CHAPTER 3

COMPARAISON OF TRADITIONAL METHODS OF

INVESTIGATION VERSUS INFORMATION
TECHNOLOGY APPLICATIONS

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 CHAPTER 3

COMPARAISON OF TRADITIONAL METHODS OF

INVESTIGATION VERSUS INFORMATION
TECHNOLOGY APPLICATIONS

3.1 INTRODUCTION

3.2 LIMITATIONS OF TRADITIONAL METHODS OF INVESTIGATION

3.2.1 COGNITIVE BIASES

3.2.2 ORGANIZATIONAL TRAPS
3.2.3 PROBABLITY ERRORS

3.3 COMPARISON OF TRADITIONAL METHODS OF INVESTIGATION

AND INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY APPLICATIONS

3.3.1 MANUAL RECORDS Versus INFORMATION SYSTEMS

3.3.2 MANUAL SURVEILLANCE Versus CCTV CAMERAS
3.3.3 MANUAL MATCHING OF FINGERPRINTS Versus
AUTOMATED FINGERPRINT IDENTIFICATION
SYSTEM (AFIS)
3.3.4 MANUAL MAP READING Versus CRIME MAPPING
SOFTWARE
3.3.5 TRADITIONAL TECHNIQUE OF BALLISTIC EXAMINATION
Versus AUTOMATED BALLISTIC IDENTIFICATION
SYSTEMS (ABIS)
3.3.6 TRADITIONAL METHODS OF INTERROGATION Versus
BRAIN FINGERPRINTING

3.4 SUMMARY

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 CHAPTER 3

COMPARAISON OF TRADITIONAL METHODS OF

INVESTIGATION VERSUS INFORMATION
TECHNOLOGY APPLICATIONS

3.1 INTRODUCTION

As discussed in chapter one, one of the most important functions of

police department is to investigate criminal offences, collect evidences
and ensure conviction of culprits. By improving the standards of
investigation and detection, thereby punishing the guilty and
exonerating the innocent, the police gain confidence of people and are
feared by culprits. This ultimately leads to law and order in any society.
An Officer-in-charge (SHO) of a police-station is empowered to
investigate any cognizable offence by the section 156 of Criminal
Procedure Code (CrPC). A Station House Officer (S.H.O.) can also
depute his subordinates to investigate the facts and circumstances of
the case. The privileges of investigating-officer are given in the
sections 160-175 of CrPC and the restrictions on investigating-officers
while investigation of a case are provided in various guidelines and
directions provided by court and the government from time to time. An
investigation refers to the process of collecting information in order to
reach some goal; a criminal investigation refers to the process of
collecting information (or evidence) about a crime in order to: (1)
determine if a crime has been committed; (2) identify the perpetrator;
(3) apprehend the perpetrator; and (4) provide evidence to support a
conviction in court (Lyman, Michael D. 1999). When an investigating
officer receives first information regarding occurrence of a crime, the
first thing he does is to visit the scene of crime – a place where crime
occurred. There he searches for physical evidences – any article like
weapon, clothes of criminal or suspect, blood stains, fingerprints, hair

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strands, etc. which have relevance to crime/accident. Any material at
scene of crime that proves corpus delicti (proof of occurrence of crime)
has great evidential value in detection of crime. An investigating officer
also searches for eyewitnesses of the crime – people who have
witnessed the crime and can tell any important fact about it which can
help in detection of crime. Sometimes a chain of events leading to
crime may corroborate the statements of eyewitnesses or help in
revealing the intention behind the crime or modus operandi (way in
which crime was committed).These are called circumstantial
evidences. Sometimes when no information regarding crime is
obtained, police interrogates the suspects and frames charges on the
basis of such interrogation. The Indian Evidence Act provides for
admissibility of all such evidences to prove the crime. On basis of the
strength of these evidences, the court either punishes the criminal or
exonerates. The investigating agencies around the world have till
recent past depended on age-old methods of crime detection as
statements of eyewitnesses, hearsay, prejudices ,confessions of
suspects, manual evaluation of physical evidences as fingerprints,
clothes, blood, etc. However investigation based on these methods
hardly helps in creating strong evidence required for conviction as it
contains element of subjectivity .The criminal investigation process
plays an important and special role in countries governed by the rule of
law. Its function is to seek the truth, without fear or favour. Thus
investigation must be conducted by police agencies in an unbiased and
professional manner.

The main reasons due to which the traditional methods of investigation

fail to create strong proof against criminals, leading to low conviction
rates, can be grouped into three types of errors associated with these
methods of investigation: cognitive biases, organizational traps, and
probability errors. Like cascading failures in airplane crashes, an
investigative failure often has more than one contributing factor.

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3.2 LIMITATIONS OF TRADITIONAL METHODS OF INVESTIGATION

3.2.1 COGNITIVE BIASES

 Perception and Memory Limitations.

During investigation of crime, a police investigator records statements

of witnesses and suspects. A witness to a crime or suspect of a crime
must observe, interpret, remember, recall, and then communicate
information to a police investigator who, in turn, must understand and
record it. Each stage has the potential for error. People are influenced
by experiences and expectations, and different people view the world
through different lenses. What witnesses think they see is a function of
what they expected to see, what they wanted to see, and what they
actually saw; the more ambiguous the last, the greater the influence of
the first two factors. Similarly, what people remember depends upon
what they believe. The human brain does not objectively record data,
and memories are subjective interpretations that are seldom
reinterpreted, even when information changes. People tend to
remember those facts consistent with their theories, and forget those
that are not. More weight is placed on evidence that supports a
hypothesis is phenomenon called belief perseverance.
(D Kim.Rossmo,2009)

 Intuition.

Humans use two types of decision-making processes: the intuitive and

the rational. Intuition falls between the automatic operations of
perception and the deliberate operations of reasoning. (Evans,1989).
During the process of investigation, there is every possibility that an
investigator or a witness is guided by intuition rather than reasoning
regarding suspect of a particular criminal act. It is not a paranormal
ability or a form of extrasensory perception; while it operates at a
below-consciousness level, intuition is still based on normal sensory
input. (Gigerenzer, G., & Selton, R.,2001). Intuition is automatic and

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 effortless, fast and powerful. Because of its nature, intuition is difficult
to control or modify. It can be influenced by emotion and is often prone
to error. Complex and rule-bound tasks, such as major crime
investigations or courtroom prosecutions, require careful analysis and
sound logic. As the issue in consideration in investigations is proving
guilt beyond doubt, intuition cannot form the base of investigation.

 Heuristics and Biases.

People sometimes exhibit limited rationality in the face of life‘s

complexities because human brains are not wired to deal effectively
with uncertainty. People therefore employ heuristics—intuitive rules of
thumb—to make judgments under such conditions. (Gilovich, T.;Griffin,
D., & Kahneman, D.2002). In a complex criminal case where evidences
do not lead to detection, an investigator is sometimes guided by
heuristics. While these mental shortcuts work well most of the time,
under certain conditions they can lead to cognitive biases. Cognitive
biases are mental errors caused by this simplified information-
processing technique. (Kahneman, D., & Tversky, A., 1972). They can
result in distorted judgments and faulty analyses. Like optical illusions,
cognitive biases are consistent and predictable. Psychologists have
identified many heuristics and biases, some of which are particularly
problematic for criminal investigators. The anchoring heuristic results
from the strong influence of the starting point on the final estimate. The
available information determines first approximations, so if we have
limited or incorrect information, our starting point will be wrong. There
have been many murder cases in which police agencies were led
astray because the crime appeared to be something other than what it
was.

 Tunnel vision

One of the leading causes of wrongful convictions is Tunnel Vision

which results from a narrow focus on a limited range of possibilities.
Consequently, alternative theories to the crime are not considered and

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 potential suspects are eliminated from the investigation. This heuristic
is particularly ill-suited to solving complex, dynamic investigations.
Focusing on the first likely suspect, then closing the investigation off to
alternative theories is a recipe for disaster. Confirmation bias is a form
of selective thinking in which an individual is more likely to notice or
search for evidence that confirms his or her theory, while ignoring or
refusing to search for contradicting evidence.(Williams,L.J.,1985).
Confirming evidence is given more weight, while contradicting evidence
is given less weight. The components of confirmation bias include
failure to seek evidence that would disprove the theory, not utilizing
such evidence if found, refusing to consider alternative hypotheses.

3.2.2 ORGANIZATIONAL TRAPS

A criminal investigator operates within an organizational structure with

its own unique dynamics. The powerful police subculture has long been
recognized as possessing both positive and negative characteristics,
some of which can influence the dynamics of a major crime
investigation.

 Inertia and momentum

Law enforcement agencies are conservative, often suffering from

bureaucratic inertia—a lethargy or unwillingness to evolve or act.
Change is disruptive, and requires effort, time, and money. This inertia
can slow a police agency‘s response to a new crime problem.
Moreover, when a response finally does occur, it is often insufficient.
Organizational momentum—the inability to change direction in the
midst of a major investigation—is the opposite problem. It is difficult for
investigators to redirect their focus from an established theory of a
crime, or a particular suspect, especially if the organization has to then
publicly admit it was wrong.

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 Assumptions

Whenever an investigator is assigned a criminal case to solve, he/she

outlines certain assumptions. Some of these assumptions are on the
basis of information provided by witnesses. If a particular assumption
later turns out to be invalid, then everything that flowed from it has to
be rethought. As the human mind does not automatically re evaluate
information, specific organizational procedures are necessary to
address this situation. Documenting assumptions facilitates this
process and protects investigations from creeping credibility, what
happens when an idea or theory gains credence not from supporting
evidence, but from the passage of time.(D Kim.Rossmo,2009). Large
investigations can also suffer from rumours. Tips that misdirect an
investigation can be particularly dangerous in high-profile major crime
cases. In high profile crime cases, constant media attention too brings
forth a flood of public information, some of it relevant, most of it not.

 Ego and Fatigue.

Sometimes investigations are marred by ego issues of investigators.

Ego, both personal and organizational, can prevent investigators from
adjusting to new information or seeking alternative avenues of
exploration. Sometimes the most prestigious law enforcement agencies
are the most reluctant to admit mistakes. But truth is more important
than reputation. An investigator must have the flexibility to admit his or
her original theory was incorrect, and avoid falling into the ego trap.
Most of the law enforcement agencies face problems of shortage of
personnel and work overload. Fatigue, overwork, and stress endemic
in high-profile crime investigations can create problems for
investigative personnel. Tiredness dulls even the sharpest minds.
Critical assessment abilities drop in overworked and fatigued
individuals, who start to engage in uncritical automatic believing.

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 Groupthink.

Groupthink can be a disaster in a major crime investigation. Groupthink

is the reluctance to think critically and challenge the dominant theory. It
occurs in highly cohesive groups under pressure to make important
decisions. Groupthink has several negative outcomes. Group members
selectively gather information and fail to seek expert opinions. They
also neglect to critically assess their ideas and examine few
alternatives.

3.2.3 PROBABILITY ERRORS.

 Uncertainty

Sometimes in complex cases, where evidences are lacking and

uncertainty looms large; police investigators rely on probability to solve
crime. Though probability is a mathematical concept, still unfortunately,
the human mind is not good at understanding probability, and, as a
result, humans often make irrational decisions. Probability errors in
criminal investigations can misdirect investigators, prosecutors, and
juries. Investigation cannot be based on chance or likelihood. Also they
mean different things to different people at different times.
Furthermore, the real probability of an event is often unknown.
Ambiguity in statements of probability can become a problem during an
investigation or criminal trial.

 Coincidence.

Mostly police agencies claim to reject influence of coincidence theory

on investigation. However, when looking for patterns within a large
number of items (events, suspects), coincidences are inevitable. A task
force that has examined hundreds of suspects will find some of them,
by sheer chance, appear circumstantially guilty. Efforts to solve a crime
by working backwards (from the suspect to the crime, rather than from

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 the crime to the suspect) are susceptible to errors of coincidence.
Coincidences can be a trap when offender modus operandi and similar
fact evidence are used for crime linkage purposes.(D Kim
Rossmo,2009)

Investigations should be led by the evidence, not by the suspects or

witnesses. Case conclusions should be deferred until sufficient
information has been gathered, and cognitive biases, tunnel vision and
probability errors should be avoided at all costs. The aim of criminal
investigation process is to seek the truth, without fear or favour. This
task, integral to both public safety and justice concerns, must be
conducted in an unbiased and professional manner. Thus maximum
use of scientific techniques of investigation and latest information
technology applications as advanced investigation software,
Automated fingerprint and ballistic identification systems, Crime
mapping software, Geographical Information Systems, etc. should be
made to eliminate subjective biases in investigation and arrive at
accurate facts.

3.3 COMPARISON OF TRADITIONAL METHODS OF INVESTIGATION

AND INFORMATION TECHNOLOG APPLICATIONS

With the advent of the era of technology, criminals are widely using
computers and latest technological innovations for committing crimes.
In investigation of Cyber crimes and white collar crimes, the traditional
methods of collecting information as statements of witnesses
,confessions of suspects, information from informers, etc. do not yield
result. In case of cyber crimes it is difficult to determine the scene of
crime and jurisdiction and locate suspects. The nature of evidence in
such crimes is not physical or circumstantial but digital. Thus for
effective and strong investigation it is necessary for police to
incorporate advanced technology for crime investigation. Scientific
investigation of crime through latest techniques eliminates the factors

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 based on hearsay, statements of witnesses, confessions, etc.
traditional methods of investigation. The elimination of subjective
element also enhances accuracy of evidences, thus increasing
chances of conviction.

In this chapter researcher has attempted to compare the traditional

methods of police investigation with the latest applications of
Information Technology in crime investigation .The objective is to
highlight the drawbacks of conventional methods in this era of
technological revolution and stress upon the imminent need to adopt
Information Technology applications for investigation of criminal cases.

3.3.1 INFORMATION SYSTEMS Versus MANUAL RECORDS

Investigative police work is mostly about the recovery, analysis and

interpretation of information about criminals and criminal offenses.
Timely and accurate information is critical to the success of policing.
This information is collected by the police officers through routine
patrol, informants and old criminal records available to them. However
collection of such information consumes a lot of time. Lot of paperwork
is required and storage of data consumes lot of space. Again
verification of this information is a tedious and time consuming task.
Only information which is duly processed and authenticated can for
intelligence input required by investigators to detect a crime. All the
more cumbersome is recording this information in multiple registers
and protecting it from being leaked or destroyed. There have been
numerous instances when data has been destroyed due to natural
calamities. Also retrieval of data requires manual search of voluminous
records which wastes much of the time which can be utilised effectively
for investigation. Also sharing of data hardly occurs.

With the use of information technology, police department has started

storing this information in computers. The computer stores criminal
records conveniently and efficiently. One consequence is making it

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easier for police to collect and process information eliminating the
duplication of paper and electronic records and the multiple entry of the
same data. Backup of data prevents from hazard of destruction or loss
due to computer viruses. Password protection of data provides cushion
against leaking of information. Thus police officers spend less time on
paperwork and more time on investigation. Digitisation of criminal
records allows various Police units to communicate and access shared
databases. Information technology may well have the potential over the
longer term to deliver substantial administrative efficiencies for police
organisations .Hence, any gains in the ease with which specific
recording and administrative requirements can be complied with may
conceivably be counterbalanced by an increase in the sum total of
requirements. As manual search of voluminous registers of records is
not required and any information can be searched and shared within
seconds through a click of computer, Information systems have led to
improved information sharing and improved communication between
various police units, allowing people to work more cooperatively,
creating a better work atmosphere. The computers at different work
stations in the police department are interconnected for sharing of
information through intranet. Computers have become essential to
communication within police departments. Emails, website updates,
blogs and other forms of digital communication have become some of
the primary forms of communication in police departments, allowing for
the rapid exchange of ideas and other information that can be critical in
many investigations. Improvement in communication between police
personnel is largely the result of the availability of intranet and e-mail,
which facilitated teamwork, information gathering and information
sharing. Not only can police officers store records and reports in online
databases, but they can also use computers and hard drives to store
thousands of images, reports and videos. Computers make mass
storage possible, and enable giant online databases that can
accurately trace suspects anywhere in the country. Also various
softwares assist investigators in recording the details of the case they
are investigating and generate reports needed. Thus they are able to
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 keep track of the investigation as well as prepare the reports needed
for prosecution. The digitization of case history and details also
provides protection against records being lost or destroyed. Again, a
repository of such case histories maintained at level of Police stations
is a very good source of learning and information for young officers.
Also instead of depending solely on collection of information through
patrols and informers, investigators also use social networking sites to
gather information about criminals through their facebook accounts,
email accounts, etc. Thus today police have access to vast sources of
information. The collection and sharing of information through new
technology has revolutionised the information systems in police
department.

3.3.2 MANUAL SURVEILLANCE Versus CCTV CAMERAS

Surveillance is the covert observation of people, places and vehicles,

which law enforcement agencies and private detectives use to
investigate allegations of illegal behaviour. There are a number of
reasons to conduct surveillance. Surveillance is conducted to prevent
crime, to obtain evidence of a crime, to obtain evidence in civil suits, to
document an individual‘s location, to document activities in or around a
specific location or building, to obtain information to be used in an
interrogation, to gather intelligence, or to obtain information to be used
in court. Traditionally police department has been relying on
surveillance through patrols, beat personnel, undercover operations
and informers for surveillance. These methods have numerous
limitations. Surveillance through police patrol in police vehicles is
exposed. Thus criminals become alert and not much information is
gained. Same is the case with beat personnel. As criminals who are
local identify the beat personnel, the very purpose of surveillance is
defeated. Dependence on informers and private detectives is risky and
costly too. Moreover even if police personnel witness a criminal
incident during patrol or undercover operations, it is difficult to record
through camera as the criminal will become alert and escape. Also the

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first response of a police person who witnesses a crime is to prevent it
and nab the culprit rather than to videograph the incident as in the
mean time the criminal would escape. Due to shortage of manpower,
24 hours surveillance of all the places is not possible. The statements
of surveillance personnel alone cannot stand as evidence sufficient for
conviction. This raises doubt regarding the effectiveness of traditional
techniques of surveillance.

Thus the need of surveillance through latest technological equipments:

IP based CCTV cameras, drones and internet. CCTV is of enormous
value as a technique in the investigation of crime:

1. The use of CCTV has a clear benefit in respect of identification and

arrest of suspects

2. The video footage taken by CCTV cameras is of assistance in the

gathering of evidence.

3. Video evidence can be most useful in the speedy resolution of

cases, as suspects generally plead guilty when confronted with
such evidence

4. CCTV makes possible more effective utilisation of police officers to

patrol other areas, thus allowing for saving on resources

5. The use of CCTV may further serve as a deterrent to potential

perpetrators.

6. One of the primary benefits of CCTV use is that it is a source of

comfort to law-abiding citizens

CCTV aims to increase the perceived risk of capture, a factor which will
de-motivate the potential offender. Thus surveillance through CCTV
also helps in crime prevention and deterrence. The traditional
techniques of surveillance are of hardly any help in detection of cyber
crimes. Due to proliferation of computer related crimes surveillance
through internet has become essential to identify the criminals. The

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 Information Technology Act, 2000 provides for admissibility of digital
records as evidence.

3.3.3 MANUAL MATCHING OF FINGERPRINTS Versus AUTOMATED

FINGERPRINT IDENTIFICATION SYSTEM

Human fingerprints are detailed, unique, difficult to alter, and durable

over the life of an individual, making them suitable as long-term
markers of human identity. Thus identification of fingerprints helps
police to identify criminals who have left their fingerprints on the scene
of crime, or to identify people who are incapacitated or deceased and
thus unable to identify themselves, as in the aftermath of a natural
disaster.

In traditional fingerprint identification system, fingerprints at scene of

crime are lifted manually using substances as graphite powder, grey
powder, aluminium powder, etc. A common method of making these
fingerprints visible is by dusting the area with fingerprint powder that
will attach itself to the natural oils from the skin onto the fingerprint
making this visible for photography and evidence collection. It is
sometimes difficult to detect fingerprints present on certain substances,
such as multicoloured backgrounds, fibrous papers and textiles, wood,
leather, plastic, adhesives and human skin. The fingerprints from a
suspect are taken by taking an ink impression of fingers made on
paper. Hands are be cleaned to wipe away dirt or other substances,
and then dipped in ink. The suspect would roll each finger tip across a
section in a piece of paper, and then press all five fingers down onto
the paper. Although this fingerprint technique gave an effective
impression of a person‘s unique prints, it required manual examination
to determine a match. A fingerprint expert would examine the
fingerprint of a suspect in a case to the fingerprints of known suspects
.As fingerprinting files grew by the thousand, identification became a
laborious process easily subject to human error. Also fingerprint
examiners lack objective standards for evaluating whether two prints
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match. There is simply no uniform approach to decide what counts as a
sufficient basis for making an identification. Some fingerprint examiners
use a point-counting method that entails counting the number of similar
ridge characteristics on the prints, but there is no fixed requirement
about how many points of similarity are needed Others reject point-
counting for a more holistic approach. Either way, there is no generally
agreed-on standard for determining precisely when to declare a match.
Although fingerprint experts insist that a qualified expert can infallibly
know when two fingerprints match, there is, in fact, no carefully
articulated protocol for ensuring that different experts reach the same
conclusion. Thus lifting, developing and matching fingerprints through
the traditional techniques is quite cumbersome and do not produce an
evidence beyond doubt.

The modern techniques of fingerprinting make use of chemicals and

laser technology to lift fingerprints from the scene of crime. The
fingerprints of suspects are taken by biometric technique. A biometric
fingerprint sensor is an electronic device used to capture a digital
image of the fingerprint pattern. The captured image is called a live
scan. This live scan is digitally processed to create a biometric
template (a collection of extracted features) which is stored and used
for matching. This technique is very accurate, speedy and easy to use.
Again Automated Fingerprint Identification System (AFIS) is used for
matching fingerprints. In AFIS technology computer scans and digitizes
fingerprints to automatically create a spatial geometry or map of the
unique ridge patterns and minutiae of the prints, and to translate this
spatial relationship into a binary code for the computer‘s searching
algorithm. Making incredibly fine distinctions among literally thousands
or millions of prints, an AFIS computer can in a matter of minutes
compare a new fingerprint with the massive collections of prints on file
and make identifications that previously were possible only through a
time consuming and error-prone process of manual comparison. This
has greatly increased the speed and accuracy of ten-print processing
and has made it possible to conduct cold searches (i.e. a search
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 where there are no suspects or other identifying information other than
the crime scene prints) against very large fingerprint files. The search
time in a file of less than 500,000 prints may range from a matter of
minutes to about one-half hour. Computers also store databases of all
the fingerprints for ready reference by the investigators.

Thus modern techniques of fingerprint identification have helped to

increase speed and accuracy of investigation and authenticity of
fingerprint as evidence.

3.3.4 MANUAL MAP READING Versus CRIME MAPPING SOFTWARE

Since ancient times, police and military have relied heavily on maps for
investigation and detection of crime. The investigation of any offence
starts with examination of the scene of crime. The location of scene of
crime hols great importance in detection. Thus investigators always
locate the scene of crime on map for detection of the offence. The
conventional techniques involved drawing of maps manually. Such
maps are not very clear and accurate. Also drawing maps manually
takes lot of time and involves many calculations of scale, latitude and
longitude. Such maps can hardly be of much help for future
investigations as with time they would become less explicit because ink
would fade or paper would tear off, many new localities would come up
in the region thus making earlier map irrelevant.. However advent of
software which assist police agencies in creating crime maps and
availability of satellite imageries and maps through websites as google
maps has resulted in great efficacy and accuracy in detection and
forming strategies for prevention. The database of such crime maps is
stored in computers and available to investigators on a click of button.
Accurate location of crime scene facilitates gathering of other
evidences necessary for detection and identification of culprits .These
maps are also updated from time to time. Using Geographic
Information Systems (GIS), crime analysts can overlay other datasets
such as census demographics, locations of markets, schools, etc., to

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 better understand the underlying causes of crime and help law
enforcement administrators to devise strategies to deal with the
problem. Police patrol vehicles fitted with GIS help police to locate and
reach the scene of crime in minimum possible time. With the help of
Crime mapping softwares, police persons in police control room, on
receiving a call about occurrence of a crime or accident, can locate the
scene of crime immediately on maps on their computer screens and
instruct the nearest police patrol vehicle to reach the location .This is
called Computer aided dispatch(CAD) .Thus Crime mapping softwares
have reduced response time of police to any crime and the same patrol
vehicle and personnel can hence attend to more incidents in the same
time. This has also helped the police department , to some extent , to
overcome one of its major problems, i.e, shortage of manpower. These
are some of the very obvious benefits of this latest technology over
conventional manual mapping system.

3.3.5 TRADITIONAL TECHNIQUE OF BALLISTIC EXAMINATION Versus

AUTOMATED BALLISTIC IDENTIFICATION SYSTEMS (ABIS)

Common physical evidence an investigator comes across in a firearm

cases are weapons as rifle, pistol, revolver, etc. and ammunition as
bullets, pellets, cartridge cases, etc. It is essential to identify the firearm
and match it to the mark made by it during the crime, which can be on
a body or on a material, in order to prove that crime has been
committed by the same weapon which has been recovered from the
scene of crime or from the suspect.

Traditional firearms identification involves the use of a Comparison

Microscope. A firearms examiner visually compares the ballistic
signature of a bullet/cartridge recovered from a crime scene with those
in the police files. This process and its outcome, while accurate and
acceptable in court, is extremely time consuming. Because of this, its
usefulness as an investigative tool is severely limited.

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 Automated Ballistic Identification Systems (ABIS) are specialized
computer hardware/software combinations designed to capture, store
and rapidly compare digital images of bullets and cartridge casings.
The relatively new field of computational forensics attempts to
overcome the human bias angle by objective analysis and statistical
probability that can withstand the arguments in a court of law. The
computer images in systems such as ABIS are presented as
correlation lists against a given specimen. This association provides an
investigative lead that allows a forensic examiner to microscopically
examine the evidence to determine if there is indeed an identification or
if the image association resulted from just a trick of shadow and light.
Many softwares have been developed to enhance accuracy in
identification of ballistics. Thus use of computers has completely
revolutionized the field of ballistics.

3.3.6 TRADITIONAL METHODS OF INTERROGATION Versus BRAIN

FINGERPRINTING

Detection of deception is one of the important duties of an investigator

in order to identify the real culprit. How far an investigator is successful
in tackling this problem depends on the methods used for the same.
Traditionally, structured questionnaires have been used to interrogate
the suspects. Sometimes police also resorts to third degree methods.
Then polygraph was invented .During polygraph test also a
questionnaire is used. However this is supplemented by a polygraph
machine which measures the changes in the blood pressure/pulse rate
of suspect while he/she answers these questions. These techniques
are quite cumbersome and time consuming. Also they are not very
accurate. Moreover the polygraph test report ‗per se‘ is not admissible
in the court of law in our country. Brain fingerprinting is a computerised
technique to identify a culprit accurately by measuring brainwave
responses to crime related words or pictures when shown to suspect
on the monitor of a computer. The fundamental difference between a
perpetrator and a falsely accused, innocent person is that the

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 perpetrator, having committed the crime, has the details of the crime
stored in his brain, and the innocent suspect does not. This is what
Brain Fingerprinting detects scientifically. There is no questionnaire
involved in this as in case of polygraph. This technology was invented
by Dr. Farwell on the basis of the principle that the information stored in
the brain of a person about an incident that occurred sometime again
can accurately be recognised and is as accurate as conventional
fingerprinting. Farwell Brain Fingerprinting utilizes multifaceted
electroencephalographic response analysis (MERA) to detect
information stored in the human brain. A memory and encoding related
multifaceted electroencephalographic response (MERMER) is elicited
when an individual recognizes and processes an incoming stimulus
that is significant or noteworthy. When an irrelevant stimulus is seen, it
is seen as being insignificant and not noteworthy, and the MERMER
response is absent. This pattern occurs within about a second after the
stimulus presentation, and can be readily detected using EEG
amplifiers and a computerized signal-detection algorithm. This
technique is very useful in detecting such crimes where a criminal has
not left any physical evidence, neither fingerprint nor any biological
evidence for DNA Analysis but certainly carries his brain along with
him. Thus Brain Fingerprinting is the latest scientific computerised
technique for the detection of deception. It eliminates the third degree
methods while interrogating suspects and is scientific method of
detection. Though no legislation has been passed in any country to
legalise the use of this technique as evidence, yet Courts are accepting
these techniques as corroborative evidence.

3.4 SUMMARY

Thus Information Technology has opened a completely new category

of investigation, as specialists explore digital traces on information
carriers such as cell phones, laptops, and car computers. Meanwhile,
advances in the study of DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid) have made it
possible to investigate minute traces and even provide information on

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the physical characteristics of the donor. In addition, all this information
can now be produced more quickly than was ever thought possible.
Due to these developments, rapid and well-founded reconstructions of
events based on trace patterns found at crime scenes are becoming a
tantalizing possibility. The collection and analysis of evidences, through
these Information Technology Applications, is more accurate and
carries greater evidential value in the Courts of law than many
conventional investigative techniques. However, there are certain
barriers in adoption of these technologies by police agencies. The
successful implementation of Information Technology Applications
requires appropriate technical infrastructure as sufficient number of
computers, space for operation, networking, etc. This would require
sufficient budget allocation to the police department for purchase of
these Information Technology Applications and erecting required
infrastructure. Another significant issue is community support for use of
these technological applications. Appropriate laws need to be passed
to validate the use of these technology applications by police agencies.
Implementation of this change from traditional methods of policing to
use of Information Technology applications in the police department
also entails change in the organisational settings and culture and
formulation of appropriate strategies. Today one of the major
challenges in policing include identifying technologies that are most
effective (and cost-effective) in reducing crime, overcoming the barriers
in adoption and implementation of these Information Technology
applications and training officers to use those technologies properly.
Technology is a tool and how well the tool is used depends finally upon
the workmen.

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