16 Chapter 4 m Voltage Sags—Characterization .2.5 Voltage Calculations in Meshed Systems When the system becomes more complicated than the examples discussed pre- viously, closed expressions for the voltage during the sag get very complicated and unfeasible to handle. For meshed systems, matrix calculations have proven to be very efficient for computer-based analysis. The calculation of the voltages during a fault is based on two principles from circuit theory: Thevenin’s superposition theorem; and the node impedance matrix. Both are discussed in detail in many books on power systems. Here we will only give a brief description. = According to Thevenin’s superposition theorem voltages and currents in the system during a sag are the sum of two contributions: currents and voltages before the event, and currents and voltages due to the change in voltage at the fault position. Currents and voltages before the fault are due to all generators across the system. Currents and voltages due to the fault originate at a voltage source at the fault position. All other voltage sources are considered short- circuited during the calculation of the latter contribution, = The node impedance matrix Z, relates node voltages and node currents: Vaal (4.20) with V the vector of (complex) node voltages and J the vector of (complex) node currents. The node voltage is the voltage between a node and the refer- ence node (typically ground), The node current is equal to the sum of all currents flowing toward a node. For most nodes the node current is zeto according to Kirchhoffs current law. The only exception are generator nodes, where the node current is the current flowing from the generator into the system. Consider a system with NV nodes plus a reference node. The voltages before the fault are denoted as V{”. A short-circuit fault occurs at node f. According to Thevenin’s superposition theorem we can write the voltage during the fault at any node k as Kav sane aan where AV; is the change in voltage at node k due to the fault. This latter term is due to a voltage source ~V{” at the fault position. To calculate AV; all other voltage sources in the system are short-circuited, so that node f is the only node with a non-zero node current. After using the information, (4.20) becomes AMG = Zul (422) At the fault position (k =f) we know that AV, = —V) so that vo a y=-f (423) and © Wyo y= Vo -Z vf (424) aSection 4.2 m Voltage Sag Magnitude 167 ‘The pre-fault voltages are normally close to unity, so that (4.24) can be approximated by (425) ‘The moment the node impedance matrix is known, calculating sag magnitudes becomes very easy. The drawback with this method is that the node impedance matrix needs to be calculated. This can be done through a recursive procedure where the matrix is updated for each new branch added. Alternatively one can first calculate the node admittance matrix from the branch impedances. The node impedance matrix is the inverse of the node admittance matrix. EXAMPLE Consider the circuit diagram shown in Fig. 441. This circuit represents 4 275/400KV system, with nodes 1 and 2 representing 400kV substations; nodes 3, 4, and 5 representing 275KV substations; the branches between | and 3 and between 2 and 4 represent= ing transformers (the latter two transformers in parallel). The impedance values indicated in the figure are in percent at a 100 MVA base Oye Let oa [07,08 Figure 4.41 Circuit diagram representation of 3 HL Hs part of 2 400/275KY system, ‘The node admittance matrix can be built easily from the branch admittances or impe- dances, An off-diagonal element Yj, of the node admittance matrix is equal to minus the admit- tance of the branch between nodes k and |. The element is zero if there is no branch between these {two nodes. The diagonal element Yj_ equals the sum of all admittances of branches to node k including any branch between node k and the reference node. For the circuit in Fig. 4.41 this calculation leads to the node admittance matrix 25719-09091 -0.6211 0 0 0.9091 4.5981 0 250 06211 0 2087 01.4286, (426) 0-125 02.7206 -1.4706 0 0 1.4286 -1.4706 2.8992 ‘The node impedance matrix is obtained by inverting the node admittance matrix 0.5453 0.1771 0.3889 0.2548 0.3209 OTT 0.3344 0.2439 0.3012 0.2730 0.3889 0.2439 1.2534 0.6144 0.9292 27 0.2548 0.3012 0.6144 0.9225 0.7707 03209 0.2730 0.9292 0.7707. 1.1937, ‘The voltage at node 5 due to a fault at node 2 is (4.28)