“Ladle Heating Furnace”

Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 JSW at a glance

The Jindal Steel Work (JSW) group is one of India’s leading integrated steel
manufacturers with a capacity of 18 MTPA. It is one of the fastest growing companies in
India with a footprint in over 100 countries. With state-of-the-art manufacturing facilities
located in Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Maharashtra, it is recognized for its innovation and
quality.JSW offers a wide gamut of steel products that includes Hot Rolled, Cold Rolled,
Bare & Pre-painted Galvanized & Galvalume, TMT Rebars, Wire Rods and Special Steel.

JSW Steel continues to enhance its capabilities to meet the rapidly changing global
market needs. To stay on the leading edge of technical advancement, JSW has entered
into technological collaboration with JFE Steel Corp, Japan to manufacture high strength
and advanced high strength steel for the automobile sector. JSW Steel has also entered
into a joint venture with Marubeni-Itochu Steel Inc. Tokyo, to set up a state–of-the-art
steel processing centres. To strengthen its global network, the Company has also acquired
a Pipe and Plate making steel mill in Baytown, Texas in USA. By end of next decade,
JSW Steel aims to produce 40 million tons of steel annually.

1.2 Historical background

The foundation stone for “Vijayanagar Steel Plant” under Public Sector was laid by
then India’s Prime Minister Indira Gandhi , in 1971. More than 20 years later, in spite of
economic liberalization in 1992, no one came forward to fulfil the dreams of the PM,
because none considered it a viable proposition. The invitation from the Govt. of
Karnataka in 1994, & naturally was accepted as a challenge.

1.3 Challenges faced by JSW

a. Barren land
b. Inadequate water source
c. No electricity
d. Poor road and rail connectivity
e. Poor infrastructure
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f. Non availability of carbon fuel

g. People to build and operate
h. Low quality iron ore

1.4 Production process of steel by JSW

a. Beneficiation
b. Pelletizing
c. Sintering
d. Blast furnace
e. Corex process
f. HMDS
g. Converter process

a. Beneficiation: In the mining industry beneficiation or beneficiation in extractive

metallurgy, is any process that improves (benefits) the economic value of the ore
by removing the gangue minerals, which results in a higher grade product
(concentrate) and a waste stream (tailings).
b. Pelletizing: Pelletizing is the process of compressing or moulding a material into
the shape of a pellet. A wide range of different materials are pelletized including
chemicals, iron ore.
c. Sintering: Sintering is the process of compacting and forming a solid mass of
material by heat or pressure without melting it to the point of liquefaction.
Sintering happens naturally in mineral deposits or as a manufacturing process
used with metals, ceramics, plastics, and other materials.
d. Blast furnace: The blast furnace is a huge, steel stack lined with refractory brick,
where iron ore, coke and limestone are dumped into the top, and preheated air is
blown into the bottom. The raw materials require 6 to 8 hours to descend to the
bottom of the furnace where they become the final product of liquid slag and
liquid iron. The hot blast temperature can be from 900 °C to 1300 °C (1600 °F to
2300 °F) depending on the stove design and condition.
e. HMDS: The reagent transfer in the injection line is under dense flow conditions.
The process allows the use of several desulphurization reagents, such as lime,

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calcium carbide and magnesium, which remove the Sulphur in the hot metal by
chemical reaction and convert it to the slag.
f. Converter process :Basic oxygen steelmaking (BOS, BOP, BOF, and OSM),
also known as Linz– Donawitz-steelmaking or the oxygen converter process is a
method of primary steelmaking in which carbon-rich molten pig iron is made into
steel.

1.5 Products manufactured by JSW

1. Hot rolled coils (HR-coils)

2. Cold rolled coils (CR-coils)
3. TMT Bars
4. Wire rods
5. Galvanised
6. Galvalume
7. Color coated products
8. Neo-steel TMT Bars

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Chapter 2

SAFETY AND GUIDLINES

Life saving rules (LSR)

Life Saving Rules (LSR) has been framed by the organization to highlight the actionable
to prevent serious injury or fatal accident.

The following would amount to violation of the organization’s Life Saving Rules
(LSR) and would attract disciplinary action, including termination of
employment/contract:

i. Provocation or fighting while on company property or business.

ii. Physical, mental or sexual harassment to fellow employees including threat of bodily
harm.

iii. Tampering Locked-out energy Isolations or violations of confined-space entry

procedures.

iv. Unauthorized possession of fire-arms.

v. Carrying any alcoholic, intoxicants, narcotics, controlled substances of any sort and
Persons under the influence of such substances on site.

vi. Obstruction or tampering of emergency exits, evacuation routes and emergency

equipment.

vii. Stealing or unauthorized removal of any property belonging to the organization from
the site.

viii. Listening to music through ear phones/head phone during operational work inside
plant.

ix. Entering, operating, adjusting, and repairing vessels and equipment without adequate
training.

x. Unauthorized entry into the barricaded area.

xi. Hot work on Gas Pipelines or Gas Holders without permit.

xii. Smoking and/or usage of Mobile while driving/riding any vehicle.

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General Safety Rules

Purpose

The purpose of general safety rules is to provide a framework ensuring positive standards
of behaviour for all staff in the organization, to stimulate greater interest in safety and to
encourage development of more effective accident prevention programs in the plant
operations. These rules provide for minimum safety standards required throughout the
organization.

Reporting of Safety Hazards

Any unusual incident, unsafe practice or unsafe condition including "near misses", should
be reported to the supervisor immediately.

Reporting Injuries

Any injury, minor or major; or exposure to fumes; or contact with hazardous chemicals
should be reported promptly to the supervisor and to the Occupational Health Centre.

Chemical Hazards

There are many chemicals and potentially dangerous materials which are being used at
the site. Health and safety instructions as per Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) should
be followed to avoid any injury.

Area Regulations

All “Mandatory PPEs” as displayed, should be used before entering any works / projects
area. The works / project Safety Rules and Procedures including Do’s& Don’ts as
applicable to any particular area should be followed.

Fire Prevention

Any fire incident or likely event leading to Fire during plant operation should be promptly
reported to the supervisor, local control room and Fire & Safety Control Room.

Smoking in hazardous area as earmarked at works / project site is strictly prohibited.

Emergencies

All employees should know the “Emergency Preparedness and Response Plan”. Those
employees who are not related to dealing with emergencies should assemble at the
“Assembly Point” during any emergency situation. In the event of fire, bomb threat or
toxic chemical release; employees are to immediately proceed to the nearest available
“Assembly Point” and leave the “Assembly Point” only on being instructed to leave.

Floor plans (maps) and exits have been posted in each department and the employees are
expected to peruse and understand the same.

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Movement within the Plant Premises

The following are prohibited on the railway tracks:

a. Walking on the railway tracks

b. Crossing the railway tracks at locations other than designated

c. Passing through the closed railway gate

d. Entering between / below the wagons of a stationary rake

Off-Site Company Business

All safety rules, as applicable for any given situation or time, shall apply to company
employees whether engaged in company business or personal work, while off the site.

Entering Works Site

Personnel not assigned to an operating works site must seek permission from concerned
supervisor before entry.

Electrical

The following have to be adhered to:

a. Only authorized qualified personnel shall perform electrical work

b. Only appropriate tools shall be used for specific jobs

c. Supervisor shall check the equipment before assigning any job

d. No bare electrical cable / wiring joints are allowed

Special Procedures

Special procedures are required for the following types of work:

a. Lock Out & Tag Out

b. Confined Space Entry

c. Welding and gas cutting

d. Working at Height

e. Operating Moving Machinery

f. Electrical Work

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Chapter 3

OVERVIEW OF THE STEEL MELTING SHOP

Process Flow

Fig 3.1 Steel process flow

Steel making route

Fig 3.2.Steel making route

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The steel melting shop is the steel making plant where the iron previously processed is
used to make steel. The following steps are carried out in the steel making process:

1. Pre-treatment
2. Primary steel making
3. Secondary steel making
4. Continuous Casting
5. Rolling

The main challenge here is to remove the sulphur contents from the iron. The main
reasons for removing sulphur content is as follows:

Major source of cracks during rolling which leads to bad quality of steel and hot
shortness.

Levels of Sulphur-

Sulphur in Hot Metal- approx 0.060%

Sulphur Required in steel- approx 0.010%

Major sources of Sulphur-

Sulphur in Hot Metal

Sulphur in scrap

Advantages of de-Sulphurization

It is always better to remove the sulphur before the metal is poured into the converter to
avoid:

1. Higher cost of de-sulphurisation

2. Higher inclusion level

3. Higher nitrogen ppm

4. Higher purging required

5. Higher ladle treatment time

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6. Lesser productivity

7. Less ladle lining life

Slag racking

It is very important to remove slag after de-sulphurisation to avoid reversal of sulphur

from slag into metal, therefore slag raking is done.

Slag if not properly removed can cause early slag formation during blowing, resulting
in slopping, slow de-carburization, extend of blow, oxidized converter slag and high
Sulphur in end chemistry and low end Temp.

Fig 3.3 shows the slag racking

3.1 Primary steel making

It is also known as Basic Oxygen Furnace (BOF). The following sequence of process
takes place in the converter:

1. Scrap charging
2. Hot metal charging
3. Blowing
4. Flux charging
5. Sampling and temperature
6. Tapping
7. Splashing
8. Slag dumping

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1. Scrap charging: The scrap is the recycled iron or steel which is generated in the
plant or purchased outside. This scrap is melted and reused for making steel this
process is called scrap charging.
2. Hot metal charging: Hot metal coming from Blast furnace-3&4 is treated in
HMDS and made available in dispatch bay (0mt) to meet the hot metal
requirement for BOF process without any delay. Hot metal in hot metal ladles is
lifted and charged in converter with the help of charging crane. This process is
called as hot metal charging.
3. Blowing: Blowing is a process in which the hot metal charged in converter is
refined by rapid oxidation reactions on contact with the injected oxygen.
4. Flux charging: Bulk material charging system (BMCS) is used to charge the
materials to the converter which is weighed first. BMCS provides fluxes such as
lime (Cao), calcite dolomite and dolomite (Caco3.MgCo3), iron ore as coolant and
coke for preheating the newly lined furnace. This process is called as Flux
charging.
5. Sampling and Temperature:
Slag on the top of the converter can be removed by tilting the converter.
Temperature can be measured by dipping the thermocouple. Sample is also taken
at the same time which is analyzed by Automated Container Laboratory placed
near converters.
6. Tapping: After the primary steel making process steel is ready to be tapped from
the converter into a pre-heated ladle. The vigorous mixing produced during
tapping provides an ideal opportunity for bulk alloy addition. Alloys are added via
a chute either from an automated bunker system, or as manual additions. These
additions may aim for slightly below the final target composition.

3.2 Basic Oxygen Furnace (BOF) Shop

The basic oxygen furnace (BOF) is the process in which a mixture of scrap (25 to 30
percent) and hot metal (75 to 70 percent) from the blast furnace is exposed to oxygen
blown at a high velocity into the bath. Such furnaces may be top-blown, bottom- blown,
or a combination of the two. The basic principle is the same in all Converters in two
separate shops SMS-1 and SMS-2. SMS1 has a heat size of 130 tonnes & SMS 2 has 180
tonnes and the Tap-to-tap time is 45 min – 50 min. The major units are Hot Metal De-
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Sulphurising station, Basic Oxygen Furnaces (Convertors), Scrap Yard, Ladle Preparation
and Handling Bay, Ladle Refining Furnace, Gas Cooling and Cleaning Plant, and a Water
Re- Circulation System. The salient technical features are Pre-treatment of hot metal,
Bottom stirring in BOF, adjustment of chemistry and temperature in ladle furnace,
automated container laboratory for quick analysis of bath samples, utilization of converter
gas as fuel and slag splashing system to enhance converter lining life. SMS-3 comprises
of Electric Arc Furnace along with the Billet Caster of capacity 1.5MTPA. cases; the
oxygen combines with unwanted elements to form oxides that either leave the bath as
gases or enter the slag layer on top of the bath. This is a very high productivity process; a
typical 220-ton heat can be produced in 45 minutes or less.

The rated capacity of the BOF Shop is 12.6 MTPA liquid steel and this has seven

Fig 3.4 shows the Basic oxygen furnace (BOF) .

3.3 Secondary steel making

Fig 3.5.Secondary steel making process

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The main aim in the secondary steel making process is to achieve close tolerance of
chemistry and adequate super heat for casting process.

The following processes are done in the secondary steel making process:

1. De-Oxidation
2. De-Sulphurisation
3. Precise Alloying Additions
4. Temperature homogenization / adjustment
5. Micro cleanliness
6. Inclusion morphology
7. Superheat Control
8. Degassing

3.4 Continuous casting Machine

Fig 3.3 shows the pictorial description of the continuous casting machine and its units.

casting involves pouring a liquid metal into a mold, which contains a

hollow cavity of the desired shape, and then is allowed to solidify.
There are 4 casters in sms1, caster1&2 is a straight caster, caster3&4 is a

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curved caster.

3.41 Function of Tundish:-

1. Provides a Stable Controlled Liquid Steel Feed to the Mould
2. Ability to act as a reservoir during ladle change over.
3. Distribution of flow between strands.
4. Provides a Uniform Steel Temperature to Each Strand.
5. Allows Floatation of Inclusion for Cleaner Steel.
3.42 Casting process depends on:
1. Casting speed
2. Mold powder
3. Tapping
4. Cooling water velocity
5. Cooling water temperature
6. Super heat
7. Steel composition
8. Mold conditions

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Chapter 4

LADLE HEATING FURNACE

The ladle heating furnace is the secondary steel making process where the arcing of the
hot metal takes place with the help of the graphite electrodes. The other mixtures are
added based on the grade of steel and its application. Common mixtures added are
manganese, silicon, tungsten, cobalt, molybdenum etc.

4.1 Single line diagram of the ladle furnace heating:

Fig 3.1 shows the single line diagram of the ladle heating furnace.

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The electrical network of the ladle heating furnace consists of the following component:

1. Surge arrestors (3)

2. Vacuum circuit breaker
3. RC network (tuning network)
4. JOSLYN Switch
5. Motorised isolators
6. Transformer with OLTC
7. LHF furnace

It also consists of relays, busbars, batteries for external supply, and emergency backup
system.

4.2 Specifications:

The specifications of the LHF system are as follows:

4.2.1 Transformer specifications

LHF-2 TRANSFORMER
Cromption Greaves
MVA 20
VOLTS (NO LOAD) HV 33000
VOLTS (NO LOAD LV 351-195
AMPERES HV 349.9
AMPERES LV 32897.4- 40233.5
PHASES 3
FREQUENCY 50 Hz
MAKER’S W.O. NO. T8913/1
MAKER’S SL. NO. T8913/1
DIAGRAM DRG. NO. T62B28-440
YEAR OF MANUFACTURE 2003
INSULATION LEVEL LI 250 AC 95 / LI- AC 10
JVSL/VJNR/BOF/C/4035 DATED 5/8/
CUSTOMER REF NO . P. O. NO. 02
TYPE OF COOLING OFWF
IMPEDANCE VOLTS ON 20 MVA BASE (TAP NO. 1) 5.86%
GUARANTEED TEMPERATURE RISE OIL 45 0 C
GUARANTEED TEMPERATURE RISE WDG 50 0 C
CONNECTION SYMBOL Yd11
UNTAKING MASS (CORE & COIL) 26600 Kg
TOTAL OIL (Kg /Ltr) 18700/21400
TOTAL MASS 58100 Kg
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HEAVIEST PACKAGE WITH OIL 52400 Kg

HEAVIEST PACKAGE WITHOUT OIL 35800 Kg

Table 4.1 LHF-2 transformer specification

4.2.2 Transformer OLTC details:

HV ACROSS LV ACROSS
1U1 1V1 1W1 2U1 2V1 2W1
OLTC POS’N NO. HV VOLTS HV LV LV AMPS KVA
AMPS VOLTS
1 33000 349.9 351 32897.4 20000
2 33000 349.9 327 35311.9 20000
3 33000 349.9 306 37735.3 20000
4 33000 349.9 287 40233.5 20000
5 33000 330.4 271 40233.5 18885
6 33000 301.1 247 40233.5 17213
7 33000 276.8 227 40233.5 15819
8 33000 256 210 40233.5 14834
9 33000 237.7 195 40233.5 13589
Table 4.2 Transformer OLTC specifications.

4.2.3 JOSYLN Switch details:

JOSLYN VBT TRANSMASTER SWITCH

LOCATION LHF-2
EQUIPMENT JOSLYN SWITCH
RATED VOLTAGE 38KV
CONTINUES CURRENT 600A
BIL(PHASE TO PHASE) 200KV
BIL(PHASE TO GROUND) 200KV
MODEL VBT(3072C0259GID)
SR.NO. AMT 12407
MAKE JOSLYN HI VOLTAGE CORPORATION
G.O. NO. 31938
Table 4.3 JOSLYN switch details.

4.2.4 Surge arrestor details:

SURGE ARRESTER AFTER BREAKER

LOCATION LHF#2
EQUIPMENT SURGE ARRESTER

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RATED VOLTAGE 45KV

DISCHARGE CURRENT 20KA
PRESSUR RELIEF CLASS 40KA
MODEL ZAB36
SR.NO. 2
MCOV 30.6KV
MAKE OBLUM
TYPE METOVR METAL OXIDE
Table 4.4

SURGE ARRESTERS BEFORE BREAKER

LOCATION LHF#2
EQUIPMENT SURGE ARRESTER
RATED VOLTAGE 36KV
DISCHARGE CURRENT 20KA
PRESSUR RELIEF CLASS 40KA
MODEL ZAB36
SR.NO. 2
MCOV 30.6KV
MAKE OBLUM
TYPE METOVR METAL OXIDE

Isolator details (Earth switch):

ISOLATOR / EARTH SWITCH

ELPRO INTERNATIONAL Ltd
SWITCHGEAR MANUFACTURING CENTER, HYDERABAD INDIA

ISOLATOR EARTH SWITCH

TYPE DBR TYPE DBR

V 33KV V 33KV
Vm 85 KV Vm 85 KV
Vs 170 KVp Vs 170 KVp
In 1250A In 1250A

Ith 25KA /3 SEC Ith 25KA /3 SEC

REF. SL. 07164-1
REF. SL. NO. 07164-1 YEAR 97 NO. YEAR 97
DRIVE : DRIVE :
TYPE : MOM TYPE : MOM
YEAR : 1997 YEAR : 1997

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Vm 230 V AC Vm 230 V AC
Va 220 V DC Va 220 V DC

RC Network details:

RC NETWORK
R
Rn 40 Ώ
Pn 5 KW
In 11.18 A
C
Cn 0.4 µf
Vn 18 KV
In 2.26 A

4.3 Secondary steel making process:

The secondary steel making process consists of the following processes:

1. De-Oxidation
2. De-Sulphurisation
3. Precise alloying additions
4. Temperature homogenization / adjustment
5. Micro cleanliness
6. Inclusion morphology
7. Superheat control
8. Degassing

4.31 De-Oxidation

Removing oxygen from liquid steel is De oxidation

Aluminum is being used as a de oxidiser.

2Al+3O2=Al2O3

CaO+Al2O3=xCaO.yAl2O3

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• Deoxidizer used in LHF is Silicon and Aluminum.

• Ca treatment is effective when oxygen ppm & “S”percentage is low.

4.32 De-Sulphurisation

Removal of the sulphur content from the steel/Metal is called as De-Sulphurisation.

The main drawback of the Sulphur content in the steel is it’s brittle property and causes
the crack during rolling leading to bad quality of steel.

Primarily, there are two options available for the removal of sulphur from the liquid
steel. These are

(i) by means of metal-slag reaction, where the top slag is mixed intensively with
the liquid steel, and
(ii) by injection of metallic calcium (Ca) into liquid steel, where a precipitation of
sulphides occurs.

In the secondary steel making process it is essential to know the composition and amount
of the ladle slag just after tapping in order to be able to modify the ladle slag for the
purpose of deoxidation and desulphurization. Normally, lime(CaO), alumina(AlO3) and
slag deoxidizer are used to modify the ladle slag. For steel desulphurization it is important
to reduce the mass content of FeO and MnO to a low level. The desulphurization process
uses the following different steps.

1. Slag adjustment with respect to (i) slag deoxidation, and (ii) lime saturation
2. Slag homogenization and liquefying
3. Reduction of FeO and MnO
4. Intensive stirring and desulphurization

Depending on the metallurgical reactors these process steps need different periods of the
time.

4.33 Precise alloying additions

The precise alloying additions are done with the help of the computerized input to the
system based upon the grade of steel to be obtained. The composition percentages are
managed by the chemical engineer.

4.34 Temperature homogenization/ adjustment

Superheat
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Ladle soaking

Arcing An adjustment of the temperature of the molten steel.

– A compensation for the temperature drop during refining,

– ability to refine and hold the molten steel for long periods of time for bulk
production

4.35 Micro cleanliness

• Modification of Inclusion – Calcium treatment in LHF at the end of processing is
beneficial, because it modifies the shape and size of alumina inclusion and lowers
the melting point of alumina for better inclusion flotation.

• Killing time – At the end of treatment, the argon bubbling should be stopped
before 15 min. of ladle dispatch to caster.

4.36 Inclusion morphology

Types of inclusion

1. Oxides – FeO ,Al2O3,SiO2,MnO,FeO.Al2O3

2. Sulphides – FeS,CaS,MnS,MgS.

3. Nitirides – TiN,AlN,VN,BN.

4. Phosphides – Fe3P,Fe2P,Mn5P2.

According to size –

1. Micro inclusion(1-100 micron meter)

2. Macro inclusion (>100 micron meter)

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Chapter 5

LADLE HEATING FURNACE METALLURGY

After tapping of steel from a primary steelmaking furnace such as BOF, EAF or EOF,
molten steel for high quality or specialty applications is subjected to further refining in a
number of alternative processes collectively known as ladle metallurgy. Ladle metallurgy
is sometimes also called ladle refining or secondary steelmaking. Ladle metallurgy
processes are commonly performed in ladles. Tight control of ladle metallurgy is
associated with producing high grades of steel in which the tolerances in chemistry and
consistency are narrow. The objectives of ladle metallurgy are the following.
 Homogenization – Homogenization of chemical composition and temperature of liquid
steel in the ladle
 Deoxidization or killing – Removal of oxygen
 Superheat adjustment – Heating of the liquid steel to a temperature suitable for
continuous casting
 Ferro alloys and carbon additions – Making adjustments in the chemistry of liquid
steel.
 Vacuum degassing – Removal of hydrogen and nitrogen
 Decarburization – Removal of carbon for meeting the requirement of certain grades of
steel.
 Desulfurization – Reduction of sulfur concentrations as low as 0.002%
 Micro cleanliness – Removal of undesirable nonmetallic elements
 Inclusion morphology – Changing the composition of remaining impurities to improve
the microstructure of the steel
 Mechanical properties – Improvement in toughness, ductility, and transverse properties
Depending on the types of steel required, one or more of the following ladle metallurgy
processes are used. These are (i) rinsing or stirring, (ii) ladle furnace, (iii) ladle injection
(iv) ladle refining, (v) degassing processes, (vi) AOD process, and (vii) CAS-OB
(Composition adjustment by sealed argon bubbling with oxygen blowing) process. Some
of the ladle metallurgy processes are shown in Fig 5.1.

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Fig 5.1 shows the process of ladle metallurgy.

5.1 Historical background

The treatment of steel in the ladle started around 45 years ago when the first ladle-to-
ladle and ladle-to-ingot mold vacuum degassing processes for hydrogen removal
appeared on the scene. In the late 1950s more efficient vacuum degassers such as the
Dortmund Hoerder (DH) and Ruhrstahl-Heraeus (RH) processes became popular. In the
middle 1960s degassing processes such as vacuum arc degassing (VAD), the ASEA-SKF
process, and the vacuum oxygen decarburization (VOD) process for treating high
chromium steels were successfully implemented. Converter processes such as argon
oxygen decarburization (AOD) process were introduced in early 1970s.
Granulated flux injection into the liquid steel, combined with argon stirring, started in the
early 1970s. This was soon followed by the application of cored-wire feeding of alloying
elements for better control of composition and inclusion morphology.

5.2 Rinsing or stirring

For achieving a homogeneous bath temperature and composition, the steel in the ladle is
normally rinsed by means of argon gas bubbling. For moderate gas bubbling rates (e.g.
less than 0.6 N cum/min) porous refractory plugs are used, usually mounted in the bottom
of the ladle. The function of the porous plug is to provide gas stirring of the molten metal
to promote homogenization. Normal stirring operations are performed by percolating
argon gas through the porous plug
Today most of the ladles are equipped with bottom plugs for argon bubbling. However
provision of rinsing through a top lance mechanism is usually made for taking care of the
rinsing requirement as a back up when bottom plug is not working due to any reason.

5.3 Ladle furnace

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A ladle furnace is used to relieve the primary process of steel making of many of the
secondary refining operations. The main functions of a ladle furnace are as follows.
 Reheating of liquid steel by electric power which is conducted by graphite electrodes.
 Homogenization of steel temperature and chemistry through inert gas rinsing.
 Formation of slag layer that protects refractory from arc damage, concentrates and
transfer heat to the liquid steel, trap inclusions and metal oxides, and provides means
for desulphurization.
 Additions of ferro alloys to provide for bulk or trim chemical control.
 Cored wire addition for trimming and morphology control.
 Provide a means for deep desulphurization.
 Provide a mean for dephosphorization.
 Act as a buffer for downstream equipment and process.
The ladle roof is typically water cooled design with a refractory centre or delta section
and is configured to coordinate with existing ladles such that the roof covers completely
cover the top portion of the ladle when in the operating (i.e. fully lowered) position.

5.4 Ladle Injection

Liquid steel can be reheated by oxidizing aluminum and/or silicon by means of oxygen
injection through a lance. Reheating of steel in the ladle with submerged oxygen injection
is being practiced in some steel plants. In RH-OB process an average thermal efficiency
of 20 % – 30 % is being achieved. Also a reheating efficiency of approximately 80 % for
the RH-OB operation has been reported. In RH-KTB process oxygen is supplied via a top
lance instead of through submerged tuyeres as in the RH-OB. The thermal efficiency for
the RH-KTB process appears to be similar to that for submerged oxygen injection into the
ladle.
A comparison of total oxygen contents measured in the cast steel from oxygen reheated
heats and heats that were not reheated has shown no significant differences between the
two sets of values.

5.5 Ladle refining

The refining of steel in the ladle is broadly defined here as comprising of the operations
such as deoxidation, desulphurization, dephosphorization, controlled additions of alloying
elements and inclusion modification.
The refining steel in the ladle is usually done by deoxidation of steel with ferro-
manganese, ferrosilicon, silico-manganese, and aluminum. The steel is first deoxidized
partially with silico manganese, ferromanganese, and/or ferrosilicon followed by a final
deoxidation with aluminum. Such a practice has several advantages including
minimization of nitrogen pick up, minimization of phosphorus reversion and
minimization of aluminum losses during primary steel making. Today use of synthetic
slags in the ladle has become an integral part of the ladle metallurgy. The use of synthetic
slag consisting of calcium-alumino silicate helps in the dissolution of the deoxidation
products which helps in the deoxidation activity. Partially deoxidized steel can also be
further deoxidized with calcium silicide (Ca-Si) which is injected in the ladle in the form
of cored wire. Killed steels deoxidized with aluminum normally have less than 5 ppm of
dissolved oxygen.
In certain steel grades, a very low sulphur content is specified e.g. 20 ppm and less. These
low sulphur contents can only be achieved by steel desulphurization in the ladle in the

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presence of a calcium aluminate slag when the steel is fully killed. For the required
degree of desulphurization to take place within a practical time span, good mixing of steel
and slag is essential. The rate, at which the sulphur can be removed, is strongly
recommended by the gas flow rate during rinsing of steel. Another method for achieving
very low sulphur content is by the injection of fluxes into the ladle. A typical flux used
for desulphurization contains 70 % CaO and 30 % CaF2. Desulphurization achieved
through powder injection is around 15 % faster than the desulphurization with a top slag
only, combined with the gas rinsing. Desulphurization of steel in the ladle is accompanied
by a decrease in the temperature of the steel bath and hence needed reheating.
Dephosphorization in ladle is needed when the phosphorus content of input hot metal
during primary steel making is high. Removal of phosphorus from the steel in the ladle is
achieved by treating the steel with lime based oxidizing slags containing iron oxide.
Calcium treatment of liquid steel is normally adopted to modify the morphology of the
inclusions. As a result of the treatment with calcium, the alumina and silica inclusions are
converted to liquid calcium aluminates or calcium silicates. These liquid inclusions are
globular in shape because of sulphur tension effects. This change in inclusion
composition and shape is commonly known as inclusion morphology control or
modification. Since the boiling point of calcium is 1491 deg C, calcium is a vapour at the
steel making temperature. Hence when adding calcium to the liquid steel, special
measures are required to be taken to ensure its proper recovery in the steel bath. Calcium
or calcium alloys are added to the liquid steel bath at the greatest possible depth so as to
make use of the increased pressure from the ferrostatic head to prevent the calcium from
evaporating. Further calcium retention frequency decreases with increasing quantity of
calcium injected. The quantity of calcium to be injected has to be adjusted in accordance
with the degree of cleanliness of the steel and its total oxygen content.

5.6 Vacuum degassing of liquid steel

Vacuum degassing is an important secondary steel making process. This process was
originally used for hydrogen removal from the liquid steel but presently it is also being
used for secondary refining and has become increasingly important process of secondary
steel making. Pressure dependent reactions are the reason for the treatment of liquid steel
in this process.
During steelmaking gases like oxygen, hydrogen and nitrogen dissolve in steel.
Degassing is employed to remove nitrogen and hydrogen from steel. Initially, vacuum
degassing was used primarily for hydrogen removal. However, during the last twenty year
or so, there has been an increased use of vacuum degassing for the production of ultra
low-carbon (ULC) steels with carbon contents of 30 ppm or less.
Degassing can be carried out either by placing ladle containing molten steel under
vacuum (non recirculation system) or by recirculation of molten steel in vacuum
(recirculation system). Examples of recirculation systems are RH, RH-OB, RH-KTB, and
DH etc. processes and examples of non-recirculation systems are ladle or tank degassers,
including VAD (vacuum arc degassing) and VOD (vacuum oxygen decarburization), and
stream degassers.
In ladle degassing, the effectiveness of degassing decreases from top to bottom of the
molten steel bath. Bottom layers of steel are very much less affected by vacuum since
these layers are under the influence of ferrostatic pressure due to column of liquid steel.
Hence bath agitation would help exposing the entire content of molten steel to the
vacuum.

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In both recirculation and non-recirculation systems argon is used as the lifting or stirring
gas. In recirculation systems the argon is used as the so-called lifting gas to lower the
apparent density of the liquid steel to be lifted up from the ladle into the vacuum vessel.
In non-recirculation systems argon is used as the stirring gas to promote the removal of
hydrogen and/or nitrogen and to homogenize the bath.
There is not much difference between recirculation and non-recirculation systems in
terms of the effectiveness with which hydrogen or nitrogen can be removed. If the
primary function of the degasser is to remove hydrogen and sometimes nitrogen, the
choice of system is determined primarily by the desired match between the steel melting
vessel and the caster as well as by considerations in regard to capital and operating costs.
One of the purposes to treat steel in an RH or RH-OB (KTB) degasser is to lower the
dissolved oxygen content of the steel by means of carbon deoxidation before adding
aluminium to kill the steel completely. With such a carbon deoxidation practice there are
considerable cost savings as a result of the decreased usage of aluminium.
Some nitrogen removal from liquid steel during vacuum degassing is possible, provided
the steel is fully killed and has low sulphur content.

5.7 Argon oxygen decarburization process

Argon oxygen decarburization (AOD) is a process primarily used in stainless steel

making and other high grade alloys with oxidizable elements such as chromium and
aluminium. After initial melting, the metal is then transferred to an AOD vessel where it
will be subjected to three steps of refining namely (i) decarburization, (ii) reduction, and
(iii) desulphurization. AOD was invented in 1954 by the Lindé division of The Union
Carbide Corporation, which became known as Praxair in 1992.
The liquid steel is decarburized and refined in the AOD vessel to less than 0.05% carbon.
The key feature in the AOD vessel is that oxygen for decarburization is mixed with argon
or nitrogen inert gases and injected through submerged tuyeres. This argon dilution
minimizes unwanted oxidation of precious elements contained in specialty steels, such as
chromium.
AOD is widely used for the production of stainless steels and specialty alloys such as
silicon steels, tool steels, nickel-base alloys and cobalt-base alloys. The process is popular
because it combines higher metallic yields with lower material costs. Other benefits
include accuracy in chemistry control down to 0.01 % carbon and lower, rapid
desulfurization to less than 0.001 %, and lead removal to less than 0.001 %. The end
result is cleaner steel coupled with increased productivity.

5.8 CAS-OB process

The CAS-OB process consists of composition adjustment by sealed argon bubbling with
oxygen blowing. It was developed by Nippon Steel Corporation. The process allows alloy
additions to be made under an inert argon environment. It allows simultaneous addition of
Al and O2 gas blown through a top lance. These react to form Al2O3 and generate a
considerable amount of heat due to exothermic nature of the reaction. The CAS-OB
process, therefore results into chemical heating of the liquid steel. The heating of liquid
steel is usually combined with the adjustment of the chemistry of the liquid steel by the
addition of ferroalloys and carburizer. During heating, simultaneously with injection of
oxygen into the bell continuous feeding of granular aluminum, ferroalloys and carburizer
is carried out. The actual rate of heating of the metal is slightly lower than the estimated

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due to the loss of heat during the time gap between the additions and the time of
temperature measurement.

Chapter 6

LADLE HEATING FURNACE OPERATING SYSTEM

The ladle heating furnace consists of the following systems:

1. HT system
2. FAFA system
3. Hydraulic system
4. FES system
5. Cooling system
6. Ladle purging
7. Wire feeders

The basic ideology of the ladle heating furnace is to produce the high temperature by
short circuiting the electrodes. The ladle heating furnace consists of three graphite
electrodes with the 3 phase supply. These electrodes are dipped into the liquid metal
where it causes the short circuit between the electrodes and the arc is formed. The arc can
produce the heat up to 1600 degree centigrade.

The supply voltage to the electrode is given by the transformer. The temperature of arcing
is controlled by the tapping of the transformers. The 33KV supply is given to the
transformers. The short circuit current about 40000 Amperes is produced.
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Fig 6.1 shows the electrodes and the arcing process.

6.1 High Tension system

The high tension system consists of the heat control and the transformer tapping
control based on the grade of the steel to be produced.

Fig 6.2 High tension system and its controls

The HT system gives all the information of the transformer such as voltage, current,
arcing time, pre arcing time, temperature details etc.

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The tapping of the transformer can be changed with the help of computerized
software designed and also with the help of manual online tap changer switches.

The HT system also gives the status of the transformer and its relay operation and
circuit breaker operation upon the fault conditions.

6.2 FAFA System

In Ferro alloy flux addition system the materials are added to the liquid metal to
increase the steel quality. The materials are added such as lime, Mn, Si, iron ore,
dolomite and other alloying elements. The composition and the materials added are
based on the grading and application area of the steel produced.

The FAFA systems consist of the following

1. Silos
2. Vibro-feeders
3. Belt conveyer
4. FAFA flap
5. Load cells
6. Ladle flap

Fig 6.3 FAFA system computerized control.

The Silos are the container in which the alloys and the addition elements are stored. There
will be several Silos in which different mixtures to be added are stored. When the
materials are to be added the lower flap of the Silos opens and the materials are made to
flow out evenly with the help of the Vibro-feeders. The Vibro-feeders vibrates and the
material falls on the belt conveyer until the required amount of material is added. The
materials are carried to the ladle container. The required amount is measured by the load
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cells present in the container. Once the required amount is reached the Silos flap closes
and the conveyer stops. At last the ladle flap closes and the arcing takes place.

The status of material added and the working process is shown in the computerized
display which can be monitored and controlled by the expert.

6.3 Hydraulic system

Fig 6.4 Hydraulics system of ladle heating furnace.

The hydraulic system consists of the electrodes lifting mechanism and the roof lifting
mechanism for the adjustment of the electrodes and the roof of the ladle furnace. There is
a computerized button to move the roof up and down. An also it has the buttons to adjust
the electrodes.

The roof of the ladle heating furnace is balanced by the auto roof balancing. The
unbalanced roof can cause water flow variation, oil deterioration, and abnormalities in the
temperature. Hence the roof is designed in such a way that the electrodes are always
leveled and are balanced within the tolerance limit. If the electrodes are not leveled and if
they exceed their tolerance limit the system does not start.

These lifting mechanisms are automatic.

6.4 FES system

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Fig 6.5 Fume extraction system of ladle heating furnace.

The fume extraction system also known as de-dusting system extracts the dust and gases
produced in the ladle heating furnace.

The FES system consists the following:

1. Hood (roof)
2. Duct
3. Spark arrestor
4. Bag house
5. ID fan
6. Chimney
7. Dust collector

The dust is extracted from hood or roof of the ladle heating furnace. This dust extracts
flows through the separate ducts followed by the spark arrestor. The larger metal and dust
particles get collected in the spark arrestor as they puncture the bags in the bag house.
There will be 6 bags inside the bag house where the fine dust is collected. These bags are
emptied once they are full. The dust from the bags are removed and carried by the trucks.

The actual dust suction is done by the ID fans present at the end. After removing the dust
from the air /gases the pure gases are left out by the plant through chimney. The ID fan
takes the input of 250KW and the gases are extracted at the rate of 50K meter cube per
hour.

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The dust emission of this plant is less than 70Mg per meter cube.

6.5 Cooling system

The cooling system involves

1. Roof cooling
2. Live parts cooling(electrodes)
3. Transformer cooling

The roof and the electrodes of the ladle heating furnace are cooled by the water at the
regular intervals to maintain the temperature. Soft water is used for the cooling
purpose. This water flow is controlled by the flow control valve and the shut off
valves. The flow control valve consists of limiting switches and proximity sensor. The
shut off valves consists of solenoid coil and pneumatic line. The shut off valves are
used to avoid the internal leakage of water in the system. Whenever the leakage is
detected the solenoid coil gets magnetized hence the pneumatic line creates force on
the valve and the hence the shut off valve closes.

Transformer is cooled by the forced oil forced water cooling. In this method of
cooling hot oil is passed though a water heat exchanger. The pressure of the oil is kept
higher than that of the water. Therefore, there will be leakage from oil to the water
alone, and the visa verse is avoided. This method of cooling is employed in the
cooling of transformers with very larger capacity in the order of hundreds of MVA.
This method is suitable for banks of transformers. Maximum of three transformers
can be connected in a single pump circuit. Advantages of this method over ONWF are
that the transformer size is smaller and the water does not enter into the transformer.
This method is widely used for the transformers designed for hydro electric plants.

Fig 6.6 Transformer cooling tubes.

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Fig 6.7 Transformer cooling system.

The transformer cooling system has the computerized display to monitor the temperature
of the coolant and also the flow rate of the coolant. The silica gel is used to determine the
deterioration of the oil inside the transformer. The change in the color of the silica gel
indicates the deterioration of the oil.

6.6 Ladle purging system

The major goal of purging plugs and system is to stir steel in the ladle aiming at:

1. Desulfurization

2. Reduction of non-metallic inclusions

3. Uniform distribution of temperature and alloy additives

4. Steel cleanliness

6.61 stirring and homogenization

Ladle stirring is an essential operation during secondary steelmaking in order to:

 Homogenize bath composition;

 Homogenize bath temperature;
 Facilitate slag-metal interactions essential for processes such as desulfurization;
 Accelerate the removal of inclusions in the steel

In practice, stirring is achieved by:

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 Argon bubbling through the liquid steel, either via a submerged lance, or by
porous plugs in the Ladle

The application of argon gas stirring which yields:

 An accelerated reaction between the slag and the molten steel

 An effective transmission of the electric power to heat

 An homogenization of the composition and temperature in the molten steel

6.67 Wire feeder system

The 35KW wire feeder is used for feeding the wire i.e. Aluminium wire and the amount
of the wire fed to system depends upon the grading of the steel.

CONCLUSION

The following summarizes the features of LHF refining method:

 Refining under higher basic reducing slag

 Argon gas stirring

 Maintained temp at LHF which helps in controlling temp during casting

 Strict control of chemical composition

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The following are the advantages of the LHF refining method:

 An accelerated reaction between the slag and the molten steel .

 A quick coalescent separation of the oxide inclusions.

 An equalization of the composition and temperature in the molten steel .

 Effective deoxidation by Al.

 Removing the nonmetallic inclusions.

 Recovery of ferroalloys

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