-beneficiaries eligible children.
Dominican
Progressing with Solidarity
Republic***** - Decrease in the proportion of users of the program students drop out of school versus
non-beneficiaries eligible students.
Uruguay***** Family's asignations - Increased enrollment for secondary education.
SOURCE: Prepared based on: Rossel, C., Nieves Rico, M. and Filgueira, F. Early Childhood and Childhood in S. Cecchini,
F. Filgueira, A. Martinez, C. Rossel (2015). Social protection instruments: Latin American roads towards universalization. ECLAC: Santiago de Chile,
85-125; and Bastagli, F., Hagen-Zanker, J., Harman, L. et al., (2016). Cash Transfers: What Does the Evidence Say? A Rigorous Review of Program
Impact and of the Role of Design and Implementation Features. London: ODI.
* In the case of Argentina: Kliksberg, B. and Novacovsky, I. (2015). The great challenge: to break the trap of inequality since childhood.
Learnings of the Universal Child Allowance. Buenos Aires: Editorial Biblos.
* * Bortoletto Martins, AP and Monteiro, C. (2016). Impact of the Bolsa Familia Program on Food Availability of Low-Income Families Brazilian: a Quasi
Experimental Study. BMC Public Health, 16, 827.
* * * The stated findings also refer to the Families in Action program (Colombia) and Opportunities (Mexico).
* * * * Tiribayi, N., Knowles, M. Davies, B. (2013). The Interaction Between Social Protection and Agriculture: a Review of Evidence. Rome: FAO.
* * * * * Cases for the Dominican Republic and Uruguay, respectively: Suriel, A. (2015) Progressing in solidarity: the main government strategy to
reduce extreme poverty and Labat, JP (2015) Evaluation and monitoring of the Equity Plan. International Seminar presentations Systems Protection
and Social Inclusion in Latin America. Buenos Aires, May 21, 2015.
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The table allows to observe effects can be grouped into four For families living in rural areas through increases in the purchase
categories: of agricultural inputs and increases in labor productivity and land
(Tiribayi, Knowles and Davies,
one) Effects on income poverty: through regular, predictable and
consistent delivery of monetary support, the PTC can help reduce 2013). This can have positive implications both from the point of view
income poverty from its users and improve inequality between income of consumption, such as creating permanent sources of income. 47 n
groups. This has direct effects on food, because the income is, as
discussed herein, one of the major drivers of access to food.
two) Education and health effects: the

responsibilities regarding school attendance and health checks enabled
improvements in indicators such as education of users, and have
contributed to enhancing impact on reducing infectious diseases and
increased vaccination, among others. Considering that food education,
in the context of primary and secondary schools, is one of the most
important channels to promote healthy eating (FAO and PAHO, 2017),
increased school attendance can have positive effects in eating
patterns in the long run. In turn, the co-responsibilities in health,
together with the increased consumption of more and better food and
complementary interventions have allowed a reduction of malnutrition.
Anyway, it should be noted that there are cases, such as Mexico,
3) Effects on food: countries such as Argentina, Brazil, Colombia,

Ecuador, El Salvador, Mexico and Peru directly report improvements in
food consumption and variety, confirming, on the one hand, the
importance of PTC to support changes in eating patterns, but also it
raises the other, the need to expand research on the role they can play
in this area.
47 A recent study coordinated by Higinio et al. (2016) explores the synergies between some
social programs and rural productive development in Latin America. There are identified,
among other results, improved production practices, increase in assets dedicated to the
4) Effects on food production: Finally, some programs also have an
production and working capital in Peru; as well as an increase in crop diversification in El
impact on food production, particularly in the Salvador.
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UTILIZATION ACCESS TO DRINKING WATER AND BASIC

SANITATION IS ESSENTIAL TO ENSURE GOOD
main messages NUTRITION
Difficulties in access to basic infrastructure of water and sanitation is

and Drinking water and health infrastructure are basic to
one of the underlying causes of malnutrition, especially in children.
eradicate malnutrition and ensure proper use and food
While the quality and coverage of these services has improved over
processing conditions. Coverage of potable water and time, there are still significant risks, with negative consequences for
sanitation in Latin America and the Caribbean has food security and nutrition (HLPE, 2015) consequences. The lack of
improved over the last 15 years, but access to safe water these services not only affects the health of individuals but also adds
is still below the global average. difficulties to poverty reduction, economic development and limiting
damage to the environment (ECLAC,
and significant differences are observed in access to 2017). As regards child health and nutrition, you can be associated
basic services in Latin America and the Caribbean, both with child malnutrition in the absence of adequate facilities for drinking
water and basic sanitation in the home, which increases the risk of
between countries and within them. Rural and
diseases that contribute to constrict and intensify development
low-income population have significantly less to potable malnutrition (UNICEF, 2006). 48
water and sanitation in Latin America and the Caribbean
access.
The importance of the conditions of access to basic water and

sanitation services have been recognized in the Agenda
and They reported efforts by the governments of Latin
America and the Caribbean to expand coverage of potable
2030, which addresses not only issues of coverage, but also about the
water and sanitation, both in terms of investment in quality and sustainability of water, advancing ensure a more equitable
infrastructure and subsidies to ensure affordable access to and efficient access to services and aiming to ensure potential
these services. environmental impacts of its implementation. In Latin America and the
Caribbean remain important closing gaps regarding the coverage of
water and sanitation services. Advances in this field are heterogeneous
and respond to the strategies of each country, which in turn depend on
geographical, socioeconomic, cultural and institutional characteristics
(ECLAC, 2017).
Access to free water contamination is essential to the production and

processing of foods. Many diseases are transmitted through food
consumption, and can find
48 Example of the above, is the situation that is evident in the Andean countries, where the
prevalence of underweight is lower in households where water comes from pipes compared
to those homes where the water comes from unsafe sources (UNICEF, 2006).
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its origin in the use of poor water used for human consumption and Anyway, 96% of the region's population has access to at least basic
production of food preparation. Thus, the contaminated water is the facilities, which means an increase in the coverage of 133.5 million
vehicle by which pathogens and contaminants are transferred from the compared with the year
medium to the food chain, with consequent implications for food safety
(ECLA, 2017). Overcoming these deficiencies can reduce the 2000. However, in 2015 still almost 8 million people do not have
incidence, or completely eradicate some of the diseases associated access to some kind of service, having to resort directly to the
with water contamination. Evidence suggests that improved access to extraction of water from rivers, lakes or other surface sources, as well
water infrastructure and sanitation has a direct impact on reducing child as 16.2 million people not only have access to improved water sources
mortality, while preventing the development of disorders such as or limited. In the latter case, have recourse implies that exceed the
diarrhea and consequently improves nutritional status (HLPE, 2015). average travel time (round trip), a task that falls in most countries
women and girls. fifty
With regard to sanitation infrastructure, 51 access to improved facilities

has increased between 2000 and 2015, in the whole of Latin America
and the Caribbean and its subregions. During this period, health
Figure 35 realizes the drinking water coverage in Latin America and the infrastructure coverage that is at least basic expanded to more than
Caribbean and its subregions. 49 In the region, 65% of the population has 147.5 million people (Figure 36). While in all subregions the uninsured
drinking water facilities and 31% with basic facilities; in South America, have been significantly reduced in the period more than 19 million
these figures, by 2015, reaching 74% and 22%, respectively, while in people lack health infrastructure, which adds to the more than 39.3
Mesoamerica 50% and 47%, respectively. In the Caribbean, while the million people accessing facilities not improved sanitation and nearly
population has access to at least basic services reaches 88% of the 32 million people who share facilities with other households. n
subregional population. In all cases, coverage of the population with
access to at least basic services increased from 2000 to 2015;
however, when compared with global averages, the region is below the
coverage sources of safe handling of water, which reaches 71% of the
world population versus 65% for Latin America and the Caribbean.
fifty UNICEF. Online. Data: Monitoring the Situation of Children and Women. ( Available
in: https://data.unicef.org/topic/water-and- sanitation / drinking-water /). Access: 31 July
2017.
49 Potable water refer to the accessibility, availability and quality of primary source used by
households for drinking, cooking, personal hygiene and other domestic uses. The 51 Sanitation services relate to the management of excreta facilities used by individuals, by
classification used corresponds to: emptying and transporting them. The classification used corresponds to:
- secure: drinking water from improved water source where you have access when needed - secure: the use of improved facilities that are not shared with other households and
and free from contamination. where the droppings are removed safely in situ or transported and treated outside the
- Basic service: drinking water from an improved source, provided that the collection time is home.
not more than 30 minutes for a round trip. - Basic service: refers to the use of improved facilities that are not shared with other
households.
- Limited service: drinking water from an improved source whose collection time exceeds - Limited service: refers to the use of shared between two or more households
30 minutes for a round trip. improved facilities.
- Unimproved source: refers to drinking water from a dug well unprotected or source - Unimproved source: concerns the use of pit latrines or similar.
unprotected. - Open defecation: corresponds to waste human feces in fields, forests, bushes, open
- Surface water refers to water consumption directly from a river, dam, lake, pond, stream, bodies of water, beaches and other open spaces.
canal or irrigation canal.
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BOX 8
USE ON BIOLOGICAL FOOD
The use is related to the intake and food processing, and absorption in rural areas. On the other hand, overweight and obesity are health
and incorporation of nutrients, which allow a healthy and active life or, problems that show a general upward trend, mostly affecting women. In
conversely, result in various forms of malnutrition, impaired growth, the addition, there are deficiencies in micronutrients necessary for good
cognitive development, immune system and increased risk of health and development, a less obvious problem, but not least, it also
noncommunicable diseases in early stages of life. Also relevant are the has been called "hidden hunger".
conditions in which these processes are carried out, as living conditions
related to access to safe drinking water, sanitation and public health
care, and the quality and quantity of food consumed. Thus, the food
system should aim to ensure both food availability and its quality and
variety, In this context, countries in the region have implemented a series of
measures aimed at improving the nutritional health of the population.
Among them, we can mention the Prenatal Universal Life Subsidy
implemented by Bolivia to reduce rates of maternal and infant mortality,
where beneficiaries receive food packages with high nutritional content
until the time of delivery. On the other hand, El Salvador, together with
the World Food Program launched the second phase of El Salvador
Nurture Project, which provides nutritional bonds in communities living
near or below the poverty line, seeking to prevent stunting of children
who are in their first thousand days of life.
Nutritional status affects the various stages of development throughout

the life cycle, and nutritional deficiencies will have different effects
depending on the stage they are submitted. In this context, it is
especially relevant nutritional status of mothers, infants and children,
for in them the consequences of malnutrition will have a greater impact
throughout the life cycle (from early childhood to adulthood), and will Food and nutrition education, meanwhile, aims to improve knowledge of
affect the development possibilities of both physical and mental. food and nutrition, and change the eating habits of the target
population. In this area, countries in the region have implemented
various measures. In Costa Rica, for example, there is a campaign Give
breastfeeding: is healthier to issue messages in different media
platforms, seeking to promote breastfeeding during the first year of life.
In Paraguay the National Strategy for Prevention and Control of Obesity
Malnutrition is manifested in various ways, and is present in a 2015-2025 came into force, which among its six strategic axes has one
substantial portion of the population in the region. On the one hand, in specially aimed at health promotion and prevention of overweight and
terms of child malnutrition, the region has made great strides, even obesity as well as other dedicated surveillance, research and nutrition
though there are countries where the prevalence of malnutrition in its information.
various manifestations is considerably high, and mainly affects the
poorest sectors, especially
Source: Compiled from FAO and PAHO (2017).
| 75 |
FIGURE 35
COVERAGE OF DRINKING WATER (% of population) in subregions of Latin America and the Caribbean, 2000 AND 2015
100 163 52 91
5
80 12
21
21
Mar.
37
17
29
60 22 0
45183
31 1
47 1
88
85
40
75 74
65
61
50
43
20
0
2000 2015 2000 2015 2000 2015 2000 2015
Latin America and the Caribbean South America Central America Caribbean
secure basic service At least basic service
limited service unimproved source Surface water
SOURCE: Joint Monitoring Program for Water Supply and Sanitation (WHO / UNICEF, 2017).
* Have infrastructure that is at least basic means safe and basic service.
FIGURE 36
Sanitation coverage (% of population) in subregions of Latin America and the Caribbean, 2000 AND 2015
100 742
10 9 71
80
76
10
11 12 6 11
60
59 13
63563 65373 10
4 3 September
40
74
September
65 66 66
20
28
22 22
10 10 August
0
2000 2015 2000 2015 2000 2015 2000 2015
Latin America and the Caribbean South America Central America Caribbean
secure basic service At least basic service
limited service unimproved source Open defecation
* Have infrastructure that is at least basic insurance and involves basic service.
| 76 |
CONTINUING COVERAGE GAP IN LARGE reaching, in the case of water, 40% and 64%, respectively. n
WATER AND SANITATION IN RURAL AREA AND

AMONG THE POOREST
WATER AND SANITATION POLICY
After the newly exposed panorama, it should be noted gaps and Access to water and sanitation is at the basis of human development,
disparities in the region in access to basic services of water and being essential for agricultural, industrial, energy and domestic
sanitation, both in terms of countries and within them. They are sectors,
generally the poorest and those living in rural areas who have more and particularly for the development of human settlements and
difficulty having improved facilities or access these services. ecosystems. The existence of water and proper sanitation is essential
for the prevention of infectious and parasitic diseases, many of which
are causes of malnutrition. Lack of appetite, improper nutrient
absorption, rapid metabolism and higher blood loss are some of the
impacts these diseases and infections also can increase the risk of
stunting, affect cognitive development, weakened immune systems,
In Figure 37 the sanitation coverage by geographic area is detailed. cause anemia , premature births, infant malnutrition, poor growth and
There is seen that, in some cases, the difference between the may compromise the effectiveness of nutritional interventions (WHO,
thresholds of coverage rural and urban areas is significant. For UNICEF and USAID, 2015).
example, in Haiti, nearly two-thirds of the rural population do not have
access or have improved sanitation, compared with 22% of the urban
population. In Guatemala, about 40% are in this situation in rural
areas, compared with 8.9% of the urban population; while in Bolivia
67% of the rural population is without access services or unimproved
infrastructure, compared to 8.8% of the urban population. Moreover, in
general terms the number of people sharing sanitation facilities is
higher in rural than in urban areas.
Carry out interventions water and sanitation can interrupt the
transmission of pathogens from the environment to people through
water. By implementing actions to remove these pathogens, sanitation
acts as a primary barrier to pathogens sneaking into water sources
and agricultural fields as well as preventing contamination of flies
(WHO, UNICEF and USAID, 2015).
A similar situation is observed in the coverage of the population with

access to safe water: this is higher in urban areas, however, in most
countries the gap is smaller between geographical areas. Moreover,
service coverage in several countries reached or is close to being
universal. On the other hand, the shortage of water for agriculture and food
systems is a situation that the various countries of Latin America and
the Caribbean must face, since availability varies according to
geographical regions, given the levels of water rain and levels of
Furthermore, when comparing access to services income, the poorest surface and underground water. Added to this, climate change
quintile tends to be more difficult to access them (Figure 39). For increases the uncertainty regarding the availability of water, since it
countries where information is available, such as Bolivia and Haiti, the affects precipitation, runoff, water flows, quality and temperature of the
poorest presents significant shortcomings in this area, and over 80% resource and
have no access to improved sanitation facilities
| 77 |
FIGURE 37
COVERAGE (%) REORGANIZATION OF POPULATION, BY AREA OF RESIDENCE IN LATIN AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN, 2015
Rural Rural
ARG Urban CRI Urban
rural
ECU Urban
rural
rural HND Urban
COL Urban
rural rural
CHL Urban GTM Urban
rural
BRA Urban rural
MEX Urban
rural
BOL Urban
rural rural
PRY Urban NIC Urban
rural
PER Urban rural
SLV Urban
rural
URY Urban
rural
rural PAN
VEN Urban Urban
0 twenty 40 60 80 100 0 twenty 40 60 80 100
Caribbean
Rural
BLZ Urban
rural
CUB Urban
rural
HTI Urban
rural
DOM Urban
rural
GUY Urban
rural
JAM Urban
rural
SUR Urban
Limited basic service at least not
rural
LCA Urban improved service without service
0 twenty 40 60 80 100
| 78 |
FIGURE 38
COVERAGE (%) WATER OF POPULATION, BY AREA OF RESIDENCE IN LATIN AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN, 2015
Rural Rural
ARG Urban CRI Urban
rural
ECU Urban rural
rural HND Urban
COL Urban
rural rural
CHL Urban GTM Urban
rural
BRA Urban rural
MEX Urban
rural
BOL Urban
rural rural
PRY Urban NIC Urban
rural
PER Urban rural
SLV Urban
rural
URY Urban
rural
VEN
rural PAN Urban
Urban
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Caribbean
Rural
BLZ Urban
rural
CUB Urban
rural
HTI Urban
rural
DOM Urban
rural
GUY Urban
rural
JAM Urban
rural
SUR Urban Limited basic service at least not
rural
LCA Urban improved service without service
0 20 40 60 80 100
| 79 |
FIGURE 39
COVERAGE (% of population) WATER AND SANITATION, BY LEVEL OF INCOME IN LATIN AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN, 2015
Drinking water Sanitation
quintile 1 quintile 1
BOL BOL
BLZ BLZ
BRB BRB
Quintil 5 Quintil 5
Quintil 1 Quintil 1
GUY GUY
Quintil 5 Quintil 5
Quintil 1 Quintil 1
HND HND
Quintil 5 Quintil 5
Quintil 1 Quintil 1
DOM DOM
Quintil 5 Quintil 5
Quintil 1 Quintil 1
CRI CRI
Quintil 5 Quintil 5
Quintil 1 Quintil 1
COL COL
Quintil 5 Quintil 5
Quintil 1 Quintil 1
HTI HTI
Quintil 5 Quintil 5
Quintil 1 Quintil 1
PER PER
Quintil 5 Quintil 5
Quintil 1 Quintil 1
JAM JAM
Quintil 5 Quintil 5
Quintil 1 Quintil 1
SUR Quintil 5
SUR Quintil 5
Quintil 1 Quintil 1
SLV Quintil 5
SLV Quintil 5
Quintil 1 Quintil 1
PAN Quintil 5
PAN Quintil 5
Quintil 1 Quintil 1
LCA Quintil 5
LCA Quintil 5
0 twenty 40 60 80 100 0 twenty 40 60 80 100
At least basic service limited service Not improved without service
| 80 | | 80
BOX 9
Prevalence of diarrhea in CHILDREN UNDER FIVE
Diarrhea is the second leading cause of infant mortality in the world disease in children under 5 years are presented in households that do
and is both cause and consequence of inadequate nutrition, while not have facilities for drinking water and adequate sanitation.
hinders the absorption of nutrients and food intake (HLPE, 2015b).
Table 9.1 shows that a significant proportion of children under 5 years

suffering from this disease in the selected countries. In Bolivia, the
From the Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS) has been identified prevalence for 2012 reached 22.8%, 20.8% in Haiti and Guatemala
in some countries in the region, the highest prevalence of this 19.2%.
TABLE 9.1
PREVALENCE (%) OF DIARRHEA IN CHILDREN UNDER 5 YEARS IN BOLIVIA, DOMINICA REPUBLIC,

GUATEMALA, GUYANA, HONDURAS, PERU AND HAITI different periods
Country / year Prevalence of diarrhea in children under 5 years (%)
Bolivia (2012) 22.8
Dominican Republic (2013) 18
Guatemala (2014-15) 19.2
Guyana (2009) 9.9
Honduras (2011-12) 17.8
Peru (2014) 12.7
Haiti (2012) 20.8
SOURCE: Prepared based on information gathered by The DHS Program (USAID, online).
Regarding health services and the prevalence of diarrhea, Table 9.2 improved. In Guatemala, while the prevalence in households with
indicates that in Bolivia, households do not have access to these shared services is 23.2%, while those with no enhanced services is
services have higher rates of diarrhea in children under 5 years than 19.3%; Haiti, the same relationship presents prevalences of 24.6% and
those who have health services, whether improved or non-shared or 21.1%, respectively. In Guyana, finally, the prevalence doubles in
shared. It also highlights the prevalence is higher in households with shared or unimproved sanitation.
sanitation shared that in which the health service is not
| 81 | | 81
BOX 9
(CONTINUED)
TABLE 9.2
Prevalence of diarrhea in UNDER 5 BY HEALTH SERVICE IN BOLIVIA, DOMINICA REPUBLIC,

GUATEMALA, GUYANA, HONDURAS, PERU AND HAITI different periods
Prevalence of diarrhea in children under 5 years by health service (%)
Unimproved
improved or Unimproved
country unshared Shared Does not have
or
shared
Bolivia (2008) 24.8 25.2 28.4
Dominican Republic (2013) 17.5 19
Guatemala (2014-15) 18.3 23.2 19.3
Guyana (2009) 8.1 15.4
Peru (2014) 11.4 12.9
Haiti (2012) 15.1 24.6 21.1
SOURCE: The DHS Program (USAID).
Finally, according to UNICEF (2004), 88% of such diseases have their significantly these episodes (around 35% and 39%, respectively) if
origin in inadequate water sources and poor sanitation. It is estimated the quality of the water used inside the home is improved.
that could be reduced
| 82 |
groundwater recharge. According to the High Level Panel of Experts on differences: in 2015, virtually the entire urban population (98.8%) had
Food Security and Nutrition (HLPE, for its acronym in English) is access to potable water, however, in the same year in rural areas
necessary for the management of land and water preserve ecosystem access, as a whole, was 13 percentage points lower (85.4 %).
functions and ensure the future of the resource if you want to achieve Something similar can be seen in access to sanitation, because while
food security, since it is key to ensure the quantity and quality of water 90% of the urban population had access to these services, the rural
(HLPE, 2015b). population access to sanitation is only a
68.4%. These figures suggest that in the region, the challenges in this
Access to potable water and sanitation is one of the indicators that area are mainly focused on reducing disparities between urban and
make up the Human Development Index (HDI) composite indicator rural areas, which is observed since in recent years the rural coverage
means achievements have a long and healthy life, to acquire has increased more than the urban, which is practically stagnant since
knowledge and enjoy a decent standard of living ; and the Human 2000 (wHO and UNICEF, online). From 2000 to
Opportunity Index (HOI), which measures how far, or near, is a society
of universal access to goods or essential services, and how equitable
access among people (World Bank, 2016b) is distributed. While levels
of poverty and extreme poverty have declined in Latin America and the 2015, covering water and basic sanitation and improved in rural areas
Caribbean, the incidence remains high and reflects poor provision of has increased by almost 15% and 21%, respectively.
public services, both by lack of access and the quality of those
services.
Although Latin America and the Caribbean have high rates of use of
improved drinking water and sanitation, more than 24 million people
and more than 90 million people lack access to basic or improved
water and sanitation services, respectively. To reduce illnesses and
deaths resulting from lack of access to potable water and basic
sanitation, in order to increase welfare, improve health and boost
productivity, countries in the region have developed and implemented
a series of public policies that promote, improve, standardize and / or
regulate access to water and sanitation.
The ODS 6 discusses ensure the availability of water and its
sustainable management and sanitation for all, thus reducing illnesses
and deaths related to access to such services. Access to water,
sanitation and hygiene is a human right closely related to the right to
life, food and health; It also represents vital factors for the welfare and
human development and is a key to achieving other development
goals, such as adequate nutrition, poverty eradication and gender
equality element. In the region, there are a variety of laws that address the subject:
General water laws, sectoral laws health or the environment, or
national sectoral or specific water and sanitation sub-national laws. 52 For
example, countries like Ecuador, Nicaragua, Uruguay and several
countries
Currently 96% of the population of Latin America and the Caribbean

has access to basic services and improved drinking water, 86% to 52 Norman general laws and mandatory general the essential foundations of a legal system,
complementary or detailed aspects are then regulated by the statutory regulation.
basic sanitation and improved, with the rural poor that with less
Meanwhile, sectoral laws addressed in the context of health or the environment the problem
coverage. Although the gap between rural and urban areas has of access to water and sanitation and norman matter. Finally, national or sub-sectoral laws
declined, there are still large establish the scope of the (national or sub) sector institutions and define how to provide
services.
| 83 |
English-speaking Caribbean, have general water laws or sectoral laws municipal, cooperative and private providers; municipal and
health or environment have on drinking water and sanitation. intermunicipal providers are characteristic of countries where municipal
Meanwhile, Bolivia, Chile, Peru, Paraguay, Costa Rica and Honduras, decentralization processes were developed. In rural areas, on the other
among others, have specific national sectoral laws on water and hand, examples of community-based predominate with similar
sanitation; Argentina, meanwhile, given its federal character, has organizational structures in most of the countries (ECLAC, 2014). If
sub-sectoral laws. Depending on the effective coverage of water and you want to achieve the goals of equality and social inclusion, quality
sanitation services, countries in the region have also addressed the and environmental protection in the area of water and sanitation and, in
matter in broader plans, such as national development, or policies or turn, lessen the gaps, it is essential to have effective regulation of
guidelines and sectoral development plans. To give some examples, water services and sanitation (CAF, 2012).
Argentina, Barbados, Chile, Costa Rica, Uruguay, Colombia and
Trinidad and Tobago have no specific sectoral national plans; either
due to the high coverage they have in their services or, like Argentina,
because of the federal character of the country. As for the various
institutional frameworks in Latin America and the Caribbean can be
seen marked differences between countries, either in terms of the
governing body, the body responsible for monitoring or body providing The participation of civil society on issues of water and sanitation can
services; in some cases the same body can perform all the functions have a positive impact on the provision of these services, since it
mentioned above. In addition, also it varies the public or private nature reduces information asymmetries, limited technical and financial
of the providers. Usually in countries of smaller geographical scale, and discretionary actions, prevents corruption, supports social
where there is a nationwide operator, the governing body usually also responsiveness decisions, conveyed the concerns of the people and
the entity that provides water services and sanitation. Further, active conflict resolution (CAF, 2012). An example is the case of
Colombia, which by Decree 1842/91 (as amended) issued by the
National Statute of Members of Public Utilities; In addition, the law
142/94 establishes the system of public services, through which the
mandatory intervention by committees in monitoring and discussion of
tariffs and planning service providers is set. The law states that there
must be development committees and Social Control of Public Utilities
in all municipalities. These committees are made up by users,
subscribers or potential subscribers of services. The number of
members varies according to the population of the municipalities and /
or districts. One of the functions with which they must comply is to
study and analyze the amount of subsidies granted by the municipality
to low-income users; In addition to examining the criteria and
mechanisms for allocating these subsidies. Having information
systems can improve public policy formulation and implementation of
actions to improve potable water and sanitation. These systems collect
data and information of various organisms,
As for the forms of organization of providers, can be observed

institutions at the national level and at the level of states, provinces and
administrative regions and even the municipal or intermunicipal level,
taking various constituent legal forms: for example, countries like
Barbados, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Jamaica, Nicaragua, Panama,
Trinidad and Tobago and Uruguay have a predominantly urban
provider, may even be national. For its part, the provincial scale
enterprises, state or administrative region, are present in Argentina,
Brazil, Chile, Dominican Republic and Venezuela. Furthermore, they
can also coexist
| 84 |
regulators and providers of water and sanitation, and other public fixed and a variable part covering variable costs or cost depending on
sources related to generate products that support decision-making in consumption. The country has also established a variable subsidized
the matter. For example, the National Informações System on billing for vulnerable people. In Brazil, meanwhile, there are
Sanitation (SNIS), Brazil, collects information on the provision of water mechanisms inflation-adjusted costs. Countries in the region may also
and sewerage, solid waste management and drainage urban have other systems that combine the components listed above. With
management and urban stormwater. The system diagnoses annually regard to subsidies, cross-subsidies operate in all services in the
publishes the status of the provision of basic sanitation services, and region. In some cases, such as Ecuador and El Salvador, with direct
the information produced is used at central, state and municipal levels tax subsidies coexist. In this sense, there is a wide dispersion with
for the planning of public policies in the sector; as a guide to the respect to the identification of beneficiaries and the value of the
application of tax revenues; for evaluation and performance monitoring; subsidy. n
improve management; the implementation of actions targeting the
regulation and supervision of the activities of the owners; as a
contribution to social control; and comparison and measurement of
global and regional sector information (CAF,
2012).
According to the CAF - Development Bank of Latin America (2012), although

the population has available water and sanitation, sometimes no access to
such services because of the cost that this implies since not entail immediate
benefits, leaving background the importance of improved sanitation. In order
to reduce the costs associated with water services and sanitation, they have
been implemented a series of tariffs and subsidies: in countries such as
Chile, Colombia and Peru have established pricing mechanisms based on
models of economic regulation. In Chile, prices may indicate the cost of real
economic scarcity and all consumers pay an equal rate for equal levels of
consumption. However, the state subsidizes the most vulnerable consumers
who can not pay their bills. In the case of Colombia, operate and govern
services cross differentiated tariffs for domestic consumers, depending on
the socioeconomic category to which they belong. In Peru, tariffs must
include all costs of providing services at the level of efficiency and govern
subsidized rates that apply to all. Instead, Uruguay fixed administrative
procedures cost recovery, has a tariff structure that includes a base rate
consisting of a fixed part that covers the costs and govern subsidized rates
that apply to all. Instead, Uruguay fixed administrative procedures cost
recovery, has a tariff structure that includes a base rate consisting of a fixed
part that covers the costs and govern subsidized rates that apply to all.
Instead, Uruguay fixed administrative procedures cost recovery, has a tariff
structure that includes a base rate consisting of a fixed part that covers the
costs
| 85 |
Stability and THE EFFECTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE FOR

INCREASED RISK agriculture, but agriculture
sustainability also contributes to climate change
main messages
and Sustainable food production will be essential to Climate change 53 is one of the major concerns of Agenda 2030, is
ensure adequate food and, consequently, food and considered as a threat to achieving many of the objectives, including
nutrition security in Latin America and the Caribbean in food and nutrition security account. The effects of climate change,
including increases in temperature are; increased frequency of
the future.
weather events; the degradation; the ocean acidification; increases
in sea level; and loss of biodiversity (FAO, 2016b), the risks to
agriculture and add to the challenges that the sector is already
and Disasters related to climate impact livelihoods, with facing, such as population growth, increasing urbanization and
severe consequences for the food security and nutrition changing food demand, among others 54 ( FAO, 2017A), further
deepening its negative consequences.
consequences. In recent years, they have been causing
enormous economic damage and an increase in the
number of people affected in Latin America and the
Caribbean, imposing a matter of urgency the necessary
actions for mitigation and adaptation.
Climate change affects the stability and sustainability of food systems,

impacting food availability by reducing expected crop yields,
production levels, quality of food and access to water resources,
either directly, changes in temperature and rainfall patterns, or
indirectly, by an increased incidence of pests and diseases. Its
incidence not only affects the production stage, but also the
post-production, to alter, eg, storage conditions (FAO, 2016c). Climate
shocks in agricultural areas can affect international food supply, taking
in turn impacts on prices
53 Framework Convention of the United Nations on Climate Change (UNFCCC) defines

climate change as "a change attributed directly or indirectly to human activity climate that
alters the composition of the global atmosphere and which is in addition to natural climate
variability observed for comparable time periods "(UNFCCC, 1992).
54 FAO estimates indicate that, globally, agricultural production should be increased by 60%
by 2050.
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international and local. 55 The direct effects on agricultural production reduce the sector's contribution to climate change, especially when
involve additional risks for food security and nutrition, particularly for agriculture in the region has an important role in the world food market.
populations whose food and livelihoods depend directly on it.
Moreover, among the indirect effects are the implications for price
volatility and both local and international trade flows. This realizes that It is important to consider that emissions of greenhouse gases
the associated risks and effects of climate change are broad, originated in the agricultural sector do not consider the pre- and
generating economic, social and environmental consequences, which post-food production stages, as they are informed by other sectors
together impact the stability of the dimensions of food and nutrition such as industry and transport. Some estimates indicate that if
security. emission contributions are incorporated (either direct or indirect) of
each stage of the food chain, contribution emissions could increase by
a third. It should be noted that, anyway, in developing countries the
contribution of emissions from the production phase is proportionally
higher than other stages of the chain, whereas in high-income
countries, emissions generated in the prior and subsequent steps are
equivalent to the emissions generated in the production step (FAO,
2016D).
Emissions greenhouse gases are closely related to climate change
(IPCC, 2014th). Today, Latin America and the Caribbean contributes
about 10% of global CO2 emissions, while at the regional level
emissions have increased by 22% between 1990 and 2010, growth
below the global average, which it reached a 30% in the same period
(Figure 40).
An analysis by agricultural area realizes the magnitude of the challenge

facing Latin America and the Caribbean in reducing emissions of
greenhouse gases from the agriculture sector. Figure 42 shows that the
Furthermore, the contribution of agriculture emissions of greenhouse production of meat is the category that provides increased emissions to
gases is significant, particularly by supplying CO2, CH4, and nitrous the atmosphere per kilo of product. In the region, for example,
oxide (FAO, 2016c). Globally, emissions from agriculture, forestry and emissions from the production of sheep meat more than double the
other land uses account for 21% of total greenhouse gas emissions, global average, generate 49 kilograms of CO2 equivalents per kilogram
which are explained mostly by deforestation, livestock production and of meat. In the case of goats and beef, the region exceeds the global
management soil and nutrients (FAO, 2016D). This ratio changes average, by 37% and 29%, respectively. This becomes more important
significantly from the regional point of view: in Figure 41 can be seen considering that the region is responsible for almost 30% of global
that agriculture is responsible for over half of greenhouse gas production of beef, and 16% of total meat in the world.
emissions in Latin America and the Caribbean. In addition, the region
is responsible for a quarter of emissions originating from agriculture,
This is just one of the challenges facing livestock production in the

environmental field, then, on the other hand, the development of this
activity is among the main reasons for the increase of deforestation is
allocated 70% of the total agricultural area its development and water
consumption by the livestock sector accounts for 8% of global
55 Examples of this were the impacts on corn prices following the drought in the United
resource consumption. In Latin America and the Caribbean, in
States in 2012, rising international prices and increasing cereal exports from the region particular livestock it is the main source of deforestation (FAO,
(FAO, 2015b); while in Brazil, coffee yields decreased to 10% after the 2007 drought, also
2009a).
impacting international prices (FAO, 2015c).
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FIGURE 40
CONTRIBUTION AND GROWTH (%) EMISSIONS OF GREENHOUSE GASES BY REGIONS OF THE WORLD, between 1990 and 2010
Growth between 1990-2010 Contribution (%) 2010
ALC ALC
Asia
Asia
Europe
Europe
world
North Africa
North Africa
Oceania Oceania
- fifty 0 fifty 100 0 10 twenty 30 40 fifty
FIGURE 41
CONTRIBUTION (%) EMISSIONS BY SECTOR OF THE ECONOMY IN LATIN AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN AND THE WORLD, 2010
World ALC
eleven eleven
22
4
8
3
April
July
56
22
47
Agriculture and land use Energy Others Industrial processes

Residential, commercial, institutional Transport

* Agriculture and land use also considered forestry (forestry) and other land uses. Others consider international ship fuels, waste and other sources.
| 88 |
FIGURE 42
CO2 emissions (equivalents per kilogram) HEADING FOR AGRICULTURE IN LATIN AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN, EUROPE AND THE WORLD, 2014
Rice (paddy)
Pork meat goats
Sheepmeat beef cattle
Chicken meat
without rice
Hen eggs Cereals
milk sheep goat
whole milk whole milk whole
0 10 twenty 30 40 fifty
Europe World ALC

* Emission intensity varies considerably between producers according to the different agro-ecological conditions, operating practices and
ways of managing supply chains (FAO, 2013).
In addition to the magnitude of emissions of greenhouse gases, which can be obtained by increasing the areas with irrigation
another important area in which agriculture contributes to climate infrastructure.
change it is through the extensive use of natural resources such as
water and soil resources. In the first case, fresh water is used mostly in Finally, with regard to land use, it should be noted that the agricultural
agriculture, as seen in Table 9, reaching 70% overall, while in the area in Latin America and the Caribbean has increased since 1990 at
region the ratio exceeds the global average (71%). There you can also a faster rate than the global average, with a variation of 10.1% and
see that countries with higher incomes spend a lower proportion of 1.4%, respectively, between 1990 and 2014 (Figure 43). This increase
water for agriculture, which is consistent with increased resource is due primarily to the increase in arable land and permanent crops. In
productivity. While the region presents advances in the area, these are addition, forests have also been reduced at a faster rate in the region
still modest: in 2014, 3.2% of the agricultural area in Latin America and in the same period the reduction was 9.1% of the surface, exceeding
the Caribbean had irrigation equipment, which is below the global the reduction worldwide (3%). n
average, which in the same year reached 6.8% (FAO, online).
Improvements in productivity depend on better management,
| 89 | | 89
TABLE 9
ANNUAL EXTRACTION OF FRESH WATER AND WATER PRODUCTIVITY, 2014
% Of total freshwater withdrawal
Water productivity, total (GDP per

m3 of freshwater withdrawal)
For agricultural For home For industrial

Country group
use use use
high income 40.9 15.1 43.9 48,3
medium-high income 67.8 13.3 19.0 14.4
Average income 79.0 10.4 10.6 8.5
MICs-low 88.3 8.0 3.6 3.6
low income 90.4 7.0 2.9 4.0
World 69.9 11.5 18,6 18.3
Latin America and the Caribbean 71.4 16.7 11.9 17.8
SOURCE: World Development Indicators, World Bank (online).
FIGURE 43
CHANGE IN LAND USE, 1990-2014, IN THE WORLD AND IN LATIN AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN, VARIATIONS (%) SURFACE
30
20
10
- 10 0
Agricultural arable land Permanent forests Others

area and permanent meadows and
crops pastures
ALC World

* agricultural land considered arable land and permanent crops, meadows and pastures temporary.
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BOX 10
Reduce losses and food waste (PDA) Assumes BENEFITS FOR ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY AND FOOD AND NUTRITION
SECURITY
Estimates of food losses are significant and globally these reach a third The importance of making progress in reducing the PDA has meant
of food produced for human consumption. In Latin America and the incorporation into the ODS (target 12.3); its reduction not only means a
Caribbean, PDA reach 34% of foods, this means a volume of about 127 contribution to the efficient use of natural resources, which increasingly
million tons, 223 kg per person. The existence of PDA accounts for face greater pressure, and environmental sustainability, but also
inefficiencies in the food system. Produce foods that are eventually involves economic and food benefits.
consumed not involve unnecessary use of natural resources such as
water and soil, as well as energy, labor, among others, and it is
estimated that globally the PDA mean 3.3 Gt CO2 equivalents .
Thus, proper management of the PDA is established as one of the
conditions necessary to have efficient and sustainable food systems.
PDA volumes are unacceptably high, especially when in Latin America
and the Caribbean
42.5 million people do not have a sufficient amount of food.
SOURCE: FAO and PAHO (2017) and FAO (2017B).
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OCCURRENCE OF NATURAL DISASTERS IN LATIN Regarding the number of people affected, this has increased overall
in the last five years, drought being the type of event that has affected
AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN SIGNIFICANTLY
more people.
AFFECT AGRICULTURE AND LIVELIHOODS
Moreover, a study (FAO, 2015c) notes that agriculture concentrated

around a quarter of the impacts caused by natural disasters.
Particularly in Latin America and the Caribbean lost it associated with
The frequency of natural disasters these events during the period 2003-2013 in agricultural production
(Climatological and geophysical) shows an increasing trend, with the reached a value close to 11 billion USD; such losses, floods account for
rural population and small farmers who are affected more by these more than half of the damage that period, which followed droughts and
events, since their livelihoods depend largely on resources that are storms. These losses meant a drop in average 2.7% growth in
affected by natural disasters, such as soils (usually low productivity) or agricultural value added per event and meant an increase of USD 13
water. Resilience to these events is low, and, likewise, have greater billion in the value of imports to offset reductions in domestic
difficulty recovering once these (FAO and PAHO, 2017) are presented. production, while at the same time involved a reduction in exports in
billion USD during the same period. The crops that suffered the
greatest losses as a result of natural disasters, were coffee, sugar
cane, tropical fruits, cassava, potatoes and cereals.
The consequences of these events depend on their size,

geographical characteristics of the site concerned and characteristics
socioeconomic population, particularly of productive activities carried

out in the affected area, whether agriculture, trade and / or tourism. The
impacts are wide in areas such as housing, health, nutrition,
infrastructure, transport, communications, connectivity and water
facilities and sanitation, among others (FAO, 2015c).
Figure 45 shows the frequency and number of people affected by
natural disasters last year. During 2016, 10.7 million people were
affected by natural disasters, with droughts, hurricanes, floods and
earthquakes events that generated more negative effects (OCHA,
Figure 44 shows that, of climatological events observed in the 2016A). Maintaining the trend of recent years, floods were the most
region, floods are the most frequent event, although in the last five recurrent event in 2016; However, the most affected was caused by
years a trend reversal and a lower frequency compared to the drought. n
previous can be seen. However, these events have proved more
costly in both affected and economic damages.
Flooding is the biggest event occurrence in South America and for

some periods also in Mesoamerica, although it should be noted that in
the latter storms have great relevance. In the Caribbean, meanwhile,
storms have historically been the most frequent event and,
additionally, the event has caused major economic costs for the region
as a whole (EM-DAT, online).
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FIGURE 44
FREQUENCY (absolute numbers), ECONOMIC DAMAGE (IN THOUSANDS OF DOLLARS) AND MILLIONS OF PEOPLE AFFECTED BY SELECTED
EVENTS IN LATIN climatological AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN, different periods
Frequency
300
200
100
0
1972-76 1977-81 1982-86 1987-91 1992-96 1997-01 2002-06 2007-11 2012-16
economic damage
30,000
20,000
10,000
0
1972-76 1977-81 1982-86 1987-91 1992-96 1997-01 2002-06 2007-11 2012-16
Affected people
60
40
20
0
1972-76 1977-81 1982-86 1987-91 1992-96 1997-01 2002-06 2007-11 2012-16
Drought extreme temperature
floods storms
SOURCE: EM-DAT (online).
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FIGURE 45
NUMBER OF NATURAL DISASTERS AND PERSONS AFFECTED BY TYPE OF DISASTER, 2016
Frequency affected
Floods Floods
Tropical Cyclone Tropical Cyclone
cold waves cold waves
Other Other
droughts droughts
earthquakes earthquakes
0 5 10 fifteen twenty 25 0 one two 3 4
SOURCE: OCHA (2016A).
One of the events that overlaid biggest concern was Hurricane Central America experienced one of the worst droughts in the last
Matthew, in October last year strongly affected Haiti and Cuba. decade, and small-scale production and rural communities were
Passing through Haiti affected more than 20% of the population, most affected, facing serious adverse effects on their livelihoods.
leaving more than 1.5 million people food insecure and 280 thousand The loss in agricultural production affected food stocks, raising
in situation of severe food insecurity. Many of the crops for own concerns about increasing cases of malnutrition, particularly in
consumption were damaged and affected the availability of meat and children.
fresh produce. In addition, significant losses were generated in
agricultural production, and in some of the areas most affected crops
were damaged or total losses, creating difficulties for both human and
animal consumption (FAO, 2017c). This event adds to those developed
under the El Niño phenomenon, that previously already affected food On the other hand, heavy rains during the first quarter of 2017 have hit
production and difficult access to fresh water. These effects directly several South American countries, leaving a considerable number of
impacted the purchasing of food and agricultural inputs needed to start victims and damage to agriculture, roads and homes infrastructure and
and / or resume production. creating difficulties in access to sanitation and water sources . Among
the most affected countries is Peru, which has over a million people
homeless; Colombia, with 15 thousand people directly affected by the
rains and floods; and Ecuador, which exceeded 122 thousand people
affected.
In early 2016 the region continued to face the consequences of

the drought produced by the end of 2015 in Central America Table 10 shows the natural disasters that the region has faced during
(OCHA, 2016b). Corredor Seco 2016 and part of
2017.
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TABLE 10
MAJOR NATURAL DISASTERS IN 2016 AND 2017
Event Period countries affected
floods 1st quarter 2016 Argentina, Bolivia, Ecuador, Peru, Paraguay and Uruguay
droughts 1st and 2nd quarter 2016 Bolivia, El Salvador, Guatemala and Honduras
droughts 3rd quarter 2016 Bolivia
hurricanes 3rd quarter 2016 Cuba, Haiti
earthquakes 2nd Quarter 2016 Ecuador
floods 1st quarter 2017 Argentina, Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, Paraguay, Peru and Uruguay
SOURCE: from (OCHA, 2016A; OCHA, 2016b) Development.
In recent years, natural disasters in Latin America and the Caribbean POLICIES FOR ADAPTATION TO CLIMATE
have been strongly affected by El Niño. This phenomenon will
CHANGE BY FAMILY FARMING
continue to be the main cause of climate variability that the region
faces, so it is possible to expect an increased occurrence of the
phenomena associated with alterations in precipitation, such as
droughts and floods that directly affect the livelihoods, infrastructure
and access to basic services, which in turn has negative effects on the In Latin America and the Caribbean, family farming (AF) is the main
stability of food and nutrition security (FAO, 2016c). source of agricultural and rural employment, generating between 57%
and 77% of regional agricultural employment and occupying more
than 60 million people. 80% of farms belong to family farming, and
produce most of the food for domestic consumption countries. 56 In
addition, they carry out diversified agricultural activities that support
environmental sustainability and conservation of biodiversity (FAO,
2014A). Therefore, achieving food and nutrition security, and the
Given the recent trend, the consequences of climatic phenomena will transformation of food systems towards more sustainable models,
remain a factor of great concern to food and nutrition security, floods, necessarily must pass through the support and improvement of
droughts and other events affecting the food supply both food prices productive and social conditions in the AF.
and domestic and international commodities, affects livelihoods and can
mean a significant reduction in the income of the population facing
these events generating vulnerabilities in the dimension of access to
food, both physical and economic, in addition to the use dimension
climate events can affect infrastructure ( vial, housing, production and /
or health), quality and food safety by altering the conditions of
production and post-production,or water quality by encouraging the
development of diseases consumption, among others. n However, the above is threatened by the impact of climate change
on production
56 For example, in Argentina the AF is responsible for 82% of the production of goats; while
in Brazil it is responsible for 87% of the supply of cassava and 70% of the supply of beans.
It is also responsible for 80% of the supply of vegetables in Uruguay and 54% in Chile and
70% of corn and 64% of potatoes in Ecuador (FAO, 2014A).
| 95 | | 95
agricultural. Weather conditions are the most important cause of annual fertilization with carbon dioxide are climate motors that generate a number of risks
variability of crop production, so any changes occurring in climatic in the region (see Annex 1): i) increase the risk of losses from forest fires or losses
conditions increases the uncertainty regarding food production, on the integrity of ecosystems, property and morbidity and mortality human; ii)
affecting therefore to food and nutrition security population (Reddy & generate urban flooding in riverine and coastal areas that produce poverty and
Hodges, 2000). Family farming in particular is highly vulnerable, since it damage to infrastructure; disturbances in the supply chain, ecosystems and social
depends directly on environmental conditions and the availability and systems; public health impacts; and reduction in water quality; iii) affect the
quality of natural resources; Similarly, their access to productive availability of water in Central America and in semiarid regions dependent and
technology is lower, which diminishes opportunities for mitigation to melting glaciers; and generate floods and landslides in urban and rural areas; iv) a
climate events. According to Reddy and Hodges (2000), if austere lower influence food production and food quality thereof; v) promote the spread of
scenarios are fixed with changes in climate and this is compounded by vector-borne diseases in altitude and latitude; vi) cause loss of livelihoods, coastal
low adaptive capacity at farm level, various studies based on climate settlements, infrastructure, ecosystem services and economic stability; and vii)
models predict that food and nutrition security will be threatened in low-lying coastal areas are under constant threat due to rising global sea level
developing countries. Tropical regions are likely to be most affected by (IPCC, 2014b). Is expected, then, that climate change will cause social, economic,
climate changes, because they are areas where crop productivity is environmental and political unprecedented impact, threatening sustainable
constrained by high temperatures and inadequate rainfall patterns. development, eradication of poverty and thus food security and nutrition. and vii)
Meanwhile, in temperate regions, the greatest risk that faces low-lying coastal areas are under constant threat due to rising global sea level
agricultural production is associated with weather disturbances caused (IPCC, 2014b). Is expected, then, that climate change will cause social, economic,
by changes in the frequency of extreme events. It is estimated that environmental and political unprecedented impact, threatening sustainable
annually, 70% of emergencies in Latin America and the Caribbean development, eradication of poverty and thus food security and nutrition. and vii)
because of the climate, which occur about 70 extreme weather events low-lying coastal areas are under constant threat due to rising global sea level
during the same period. Regional losses related to natural disasters, (IPCC, 2014b). Is expected, then, that climate change will cause social, economic,
between 2003 and 2014 totaled 34,300 million USD, representing a environmental and political unprecedented impact, threatening sustainable
quarter of the overall losses. This affects approximately 5 million people development, eradication of poverty and thus food security and nutrition.
and has serious economic consequences. 57
It is important to note that while climate change directly affects the

stability dimension of food and nutrition security also affects access to
food, the use of these and availability. This is because for people in a
situation of food security, it is necessary that they have secure access
to adequate amounts of safe and healthy food at all times, without
interruption (FAO, 2016c). Moreover, agriculture and developing
countries are impacted by climate change because the crop yields can
be damaged, which can affect the level of food prices in both phases of
consumption and production, per capita calorie consumption and child
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC, for its nutrition.
acronym in English) shows that the trend of warming and drying, rising
sea level, the occurrence of cyclones, rainfall and extreme rainfall,
snowpack and
57 FAO. 2017. Agriculture in developing countries suffered 23% of all damages and
losses caused by disasters. Online edition of FAO, June 9, 2017 ( Available in:
http://www.fao.org/ americas / news / view / en / c / 892866 /). Access: August 14, 2017. In addition to the direct relationship that lower production and food
quality have with
| 96 |
food insecurity, other effects of climate change on the stability of unfavorable agro-climatic conditions. Traditional agroecosystems
food and nutrition security: represent a reservoir of food and recipes adapted and reconfigured
from the cultural preferences of families who possess; thus forming part
disruptions in supply chains due to fire or flood; decreasing water of the culture and worldview of peoples and demonstrating traditional
availability and loss of livelihoods, among others, they have serious ecological knowledge (IPGRI, 2002). Both multiple cropping systems or
consequences for the food security and nutrition consequences, which polyculture as traditional agro-ecosystems have a lower vulnerability to
are also reflected significantly in family farming. Thus, climate change losses from catastrophes because in them a diversity of crops and
modifies food systems as a whole and reduces the productivity of the varieties produced what offsets are generated in case of loss
agricultural sector. In addition, family farms affected the availability and (University of Murcia, 2008 ). Law No. 338 rural financial organizations
accessibility of biodiversity and natural resources on which it depends, (OECAS) and Economic Community Organizations (OECOM), for the
affecting their livelihoods (FAO, 2016c). Considering that in Latin integration of sustainable family farming and food sovereignty of
America and the Caribbean family farming supplies between 27% to Bolivia, rescues traditional forms of production of family farming and
67% of food (FAO, 2012) climate change could have serious declared of public and national interest to be the basis of food
repercussions on the stability of food supply. Because of this, it is sovereignty of the Bolivian people. The law encourages diversification
essential to have the necessary means for adaptation and mitigation, as a strategy implemented by sustainable family farming to increase
and thus to ensure food and nutrition security. the variety of production and uses of existing resources. It also ensures
the preservation, promotion and dissemination of their own practices
OECAS and OECOM, and farmers, intercultural and organized
Afro-Bolivian indigenous farming families originates, in order to
strengthen cultural identity, the transmission of knowledge and
recovery of good production practices. Likewise,
That is why, in order to reduce risks, mitigate the impacts of climate

change in family farming, and this possesses a greater capacity for
adaptation, the governments of Latin America and the Caribbean have
implemented a series of measures They intended to tackle climate
change with a view to reducing poverty, strengthening food and
nutrition security, promoting disaster risk management and sustainable
use of natural resources (FAO, 2016c). The main measures of
adaptation stand as follows:
Solve the problem of variable crop yields is vital to family farmers can
survive, while ensuring the stability of the food supply. Develop adapted
to the agro-climatic conditions enables farmers count on productivity
levels stable agricultural systems. Part of the solution may be in the Another measure of adaptation and disaster risk management that
diversification of production, either through multiple systems or aims to reduce the vulnerability of agriculture and farmers cope with
polyculture crops, or by traditional agricultural ecosystems. Both are climate change are agricultural insurance and weather insurance.
complex and diverse systems, which allow productive provide stability These instruments deliver compensation payments to farmers in the
despite the presence of event of the occurrence of any event affecting the climate crop yields
so that they can resume their productive activities, giving them a
source of income contingent. A World Bank study (2016A) identified the
effect
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Insurance Mexico climate index yields and income and per capita Literature (FAO, 2013) points out that improvements in assets, inputs,
spending, providing evidence that the presence and insurance agricultural production and investments are attributed to the easing of
coverage in selected municipalities was significant, and was positively credit restrictions and liquidity and predictability of cash transfers and
associated with maize productivity. The results indicate that corn yields public schemes based on cash. Delivery of economic incentives for the
were increased by about 6%, and that the presence of insurance conservation of natural resources can have positive effects on
coverage and 58 at the municipal level it has a significant and positive adaptation and / or mitigation of climate change by family agriculture
impact on household income and expenditure per capita. since support people in their efforts to use resources sustainably , thus
contributing to their conservation. In addition, this instrument provides a
contribution to improving the living conditions of the beneficiary
population. Examples are cases of System Payment for Environmental
Services of Costa Rica and Ecuador Forest Partner Program. The first
"has allowed to achieve positive impacts in reducing deforestation
For its part, the policies aimed at modernizing agriculture resources rates, recovering forest cover and degraded land, reduce illegal
and funding seeks to enable producers to enable them to improve their logging, promote non-traditional exports, contribute to rural
production and productivity, helping to reduce their vulnerability to the development, reduce poverty and contribute to global environmental
impacts of climate change. Such policies include: i) policies aimed at goals "(FAO, 2016c, p. 20). Also, the Socio Bosque Program has been
conferring legal security of tenure, either through giving land through established as a mechanism to increase the resilience of families
usufruct or lease, access to credit or title regularization; ii) linked to the program and the community as a whole. In addition to
infrastructure policies production and post-production that deliver representing a source of income for low-income farmers as annual
collective individual physical capital or family farmers to improve payments to maintain and conserve forests,
agricultural production and reduce losses;
Meanwhile, social protection policies seek to help family farmers to

better cope with the social and economic risks and environmental
threats to which they are exposed. By directly supporting the incomes
of the most vulnerable families, it helps reduce extreme poverty and
cope with food insecurity. If it adds to it provide greater income Programs also conditional cash transfers can help protect the income
security and invest in rural livelihoods, social protection can contribute of households against the negative factors of climate change.
to improving agricultural productivity, stimulate local economic According to various studies conducted (FAO, 2008; International
development, building resilience, promote sustainable uses of natural Poverty Center, 2008), the beneficiary families Tekoporã of Paraguay
resources and promote social inclusion. program, through money transfer with responsibility and social and
family support and community, invest between 45% and 50 % more in
agriculture than those non-beneficiary families. Moreover, the program
has increased the likelihood that family home gardens implement and
acquire cattle, poultry and pigs. n
58 The program seeks to support small farmers who do not own more than 20 hectares and
are affected by atypical weather contingencies (World Bank, 2016A).
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BOX 11
Conserving biodiversity in order to ensure stability HEALTHY EATING IN THE FUTURE.
It is estimated that by 2050, global population will reach 9.100 million constitute agroecosistema: variety and variability of animals, plants and
people. To meet their food needs, food production must increase by microorganisms, at the genetic, species and ecosystem holding
70%: while the annual cereal production should increase from 2.100 functions, structure and processes in the ecosystem. (FAO, 2016th, p.
million tonnes to 3 billion tonnes a year, annual meat production will 5).
have to increase 200 million tons to 470 million tons (FAO, 2009b).
Nevertheless, pollution, urbanization and the conversion of wetlands

threaten the diversity of plant and animal species. While agricultural
biodiversity is composed of a variety of cultivated plants and domestic
animals, agricultural modernization, changes in diet and increase in
To cope with this scenario, both production and net imports of food and population density they have generated our food depends increasingly a
feed should be increased, so as to ensure the stability of feeding the reduced amount of species animals and vegetables. Thus, 90% of the
world's population. This will result in new pressures on agriculture and animal food supply base is comprised of 14 species of mammals and
therefore in even greater pressure on biodiversity; limited resources as birds, while half of the power plant comes from four crop species.
land and water must be distributed between settlements and
increasingly numerous farms, all in a context of climate change. In
addition, it is possible that future total demand for agricultural products
exceeds demand for food and feed, based on expanding demand for
biofuels and the technology used for the conversion of agricultural
biomass into biofuels (FAO, 2009b, p .8).
Conserve the diversity of species and their genetic diversity is essential

to ensure the future stability of supply; have a diversity of species,
genetic and ecosystem allows for media to adapt to changing conditions
and, in turn, contributes to a nutritious and varied diet (FAO, 2017B).
The HLPE (2012) notes that, for effective adaptation to climate change,
it is necessary to improve access to existing crops similar to genetic
Biodiversity is a fundamental for the survival of humanity factor being resources, as well as varieties that can be used in the future. Likewise,
important in ensuring a healthy diet; This is because the set of
ecosystems, species and genetic diversity of terrestrial, marine and
aquatic type.
Agricultural biodiversity includes all components of biodiversity that

are relevant for food and agriculture, along with the components of
biological diversity
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| 103 |
BIBLIOGRAPHY
© FAO
| 104 |
ANNEXED
ASSOCIATED RISKS
CLIMATE CHANGE,
CLIMATE ENGINES OF SUCH
RISKS, EFFECTS
ON FOOD SAFETY
AND MEASURES AND
NUTRITION
TO MEET THE
RISKS
| 105 |
ANNEXED
Risk climatic impacts engines
induced forest or on the integrity of ecosystems fires, property and human morbidity and 1. Trend heating.
mortality as a result of growth trends and temperatures drying losses. 2. Tendency drying.
Urban flooding in riverine and coastal areas, inducing poverty and damage to 1. extreme precipitation.
infrastructure; disruption of the supply chain, ecosystems and social systems; public 2. Cyclone.
health impacts; and decreasing water quality due to sea level rise, and extreme 3. sea level.
precipitation cyclones.
Water availability in regions dependent semiráridas and melting glaciers and Central 1. Trend heating.
America; floods and landslides in urban and rural areas due to extreme precipitation. 2. Tendency drying.
3. snowpack.
4. extreme precipitation.
Lower food production and food quality. 1. Extreme temperature.

2. Fertilization with carbon dioxide.
4. Precipitation.
By or dissemination of vector-borne diseases altitude and latitude 1. Trend heating.

2. Extreme temperature.
4. Precipitation.
Loss of livelihoods, coastal settlements, infrastructure, ecosystem services 1. Trend drying.

and economic stability 2. Cyclone.
3. Acidification of the ocean.
4. sea level.
The interaction of rising global sea level in the twenty-first century with episodes of high 1. Cyclone.
water level rise will threaten low-lying coastal areas 2. sea level.
Source: Compiled from information own the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC, 2014b).
| 106 |
Impacts on food and nutrition security Adaptation and mitigation measures to address the risks
1. Alteration of the production conditions. 1. Fire protection measures.

2. Alteration in storage or production chains. 2. Prescribed burning.
3. Reduction in production. 3. Introduction of resilient vegetation.
4. Rising food prices. 4. Agroforestry as a strategy for reducing slash and burn practices.
5. Decreased purchasing power.
6. Changes in eating patterns.
1. Alteration of sanitary conditions. 1. Drain Management.

2. Alteration of food safety. 1. Strategies low risk cobenefits comprise less impervious surfaces that allow greater
recharge groundwater, green infrastructure and gardens and rooftop gardens.
2. Update the old design standards for precipitation are used to reflect current
conditions.
2. wetland conservation, particularly mangrove.
3. Strategies for land use planning.
1. Alteration of the production conditions. 1. Integrated Water Resources Management.

2. Reduced production. 2. Management of urban and rural flooding (including infrastructure), early warning
3. Increase in food prices. systems, better weather and runoff predictions, and control of infectious diseases.
1. Increase in food prices. 1. Development of new crop varieties better adapted to climate change (temperature
2. Decreased purchasing power. and drought).
3. Changes in eating patterns. 2. Compensation impacts of lower food quality in human and animal health.
3. Compensation of the economic impacts of land use change.
4. Strengthening systems and practices derived from traditional indigenous knowledge.
1. Alteration of the production conditions. 1. Development of early warning systems for the control and mitigation based on climatic
2. Reduced production. or other relevant sources such diseases. There are many factors that induce greater
3. Increase in food prices. vulnerability.
5. Changes in eating patterns. 2. Establishment of programs to expand basic public health services.
1. Alteration of the production conditions. 1. New resources and technologies to improve the adaptive response of the
2. Alteration of storage or production chains. islands.
2. Maintenance and improvement of the functions and ecosystem services and
3. Reduction in production. food and water security.
4. Rising food prices.
1. Alteration of the production conditions. 1. Maintenance and restoration of topography and coastal ecosystems.
2. Reduced production.
3. Increase in food prices. 2. Improve the management of soils and freshwater resources.
4. Decreased purchasing power. 3. Updating building codes and establish guidelines for appropriate settlement.
| 107 |
2017
PANORAMA OF
FOOD SECURITY
AND NUTRITION IN
LATIN AMERICA
AND THE CARIBBEAN
MAIN MESSAGES
Undernourishment in Latin America and the Caribbean increased in the last measurement period. After several years of stagnation, in
2016, about 42.5 million people do not have enough food to meet their daily caloric needs, which means an increase of 2.4 million
compared to last year. Not to carry out joint actions necessary for overcoming hunger and malnutrition, Latin America and the Caribbean
will not achieve the goal of eradicating hunger and malnutrition by 2030, committed to the Sustainable Development Goals.
While malnutrition has decreased, overweight and obesity remain major health problems for Latin America and the Caribbean. The
prevalence of obesity in adults is increasing and overweight in children under 5 years affects 7% of children in Latin America and the
Caribbean, reaching over 6% of overweight children in the world. Although Latin America and the Caribbean produces enough food to
meet the needs of its population, this does not ensure a healthy and nutritious diet. You need to create sustainable and sensitive food
systems to nutrition to provide a variety of foods, good nutrition and safe quality that allow end hunger and all forms of malnutrition. Both
stagnant economic growth in Latin America and the Caribbean, as the lowest speed of the dynamics of reducing poverty and extreme
poverty in recent years have hampered the eradication of hunger and malnutrition. Similarly, the persistence of income inequality puts
pressure on access to food and thus in the food and nutrition security.
significant differences are observed in access to basic services in Latin America and the Caribbean, both between countries and within
them. Rural and low-income population have significantly less to potable water and sanitation in Latin America and the Caribbean access.
The weather-related disasters have been causing enormous economic damage, with severe consequences for the food security and
nutrition consequences. This has imposed a matter of urgency the necessary actions for mitigation and adaptation.
ISBN 978-92-5-309960-3
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2017

the Pan American Health Organization

Santiago de Chile, 2017

ISBN 978-92-5-309960-3 (FAO) ISBN

978-92-75-31972-7 (PAHO) © FAO and

COVER PHOTO © FAO

COMMUNITY FLOWERS, Alta Verapaz, GUATEMALA.

ODS 2: End hunger, achieve food security and improve

Access to potable water and basic sanitation is essential to

Large disparities persist in coverage of water and

The region maintains a good performance in agriculture, Stability and sustainability 86

ACCESS 46 BIBLIOGRAPHY 100

Julio A. Berdegué Dra. Carissa F. Etienne

LATIN 42.5 million people do not have enough food to meet

FOR COMPLIANCE and malnutrition

OBJECTIVES overcoming hunger and malnutrition actions.

FOR and While malnutrition decreases, overweight and

ADVANCES IN LATIN AMERICA AND

Bearing in mind the relationship between the objectives 2 and 3, this

SELECTED INDICATORS TARGETS AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 2 OBJECTIVE

2.1.1 Prevalence of undernourishment

The latest estimates realize an increase in supply will Subal globally.

SOURCE: FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WFP and WHO (2017).

A sub gaze confirms this: stagnation in reducing regional underfeeding

2.5%. Follow Argentina, Barbados, Chile, Mexico, and Trinidad and

prevalence Millions of people

SOURCE: FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WFP and WHO (2017).

immediately above. In absolute terms, this means an increase of 1.3

Undernourishment is an estimate of energy deprivation measured in

19.6 19.2 18.8 18.3

7.8 7.1 7.0 6.9 7.8 6.7

5.1 4.8 4.8 5.1

2000-02 2005-07 2010-12 2012-14 2013-15 2014-16

SOURCE: FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WFP and WHO (2017).

Caribbean Mesoamerica South America

SOURCE: FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WFP and WHO (2017).

- Latest estimates to measure the dispersion of energy

SOURCE: FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WFP and WHO (2017).

National estimates available show that in El Salvador and Guatemala

STATE OF SEVERE FOOD INSECURITY IN LATIN AMERICA, 2014-16

Prevalence (%) Millions of people

Salvador 12.4 Salvador 0.8

Guatemala El 10.9 Guatemala El 1.8

Ecuador 6.6 Ecuador 1.1

Rica 4.8 Rica 0.2

Chile Costa 3.8 Chile Costa 0.7

Mexico 3.3 Mexico 4.2

Brazil 0.3 Brazil 0.7

South America 5.1 South America 21.4

Mesoamerica 5.7 Mesoamerica 9.9

0 two 4 6 8 10 12 14 0 5 10 fifteen twenty 25

SOURCE: FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WFP and WHO (2017).

Prevalence (%) Millions of people

Brazil 4.5 <2.5 <2.5 <2.5 <2.5 N/A 8.6 ns ns ns ns N/A

Cuba <2.5 <2.5 <2.5 <2.5 <2.5 N/A ns ns ns ns ns N/A

Haiti 57.1 49.6 49.4 48.2 46.8 5.3 5 5.2 5.1 5

St. Vincent and the =

Uruguay 4.3 <2.5 <2.5 <2.5 <2.5 N/A 0.1 ns ns ns ns N/A

Latin America and the

SOURCE: FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WFP and WHO (2017).

By 2016, 9.5% of American children population is affected by chronic

The trend of chronic malnutrition exhibits behavior downward from

1990 2000 2010 2016 2025